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10,985,589 | ACCEPTED | Wireless communication network | A wireless communication network is provided that includes a plurality of access points. A plurality of the access points are configured as local access points that are each configured to operate at one of a set of frequencies and within a communication range. The local access points may communicate with a mobile device within the corresponding local access point communication range. The wireless network further includes an access point configured as a master access point to communicate with each of the plurality of local access points at a frequency that is outside the set of frequencies of the local access points. | 1. A wireless network comprising: a plurality of local access points each configured to operate at one of a set of frequencies for communicating with a mobile device within a local access point communication range; and a master access point configured to communicate with each of the plurality of local access points at a frequency distinct from the set of frequencies of the plurality of local access points. 2. A wireless network in accordance with claim 1 further comprising a wireless access coverage area corresponding to each of the plurality of access points and defined by the communication range. 3. A wireless network in accordance with claim 2 wherein the wireless access coverage areas are configured in a tessellated configuration. 4. A wireless network in accordance with claim 3 wherein the tessellated configuration comprises one of a plurality of (i) hexagon and (ii) square wireless access coverage areas. 5. A wireless network in accordance with claim 1 wherein each of the plurality of local access points comprises a first radio and a second radio, the first radio configured to communicate with the mobile device and the second radio configured to communicate with the master access point. 6. A wireless network in accordance with claim 5 wherein each of the first radios are configured at a single frequency within the set of frequencies and each of the second radios are configured at the frequency distinct from the set of frequencies. 7. A wireless network in accordance with claim 5 wherein each of the first radios are configured at a different frequency within the set of frequencies and each of the second radios are configured at the frequency distinct from the set of frequencies. 8. A wireless network in accordance with claim 5 wherein at least two of the first radios are configured having different frequencies within the set of frequencies and each of the second radios are configured at the frequency distinct from the set of frequencies. 9. A wireless network in accordance with claim 1 wherein the plurality of local access points and the master access point together form a communication cell. 10. A wireless network in accordance with claim 9 further comprising a plurality of communication cells forming a backhaul macro-communication cell. 11. A wireless network in accordance with claim 10 wherein each of the master access points define a backhaul access point having a different communication channel. 12. A wireless network in accordance with claim 1 wherein the master access point comprises a wired connection to a network. 13. A wireless network in accordance with claim 1 wherein the communication is wireless and provided via one of an IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.16 standard. 14. A wireless network architecture comprising: a plurality of local access points each defining a wireless access coverage area and each having a local communication channel to communicate with mobile devices within the wireless coverage area, one of the plurality of local access points configured as a master access point to provide communication between the plurality of local access points and a wired network and having a master communication channel distinct from the local communication channels; a first communication device corresponding to each of the plurality of local access points to communicate between the local access point and mobiles devices, the first communication devices configured to communicate using at least one of the local communication channels; and a second communication device corresponding to each of the plurality of local access points to communicate between each of the local access points and the master access point, the second communication devices configured to communicate using the master communication channel which is distinct from the local communication channel of the first device. 15. A wireless network architecture in accordance with claim 14 further comprising a wired communication link between each of the master access points and the network. 16. A wireless network architecture in accordance with claim 14 wherein the wireless access coverage areas are configured in a tessellated pattern. 17. A wireless network architecture in accordance with claim 14 wherein the first and second communication devices are configured to provide simultaneous communication between (i) the access points and the mobile devices and (ii) the access points and the master access point. 18. A wireless network architecture in accordance with claim 14 wherein the plurality of access points are configured as a plurality of communication cells forming a backhaul macro-communication cell, each of the plurality of communication cells having a different backhaul communication channel. 19. A wireless network architecture in accordance with claim 14 wherein the wireless access coverage areas are configured in a tessellated configuration. 20. A method for wirelessly communicating in a network, the method comprising: configuring a plurality of access points to communicate with mobile devices within a wireless access coverage area corresponding to each of the plurality of access points using at least one of a plurality frequencies; and configuring one of the plurality of access points as a master access point to provide communication between the access points and a wired network using a frequency different than the plurality of frequencies of the access points. 21. A method in accordance with claim 20 further comprising configuring the plurality of access points in a tessellated arrangement. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to wireless networks, and more particularly, to a wireless network for communicating using multiple access points. The use of broadband wireless networks (e.g., 802.11 WLAN) has increased due to these networks providing high-speed network access (e.g., communication speeds greater than 1 Mbps) in a wireless environment. Users of these wireless networks can move to different locations in a coverage area and maintain network connectivity. These networks are typically configured having wireless access points, sometimes referred to as hot-spots, that each provide a wireless communication range of typically about 100 meters. These wireless access points are connected to a wired network using, for example, a high-speed network connection such as fiber optics, T-1, DSL, cable modem, etc. The communication path in these wireless networks is typically from (i) a mobile user to an access point (AP) across the wireless link and (ii) from the AP to the network (e.g., wide area network (WAN)) using a wired connection. Thus, a mobile device (e.g., laptop computer) communicates with the network via one or more wireless access points. However, because of the limited range for communicating with an access point (e.g., about 100 meters), many access points are required to cover a large communication area. This then requires many high speed wired network connections, often referred to as a backhaul, for each access point. The increased number of wired connections increases the cost and complexity of such wireless networks, and sometime does not provide a practical implementation. Networks have been developed having a mesh configuration to address the backhaul issue. In this mesh configuration, each of the access points and/or nodes in the network can communicate information between adjacent or neighboring access points and/or nodes, thus providing a form of wireless backhaul for the network. In this mesh network, a message from a mobile user can “hop” from one access point to another access point until it reaches a wired backhaul connection. Thus, a network with fewer wired access points may be implemented. However, in such a network, the effective throughput of the network is substantially reduced as the user's message travels over multiple “hops” to get to the wired backhaul. More particularly, when using a mesh routing protocol the effective network data rate drops rapidly as the number of hops increases. The decrease in throughput results from a lack of frequency planning and channel allocation to separate the bandwidth of the AP-mobile messages and the backhaul messages between access points that carry the message back to the wired network. In general, each access point has a single radio that is used to communicate with both the mobile users and the other access points in the network. The lack of available bandwidth for backhaul and frequency planning greatly limits the scalability of this mesh network architecture. As the mesh network is implemented over larger areas, a larger percentage of the total capacity (e.g., backhaul/mobile capacity) is used to transmit updates to the network routing status. Thus, known wireless communication systems having different configurations may be complex to implement, have reduced throughput, and provide limited scalability. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION According to an exemplary embodiment, a wireless network is provided that includes a plurality of access points. A plurality of the access points are configured as local access points that are each configured to operate at one of a set of frequencies and within a communication range. The local access points may communicate with a mobile device within the corresponding local access point communication range. The wireless network further includes an access point configured as a master access point to communicate with each of the plurality of local access points at a frequency that is outside the set of frequencies of the local access points. According to another exemplary embodiment, a wireless network architecture is provided that includes a plurality of local access points each defining a wireless access coverage area and each having a local communication channel to communicate with mobile devices within the wireless coverage area. The network architecture also includes a master access point to provide communication between the plurality of local access points and a wired network and having a master communication channel that is distinct from the local communication channels. The wireless network architecture further includes a first communication device (e.g., a first radio) corresponding to each of the local access points to communicate between the local access points and mobiles devices. The first communication devices are configured to communicate using the local communication channels. The wireless network architecture further includes a second communication device (e.g., a second radio) corresponding to each of the local access points to communicate between each of the local access points and the master access point. The second communication devices are configured to communicate using the master communication channel. According to yet another exemplary embodiment, a method for wirelessly communicating in a network is provided and includes configuring a plurality of local access points to communicate with mobile devices within a wireless access coverage area corresponding to each of the plurality of access points using one of a set of frequencies. The method further includes configuring a master access point to provide communication between the local access points and a wired network using a frequency that is different than the set of local access point frequencies. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a wireless coverage area in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating another wireless coverage area in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a wireless network architecture including a communication cell in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a backhaul macro-communication cell including a plurality of communication cells as shown in FIG. 2 in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a communication frequency configuration in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. FIG. 6 is a flowchart of a method for communicating within a communication cell in accordance with various embodiments of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Various embodiments of the present invention provide a wireless network architecture allowing one or more wireless devices to communicate over and/or with a network over different regions within a wireless network coverage area. For example, and as shown in FIG. 1 a wireless coverage area 10 may generally cover an area defined by a geographic region, such as, for example, a plurality of blocks 12 within a city or town. Each of the blocks may be separated by a street 14 and each of blocks may include, for example, one or more buildings (not shown), an open area or field, a park, etc. The wireless coverage area 10 may include and be defined by, for example, one or more wireless local access areas 16 (e.g., WiFi hot-spots). The local access areas 16 may cover more or less than a block in the geographic region, for example, based on system or communication requirements, and/or based on the size of the blocks. One or more mobile devices 26 (e.g., laptop computer or personal digital assistant (PDA)) having wireless communication capabilities (e.g., an installed wireless communication card) may be located with these different local access areas 16 (e.g., on a street 14 or in a building) and/or may be moving between these local access areas 16. Thus, a mobile device 26 may move through the wireless coverage area 20 and maintain connection and communication with a network using the wireless local access areas 16. As another example, a wireless coverage area 20 may generally cover an area defined by a physical structure 22 (e.g., a building). The wireless coverage area 20 may include and be defined by, for example, one or more wireless local access areas 30 (e.g., WiFi hot-spots). The total area covered by the wireless coverage area 20 may be larger or smaller than the structure 22, for example, based on system or communication requirements. Within the structure 22, different areas 24 (e.g., different rooms) may be provided. One or more mobile devices 26 (e.g., laptop computer or personal digital assistant (PDA)) having wireless communication capabilities (e.g., an installed wireless communication card) may be located with these different areas 24 and/or may be moving between these different areas 24. It should be noted that each area 24 may be covered by one or more wireless local access areas 30 to allow wireless communication with the network. Thus, a mobile device 26 may move through the coverage area 20 and maintain connection and communication with a network using the wireless local access areas 30. More specifically, and in an exemplary embodiment as shown in FIG. 3, a wireless network architecture 50 is provided that uses a wireless channel (e.g., broadband wireless links) to provide communication from local access points 52 to mobile devices 58 and a backhaul communication system, while ensuring available (e.g., guaranteed) bandwidth for both. Additionally, and as described in more detail herein, the wireless network architecture 50 provides micro and macro-frequency planning that allows the network to be scaled to cover large areas with minimal or no loss in throughput. It should be noted that although different reference numbers may be used in the different figures, the components therein, such as, for example, the access points, coverage areas, mobile devices, etc. may be the same and/or may be different as desired or needed, such as, based on system or application requirements. The wireless network architecture 50 is defined by a plurality of local access points 52 each providing a defined wireless access coverage area 54. For example, and referring to FIG. 2, the wireless local access areas 30 may be provided by the local access points 52 that define wireless access coverage areas 54, each of which may encompass a local access area 30, or more or less than a single local access area 30. Each local access point 52 may include one or more communication devices, for example, radios 56 to provide communication between a mobile device 58 (e.g., laptop computer with installed wireless communication card) within the associated wireless access coverage area 54 and the network. The radios 56 may be configured as desired or needed, and as is known, to provide wireless communication. For example, the radios 56 each may include a transceiver, an antenna and a router for communicating with at least one of (i) the mobile device(s) 58 within the wireless access coverage area 54 covered by the particular radio 56, (ii) a radio in an adjacent wireless access coverage area 54 and (iii) the network via a wired connection (e.g., a wired LAN). In operation, and in an exemplary embodiment, the mobile devices 58 communicate with the local access points 52 using one of a set of frequencies or channels, for example, as shown in FIG. 5, using one of ten 1 MHz channels 60 in the 4.9 GHz public safety spectrum. However, it should be noted that the frequency range may be modified as desired or needed. For example, the radios 56 may be configured using the EEEE 802.11 communication standard to provide wireless communication, such as 802.11b, often referred to as WiFi. As another example, the radios may be configured using the IEEE 802.16 communication standard to provide wireless communication, often referred to as WiMAX. It should be noted that in the various embodiments, multiple access points may use the same frequency, in which case, methods to avoid self interference are implemented, such as, for example, spatial and/or time diversity. The number of frequencies may be selected, for example, to allow for a tessellated frequency plan and frequency reuse model for the mobile devices 58 to communicate with the local access points 52. In this embodiment, one access point is configured as the master access point 62 for wirelessly communicating with the local access points 52 and with the network via a wired connection. For example, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, the middle access point within the tessellated arrangement may be configured as the master access point 62. The local access points 52 are configured to communicate with the master access point 62 using a set of frequencies or channels. For example, in an exemplary embodiment, the master access point 62 communicates with each of the local access points 52 associated therewith using a single channel (e.g., single frequency) from a set of eight 5 MHz channels in the 4.9 GHz public safety spectrum. However, it again should be noted that the frequency range may be modified as desired or needed. It should be noted that the wireless access coverage areas 54 of the local access points 52 and master access point 62 define a wireless communication cell 70 (e.g., defined by the seven wireless access coverage areas 54 shown in FIG. 3). Within the wireless communication cell 70, and for example, each of the access points (both the local access points 52 and the master access point 62) provide communication with mobile devices 58 using a set of frequencies, that in one embodiment provide communication rates up to about 2 Mbps. Further, each of the local access points 52 provide communication with the master access point 62 using a single frequency that in one embodiment provides communication rates up to about 10 Mbps. In various embodiments, all of the local access points 52 in one communication cell 70 use a single backhaul frequency that may form an element of a backhaul macro-communication cell 80 as shown in FIG. 4. Thus, a plurality of communication cells 70 (e.g., seven shown in FIG. 4) together form a backhaul macro-communication cell 80, which in one embodiment is also configured using a tessellated frequency plan to provide a large-scale frequency reuse to the backhaul network. In an exemplary embodiment, each of the communication cells 70 includes a master access point 62 configured as the backhaul access point, for example access point “4” that communicates with the network via a wired backhaul connection (e.g., wired connection to a network). It should be noted that communication within each of the communication cells 70, and in particular, from the local access points 52 to the backhaul access point (e.g., master access point 62) may be provided using seven of the eight 5 MHz channels 72 in the 4.9 GHz public safety spectrum as shown in FIG. 5. For example, communication may be provided from 4.94 GHz to 4.99 GHz, with ten 1 MHz frequency channels (five at each end of the frequency range) for local access point 52 to mobile 58 communication and eight 5 MHz frequency channels for local access point 52 to master access point 62 communication. In an exemplary embodiment, and referring again to FIG. 4, seven of the ten 1 MHz frequency channels and seven of the eight 5 MHz frequency channels may be used to provide communication. However, only one (or less than seven) of each of the 1 MHz frequency channels and the 5 MHz frequency channels may be used, in which case, methods to avoid self interference are implemented, such as, for example, spatial and/or time diversity. It should again be noted that the frequency range may be modified as desired or needed. The various embodiments allow the local access points 52 to reduce or eliminate self-interference in the backhaul network. In these various embodiments, the backhaul macro-communication cell 80 provides that the bandwidth of the backhaul link can be configured to exceed the bandwidth of the mobile device 58 to access point 52 link, which allows the network to provide quality-of-service (QoS) guarantees from, for example, a WAN to a mobile client. Thus, in various embodiments, a wireless communication architecture is provided wherein a plurality of local access points 52 wirelessly communicate with mobile devices 58 using a different frequency in each wireless access coverage area 54 associated with the corresponding local access point 52 (e.g., a plurality of local communication channels) and communicate with a master access point 62 or backhaul access point wirelessly using a single frequency (e.g., a master communication channel) different than the frequencies used within each of the wireless access coverage areas 54. In an exemplary embodiment, the local access points 52 include two radios 56, one radio configured to provide communication between the local access point 52 and the mobile devices 58 (e.g., laptop computer with installed wireless communication card) within the wireless access coverage areas 54 and one radio configured to provide communication between the local access point 52 and the master access point 62. Thus, each of the first radios 56 corresponding to the local access point 52 within each of the wireless access coverage areas 54 are configured to communicate with mobile devices 58 using a first set of frequencies (e.g., the same or different frequencies within the set of frequencies) and each of the second radios 56 are configured to communicate with the master access point 62 using a single frequency that is different than any of the first set of frequencies of the first radios 56. It should be noted that the first and second radios 56 may be separate physical radios or may be a single radio with multiple transceivers. In an exemplary embodiment, communication is provided within the wireless communication cell 70 and the backhaul macro-communication cell 80 as shown in flowchart 90 in FIG. 6. Specifically, at 92, a determination is made as to whether any mobile devices 58 (shown in FIG. 2) are present in a wireless access coverage area.54 (shown in FIG. 2). For example, a determination may be made, as is known, as to whether a laptop computer is attempting to access the network in a recognized hot-spot. If a mobile device 58 is present, then at 94, wireless communication is established with the mobile device 58 via the local access point 52 in that wireless access coverage area 54 using the assigned frequency, for example, using a first radio 56 as described herein. It should be noted that access may be provided to only authorized mobile devices 58 (e.g., a secure connection) or may be provided to any mobile devices 58 (e.g., non-secure connection). Thereafter, at 96, access to the network, for example, to download information from the Internet or access an email account, is provided via the master access point 62 (shown in FIG. 2) using the assigned frequency, such as, using a second radio 56 as described herein. Thus, communication is provided from the mobile device 58 to the network, via the local access point 52 and master access point 62 using different frequencies as described herein. It should be noted that the assigned frequencies may be selected as desired or needed, for example, based on the communication application. At 98 a determination is made as to whether the mobile device 58 has moved to another wireless access coverage area 54, for example, by determining whether the mobile device 58 is still accessing the local access point 52. If not, then communication is maintained on the assigned frequency at 100. If the mobile device 58 has moved to an area covered by another local access point 52, then communication is established at 94 within a different wireless access coverage area 54 corresponding to the new local access point 52. It should be noted that the mobile device 58 may move between different communication cells 70 with the same process described above implemented in each communication cell 70. Thus, the available bandwidth is dedicated as separate mobile frequencies and backhaul frequencies, wherein the mobile frequencies are tessellated to allow network scalability as shown in FIG. 3. Using this tessellated frequency arrangement, a macro-frequency plan for backhaul communication may be provided. It should be noted that although a frequency reuse pattern of seven is shown (i.e., seven local access points 52 in each communication cell 70), other reuse patterns such as 3, 4, 14, etc. can be used. Further, although each of the master access points 62, which may define a backhaul access point, are described having a wired backhaul connection, variations may be provided, such as, for example, having alternating wired and wireless connections. Additionally, different sub-cells other than “4” in each of or all of the communication cells 70 may be configured as the backhaul access point. Also, although the sub-cells or wireless access coverage areas 54 are shown as hexagons, different configurations may be provided, for example rectangles or squares. Also, the communication channels may be modified such that the transition is different than 1 MHz channels for local access point 52 to mobile device 58 communication and 5 Mhz channels for local access point 52 to master access point 62 communication. The wireless network architecture provided by the various embodiments of the present invention allows for (i) a reduced number of fixed wired connections to access points through the use of a wireless backhaul; (ii) dedicated bandwidth for (a) access point to mobile communication and (b) access point to backhaul communication; (iii) tessellated micro-frequency planning to allocate frequencies to each access point in a local area to reduce or avoid interfering with adjacent or neighboring access points; (iv) tessellated macro-frequency planning to allocate frequencies among a master-slave network of access points to reduce or avoid interference in the wireless backhaul; and (v) use of the same frequency band for both mobile device to local access point communication and local access point to backhaul communication through an allocation of the sub-channels in the band among these functions. Thus, simultaneous communication may be provided between (i) mobile devices and local access points and (ii) local access points and the network via master access points without interference using different frequencies as described herein. While the invention has been described in terms of various specific embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates generally to wireless networks, and more particularly, to a wireless network for communicating using multiple access points. The use of broadband wireless networks (e.g., 802.11 WLAN) has increased due to these networks providing high-speed network access (e.g., communication speeds greater than 1 Mbps) in a wireless environment. Users of these wireless networks can move to different locations in a coverage area and maintain network connectivity. These networks are typically configured having wireless access points, sometimes referred to as hot-spots, that each provide a wireless communication range of typically about 100 meters. These wireless access points are connected to a wired network using, for example, a high-speed network connection such as fiber optics, T-1, DSL, cable modem, etc. The communication path in these wireless networks is typically from (i) a mobile user to an access point (AP) across the wireless link and (ii) from the AP to the network (e.g., wide area network (WAN)) using a wired connection. Thus, a mobile device (e.g., laptop computer) communicates with the network via one or more wireless access points. However, because of the limited range for communicating with an access point (e.g., about 100 meters), many access points are required to cover a large communication area. This then requires many high speed wired network connections, often referred to as a backhaul, for each access point. The increased number of wired connections increases the cost and complexity of such wireless networks, and sometime does not provide a practical implementation. Networks have been developed having a mesh configuration to address the backhaul issue. In this mesh configuration, each of the access points and/or nodes in the network can communicate information between adjacent or neighboring access points and/or nodes, thus providing a form of wireless backhaul for the network. In this mesh network, a message from a mobile user can “hop” from one access point to another access point until it reaches a wired backhaul connection. Thus, a network with fewer wired access points may be implemented. However, in such a network, the effective throughput of the network is substantially reduced as the user's message travels over multiple “hops” to get to the wired backhaul. More particularly, when using a mesh routing protocol the effective network data rate drops rapidly as the number of hops increases. The decrease in throughput results from a lack of frequency planning and channel allocation to separate the bandwidth of the AP-mobile messages and the backhaul messages between access points that carry the message back to the wired network. In general, each access point has a single radio that is used to communicate with both the mobile users and the other access points in the network. The lack of available bandwidth for backhaul and frequency planning greatly limits the scalability of this mesh network architecture. As the mesh network is implemented over larger areas, a larger percentage of the total capacity (e.g., backhaul/mobile capacity) is used to transmit updates to the network routing status. Thus, known wireless communication systems having different configurations may be complex to implement, have reduced throughput, and provide limited scalability. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to an exemplary embodiment, a wireless network is provided that includes a plurality of access points. A plurality of the access points are configured as local access points that are each configured to operate at one of a set of frequencies and within a communication range. The local access points may communicate with a mobile device within the corresponding local access point communication range. The wireless network further includes an access point configured as a master access point to communicate with each of the plurality of local access points at a frequency that is outside the set of frequencies of the local access points. According to another exemplary embodiment, a wireless network architecture is provided that includes a plurality of local access points each defining a wireless access coverage area and each having a local communication channel to communicate with mobile devices within the wireless coverage area. The network architecture also includes a master access point to provide communication between the plurality of local access points and a wired network and having a master communication channel that is distinct from the local communication channels. The wireless network architecture further includes a first communication device (e.g., a first radio) corresponding to each of the local access points to communicate between the local access points and mobiles devices. The first communication devices are configured to communicate using the local communication channels. The wireless network architecture further includes a second communication device (e.g., a second radio) corresponding to each of the local access points to communicate between each of the local access points and the master access point. The second communication devices are configured to communicate using the master communication channel. According to yet another exemplary embodiment, a method for wirelessly communicating in a network is provided and includes configuring a plurality of local access points to communicate with mobile devices within a wireless access coverage area corresponding to each of the plurality of access points using one of a set of frequencies. The method further includes configuring a master access point to provide communication between the local access points and a wired network using a frequency that is different than the set of local access point frequencies. | 20041111 | 20110329 | 20060511 | 69532.0 | H04Q724 | 12 | FARAGALLA, MICHAEL A | WIRELESS COMMUNICATION NETWORK PROVIDING COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MOBILE DEVICES AND ACCESS POINTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04Q | 2,004 |
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10,986,129 | ACCEPTED | Thermal crystallization of a molten polyester polymer in a fluid | A process for crystallizing a polyester polymer by introducing a molten polyester polymer, such as a polyethylene terephthalate polymer, into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer, such as at a temperature ranging from 100° C. to 190° C., and allowing the molten polyester polymer to reside in the liquid medium for a time sufficient to crystallize the polymer under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium. A process flow, underwater cutting process, crystallization in a pipe, and a separator are also described. | 1. A process for crystallizing a polyester polymer comprising introducing a molten polyester polymer into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium temperature is above 100° C. 3. The process of claim 2, wherein the liquid medium temperature is above 130° C. 4. The process of claim 3, wherein the liquid medium temperature ranges from 140° C. to 180° C. 5. The process of claim 1, wherein the polyester polymer contains at least 60 mole % ethylene units based on the moles of all diols added and at least 60 mole % terephthalate units or naphthalate units based on the moles of all dicarboxylic acids added, and the It.V., of the molten polymer is at least 0.55 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 6. The process of claim 1, wherein the polyester polymer comprises a polyalkylene terephthalate homopolymer or copolymer modified with 40% or less of repeat units other than alkylene terephthalate. 7. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is made in a melt phase polycondensation process and introduced into the liquid medium from the melt phase before the molten polyester polymer falls to a temperature below its Tg, and the It.V., of the molten polymer is at least 0.55 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 8. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is obtained by heating a solid polyester pellet to above 190° C. followed by bringing the resulting molten polyester polymer into contact with the liquid medium before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below the Tg of the polymer. 9. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is extruded in an extruder through a die at a temperature of 190° C. or more as measured at the extruder nozzle. 10. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is directed through a die, followed by cutting the molten polyester polymer as it exits the die. 11. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is cut underfluid in the liquid medium, and the It.V., of the molten polymer is at least 0.55 when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 12. The process of claim 11, wherein the molten polyester polymer is cut underfluid into globules. 13. The process of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium temperature when the molten polyester polymer first makes contact with the liquid medium is above the Tg of the polyester polymer, and the It.V. of the molten polymer is at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 14. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer first makes contact with a liquid medium at a temperature below the Tg of the polyester polymer, and before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below the Tg of the polyester polymer, the liquid medium temperature is above the Tg of the polyester polymer. 15. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is cut underfluid when the temperature of the polyester polymer is at least 190° C. 16. The process of claim 1, comprising directing the molten polyester polymer having an It.V., when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml, of at least 0.55 dL/g through a die plate and cutting the molten polyester polymer exiting the die with a cutter located in a liquid medium zone such that the cutter blades and a surface of the die plate are in contact with the liquid medium. 17. The process of claim 1, further comprising a liquid medium zone comprising a die plate and a cutter disposed in a housing containing an inlet and an outlet, and a flow of liquid medium into the housing through the inlet, wherein molten polyester polymer having an It.V., of at least 0.55 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml is directed through the die plate, cut with cutter blades on the cutter to form globules, and directed to the outlet of the housing as globules by the motive force of the liquid medium flow. 18. The process of claim 17, wherein the temperature of the liquid medium at the inlet of the housing is less than the temperature of the liquid medium beyond the outlet of the housing. 19. The process of claim 17, wherein the temperature of the liquid medium at the inlet and the outlet of the housing is above the Tg of the polyester polymer. 20. The process of claim 17, wherein the molten polyester polymer is cut underfluid. 21. The process of claim 1, comprising directing molten polyester polymer through a die plate and cutting the molten polyester polymer underfluid as it exits the die with a cutter, wherein the cutter and an inner surface of the die plate are contained in a housing fed with a flow of hot liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature above the Tg of the polyester polymer, and the liquid medium is essentially water. 22. The process of claim 21, wherein the temperature of the liquid medium ranges from 140° C. to 180° C. 23. The process of claim 1, comprising allowing the molten polyester polymer to reside in the liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature above the Tg of the polyester polymer for a time sufficient to impart to the molten polyester polymer a degree of crystallinity of at least 15%. 24. The process of claim 23, wherein the degree of crystallinity is above 25%. 25. The process of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium comprises water. 26. The process of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium comprises a polyalkylene glycol. 27. The process of claim 1, wherein the temperature of the liquid medium contacting the molten polyester is greater than the boiling point of the liquid medium at 1 atmosphere. 28. The process of claim 1, comprising crystallizing the molten polyester polymer in the liquid medium at a pressure on the liquid medium which is equal to or higher than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium. 29. The process of claim 1, comprising a pressure on the liquid medium of greater than 25 psia. 30. The process of claim 29, comprising a pressure of 52 psia to 145 psia. 31. The process of claim 1, wherein the liquid medium has a flow to submerge globules obtained from the molten polyester polymer. 32. The process of claim 1, wherein the residence time of the molten polyester polymer or globules made from the molten polyester polymer in said liquid medium to obtain a degree of crystallinity of 20% or more is 10 minutes or less. 33. The process of claim 32, wherein the degree of crystallinity is 30% or more at a residence time of 4 minutes or less. 34. The process of claim 32, wherein the degree of crystallinity is 40% or more. 35. The process of claim of claim 32, wherein the liquid medium temperature ranges from 140° C. to 180° C., and the residence time to obtain a degree of crystallinity of 25% or more ranges from greater than 0 seconds to about 8 minutes or less. 36. The process of claim 1, wherein crystallization is conducted in the absence of rotating mechanically induced agitation. 37. The process of claim 1, comprising introducing a feed of liquid, colder than the liquid medium temperature, to the liquid medium containing crystallized polyester polymer or resulting pellets. 38. The process of claim 1, comprising crystallizing the molten polyester polymer in the liquid medium, followed by separating the liquid medium from the crystallized molten polyester polymer while the liquid medium temperature is above the Tg of the polyester polymer. 39. The process of claim 38, comprising directing a cool flow of liquid onto the crystallized molten polyester polymer or resulting pellets after separation from the liquid medium, said cool flow of liquid having a temperature less than the temperature of the crystallized molten polyester polymer or resulting pellets. 40. The process of claim 1, comprising crystallizing the molten polyester polymer under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, followed by depressurizing the resulting crystallized molten polyester polymer or pellets, followed by separating said polymer or pellets from the liquid medium. 41. The process of claim 1, comprising crystallizing the molten polyester polymer under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, followed by separating said polymer or pellets from the liquid medium without substantially decreasing the pressure on the liquid medium immediately prior to separation. 42. The process of claim 1, comprising separating the liquid medium from the resulting crystallized molten polyester polymer or pellets while the pressure on the liquid medium prior to separation is greater than 1 atmosphere. 43. The process of claim 1, wherein the It.V. of the polyester polymer is 0.70 dL/g or greater when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml, the liquid medium comprises water, the molten polyester polymer is cut underwater, and the crystallized polyester polymer is separated from the water under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of water. 44. The process of claim 1, wherein crystallized molten polyester polymer or pellets are separated from the liquid medium under a pressure at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid medium with a rotary valve or dual knife-gate valves. 45. A process for separating a crystallized polyester polymer having an It.V., when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml, of at least 0.55 dL/g from a liquid medium comprising introducing molten polyester polymer into hot liquid medium having a temperature greater than the Tg of the polymer, thereafter forming a crystallized polyester polymer in the hot liquid medium, separating the crystallized polymer from the hot liquid medium under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, and directing a flow of cool liquid onto the crystallized polymer before separation, wherein the temperature of the cool liquid is less than the temperature of the hot liquid medium. 46. The process of claim 45, wherein the temperature of the hot liquid medium is at least 130° C., and the polyester polymer comprises a polyethylene terephthalate polymer or copolymer. 47. The process of claim 45, wherein the crystallized polyester polymer has a flow in a direction toward a separator, and the cool liquid medium travels countercurrent to the direction of the flow of crystallized polyester polymer. 48. The process of claim 45, wherein the hot liquid medium is separated from globules of crystallized polyester polymer, thereafter leaving a residual hot liquid medium within the interstices of the globules, and the cool liquid is directed onto the globules containing residual hot liquid medium to displace at least a portion of the residual hot liquid medium from the interstices of the globules before separation. 49. The process of claim 45, wherein the hot liquid medium is separated from globules of crystallized polyester polymer, thereafter leaving a residual hot liquid medium within the interstices of the globules traveling in a direction toward a separator, and the cool liquid directed onto the globules containing residual hot liquid medium has a flow rate which is effective to separate a greater amount of the hot liquid medium relative to the amount of hot liquid medium separated in the absence of a flow of cool liquid. 50. A process for crystallizing a molten polyester polymer comprising: a) directing molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, first contacting the molten polyester with a liquid medium when the liquid medium temperature is greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer and crystallizing the molten polyester polymer. 51. The process of claim 50, wherein the temperature of the molten polyester polymer on contact exceeds the temperature of the liquid medium. 52. The process of claim 51, wherein said molten polyester polymer is a polyethylene terephalate or naphthalate homopolymer or copolymer and having an It.V. of at least 0.55 when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 53. The process of claim 52, wherein the temperature of the liquid medium temperature is at least 130° C. 54. A process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising: a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, contacting the molten polyester with a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tgof the polyester polymer for a time sufficient to provide a crystallized polyester polymer having a degree of crystallinity of at least 10%, followed by c) separating, under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized polyester polymer from the liquid medium. 55. The process of claim 54, wherein said molten polyester polymer is a polyethylene terephalate or naphthalate homopolymer or copolymer and having an It.V. of at least 0.55 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 56. The process of claim 55, wherein the temperature of the liquid medium temperature is at least 130° C. 57. The process of claim 54, wherein the separated crystallized polyester polymer is fed to a dryer to remove residual moisture from the polymer. 58. The process of claim 54, comprising directing a stream of cold liquid onto the molten polyester polymer prior to separation, wherein the temperature of the cold liquid is less than the temperature of the liquid medium. 59. The process of claim 54, comprising drying the separated crystallized polyester polymer, and directing a stream of cold liquid onto the crystallized polyester polymer after separation and before drying, wherein the temperature of the cold liquid is less than the temperature of the separated crystallized polyester polymer. 60. A process for separating a crystallized polyester polymer having an It.V. of at least 0.55 dL/g from a liquid medium comprising separating said polymer from said liquid medium under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, drying the separated crystallized polyester polymer, and following separation and before drying, directing a flow of cool liquid onto the separated crystallized polyester polymer, wherein the temperature of the cool liquid is less than the temperature of the separated crystallized polyester polymer. 61. The process of claim 60, wherein the polymer has a degree of crystallinity of at least 20%. 62. A process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising introducing a polyester polymer to a feed of liquid medium, crystallizing the polymer in the liquid medium, separating the polymer from the liquid medium, removing residual liquid medium on or around the separated polymer in a dryer, and re-circulating at least a portion of the removed liquid medium from the dryer to or as said feed of liquid medium. 63. A process for crystallizing a polyester polymer comprising introducing a polyester polymer to a feed of liquid medium, crystallizing the polymer in the liquid medium and in the absence of rotating mechanically induced agitation, separating the polymer and the liquid medium from each other, and directing at least a portion of the separated liquid medium to or as said feed of liquid medium. 64. The process of claim 63, wherein said polyester polymer is introduced as a molten polyester polymer having an It.V. of at least 0.55 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 65. The process of claim 64, wherein the polyester polymer comprises a polyethylene terephalate or naphthalate homopolymer or copolymer modified with 40% or less of a repeat unit or units other than ethylene terephthalate 66. The process of claim 65, wherein the liquid medium temperature is at least 130° C. 67. A process for making an article comprising contacting a molten polyester polymer having an It.V., when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml, of 0.70 dL/g or more with a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature sufficient to induce crystallinity to the molten polyester polymer, allowing the molten crystallized polymer to cool to a pellet, isolating the pellets without increasing the molecular weight of the pellet in the solid state, and melt processing the pellets into a shaped article. 68. The process of claim 67, wherein the liquid medium temperature is above 100° C. 69. The process of claim 68, wherein the liquid medium temperature ranges from 140° C to 180° C. 70. The process of claim 67, wherein the polyester polymer comprises at least 60 mole % ethylene units based on the moles of all diols added and at least 60 mole % terephthalate units or naphthalate units based on the moles of all dicarboxylic acids added. 71. The process of claim 67, wherein the molten polyester polymer is extruded in an extruder through a die at a temperature of 190° C. or more as measured at the extruder nozzle. 72. The process of claim 67, wherein the molten polyester polymer is cut underfluid. 73. The process of claim 72, wherein the liquid medium comprises water. 74. The process of claim 67, comprising allowing the molten polyester polymer to reside in the liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature above the Tg of the polyester polymer for a time sufficient to impart to the molten polyester polymer a degree of crystallinity of at least 25%. 75. The process of claim 67, comprising crystallizing the molten polyester polymer in the liquid medium at a pressure on the liquid medium which is equal to or higher than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium. 76. The process of claim 75, comprising a pressure on the liquid medium of greater than 25 psia. 77. The process of claim 67, comprising crystallizing the molten polyester polymer in a pipe for a time sufficient to impart to the molten polyester polymer a degree of polymerization of at least 20%, and the molten polyester polymer travels in the same direction as the liquid medium in the pipe. 78. The process of claim 67, wherein the residence time of the molten polyester polymer or globules made from the molten polyester polymer in said liquid medium to obtain a degree of crystallinity of 20% or more is 10 minutes or less. 79. The process of claim 78, wherein the degree of crystallinity is 30% or more at a residence time of 4 minutes or less. 80. The process of claim 67, wherein crystallization is conducted in the absence of rotating mechanically induced agitation. 81. A process for making a molded part or sheet from pellets comprising: d) drying polyester pellets crystallized from molten polyester polymer; e) introducing the dried pellets into an extrusion zone to form molten PET polymer; and f) forming a sheet, strand, fiber, or a molded part from extruded molten PET polymer. 82. The process of claim 81, wherein said pellets have an It.V. ranging from 0.7 to 1. 1 5 dL/g. 83. The process of claim 81, wherein said pellets are dried in a said drying zone at a zone temperature of at least 140° C. 84. The process of claim 81, wherein the residence time of the pellets in the drying zone ranges from 0.50 hours to 16 hours. 85. The process of claim 81, wherein the temperature in the drying zone ranges from 140° C. to 180° C. 86. The process of claim 81, wherein the PET pellets have an average degree of crystallization ranging from 25% to 50%. 87. The process of claim 81, wherein the molten polyester polymer is crystallized at a temperature greater than or equal to 40° C. below the drying temperature. 88. The process of claim 81, comprising forming a bottle preform. 89. The process of claim 81, comprising forming a thermoformable sheet. 90. A process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, i) cutting the polymer into globules with a cutter; ii) contacting the globules with a flow of liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer to form a flow of slurry; iii) directing the flow of slurry away from the cutter to a crystallizer and allowing the globules to reside in the crystallization zone under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium for a time sufficient to impart a degree of crystallinity of at least 10% to the globules, thereby forming crystallized globules; and c) separating in a separation apparatus under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized globules or resulting pellets from the liquid medium to form a stream of crystallized polyester polymer and a stream of separated liquid medium, wherein: i) at least a portion of the source of the flow of liquid medium in step bii) is the stream of separated liquid medium; and ii) the stream of crystallized polyester polymer is directed to a dyer for removing at least a portion of the residual liquid on or in the crystallized polymer. 91. The process of claim 90, wherein the die has an inner surface facing the liquid medium, the molten polymer is cut with cutting blades as the polymer exits the orifices, and the cutting blades and at least a portion of the inner surface of the die plate are in contact with a liquid medium. 92. The process of claim 90, wherein the liquid medium comprises water. 93. The process of claim 90, wherein the flow of liquid medium has a liquid velocity ranging form 1 ft/s to 8 ft/s. 94. The process of claim 90, wherein the crystallizer comprises a pipe having an aspect ration of at least 15:1. 95. The process of claim 90, wherein the liquid medium temperature in the crystallizer ranges from 100° C. to 190° C. 96. The process of claim 90, wherein the pressure on the slurry within the crystallizer ranges from greater than 14.9 psia to 300 psia. 97. The process of claim 90, wherein the crystallizer comprises a pipe ranging from 120 to 9600 ft in length, at a diameter ranging from 4 to 8 inches. 98. The process of claim 97, wherein the slurry flows through the said pipe for 30 seconds to 15 minutes. 99. The process of claim 90, wherein liquid medium level in the separator is to at least the level of globule accumulation within the separator. 100. The process of claim 90, wherein the pressure in the separator is substantially the same as the pressure in the crystallizer. 101. The process of claim 90, wherein a portion of the liquid medium is vented or drained from the separator, cooled to below the liquid medium temperature in the separator, and then fed to the flow of liquid medium in step bii). 102. The process of claim 90, wherein at least a portion of the residual liquid from the dryer is re-circulated to the flow of liquid medium in step bii). 103. The process of claim 90, comprising contacting a stream of cold liquid with globules in the separator, said cold liquid having temperature which is less than the liquid medium temperature in the separator. 104. The process of claim 103, comprising re-circulating at least a portion of the residual liquid removed in the dryer to the source of cold liquid. 105. The process of claim 90, comprising contacting a stream of cold liquid with the stream of crystallized polymer after separation and before entering the dryer, the cold liquid having a temperature which is less than the crystallized polymer temperature. 106. The process of claim 105, comprising re-circulating at least a portion of the residual liquid removed in the dryer to the source of cold liquid. 107. A process for underfluid cutting a molten polyester polymer comprising a die plate having an inner surface disposed toward a cutter each contained within a housing having an inlet and an outlet, and continuously directing a flow of hot liquid medium having a first temperature through the inlet and exiting through the outlet and continuously directing a flow of a cool liquid medium having a second temperature into the housing, wherein the first temperature is higher than the second temperature. 108. The process of claim 90, wherein the flow of cool liquid medium is directed into the housing through the hot liquid medium in the housing and impinges on inner surface of the die plate, the cutter, or both, wherein the flow of hot liquid medium and the flow of cool liquid medium in the housing are in contact with each other. 109. A process for thermally crystallizing a molten polyester polymer in a pipe comprising directing a flow of molten polyester polymer in a liquid medium through a pipe having an aspect ratio L/D of at least 15:1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is crystallized in the pipe at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer. 110. The process of claim 109, wherein the molten polyester polymer is crystallized in said pipe at a liquid medium temperature exceeding the boiling point of the liquid medium at 1 atmosphere. 111. The process of claim 109, wherein the molten polyester polymer is crystallized in said pipe at a liquid medium temperature of at least 140° C. 112. The process of claim 109, wherein the molten polyester polymer and liquid medium in said pipe are under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium. 113. The process of claim 109, wherein the pipe has an aspect ratio L/D of at least 25: 1, the molten polyester polymer are crystallized in said pipe at a liquid medium temperature of at least 140° C., the molten polyester polymer and liquid medium in said pipe are under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, and the molten polyester polymer is crystallized to a degree of at least 20% in the pipe. 114. The process of claim 109, comprising crystallizing said solid molten polyester polymer in said pipe to a degree of crystallinity of at least 30%. 115. The process of claim 109, comprising introducing solid polyester molten polyester polymer into said pipe and crystallizing said molten polyester polymer to a degree of crystallinity of at least 30% in said pipe in 15 minutes or less. 116. The process of claim 115, comprising crystallizing in 8 minutes or less. 117. The process of claim 109, wherein the pipe is devoid of mechanically rotating paddles, in-line mixers, weirs, or baffles. 118. The process of claim 109, wherein the liquid flow velocity within the pipe ranges from 1 ft/s to 8 ft/s. 119. The process of claim 109, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 120. The process of claim 109, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 121. The process of claim 1, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 122. The process of claim 121, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 123. The process of claim 45, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 124. The process of claim 123, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 125. The process of claim 50, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 126. The process of claim 125, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 127. The process of claim 62, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 128. The process of claim 127, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 129. The process of claim 67, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 130. The process of claim 129, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 131. The process of claim 81, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.70 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. 132. The process of claim 131, wherein the molten polyester polymer has an It.V. of at least 0.75 dL/g when measured at 25° C. in a 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane solvent at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/100 ml. | This application is a Continuation-In-Part of prior application Ser. No. 10/683,522, filed on Oct. 10, 2003, fully incorporated herein by reference. The invention pertains to the crystallization of a polyester polymer, and more particularly to the crystallization of molten polyester polymer in a liquid medium. FIELD OF THE INVENTION BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION At the beginning of the solid-stating process, PET pellets are crystallized usually with hot air or in mechanically-mixed, hot-oil-heated vessel. Building molecular weight in the solid-state requires extensive crystallization and/or annealing so that pellets will not stick as they enter the solid-stating reactor at typically 195 to 220° C. Polyester (or copolyester) pellets are generally supplied to converters in a semi-crystalline form. Converters desire to process semi-crystalline pellets rather than amorphous pellets because the semi-crystalline pellets can be dried at higher temperatures without agglomerating. Drying the pellets immediately prior to extrusion of the melt to make bottle performs is necessary to prevent hydrolytic degradation and loss of intrinsic viscosity (It.V.) of the melt inside the extruder. However, drying amorphous polyester pellets at or above the Tg of PET without first crystallizing the pellets will cause the pellets to agglomerate at higher temperatures (140° C. to 180° C.) in the dryers. Feeding amorphous pellets to an extruder will cause the screw to be wrapped as the pellets become hot enough to crystallize in the extrusion zone. From the pellet manufacturing side, a typical commercial process involves forming the polyester polymer via melt phase polymerizing up to an It.V. ranging from about 0.5 to 0.70, extruding the melt into strands, quenching the strands, cutting the cooled polymer strands into solid amorphous pellets, heating the solid pellets to above their Tg and then crystallizing (also known as crystallization from the glass since the pellets to be crystallized start at a temperature below their Tg), and then heating the pellets in the solid state to an even higher temperature while under nitrogen purge (or vacuum) in order to continue to build molecular weight or It.V. (i.e. solid stating). The solid stating process runs hot enough to make it necessary to first crystallize the pellets to prevent agglomeration at the solid stating temperatures. Thus, crystallization is necessary to avoid agglomeration of the pellets during solid stating and during the drying step prior to extruding the melt into bottle performs. Typical melt phase polyester reactors produce only amorphous pellets. To make these pellets crystalline, they are usually heated to elevated temperatures in a crystallization vessel while being constantly stirred using paddles or other mechanical rotary mixing means in order to prevent sticking or clumping in the crystallization vessel. The crystallizer is nothing more that a heated vessel with a series of paddles or agitator blades to keep the pellets stirred (e.g. Hosakawa Bepex Horizontal Paddle Dryer). Rotary mixing means suffer the disadvantage of requiring additional energy for mechanical rotational movement, and rotational mechanical agitation required to keep the pellets from sticking can also cause chipping and other damage to the pellets, leading to dust generation or the presence of “fines” in the crystallizer and product. These small pieces of chipped off plastic can often cause extrusion problems if not properly removed. Alternately, a crystallizer can consist of injecting hot gas into a vessel known as a hot, fluidized mixed bed, mostly containing already crystallized pellets which prevents the amorphous pellets being fed to the vessel from sticking to one another (e.g. a Buhler precrystallizer spout bed unit). Such commercial processes utilize the “thermal” crystallization technique by employing a hot gas, such as steam, air, or nitrogen as the heating medium. The residence time in hot fluidized mixed bed processes is up to six hours. These processes also suffer the disadvantage in that large quantities of gas are required, requiring large blowers and making the processes energy intensive. Each of these crystallization processes is rather slow and energy-intensive. Crystallization processes can take up to six hours, require energy to turn mechanical rotary mixing means in some cases, have high energy requirements to process hot gases or oil, and the pellets are usually cooled from the pelletizer to about 25 to 35° C. after which they are reheated prior to and during crystallization. Moreover, crystallization vessels are fed with low It.V. pellets suitable, which in turn are solid stated into higher It.V. pellets required for making a suitable bottle. It would be desirable to crystallize polyester polymers in a more energy efficient manner or in lower cost equipment. For example, it would be desirable to reduce the residence time of the polyester polymer in the crystallizer, or provide a process which avoids the energy requirements of mechanical rotary mixing means or of cooling and reheating between pelletization and crystallization, or which even could avoid the step of solid stating altogether, while providing to the converter a high temperature crystallized pellet to enable the converter to dry the pellets at conventional temperatures (typically at 140° C. to 180° C.). Obtaining any one of these advantages would be desirable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION There is now provided a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer comprising introducing a molten polyester polymer into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tgof the polyester polymer. In another embodiment, there is provided a process for crystallizing a molten polyester polymer comprising: a) directing molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, first contacting the molten polyester with a liquid medium when the liquid medium temperature is greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer and crystallizing the molten polyester polymer. In yet another embodiment, there is provided a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising: a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, contacting the molten polyester with a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tgof the polyester polymer for a time sufficient to provide a crystallized polyester polymer having a degree of crystallinity of at least 10%, followed by c) separating, under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized polyester polymer from the liquid medium. We have also discovered a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer comprising introducing a polyester polymer to a feed of liquid medium, crystallizing the polymer in the liquid medium, separating the polymer and the liquid medium from each other, optionally drying the separated polymer, and directing at least a portion of the separated liquid medium to or as said feed of liquid medium. In the process of the invention, there is also provided a process for separating a crystallized polyester polymer having an It.V. of at least 0.55 from a liquid medium comprising separating said polymer from said liquid medium under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, drying the separated crystallized polyester polymer, and following separation and before drying, directing a flow of cool liquid onto the separated crystallized polyester polymer, wherein the temperature of the cool liquid is less than the temperature of the separated crystallized polyester polymer. Moreover, there is also provided a process for separating a crystallized polyester polymer having an It.V. of at least 0.55 from a liquid medium comprising crystallizing molten polyester polymer is a hot liquid medium having a temperature greater than the Tg of the polymer to form a crystallized polyester polymer, separating the crystallized polymer from the hot liquid medium under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, and directing a flow of cool liquid onto the crystallized polymer before separation, wherein the temperature of the cool liquid is less than the temperature of the hot liquid medium. The process of the invention also allows one to crystallize high It.V. polyester polymer comprising contacting a molten polyester polymer having an It.V. of 0.70 dL/g or more with a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature sufficient to induce crystallinity to the molten polyester polymer, allowing the molten crystallized polymer to cool to a pellet, and isolating the pellet without increasing the molecular weight of the pellet in the solid state. By crystallizing the molten polyester polymer according to the process of the invention, there is now also provided the advantage that a molded part or sheet can be made from pellets comprising: d) drying polyester pellets crystallized from molten polyester polymer; e) introducing the dried pellets into an extrusion zone to form molten PET polymer; and f) forming a sheet, strand, fiber, or a molded part from extruded molten PET polymer. In yet a more detailed embodiment of the process, there is also provided a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, i) cutting the polymer into globules with a cutter; ii) contacting the globules with a flow of liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer to form a flow of slurry; iii) directing the flow of slurry away from the cutter to a crystallizer and allowing the globules to reside in the crystallization zone under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium for a time sufficient to impart a degree of crystallinity of at least 10% to the globules, thereby forming crystallized globules; and c) separating in a separation apparatus under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized globules or resulting pellets from the liquid medium to form a stream of crystallized polyester polymer and a stream of separated liquid medium, wherein: i) at least a portion of the source of the flow of liquid medium in step bii) is the stream of separated liquid medium; and ii) the stream of crystallized polyester polymer is directed to a dryer for removing at least a portion of the residual moisture on or in the crystallized polymer. In a part of the process, we have also discovered a process for underfluid cutting a molten polyester polymer comprising a die plate having an inner surface disposed toward a cutter each contained within a housing having an inlet and an outlet, and continuously directing a flow of hot liquid medium having a first temperature through the inlet and exiting through the outlet and continuously directing a flow of a cool liquid medium having a second temperature into the housing, wherein the first temperature is higher than the second temperature. Moreover, we have also discovered a process for thermally crystallizing a molten polyester polymer in a pipe comprising directing a flow of molten polyester polymer in a liquid medium through a pipe having an aspect ratio L/D of at least 15:1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is crystallized in the pipe at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer. In each of these processes, at least one or more of the following advantages are realized: crystallization proceeds rapidly; cooling, transporting, and/or reheating pellets from a pelletizer to a crystallizing vessel is avoided, mechanical rotary mixers are not necessary, the processes are energy efficient because of the high thermal transfer rate to pellets under a hot fluid and no energy is required to transport pellets from a pelletizer to a crystallizer, solid stating may be avoided if desired, and equipment and operating costs are reduced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a graphical illustration of liquid medium temperature profiles. FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram for making crystallized polyester polymer from the melt. FIG. 3 illustrates an underwater cutting assembly and process. FIG. 4 illustrates an globule/liquid separation apparatus. FIG. 5 graphically illustrates the data from Table 1 with respect to the increase in the degree of crystallinity over time at a crystallization temperature of 150° C. FIG. 6 graphically illustrates the degree of crystallization over time at a crystallization temperature of about 170° C. FIG. 7 graphically illustrates the data in Table 2 with respect to the degree of crystallinity obtained from the melt over time FIG. 8 graphically illustrates the degree of crystallization over time at a crystallization temperature of 150° C. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of the invention, including the appended figures referred to herein, and the examples provided therein. It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the specific processes and conditions described, as specific processes and/or process conditions for processing plastic articles as such may, of course, vary. It must also be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, reference to processing a thermoplastic “preform”, “article”, “container”, or “bottle” is intended to include the processing of a plurality of thermoplastic preforms, articles, containers or bottles. References to a composition containing “an” ingredient or “a” polymer is intended to include other ingredients or other polymers, respectively, in addition to the one named. Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” or “approximately” one particular value and/or to “about” or “approximately” another particular value. When such a range is expressed, another embodiment includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. By “comprising” or “containing” is meant that at least the named compound, element, particle, or method step etc must be present in the composition or article or method, but does not exclude the presence of other compounds, materials, particles, method steps, etc, even if the other such compounds, material, particles, method steps etc. have the same function as what is named. It is also to be understood that the mention of one or more method steps does not preclude the presence of additional method steps before or after the combined recited steps or intervening method steps between those steps expressly identified. The intrinsic viscosity values described throughout this description are set forth in dL/g units as calculated from the inherent viscosity measured at 25° C. in 60/40 wt/wt phenol/tetrachloroethane according to the calculations immediately prior to Example 1 below. The “polyester polymer” of this invention is any thermoplastic polyester polymer in any state or having any shape. Preferably, the polyester polymer contains alkylene terephthalate units or alkylene naphthalate units in an amount of at least 60 mole % based on the total moles of units in the polymer, respectively. The polyester polymer may optionally be isolated as such. The form of the polyester composition is not limited, and includes a melt in the manufacturing process or in the molten state after polymerization, such as may be found in an injection molding machine, and in the form of a liquid, globule, strand, fiber, pellet, preforms, and/or bottle. A globule is a discrete molten particle having any shape. As a non-limiting illustration, globules are typically produced by subjecting a polyester polymer to a cutting operation, a chopping operation, or any other operation altering the shape of a sheet, strand, or any other die shape. Globules may be distinguished from sheets, films, and fibers. A polyester pellet is a solid when measured at 25° C. and 1 atm, and under the operating conditions, the polyester polymer is a pellet when the polymer temperature falls and stays below the Tg of the polymer. The shape of the pellet is not limited, and is typified by regular or irregular shaped discrete particles without limitation on their dimensions but may be distinguished from a sheet, film, strand or fiber. In the process of the invention, a polyester polymer is crystallized by introducing a molten polyester polymer into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer A “molten polyester polymer” as used throughout this description is a polyester polymer having obtained a temperature of at least 190° C. and remaining at any temperature above the Tg of the polyester polymer on at least the surface of the polyester polymer until such time as the polyester polymer is introduced into the liquid medium. Preferably, the whole polyester polymer throughout the globule is at a temperature exceeding the Tg of the polymer at the time it is introduced into the liquid medium. Any technique used for measuring the temperature of a polyester polymer which registers above the Tg of the polymer is deemed to necessarily have at least a surface temperature exceeding the Tg of the polymer. In the first embodiment, the molten polyester polymer is introduced into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer. The Tg of the polyester polymer can be measured by a DSC scan according to the following test conditions: about 10 mg of polymer sample is heated from 25° C. to 290° C. at a rate of 20° C./min. in a Mettler DSC82 1. The sample is held at 290° C. for 1 minute, removed from the DSC furnace and quenched on a room-temperature metal sample tray. Once the instrument has cooled to 25° C. (about 6 mmin.), the sample is returned to the furnace and taken through a second heat from 25° C. to 290° C. at a rate of 20° C./min. The Tg is determined from the second heat. For PET homopolymers and PET modified copolymers, the Tg is usually between about 70° C. and 90° C., depending on the type and degree of modification to the polymer. In this embodiment, at any point in the life time of a polyester polymer and regardless of its thermal history or whether it is virgin, from the melt phase, recycled, scrap, or already had been crystallized at some point, the polymer undergoes a process wherein it is heated to above 190° C. and before the polymer falls below its Tg, it is brought into contact with a liquid medium at a temperature above the Tg of the polymer, and preferably at a liquid medium temperature above 100°, more preferably above 130° C., and most preferably at 140° C. or more. The particulars of this embodiment and other embodiments are explained further below. The method for making the polyester polymer is not limited. Any conventional method appropriate to making a polyester polymer is included. For illustration purposes, without limitation, the following method for making a polyester polymer is suitable. Examples of suitable polyester polymers include polyalkylene terephthalate homopolymers and copolymers modified with a modifier in an amount of 40 mole % or less, preferably less than 15 mole %, most preferably less than 10 mole % (collectively referred to for brevity as “PAT”) and polyalkylene naphthalate homopolymers and copolymers modified with less than 40 mole %, preferably less than 15 mole %, most preferably less than 10 mole %, of a modifier (collectively referred to herein as “PAN”), and blends of PAT and PAN. The preferred polyester polymer is polyalkylene terephthalate, and most preferred is polyethylene terephthalate. Preferably, the polyester polymer contains at least 60 mole % ethylene terephthalate repeat units, or at least 85 mole %, or at least 90 mole % of each respectively, and most preferably at least 92 mole %, based on the moles of all units in the polyester polymers. Thus, a polyethylene terephthalate polymer may comprise a copolyester of ethylene terephthalate units and other units derived from an alkylene glycol or aryl glycol with an aliphatic or aryl dicarboxylic acid. A PET polymer. is a polymer obtained by reacting terephthalic acid or a C1-C4 dialkylterephthalate such as dimethylterephthalate,in an amount of at least 60 mole % based on the moles of all dicarboxylic acids and their esters, and ethylene glycol in an amount of at least 60 mole % based on the moles of all diols. It is also preferable that the diacid component is terephthalic acid and the diol component is ethylene glycol. The mole percentage for all the diacid component(s) totals 100 mole %, and the mole percentage for all the diol component(s) totals 100 mole %. The polyester pellet compositions may include admixtures of polyalkylene terephthalates along with other thermoplastic polymers such as polycarbonate (PC) and polyamides. It is preferred that the polyester composition should comprise a majority of polyalkylene terephthalate polymers or PEN polymers, more preferably in an amount of at least 80 wt. %, most preferably at least 95 wt. %, based on the weight of all thermoplastic polymers (excluding fillers, compounds, inorganic compounds or particles, fibers, impact modifiers, or other polymers which may form a discontinuous phase). In addition to units derived from terephthalic acid, the acid component of the present polyester may be modified with units derived from one or more additional modifier dicarboxylic acids. Such additional dicarboxylic acids include aromatic dicarboxylic acids preferably having 8 to 14 carbon atoms, aliphatic dicarboxylic acids preferably having 4 to 12 carbon atoms, or cycloaliphatic dicarboxylic acids preferably having 8 to 12 carbon atoms. Examples of dicarboxylic acid units useful for modifying the acid component are units from phthalic acid, isophthalic acid, naphthalene-2,6-dicarboxylic acid, cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid, cyclohexanediacetic acid, diphenyl-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid, succinic acid, glutaric acid, adipic acid, azelaic acid, sebacic acid, and the like, with isophthalic acid, naphthalene-2,6-dicarboxylic acid, and cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid being most preferable. It should be understood that use of the corresponding acid anhydrides, esters, and acid chlorides of these acids is included in the term “dicarboxylic acid”. It is also possible for monofunctional, trifunctional, and higher order carboxylic acids to modify the polyester. In addition to units derived from ethylene glycol, the diol component of the present polyester may be modified with units from additional diols and modifier diols including cycloaliphatic diols preferably having 6 to 20 carbon atoms and aliphatic diols preferably having 3 to 20 carbon atoms. Examples of such diols include diethylene glycol; triethylene glycol; 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol; propane-1,3-diol;butane-1,4-diol; pentane-1,5-diol; hexane-1,6-diol; 3-methylpentanediol-(2,4); 2-methylpentanediol-(1,4); 2,2,4-trimethylpentane-diol-(1,3); 2,5- ethylhexanediol-(1,3); 2,2-diethyl propane-diol-(1,3); hexanediol-(1,3); 1,4-di-(hydroxyethoxy)-benzene; 2,2-bis-(4-hydroxycyclohexyl)-propane; 2,4-dihydroxy-1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-cyclobutane; 2,2-bis-(3-hydroxyethoxyphenyl)-propane; and 2,2-bis-(4-hydroxypropoxyphenyl)-propane. Typically, polyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate polymer are made by reacting a glycol with a dicarboxylic acid as the free acid or its dimethyl ester to produce an ester monomer, which is then polycondensed to produce the polyester. The polyester compositions of the invention can be prepared by polymerization procedures known in the art sufficient to effect esterification and polycondensation. Polyester melt phase manufacturing processes include direct condensation of a dicarboxylic acid with the diol, optionally in the presence of esterification catalysts, in the esterification zone, followed by polycondensation in the prepolymer and finishing zones in the presence of a polycondensation catalyst; or ester exchange usually in the presence of a transesterification catalyst in the ester exchange zone, followed by prepolymerization and finishing in the presence of a polycondensation catalyst, and each may optionally be solid stated according to known methods. To further illustrate, a mixture of one or more dicarboxylic acids, preferably aromatic dicarboxylic acids, or ester forming derivatives thereof, and one or more diols are continuously fed to an esterification reactor operated at a temperature of between about 200° C. and 300° C., typically between 240° C. and 290° C., and at a pressure of between about 1 psig up to about 70 psig. The residence time of the reactants typically ranges from between about one and five hours. Normally, the dicarboxylic acid is directly esterified with diol(s) at elevated pressure and at a temperature of about 240° C. to about 270° C. The esterification reaction is continued until a degree of esterification of at least 60% is achieved, but more typically until a degree of esterification of at least 85% is achieved to make the desired monomer. The esterification monomer reaction is typically uncatalyzed in the direct esterification process and catalyzed in ester exchange processes. Polycondensation catalysts may optionally be added in the esterification zone along with esterification/ester exchange catalysts. Typical ester exchange catalysts which may be used include titanium alkoxides, dibutyl tin dilaurate, used separately or in combination, optionally with zinc, manganese, or magnesium acetates or benzoates and/or other such catalyst materials as are well known to those skilled in the art. Phosphorus containing compounds and cobalt compounds may also be present in the esterification zone. The resulting products formed in the esterification zone include bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (BHET) monomer, low molecular weight oligomers, DEG, and water as the condensation by-product, along with other trace impurities formed by the reaction of the catalyst and other compounds such as colorants or the phosphorus containing compounds. The relative amounts of BHET and oligomeric species will vary depending on whether the process is a direct esterification process in which case the amount of oligomeric species are significant and even present as the major species, or a ester exchange process in which case the relative quantity of BHET predominates over the oligomerir species. The water is removed as the esterification reaction proceeds to provide favorable equilibrium conditions. The esterification zone typically produces the monomer and oligomer mixture, if any, continuously in a series of one or more reactors. Alternately, the monomer and oligomer mixture could be produced in one or more batch reactors. It is understood, however, that in a process for making PEN, the reaction mixture will contain monomeric species is bis(2-hydroxyethyl) naphthalate and its corresponding oligomers. Once the ester monomer is made to the desired degree of esterification, it is transported from the esterification reactors in the esterification zone to the polycondensation zone comprised of a prepolymer zone and a finishing zone. Polycondensation reactions are initiated and continued in the melt phase in a prepolymerization zone and finished in the melt phase in a finishing zone, after which the melt is solidified into precursor solids in the form of chips, pellets, or any other shape. Each zone may comprise a series of one or more distinct reaction vessels operating at different conditions, or the zones may be combined into one reaction vessel using one or more sub-stages operating at different conditions in a single reactor. That is, the prepolymer stage can involve the use of one or more reactors operated continuously, one or more batch reactors, or even one or more reaction steps or sub-stages performed in a single reactor vessel. In some reactor designs, the prepolymerization zone represents the first half of polycondensation in terms of reaction time, while the finishing zone represents the second half of polycondensation. While other reactor designs may adjust the residence time between the prepolymerization zone to the finishing zone at about a 2:1 ratio, a cornmon distinction in many designs between the prepolymerization zone and the finishing zone is that the latter zone frequently operates at a higher temperature and/or lower pressure than the operating conditions in the prepolymerization zone. Generally, each of the prepolymerization and the finishing zones comprise one or a series of more than one reaction vessel, and the prepolymerization and finishing reactors are sequenced in a series as part of a continuous process for the manufacture of the polyester polymer. In the prepolymerization zone, also known in the industry as the low polymerizer, the low molecular weight monomers and oligomers are polymerized via polycondensation to form polyethylene terephthalate polyester (or PEN polyester) in the presence of a catalyst. If the catalyst was not added in the monomer esterification stage, the catalyst is added at this stage to catalyze the reaction between the monomers and low molecular weight oligomers to form prepolymer and split off the diol as a by-product. If a polycondensation catalyst was added to the esterification zone, it is typically blended with the diol and fed into the esterification reactor. Other compounds such as phosphorus containing compounds, cobalt compounds, and colorants can also be added in the prepolymerization zone or esterification zone. These compounds may, however, be added in the finishing zone instead of or in addition to the prepolymerization zone and esterification zone. In a typical DMT-based process, those skilled in the art recognize that other catalyst material and points of adding the catalyst material and other ingredients vary from a typical direct esterification process. Typical polycondensation catalysts include the compounds of Sb, Ti, Ge, Zn and Sn in an amount ranging from 0.1 to 500 ppm based on the weight of resulting polyester polymer. A common polymerization catalyst added to the esterification or prepolymerization zone is an antimony-based polymerization catalyst. Suitable antimony based catalyst include antimony (III) and antimony (V) compounds recognized in the art and in particular, diol-soluble antimony (III) and antimony (V) compounds with antimony (III) being most commonly used. Other suitable compounds include those antimony compounds that react with, but are not necessarily soluble in the diols prior to reaction, with examples of such compounds including antimony (III) oxide. Specific examples of suitable antimony catalysts include antimony (III) oxide and antimony (III) acetate, antimony (III) glycolates, antimony (III) ethylene glycoxide and mixtures thereof, with antimony (III) oxide being preferred. The preferred amount of antimony catalyst added is that effective to provide a level of between about 75 and about 400 ppm of antimony by weight of the resulting polyester. This prepolymer polycondensation stage generally employs a series of one or more vessels and is operated at a temperature of between about 250° C. and 305° C. for a period between about five minutes to four hours. During this stage, the It.V. of the monomers and oligomers is increased up to about no more than 0.45. The diol byproduct is removed from the prepolymer melt using an applied vacuum ranging from 5 to 70 torr to drive the reaction to completion. In this regard, the polymer melt is sometimes agitated to promote the escape of the diol from the polymer melt. As the polymer melt is fed into successive vessels, the molecular weight and thus the intrinsic viscosity of the polymer melt increases. The pressure of each vessel is generally decreased to allow for a greater degree of polymerization in each successive vessel or in each successive zone within a vessel. However, to facilitate removal of glycols, water, alcohols, aldehydes, and other reaction products, the reactors are typically run under a vacuum or purged with an inert gas. Inert gas is any gas which does not cause unwanted reaction or product characteristics at reaction conditions. Suitable gases include, but are not limited to argon, helium and nitrogen. Once an It.V. of no greater than 0.45 dL/g is obtained, the prepolymer is fed from the prepolymer zone to a finishing zone where the second half of polycondensation is continued in one or more finishing vessels generally, but not necessarily, ramped up to higher temperatures than present in the prepolymerization zone, to a value within a range of from 270° C. to 305° C. until the It.V. of the melt is increased from the It.V of the melt in the prepolymerization zone (typically 0.30 but usually not more than 0.45 dL/g) to an It.V of at least 0.55 d/g. The industrially practical It.V. generally ranges from about 0.55 to about 1.15 dL/g. The final vessel, generally known in the industry as the “high polymerizer,” “finisher,” or “polycondenser,” is operated at a pressure lower than used in the prepolymerization zone, e.g. within a range of between about 0.2 and 4.0 torr. Although the finishing zone typically involves the same basic chemistry as the prepolymer zone, the fact that the size of the molecules, and thus the viscosity differs, means that the reaction conditions also differ. However, like the prepolymer reactor, each of the finishing vessel(s) is operated under vacuum or inert gas, and each is typically agitated to facilitate the removal of ethylene glycol. A suitable It.V. from the melt phase can range from 0.55 dl/g to 1.15 dl/g. However, one advantage of the process is that the solid stating step can be avoided. Solid stating is commonly used for increasing the molecular weight (and the It.V) of the pellets in the solid state, usually by at least 0.05 It.V. units, and more typically from 0.1 to 0.5 It.V. units. Therefore, in order to avoid a solid stating step, a preferred It.V. from the melt phase, which can be measured on the amorphous pellets, is at least 0.7 dL/g, or 0.75 dL/g, and up to about 1.2 dL/g, or 1.15 dug. The molten polymer may be allowed to solidify and/or obtain any degree of crystallinity from the melt phase, then later heated to above 190° C., and brought into contact with the liquid medium. Alternatively, the molten polymer may be pumped directly or indirectly from a melt phase final reactor or vessel into the liquid medium as a molten polyester polymer. If desired, the molten polymer may be obtained from a recycled polyester polymer in flake or pellet form, or from scrap. The history of the polymer is not limited and the polymer can undergo any history and any state prior to converting the polymer into a molten polymer for introduction into the liquid medium. The method for melting the polyester polymer is not limited. Any conventional melting apparatus can be used. For example, the polyester polymer may be melted by introducing a solid polyester polymer into an extruder, or it can be pumped directly from the melt phase. The method for introducing the molten polyester into the liquid medium is not limited. For example, in one embodiment, the molten polyester polymer is directed through a die, or merely cut, or both directed through a die followed by cutting the molten polymer. In another example, the polyester polymer may melt extruded with a single or twin screw extruder through a die, optionally at a temperature of 190° C. or more at the extruder nozzle, and cut into globules or extruded into strands or any other die shape. In yet another alternative embodiment, the molten polyester polymer is pumped directly or indirectly from a melt phase finisher vessel with a gear pump, forced through a die and cut into globules or shaped into a strand, sheet or other die shape. In the invention, the polyester polymer is molten at the time the polymer is introduced into the liquid medium. In any method used to physically transfer the molten polyester from the melt phase reactor or extruder to a liquid medium zone for inducing crystallization, the temperature of the molten polyester polymer does not drop below the Tg of the polymer commencing from the step of converting the molten polymer melt to a shape such as a globule, sheet, strand, etc., to its introduction into the liquid medium at a temperature exceeding the Tg of the polymer. For example, the polyester polymer from the melt phase should not drop below of the Tg of the polymer between the point at which it is cut into globules at the die plate to the point at which it is introduced into a liquid medium at a temperature above the Tg of the polymer. Moreover, the introduction of the molten polyester polymer into a liquid medium temperature exceeding the Tg of the polymer (for convenience referred to herein as the “hot” liquid medium) is not limited to the stated liquid medium temperature when the molten polyester polymer first contacts a liquid medium. For example, the molten polyester polymer may reside in a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature below the Tg of the polymer followed by its introduction in the same liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature exceeding the Tg of the polymer so long as the molten polyester polymer temperature does not drop below its Tg. Thus, the introduction of the polyester polymer is not limited to first contact with a liquid medium, and the polyester polymer may undergo any history including contact with a cool liquid medium provided that when the polyester polymer finally does contact the hot liquid medium, the temperature of the polymer has not fallen below the Tg of the polymer between the time it was melted at 190° C. or above and the time it contacts the hot liquid medium. Examples of this embodiment are described in more detail below. Also, for convenience, a molten polyester polymer directed through a die and/or cut or otherwise processed into a shape will be referred to as globules. It is understood, however, that the process as described with respect to a “globule” may also be applied to melt crystallize strands, continuous or discontinuous fibers, sheet, and rods. Prior to introducing the molten polyester polymer into the hot liquid medium, it is preferably cut to a desired shape. It is preferred to cut the molten polyester polymer while the temperature of the polyester polymer is at least 190° C., and more preferably within a range of about 200° C. to 350° C. The polyester polymer melt is optionally filtered to remove particulates over a designated size before being cut. Any conventional hot pelletization or dicing method and apparatus can be used, including but not limited to dicing, strand pelletizing and strand (forced conveyance) pelletizing, pastillators, water ring pelletizers, hot face pelletizers, underwater pelletizers and centrifuged pelletizers. Examples of underwater pelletizers are set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,059,103, 6,592,350; 6,332,765; 5,611,983; 6551087; 5,059103, 4728,276; 4728,275; 4,500,271; 4,300,877; 4251198; 4123207; 3753637; and 3749539, each of which are fully incorporated herein by reference. The liquid medium is housed in a liquid medium zone, and the liquid medium zone is at least within a crystallization apparatus. The crystallization process may occur in a batchwise mode or continuously, preferably continuously. The liquid medium zone is any cavity in which the globules contact the liquid medium under conditions effective to induce crystallization. The crystallization apparatus containing a part of the liquid medium zone may also optionally comprise feed inlets, discharge tubes, pumps, probes, metering devices, heat exchangers, die plate(s), cutter(s), and valves. The polymer melt cutter may be located within the liquid medium zone in a manner such that the cutter blades and the die plate are in contact with the liquid medium. In one embodiment, the liquid medium zone comprises and begins with a die plate, a cutter, and a space in a vessel or a pipe, each of which are in contact with the liquid medium, and optionally, the cutter blade contacting the molten polyester polymer exiting the die plate is submerged in the liquid medium. Thus, a flow of liquid medium may be fed to a housing containing the cutter and die plate to provide the flow and motive force to drive the globules from the housing into a pipe or vessel designed to provide the residence time sufficient to crystallize the globules. Crystallization may begin at the moment the molten polymer is cut in the housing to the point at which the globules are separated from the liquid medium. In a typical case, however, the molten polyester polymer has an induction period prior to the onset of crystallization which is dependent upon the liquid medium temperature and the composition of the polymer. In general, at liquid medium temperatures ranging from 130° C. to 200° C., the induction period for a PET polymer ranges from about 15 seconds to 5 minutes. In an underfluid cutter design, the molten polyester polymer is in contact with the liquid medium at the time the polymer exiting the die plate is cut, thereby instantly submerging the globules into the liquid medium. Preferably, the entire cutting mechanism and the molten polyester polymer are underfluid the point where the molten polymer is cut. By cutting underfluid, the molten polymer is in continuous contact with the liquid medium upon exiting the die and at the point of being cut into globules, which are then swept away in the liquid medium current through piping or to a vessel which provides the necessary residence time to crystallize the globules to the desired degree. In this way, the process of crystallization is continuous for so long as polymer melt is fed through the die plate. Further, by crystallizing molten polyester polymer obtained as a melt from the melt phase, the process is more energy efficient because it is no longer necessary to provide for cooling means to cool the melt into pellets, or to store pellets in hoppers in preparation for feeding to a crystallization vessel, or to transport pellets to such a vessel, and more importantly, it is no longer necessary to reheat the pellets to bring them up to crystallization temperatures. Moreover, using a moving liquid to transport globules through an apparatus such as a pipe is more economical and less capital intensive than the installation and operation of a fluidized bed crystallization vessel, is more energy-efficient, requires less maintenance and generates fewer fines than would be the case using mechanically agitated vessels in conventional crystallizers. When a die is used, the shape and configuration of the die is not particularly limited. Polymers may be extruded through a strand die or other suitable die, whether single filament, or as is more traditionally done, multiple filaments, or fed directly from the melt reactor through a die using a gear pump. The die plate may have multiple orifices of diameters generally from about 0.05 to 0.15 inch, to the cutter. Usually, a hot, high temperature heat transfer liquid is circulated through the die channels so as to heat the die plate and promote flow of the polymer through the die plate. Electrical or other means of heating are also possible. An example of a die plate assembly for underwater pelletizing is set forth in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6474969; 5,597,586; 4,822,546;4,470,791; each of which are fully incorporated herein by reference. A water housing is provided within which water is circulated against the other side of the die plate. Optionally, circulating water enters the water housing and into contact against the face of the die plate to cool the polyester polymer melt to a desired temperature above its Tg. After pumping the molten polyester, as by way of an extruder or gear pump or any other conventional pumping means, through the die, the molten polymer is cut, preferably instantly cut, into any desired shape before the polyester polymer cools below its Tg, and more preferably cut when the temperature of the molten polyester polymer is within a range of 200° C. to 350° C., or at a temperature ranging from 240° C. to 310C. This temperature can be measured by a inserting a thermal probe into the stream of polyester polymer entering the die plate, and if this is not possible, the extruder nozzle temperature is also a useful indicator of the molten polymer temperature assuming the die plate is not cooled. In the event the die plate is cooled, the temperature of the polymer can be calculated taking into account the nozzle temperature, the heat transfer through the die plate, and cooling temperature in the die. A rotatable knife flush with the die plate severs the individual streams into globules as the streams exit the orifices. Alternatively, the molten polyester polymer, after being pumped through the die, is cut in close proximity to the die face. In yet another alternative embodiment, the molten polyester polymer is pumped through a die to form strands or other suitable shapes without being cut, brought into contact with the liquid medium such as a water bath at a temperature at least above the Tg of the polyester polymer and for a time sufficient to induce crystallinity to the molten polyester, optionally pulled through the water bath with or without straining the strands, and then subsequently cut into pellets either while the polymer is molten or after it is cooled to below the Tgof the polymer. In a preferred embodiment, as the globules are formed when the molten polymer is pumped through the orifices and sheared by the knife, the globules contact a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature sufficient to induce crystallization to the globules. However, if desired, the liquid medium may be at a temperature less than necessary to crystallize the globules (“cool” liquid medium)as the globules contact the liquid medium, provided that the temperature of the globules do not drop below the Tg of the polyester polymer prior to the point at which the temperature of the liquid medium is raised to above the Tg of the polyester polymer. In this case, the globules (or molten polyester polymer if not cut) remain molten in the cool liquid medium and are considered as having been introduced into the hot liquid medium (above the Tg of the polyester polymer) at the point where the globules contact the hot liquid medium in spite of spending time in the cool zone so long as the temperature of the globules does not drop to below its Tg prior to their introduction into the hot liquid medium. An example of when globules (or uncut molten polyester polymer), may temporarily reside in a cool liquid medium zone before introduction into a hot liquid medium is when the stream of cool water is directed at the die plate of an underfluid pelletizer to reduce the tendency of the globules to stick to each other or the cutting equipment. For example, an underfluid pelletizer surrounded by a housing is fed with hot liquid medium (above the Tg of the polyester polymer) through a feed pipe to the housing. Molten polyester polymer is directed through a die plate and cut into globules at the inner surface (facing the liquid medium) of the die plate by revolving knives on the pelletizer contacting or in close proximity to the inner die plate surface. Preferably, the molten polymer contacts the hot liquid medium as it exits the die plate, and is carried away from the pelletizer after being cut into globules by the flow of liquid medium proceeding from the inlet pipe to and through and outlet pipe to provide the globules with the residence time necessary to induce crystallinity. However, if desired, a flow of cool liquid at a temperature below the Tg of the polyester polymer, preferably below 40° C., more preferably below 30° C., is directed against the inner die plate surface and/or against the cutting blades. The cool liquid medium stream may be directed into and through the flow of hot liquid medium at any angle so long as the cool liquid medium impinges upon the inner surface of the die plate or the cutting blades. The cool liquid medium stream is in immediate contact with and mixes with the flow of hot liquid medium as the hot liquid medium traverses the underfluid pelletizer and the die plate. Thus, on a bulk scale, the average temperature in the housing may not drop below the Tg of the polymer even though on a micro scale, at the die plate orifice where the molten polymer contacts the cutting blade, the temperature of the liquid medium might fall below the Tg of the polymer. The stream of cool liquid medium may be directed through an aimed nozzle so as to reduce the tendency of the molten polymer to agglomerate but at flow rate that does not lower the temperature of the uncut molten polyester polymer or the globules below the Tg of the polymer. By controlling the flow rate of cool liquid medium, the effect on the molten globules with respect to their ability to crystallize from the melt is not significant changed, yet the advantage of reducing agglomeration may be obtained. In the process of the invention, molten polyester polymer is introduced into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer. Not only may the molten polyester polymer reside for a time in cool liquid medium followed by its introduction into the hot liquid medium before the temperature of the polymer falls below its Tg by way of directing a cool stream of liquid against the die plate/cutting blades, alternatively or in addition thereto, the temperature of the liquid medium in the inlet pipe, or where the molten polyester polymer or globules first contact the liquid medium, should preferably be set below the desired crystallization temperature. It is contemplated that in many instances the polyester polymer will be directed through the die close to or at the nozzle temperature of the melt extruder, or if directed from the melt phase, directed through the die at a temperature likely to exceed 190° C. At these polymer temperatures, the temperature of the incoming liquid medium may be kept lower than the desired crystallization temperature to compensate for the sensible heat transfer from the molten polyester polymer and globules and the heat of crystallization generated during crystallization, each of which raise the liquid medium temperature. Thus, the process of the invention takes advantage of using the heat energy in the molten polymer to heat the liquid medium feed to the molten polymer. The use of preheaters or heat exchangers in a closed system wherein the liquid medium is recycled back to the die plate/pelletizer can be avoided altogether, or if used, the energy consumption is reduced. The liquid medium temperature, at a point before the molten polyester polymer temperature falls below its Tg, is at least above the Tg of the polyester polymer, and suitably below the the high melting point of the polyester polymer, beyond which crystallization is not possible. In one embodiment, the temperature of the liquid medium ranges from 100° C. to 200° C., more preferably between about 140 to 180° C. to optimize the balance between the residence time needed to obtain a final desired degree of crystallinity, the hydrolysis or glycolysis of the polyester polymer in the liquid medium, the desired degree of crystallization, and the energy consumption.. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the liquid medium temperature may be held constant throughout the time during which crystallization is induced to the time the globules are separated from the fluid (curve 1), or it may vary over time in a constant or linear descent (curve 2), or a stepwise descent (curve 3), or it may be fairly constant until the heat of crystallization raises the liquid medium temperature after which the liquid medium temperature may be held constant or gradually descend (curve 4), or the temperature profile may in a bell shaped curve with the peak crystallization temperature occurring at some point in time between initiating crystallization to terminating crystallization (curve 5). The molten polyester polymer is considered crystallized when a measure of crystallinity is induced at least on or in any portion of the molten polyester polymer, such as on the surface of a globule, or throughout any portion of a cross-section cut of the resulting pellet . The desired degree of crystallization will vary depending on the application and the severity of service requirement, but for most applications, a degree of crystallinity above 15% is desirable, and more commonly, the degree of crystallization is above 20%, and even above 25%, and typically below about 60%, although the process of the invention is capable of substantially if not completely crystallizing the polyester polymer. The distribution of thermally induced crystalline spherulites throughout the polymer is not limited. Crystalline regions may appear on only on the surface, or randomly distributed through the polymer. The degree of crystallization of a polyester polymer can be measured taking a sample of the polymer at the conclusion of crystallization as a solid pellet and measured using either a gradient tube density method or the DSC method referenced in the Examples. The DSC method is sensitive to the quality of the baseline applied to the peaks prior to integration of the area under the peaks. The density method is sensitive to the quality of the pellets tested. However, both test methods correlate well to each other at higher degrees of crystallization above 25%. The solid crystallized pellet is deemed to have a minimum degree of crystallization value if either of the test methods is positive for that value or greater. The particular liquid medium used is not limited. A liquid medium composition which causes an undesirable high loss in It.V. under all operating conditions should be avoided. The tolerance to It.V. losses will vary according to the demands of the end user of the pellets or of the application into which the pellets will be used. Examples of liquids which are suitable for use in the process include water; polyalkylene glycols such as diethylene glycol and triethylene glycol; and alcohols. In addition to the continuous operating adjustments that can be made to the vessel pressure and the temperature holding the liquid medium as discussed further below, the residence time, degree of crystallization, and energy efficiency of the process can also be controlled by the optimal selection of the heating medium. It is desired to use liquids that have a high heat capacity to optimize heat transfer to the pellets at the lowest possible residence time. Liquids which have low vapor pressures are also desirable to further reduce equipment costs since a vessel with a lower pressure rating can be used. However, a significant and sometimes overriding factor to consider in the selection of the liquid is the ease with which the liquid is separated from the pellets, the ease with which the liquid is volatized from the inside of the pellet, and the costs associated with handling, heating and recirculating the separated liquid back to contact a fresh feed of molten polyester polymer. The heat capacity of water, 1 cal/g/° C., is attractive and the ease with which water is separated from the pellets and volatized from the pellets is excellent. The vapor pressure of water is about 24 torr at room temperature, 760 torr at 100° C., 2706 torr at 140° C., 7505 torr at 180° C. Polyalkylene glycols, such as diethylene glycol and triethylene glycol, have a lower vapor pressure than water. The temperature of a liquid medium of polyalkylene glycols can be set higher than water at the same pressure to reduce the residence time of the pellets in the liquid medium, or to reduce the pressure inside the liquid medium zone at the same temperature used for heating water. Due to their lower vapor pressure, devolatizing glycols from the pellets is more energy intensive than water. However, both water and glycols are suitable and the preferred liquids for use as the liquid medium. If desired, a mixture of water with other liquids which depress the vapor pressure of the liquid medium can be used. For example, water can be mixed with other glycols in an amount not exceeding the solubility of the glycols in water under the operating conditions in the liquid medium zone. It is preferred to use liquids which are water soluble so that excess liquid can be removed from the pellets by water washing. In one embodiment, the liquid medium has a boiling point at 1 atmosphere which is less than the temperature of the liquid medium contacting the molten polyester. And conversely, the temperature of the liquid medium in contact with the molten polyester polymer is higher than the boiling point of the liquid medium at 1 atmosphere. The pressure on the liquid medium is equal to or higher than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium in order to prevent the liquid medium from vaporizing. The globules should reside in the hot liquid medium under a pressure sufficiently high to keep the liquid medium in a vapor/liquid equilibrium or completely in the liquid state. Since each liquid composition has a different vapor pressure, the particular minimum pressure on the liquid medium at a given temperature will also vary with the composition of the liquid medium. The pressure may be induced by way of injecting a high pressure inert gas such as nitrogen, or air, any other suitable gas, or by pumping a greater amount of liquid medium into the liquid medium zone. Alternatively, the liquid medium may be heated and vaporized to form the necessary pressure to keep the vapor and liquid in equilibrium in a closed system. Or, a combination of these pressure inducing means may be used. The vapor pressure of a liquid is normally determined experimentally from the pressure exerted by its vapor when the liquid and vapor are in dynamic equilibrium. However, it is possible in actual practice that that the liquid and vapor in the liquid medium zone may not be in equilibrium at any single point in time or location within the fluid because of variations in pressure from perturbations in the system well known to those skilled in the art, such as pressure differentials across piping, valves, weirs, etc. and non-uniform heating. As a result, it is possible that less static pressure on the liquid is needed to keep the liquid medium from boiling compared to the static pressure needed to keep that same liquid from boiling in a closed system in dynamic equilibrium. Accordingly, the pressure within the liquid medium zone is also deemed to be at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid medium if the liquid medium does not boil, even though the actual static pressure in the liquid medium zone may be slightly less than the theoretical pressure needed to exceed the dynamic vapor pressure of the liquid medium. The pressure in the liquid medium zone can be controlled to allow for adjustments in the crystallization temperature, thereby also controlling the residence time of the globules in the liquid medium. Using water as an example, its boiling point at 52 psia is 140° C., and at 69 psia is 150° C., 115 psia at 170° C., 145 psia at 180° C. Accordingly, the pressure can be set high to increase the boiling point of water and decrease the residence time of the globules in the hot liquid medium. Pressures of 25, 100, 150, and 200 psia are contemplated as suitable for most applications. The liquid medium may be static so as to allow the molten shaped polymer to be pulled through the liquid medium (as in the case of strands) or to allow globules to fall through the liquid medium for the desired residence time to induce the desired degree of crystallization. Alternatively, the liquid medium may have a flow to carry the globules to a desired destination, or if not to carry the globules, at least to impart sufficient flow or turbulence to keep the globules from sticking to each other. Preferably, the liquid medium has a flow, and the flow rate and type of flow is set to submerge the globules. The particular flow rate will depend on the liquid medium zone volume and the globule feed rate. A globule is considered submerged in the liquid medium when the liquid medium envelops the entire globule. However, the globules are considered submerged if the bulk of the globules are enveloped in the fluid at any point during crystallization of the globules, even though some if not all globules at any one point in time are temporarily on or above the surface of the liquid medium, which may occur in a turbulent environment. Preferably, the globules are submerged over substantially the entire time the globules are crystallized. The residence time is desirably short to limit the cycle time, reduce the equipment cost, and to minimize It.V. loss. The residence time is the time lapse which the polyester polymer experiences commencing from the introduction of the globule into the hot liquid medium (above the Tg of the polymer) to either the time when the temperature of the polyester polymer drops and stays below the Tg of the polyester polymer or when the polyester polymer is removed from the liquid medium, whichever is shorter. In a preferred embodiment, the residence time is not so long as to substantially increase the It.V. (which can be correlated to the weight average molecular weight) of the polyester polymer. Although the process of the invention allows one to keep the globules in contact with the hot liquid medium for a time sufficient to increase the It.V. of the pellets, it is more preferred to reduce the residence time to that necessary to impart the desired degree of crystallization to the polymer, and as noted below, if one starts the crystallization of a polymer having a high It.V. from the melt, a solid stating step can be altogether avoided. The residence time of the globules in the liquid medium is not limited. However, an advantage of the process allows one to shorten the residence time to 15 minutes or less to impart to the globule a degree of crystallinity of 20% or more, or 25% or more, 30% or more, and even up to 40% or more as measured in the resulting pellet taken immediately after its separation from the liquid medium. For most applications, a degree of crystallinity ranging from 25% to 45% is suitable.. The residence time can even be as low as more than 0 seconds to 10 minutes depending upon the crystallization temperature. At temperatures ranging from 140° C. to 180° C., the crystallization time to obtain a degree of crystallinity of 25% or more and even 30% or more ranges from greater than 0 seconds to about 8 minutes or less. In a more preferred embodiment, crystallization is conducted in the absence of rotating mechanically induced agitation in the liquid medium zone. Horizontal liquid filled, rotating paddle agitated vessels are known to provide the necessary motion to prevent pellets from agglomerating during crystallization. In this embodiment, however, capital and operating costs are reduced by avoiding rotating mechanically induced agitation during crystallization while also avoiding agglomeration. This may be accomplished in several ways. Globules fed into a non-horizontally oriented liquid medium zone filled or nearly filled with a liquid are allowed to settle through the fluid toward the bottom of the vessel while providing the globules and optionally resulting pellets with the buoyancy and necessary residence time through an upflow of liquid medium and/or by controlling the density difference between the pellets and the liquid medium. Alternatively, the globules may be fed through a pipe acting as a liquid medium zone under a flow of fluid to keep the globules moving through the pipe. Desirably, the flow rate and type of flow of liquid through the pipe prevents or contributes toward the prevention of globule agglomeration or sticking to the pipe walls. In one embodiment, the use of costly pressure rated crystallization tanks may be avoided by crystallizing globules in a pipe. The globules may be crystallized in a pipe by directing a flow of globules in a liquid medium through a pipe having an aspect ratio L/D of at least 15:1, wherein the globules are crystallized in said pipe at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer. A pipe may be distinguished from conventional vessels in that a pipe has an aspect ratio of length to diameter of greater than 15:1, preferably greater than 25:1, more preferably greater than 50:1. The length of the pipe having an aspect ratio of at least 15:1 is inclusive of a series of pipes joined by couplings, elbows, u-turn, bends, etc. In a pipe design, the liquid medium temperature is suitably about 90° C. or more, preferably 100° C. or more, more preferably l30° C. or more, and most preferably l40° C. or more. It is also desirable to pressurize the pipe at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid medium. The pipe may be designed to provide partial or incomplete crystallization, or to finish off crystallization. The degree of crystallization imparted to the globules in the pipe is preferably at least a 20%, more preferably to at least 30%, and most preferably at least 40%. The globules can be crystallized to 25% or more at a residence time of 15 minutes or less, or 10 minutes or less, and even 7 minutes or less. In one embodiment, the globules are crystallized in the pipe to a degree of crystallization of 30% or more within 10 minutes or less. The pipe is preferably devoid of internal devices such as mechanically rotating paddles, and more preferably is devoid of in-line mixers, weirs, or baffles, and the flow of the liquid medium is desirably in the same direction as the flow of the pellets. The pipe may be filled with a slurry of liquid medium and globules. Alternatively, the pipe may be filled with a vapor, the liquid medium and the globules. The pipe may be oriented horizontally, sloped down to allow gravity to assist the flow of globules, oriented upward against gravitational forces and in an upflow of high pressure fluid to induce a high degree of turbulence, or a combination of these features. The flow through the pipe will comprise molten and /or crystalline polymer, liquid, and optionally vapor flow. Significant sticking of the globules to each other in the pipe or to the pipe may be avoided even in the absence of rotating mechanically induced agitation by creating a continuous flow of pellets through the pipe. The liquid velocity should be adjusted to reduce pellet agglomeration in the pipe. While sporadic or minor agglomeration may occur in in the pipe, the frequency or number of globules agglomerating does not interfere with the dewatering equipment, and the globules or pellets ejected from such equipment are discrete. A liquid flow velocity of 1 ft/s or more is suitable to provide a continuous flow of globules in the pipe while reducing the tendency of the globules to roll along the pipe walls in mass and stick to each other. At a residence time ranging from 30 seconds to 20 minutes, the pipe length and diameter may range from 30 ft to 9600 ft at a diameter ranging from 1 inch to 14 inches with a liquid medium velocity ranging from 1 ft/s to 8 ft/s. Other pipe lengths and diameters are suitable as well, and the optimal pipe design will depend upon balancing such factors as the cost of pipe based on its length, diameter, material of construction and pressure rating, the energy required to pump the liquid medium, the thermal energy applied to crystallize at a desired temperature, the polymer IV loss, and the desired residence time. Once the globules have been crystallized to the desired degree, the globules or the resulting pellets are separated from the liquid medium. The globules may be separated as such from the liquid medium because at temperatures ranging from 1 00° C. to 1 80° C., the globules, once crystallized, have sufficient strength and rigidity and are under sufficient pressure on discharge to avoid unduly clogging the separation equipment or sticking to each other during or after separation. Alternatively, prior to separation, the globules may be allowed to cool to a temperature below their sticking point, or to a temperature below the Tg of the polymer to form pellets in order ease the task of separating the liquid from the polymer. Allowing the polymer to cool to form pellets prior to separation reduces the risk of the polymer sticking to the separation equipment or to other polymer particles. Thus, as noted above in FIG. 1, the liquid medium may follow a slow or stepwise temperature reduction to below the Tg of the polymer. This may be accomplished by injecting a cooler flow of liquid into a stage in the liquid medium zone when the desired degree of crystallization is reached or substantially reached, or by depressurizing the liquid medium zone at one or more stages during the time the polymer resides in the liquid as may occur by discharging the slurry into a let down tank optionally sealed with the discharge outlet, and allowing the globules to settle and cool in the lower pressure environment, or optionally a combination of both such as relieving the pressure on the liquid medium while introducing a cool water feed into the hot liquid medium or into a let down tank. For example, a cold feed of liquid such as water may be introduced into the let down tank at atmospheric pressure to convert the globules into pellets, followed by separating the liquid from the pellets. However, since it is desirable to conserve the heat energy in the liquid medium and re-circulate the hot liquid medium back to the cutter/die plate, it is more preferred to separate the liquid medium from the polymer while the liquid medium temperature is above the Tg of the polymer and avoid or reduce the tendency of the globules to stick to each other during separation by keeping the globules immersed in the liquid medium during the dewatering operation. Immediately after separating the globules and/or pellets from the liquid medium, if necessary, a cool stream of liquid may be directed at the globules/pellets to further cool the globules/pellets and prevent them from sticking to each other. While the globules and/or pellets separated from the liquid medium will continue to retain at least surface moisture if not some amount of water within the interstices of the globules/pellets, this amount of liquid may be insufficient in some cases to completely and consistently avoid agglomerating the globules/pellets to each other, especially if it is globules at a high temperature which are discharged. Thus, in another embodiment of the invention, if desired, a stream of liquid at a temperature cooler than the globules and/or pellets separated from the liquid medium are directed to the discharged globules/pellets to reduce their temperature and provide some lubricity, thereby reducing their tendency to agglomerate. It is preferred to introduce only a small flow of cool liquid to avoid having to vaporize large quantities of liquid in a subsequent dryer. The dewatering of pellets (the process of separating the liquid medium from the globules or pellets in any liquid medium composition) can take place in the liquid medium zone, or the slurry can be discharged from the liquid medium zone and transported to a device for separating the pellets from the liquid under pressure if needed. If the liquid medium is depressurized, the temperature, head pressure, and pressure drop across the dewatering equipment should preferably be set to minimize losing the liquid medium due to flashing and thereby avoid energy loss and/or adding costly condensers. It is also preferred to dewater starting from a pressure close to the liquid medium zone pressure to reduce the residence time of the slurry after completion of crystallization and before dewatering. While the pressure on the slurry prior to dewatering is preferably greater than 1 atmosphere, in a more preferred embodiment, the pressure on the slurry prior to dewatering is at least 70%, more preferably at least 80%, and most preferably at least 90% of the pressure in the liquid medium zone in order to reduce the cycle time, avoid the use of cooling equipment, and/or avoid losing part of the liquid medium due to flashing. The exact starting static pressure on the liquid medium and pellets (slurry) prior to dewatering is dependent upon the temperature, capital considerations, and other factors. During or after dewatering, however, the design pressure drop on the pellets will also depend on the polymer properties of the pellet to ensure that the pellet is sufficiently porous and/or rigid to maintain its structural integrity upon rapid depressurization. Those of skill understand that certain polyester polymers, such as polyethylene naphthalate, either absorb water quickly or do not allow the rapid escape of water entrained in the pellet structure or both, so that a rapid depressurization results in popcoming or other deformities. Thus, the process is designed to avoid pressure drops on the globules or pellets which result deforming the globule or pellet. Suitable devices to continuously separate the globules or pellets from the liquid medium in closed system under a pressure at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid medium include rotary valves or a set of dual knife-gate valves or any other device which substantially retains the pressure within the liquid medium zone while allowing the globules or pellets to separate from the liquid medium. Subsequent to their separation, the remaining surface moisture or liquid medium within the intersitices of the globules or pellets can be removed by drying the globules or pellets in any conventional dryer. As noted above, a stream of cool liquid may be directed at the discharged globules or pellets prior to feeding them to the dryer to reduce their temperature and reduce the tendency for agglomeration. The It.V. of the polyester polymer melt is not particularly limited. A suitable It.V. ranges from 0.55 to 1.15. High It.V. pellets in the range of 0.7 to 1.15 may be crystallized while avoiding the costly step of solid stating. In a conventional process, 0.5 to about 0.69 It.V. pellets are crystallized in two fluidized beds using a countercurrent flow of air, followed by annealing in third vessel using nitrogen gas and then fed to separate vessel at higher temperatures and lower gas flow rate (nitrogen) than used in the crystallization zone to further polycondense the pellets in the solid state and thereby increase their weight-average molecular weight and corresponding It.V. to about 0.7 to 1.15, which is a costly process. In the process of the invention, high It.V. pellets in the range of 0.7 to 1.15 may be crystallized while avoiding the costly step of solid stating. Thus, in one embodiment of the invention, a molten polyester polymer having an It.V. of 0.70 or more is brought into contact with a liquid medium for a time and at a liquid medium temperature sufficient to induce crystallinity to the molten polyester polymer, allowing the molten crystallized polymer to cool to a pellet, and isolating the pellet without increasing the molecular weight of the pellet in the solid state. By solid stating is meant any process, during or after crystallization and before the drying step is conducted immediately prior to introducing pellets into a melt extruder, which increases the molecular weight of pellets in the solid state. Thus, the process provides crystallized high It.V. pellets made by crystallizing polyester polymer from the melt without having to further increase the molecular weight of the polyester polymer in the solid state prior to introducing the crystallized pellets into a injection molding machine or other extrusion machine for making preforms, sheet or other articles. The invention can be further understood by reference to one or more of the Figures and their description, each serving to illustrate one of the many embodiments within the scope of the invention. Other embodiments within the scope of the invention can be designed by reference to the description without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. As illustrated in FIG. 2, a molten polyester polymer stream is fed to an underfluid cutter 3 through line 1 using a gear pump 2 as the motive force. A more detailed view of the underwater cutter is illustrated in FIG. 3, with coinciding reference numerals in FIGS. 2 and 3 referring to the same equipment and process. The source of the molten polymer may be from pellets fed through an extruder to the gear pump 2 or from the melt phase high polymerizer or frnisher (not shown) fed to the gear pump 2. The molten polymer is directed through orifices 4A on a die plate 4 and cut with cutting blades 5 as the polymer exits the orifices. The cutting blades 5 and the inner surface 4B of the die plate 4 are in contact with a liquid medium fed through a feed pipe 6 into the housing 7 containing the cutting blade 5 and into which is mounted the die plate 4. A suitable liquid medium comprises water entering the housing at a fluid velocity of 1 ft/s to 8 ft/s, preferably 1 ft/s to 4 ft/s. As shown in FIG. 3, the flow of liquid medium through the housing 7 sweeps the cut globules away from the cutter and into the outlet pipe 8 for transport, as shown in FIG. 2, into a crystallizer 9 comprises of a series of pipes in a coil or stacked to form a three dimensional box or any other shape, including a long linear tube. The water temperature at the outlet pipe 8 and through the crystallizer pipes 9 is above the Tg of the polyester polymer globules, and preferably at any temperature within a range of greater than 100° C. to 190° C., and more preferably from 140 to 180° C. At these temperatures, the pressure within the pressurized loop system comprised of crystallizer pipes 8 and 9, separator 11, pipes 10, 16, 6 and housing 7, ranges from 10 psia to 300 psia using water as the liquid medium. The cumulative piping dimensions in piping 8, 9, 10, and the separator 11 may range 120 to 9600 ft in length, at a diameter ranging from 2 to 8 inches in the piping 8, 9, and 10. After flowing through the crystallization pipes for about 30 seconds to 10 minutes, preferably from about 30 seconds to 6 or 7 minutes, the globules are fed through pipe 10 to a globule/water separator 11 comprised of a columnar screen 12 situated within the annulus of a tube 13. A more detailed illustration of a globule/liquid medium separator is shown in FIG. 4. The separator 11 is a pipe or tank (column is illustrated). The separator may be a pipe having the above described aspect ratio, or a tank. The separator is fed with globules and water through an inlet pipe 10 at the top of the separator into the inner annulus 14 within a columnar mesh 12 disposed within the separator 11 to form an outer annulus 15. The separator 11 may be partially or fully filled with water. If desired, the separator 11 may be filled with water below the line of globule accumulation 32A, or at least 50% full 32B, or at least 80% full 32C, or at least 90% 32D full of water. The temperature of the water in the separator is not particularly limited because by the time the globules reach the separator, they may already have been crystallized to the desired degree, in which case the water temperature in the separator can less than the Tg of the polymer, or the residence time of the globules in the separator can be calculated as part of the crystallization time such that crystallization continues in the separator, in which case the water temperature is above the Tg of the polymer. Given that the separator can be as simple as a pipe or tube, the separator can be considered the last leg of a crystallizer 9, but is broken out in FIGS. 2 and 4 for ease of viewing. Thus, the water temperature in the separator can be substantially the same as the average water temperature between the housing 7 and the separator 11. As the slurry of globules and water is fed into the inner annulus 14, the globules fall by gravity toward the bottom of the separator 11 and remain within the annulus while a portion of the liquid medium is forced out from the inner annulus 14 through the mesh 12 into the outer annulus 15 as the globules descend toward the bottom of the separator 11 and as they begin to accumulate. The liquid medium in the separator 11 is continuously discharged through the separator liquid medium outlet pipe 16. The location of the outlet pipe can be anywhere on the separator 11, and is conveniently located toward the bottom of the separator 11 to promote a top to bottom flow and a consistent temperature profile throughout. The pressure within the vessel may be regulated through a pressure line 17 serving as a pressure relief or a pressurizing mechanism that further aids in regulating the temperature of the water within the separator. The location of pressure line 17, although illustrated here at the top of separator 11, can be anywhere in the pressurized loop of the process, including from the outlet pipe 16. As the globules descend within the mesh 12, they may accumulate in the inner annulus 14 toward the bottom awaiting discharge from the separator. The level of globule accumulation will depend upon the rate at which the globules are charged and discharged from the separator, and the discharge rate is preferably controlled to maintain a constant level. Any known technique and equipment for discharging solids from a vessel under pressure can be used. The globules may be discharged from the separator into pipe 25 and through a rotary valve 18 as illustrated, or optionally through a set of dual knife gate valves, each of which substantially retain the pressure within the. separator 11 while simultaneously discharging the globules into pipe 19. The pressure within the separator 11 can be any pressure, but is preferably above the vapor pressure of the liquid medium used, in this case water, to avoid water losses, e.g. greater than 14.9 psia to 300 psia. The pressure in the separator may be substantially the same as the pressure in pipes 8 and 9. However, in the event that the source of cool water is needed as described in some optional embodiments below or a source of cool water is needed to reduce the temperature of the water in line 16 recirculated back to the housing 7, then line pressure relief line 17 or an additional line may be used to vent vaporized water in a gas space above the liquid in the separator if the separator is not completely flooded, or if it is completely filled with water, then a line may be used to drain a small portion of the hot water and vented to atmospheric pressure in a holding tank used as a cooler water source. Turning back to FIG. 2, globules discharged from separator 11 are fed through pipes 25 and 19 to a conventional dryer 20 to remove any residual moisture on and around the globules, such as surface moisture, moisture within the globules, and residual water between the globule interstices. By this time the globules will have further cooled, and may, if desired, be cooled to below the Tg of the polymer so as to become crystallized pellets upon discharge from the dryer 20 into globule/pellet outlet pipe 21. While reference has been made to globules in the separator, it is to be understood that at any point after the molten polymer contacts the hot water in the housing 7, the globules are crystallized and may thereafter have become a pellet by cooling to below the Tg of the polyester polymer. However, if desired, the temperature of the polyester polymer can be maintained above the Tg of the polymer throughout the process and even upon and after discharge from the dryer 20, which may be desirable if further processing of the polymer requiring a higher temperature is to be used. Since the liquid medium is preferably pressurized in a closed loop, and given that the heat energy in the molten polymer is transferred to the water, and in the interest of optimizing energy utilization, the globules desirably remain as such at least until their entry into the separator 11, and more preferably at least to the point of discharge from separator 11 into pipe 19, after which they may optionally rapidly cool to below their Tg having been separated from the bulk hot water. In the dryer, residual water which is not evaporated is removed through line 27 and optionally but preferably fed together with water source 22 into pumping means 23. Pellets exiting separator 11 are fed to the rotary valve 18, and in an optional embodiment, a stream of cool water in line 24 from a water source 22 at a temperature below the temperature of the hot liquid medium in the separator 11 and pressurized by a pumping means 23 is injected into the bottom of the inner annulus 14 at the bottom of the separator 11 before the globules are fed to the rotary valve 18. For example, the stream of cool water may be injected into a separator globule discharge line 25 between the separator 11 and the rotary valve 18 at a flow rate sufficient to flow countercurrent to the direction of globule travel in the pipe 25 and up into the inner annulus to cool the globules accumulated at the bottom of the separator and further reduce their tendency to agglomerate before separation at the rotary valve 18. Alternatively, the cool water stream 24 may be injected into line at a flow rate insufficient to flow countercurrent to the travel of the globules, thereby becoming entrained in the globule flow to the rotary valve 18. In either case, by injecting a flow of cool water into line 25, the hot water in the interstices between the globules is displaced before undergoing pressure reduction through rotary valve 18, thereby improving the energy balance and avoid flashing the water. An optimal flow rate for the cool water stream is one which is effective to separate a greater amount of the hot water relative to the amount of hot water separated in the absence of a flow of cool water. The flow rate of the cool water stream can be adjusted to prevent most of the hot water in the separator 11 from flowing into pipe 25 and causing an energy loss. The flow rate of the cool water is preferably balanced to maximize the amount of hot water separated and flowing into line 16 while keeping the drop in hot water temperature in pipe 16 to a minimum. Thus, the flow rate of cool liquid is preferably sufficient to remove at least 95 vol % of the hot water from the separator and into pipe 16 with less than a 5° C. drop, more preferably less than a 2° C. drop in the separated hot water temperature relative to the hot water temperature in the absence of a cool water stream. In the event that the flow rate of the cool water stream is high enough to travel into the inner annulus 14, it should be sufficiently low so as not to drastically reduce the temperature of the water exiting the separator 11 through liquid medium outlet pipe 16. While a measure of temperature reduction in the water through separator liquid medium outlet line 16 can be tolerated, the flow rate of the cold water stream injected from line 24 into the accumulated globules should be sufficient high and its temperature sufficiently low to prevent the globules to agglomerate if this problem in fact exists, and no further so as to minimize the temperature reduction of the water in line 16. In other embodiments, however, it may actually be more desirable to significantly reduce the temperature of the water in line 16. For example, if the crystallizer piping 9 is sized to crystallize the globules at a low temperature, e.g. 110 to 120° C., and the feed rate of molten polymer to the cutter is high, and the temperature of the molten polymer is high, e.g. >240° C., the heat energy transferred from the globules to the water may be so large that it becomes desirable to feed water into the housing 7 through line 6 at a significantly reduced temperature to accommodate the large temperature delta between the feed into the housing 7 and the outlet of the housing 7 and in line 8. In sum, the flow rate and the water temperature of the cool water is adjusted to at least displace at least a portion of the hot water in the interstitial space between the globules, and optionally also to provide reduced or elimination of globule agglomeration and desired water temperature in the outlet line 16 which will be optimized for energy savings. In yet another embodiment, the globules can be further cooled with a stream of cool liquid after globules are separated from the hot water. It may become desirable to further cool the pellets because after separation, globules which may otherwise merely accumulate without agglomerating at the bottom of the separator may, after separation, tend to stick to each other because the bulk of the fluid is removed. Even if the globules do not agglomerate, it may be desirable to slurry the globules with a stream of cool liquid to improve the ability to convey the stream of globules. Thus, a stream of cool water from water source 22 may be injected into line 19 through line 26 to cool the globules to any desired degree. If needed, this cool water stream can be used to cool the globules, but as above, the flow rate should be minimized to avoid energy costs associated with drying the water from the globules/pellets in the dryer 20. This cool water stream may be used in place of or in addition to the cool water stream injected into line 25 through line 24. A part or all of the residual water recovered from the dryer 20 may be diverted into line 27 and fed into the fresh water source 22 to provide part of the feed for the cool water streams. Moreover, to maintain the water balance, in the event that a cool water stream is injected into the accumulated pellets in the separator 11, a portion of the water may be bled from the separator above the cool water feed point (not shown), such as toward the top of the vessel, and circulated back to the fresh water feed 22, allowed to cool by sitting in a reservoir which is drawn on as the cool water feed. Water evaporated from the dryer is discharged from the dryer through line 28 and may be vented to the atmosphere. However, the heat energy in the evaporated water may be utilized to act as a source of energy recovery in other parts of a plant for making polyesters or solid state polymerizing polyesters, or it may be condensed and re-used elsewhere. Water flowing in line 16 is optionally but preferably recirculated back to the housing 7, and if needed is re-pressurized by a pumping means 29 before or after (after is illustrated) passing through a heat exchanger 30 for either cooling or heating the water as needed to maintain the desired temperature balances. Prior to entering the housing 7, the water is preferably filtered in a filter 31 to remove entrained fines and particulates. Thus, FIG. 2 illustrates an example of another embodiment wherein the polyester polymer is crystallized by: a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its Tg, i) cutting the polymer into globules with a cutter; ii) contacting the globules with a flow of liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the Tg of the polyester polymer to form a flow of slurry. It is understood, of course, that the sequence between these two steps bi) and bii) can be in any order or simultaneously, and in most cases, the molten polymer exiting the inner surface of the die plate will be exposed to the hot liquid medium immediately before it is cut. The slurry flow of globules and hot liquid medium is iii) directed away from the cutter to a crystallizer and the globules reside in the crystallization zone under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium for a time sufficient to impart a degree of crystallinity of at least 10% to the globules, thereby forming crystallized globules; and c) separating in a separation apparatus under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized globules or resulting pellets from the liquid medium to form a stream of crystallized polyester polymer and a stream of separated liquid medium. Although steps biii) and c) are set apart in their description, it is understood that the separation apparatus can form part of the crystallization zone if the conditions in the separator are conducive to crystallize the globules. Moreover: i) at least a portion of the source of the flow of liquid medium in step bii) is the stream of separated liquid medium; and ii) the stream of crystallized polyester polymer is directed to a dryer for removing at least a portion of the residual moisture on or in the crystallized polymer. Once the globules are crystallized to the desired degree, and optionally but preferably dried to remove surface moisture left on the polymer from the crystallization step, the resulting crystallized pellets are transported to a machine for melt extruding and injection molding the melt into shapes such as preforms suitable for stretch blow molding into beverage or food containers, or extruding into other forms such as sheet. In another embodiment of the invention, there is provided a process for making a container such as a tray or a bottle preform suitable for stretch blow molding comprising: d) drying polyester pellets crystallized from molten polyester polymer and having an It.V. ranging from 0.7 to 1.15 in a drying zone at a zone temperature of at least 140° C.; e) introducing the dried pellets into an extrusion zone to form molten PET polymer; and f) forming a sheet, strand, fiber, or a molded part from extruded molten PET polymer. It is preferred that these pellets have not been subjected to a solid state step for increasing their molecular weight. In this preferred embodiment, the pellets which are prepared for introduction into an extruder are not solid stated, yet have an It.V. sufficiently high such that the physical properties are suitable for the manufacture of bottle preforms and trays. The non-solid stated high It.V. pellets have been sufficiently crystallized to prevent them from agglomerating in the dryer at high temperatures of 140° C. or more. Dryers feeding melt extruders are needed to reduce the moisture content of pellets. After dewatering the globules and/or pellets in the crystallizers, much of the remaining moisture on the surface of the pellets is driven off by drying the pellets. However, the pellets absorb ambient moisture during shipment from the manufacturer of the pellets to the converters who extrude the pellets into a mold with the desired shape. Further, not all the moisture in the pellet is driven off in a post crystallizer dryer. Therefore, the pellets are dried immediately prior to melt extruding. It is contemplated that the crystallized pellets dried after dewatering can be fed immediately to the melt extruder, thereby essentially combining both drying steps into a single drying step. In either case, however, prior to extrusion, the pellets are dried at a temperature of 140° C. or more to drive off most or all of the moisture on and in the pellet. Dryers that effectively and efficiently reduce the moisture content and the acetaldehyde levels in the pellets are required immediately prior to melt extrusion. Moisture in or on pellets fed into a melt extrusion chamber will cause the melt to lose It.V. at melt temperatures by hydrolyzing the ester linkages with a resulting change in the melt flow characteristics of the polymer and stretch ratio of the preform when blown into bottles. While drying the pellets is a necessary step, it is desirable to dry the pellets at high temperatures to decrease the residence time of the pellets in the dryer and increase throughput. However, drying pellets at a temperature of 150° C. or more which have been crystallized at temperatures only of 100° C. or less will cause the pellets to agglomerate to each other, especially at the bottom of tall dryers where pellets experience the weight of the bed overhead. Drying may be conducted at 140° C. or more, meaning that the temperature of the heating medium (such as a flow of nitrogen gas or air) is 140° C. or more. The use of nitrogen gas is preferred if drying is conducted above 180° C. to avoid oxidative thermal degradation. To dry at high temperatures while minimizing agglomeration in a conventional dryer equipped with or without an agitator, the pellets should be crystallized at temperatures of no more than 40° C. below the drying temperature. It is preferred that the pellets used have been crystallized at 140° C. or more. In this way, there is wide flexibility to set the drying temperature at 140° C. if desired, or 150° C. or 160° C., and so on up to about 200° C. or less in the case the pellets have been crystallized at temperatures of 160° C. However, prudence would suggest setting the actual operational drying temperature at no more than about 40° C. above the crystallization temperature to minimize the risk of agglomeration and to leave a temperature cushion to take into account hot spots in the dryer and allow for temperature fluctuations which may occur from time to time. In conventional processes which crystallize low It.V. amorphous pellets in a gaseous mixed bed, it is necessary to solid state the pellets to render them suitable for extrusion into molded parts such as preforms suitable for beverage containers. In this embodiment, pellets having an It.V. of 0.7 to 1.15 It.V. which have not been solid stated are dried at high temperatures of 140° C. or more. The process of this embodiment has the advantage of allowing drying at high temperature using pellets which have not been subjected to a costly solid stating step. Moreover, the incidence of agglomeration is reduced relative to the amount of agglomeration occurring in a dryer under the same operating conditions using pellets having the same It.V. and crystallized at a temperature of less than 120° C. In general, the residence time of pellets in the dryer at 140° C. or more will on average be from 0.5 hours to 16 hours. Any conventional dryer can be used. The pellets may be contacted with a countercurrent flow of heated air or inert gas such as nitrogen to raise the temperature of the pellets and remove volatiles from inside the pellets, and may also be agitated by a rotary mixing blade or paddle. The flow rate of the heating gas, if used, is a balance between energy consumption, residence time of pellets, and preferably avoiding the fluidization of the pellets. Suitable gas flow rates range from 0.05 to 100 cfm for every pound per hour of pellets discharged from the dryer, preferably from 0.2 to 5 cfm per lb. of pellets. Once the pellets have been dried, they are introduced into an extrusion zone to form molten polyester polymer, followed by extruding the molten polymer and forming a molded part, such as a bottle preform through injecting the melt into a mold or into a sheet or coating. Methods for the introduction of the dried pellets into the extrusion zone, for melt extruding, injection molding, and sheet extrusion are conventional and known to those of skill in the manufacture of such containers. At the melt extruder, or in the melt phase for making the polyester polymer, other components can be added to the composition of the present invention to enhance the performance properties of the polyester polymer. These components may be added neat to the bulk polyester or can be added to the bulk polyester as a concentrate containing at least about 0.5 wt. % of the component in the polyester let down into the bulk polyester. The types of suitable components include crystallization aids, impact modifiers, surface lubricants, stabilizers, denesting agents, compounds, antioxidants, ultraviolet light absorbing agents, metal deactivators, colorants, nucleating agents, acetaldehyde reducing compounds, reheat rate enhancing aids, sticky bottle additives such as talc, and fillers and the like can be included. The resin may also contain small amounts of branching agents such as trifunctional or tetrafunctional comonomers such as trimellitic anhydride, trimethylol propane, pyromellitic dianhydride, pentaerythritol, and other polyester forming polyacids or polyols generally known in the art. All of these additives and many others and their use are well known in the art and do not require extensive discussion. Any of these compounds can be used in the present composition. While an embodiment has been described for the drying of pellets which have not been solid stated, it is also contemplated that pellets which have optionally been solid stated are also dried at temperatures of 140° C. or more. Not only may containers be made from pellets crystallized according to the process of this invention, but other items such as sheet, film, bottles, trays, other packaging, rods, tubes, lids, filaments and fibers, and other injection molded articles. Beverage bottles made from polyethylene terephthalate suitable for holding water or carbonated beverages, and heat set beverage bottle suitable for holding beverages which are hot filled into the bottle are examples of the types of bottles which are made from the crystallized pellet of the invention. This invention can be ftrther illustrated by the additional examples of embodiments thereof, although it will be understood that these examples are included merely for purposes of illustration and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. EXAMPLES In each example, Differential Scanning Calorimetery data, and Gel Permeation Chromatography data are provided to describe the results obtained by crystallizing polyethylene terephthalate pellets from the glass in triethylene glycol as the liquid medium at various temperatures. The DSC analysis to determine the initial melting point of the crystallized pellets was conducted according to the following procedure in each case: Using a Mettler DSC821 instrument, the first heating scan was performed on a sample weighing 9-10 mg and with a heating rate of 20° C./min. Unless otherwise stated, the degree of crystallization in each case was also determined using the same DSC scan. In the first heating scan, the sum of the areas under any crystallization peaks was subtracted from the absolute value of the sum of the areas under any melting peaks. The difference was divided by 120 J/g (theoretical heat of fusion for 100% crystalline PET) and multiplied by 100 to obtain the percent crystallinity. Results of DSC scans are reported as, and the percent crystallinity is calculated from any one of: Low melting peak temperature: Tml a High melting peak temperature: Tmlb Note that in some cases, particularly at low crystallinity, rearrangement of crystals can occur so rapidly in the DSC instrument that the true, lower melting point is not detected. The lower melting point can then be seen by increasing the temperature ramp rate of the DSC instrument and using smaller samples. A Perkin-Elmer Pyris-1 calorimeter was used for high-speed calorimetry. The specimen mass was adjusted to be inversely proportional to the scan rate.: About a 1 mg sample was used at 500° C./min and about 5 mg were used at 100° C./min. Typical DSC sample pans were used. Baseline subtraction was performed to minimize the curvature in the baseline. In some cases where noted, percent crystallinity was also calculated from the average gradient tube density of two to three pellets. Gradient tube density testing was performed according to ASTM D 1505, using lithium bromide in water. The GPC analysis to determine the approximate Ih.V. of the pellets was conducted according to the following procedure in each case: Solvent: 95 / 5 by volume methylene chloride / hexafluoroisopropanol + 0.5 g/l tetraethylammonium bromide Temperature: ambient Flow rate: 1 mL/min Sample solution: 4 mg PET in 10 mL methylene chloride/hexafluoroisopropanol azeotrope (˜70/30 by vol)+10 μL toluene flow rate marker. For filled materials, the sample mass is increased so that the mass of polymer is about 4 mg, and the resulting solution is passed through a 0.45 μm Teflon filter. Injection volume: 10 μL Column set: Polymer Laboratories 5 μm PLgel, Guard+Mixed C Detection: UV absorbance at 255 nm Calibrants: monodisperse polystyrene standards, MW=580 to 4,000,000 g/mole, where MW is the peak molecular weight. Universal calibration parameters: (see note below) PS K=0.1278 a=0.7089 PET K=0.4894 a=0.6738 The universal calibration parameters above were determined by linear regression to yield the correct weight average molecular weights for a set of five PET samples previously characterized by light scattering. Calculation of inherent viscosity at 0.5 g/100 mL in 60/40 phenol/tetrachloroethane from the weight-average molecular weight, <M>w is determined as follows: IhV=4.034×10−4<M>w0691 The solution viscosity relates to the composition and molecular weight of a polyester. Although the IhV numbers for the crystallized products were estimated by GPC, unless otherwise noted, the solution viscosity measurements were made on the starting materials for Example 1 and 2, i.e., amorphous pellets. The following equations describe the solution viscosity measurements and subsequent calculations as performed for PET. ηinh=[ln(ts/to)]/C where ηinh=Inherent viscosity at 25° C. at a polymer concentration of 0.50 g/ 100 mL of 60% phenol and 40% 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane ln=Natural logarithm ts=Sample flow time through a capillary tube to=Solvent-blank flow time through a capillary tube C=Concentration of polymer in grams per 100 mL of solvent (0.50%) The intrinsic viscosity is the limiting value at infinite dilution of the specific viscosity of a polymer. It is defined by the following equation: η int = lim C → 0 ( η sp / C ) = lim C → 0 ln ( η r / C ) where ηint=Intrinsic viscosity ηr=Relative viscosity=ts/to ηsp=Specific viscosity=ηr−1 Instrument calibration involves replicate testing of a standard reference material and then applying appropriate mathematical equations to produce the “accepted” I.V. values. Calibration Factor=Accepted IV of Reference Material/Average of Replicate Determinations Corrected IhV=Calculated IhV×Calibration Factor The intrinsic viscosity (ItV or ηint) may be estimated using the Billmeyer equation as follows: ηint=0.5[e0.5×Corrected IhV−1]+(0.75×Corrected IhV) Example 1 Triethylene glycol (TEG) was the liquid used in the following examples. For the first set of examples, three types of amorphous PET pellets were crystallized, and if needed, dried. Crystallization was done in a paddle-stirred crystallizer with an electrically heated jacket. The pellets were heated at 150° C. for 1 hour, followed by 1 h at 180° C. Since the melt was obtained by extruding pellets, it was necessary to crystallize the PET prior to the experiment in order that 1) the PET could be dried above Tg without sticking, and 2) the PET would not crystallize in the extruder and subsequently wrap the screw. Moreover, in this Example 1 and in Example 2, the use of crystallized pellets having a thermal history prior to melt extrusion simulates a process wherein recycled or scrap PET is subjected to the process of the invention. The crystallized pellets were submitted for testing and extruded in an APV Sterling with a 1.25 inch screw. Extruder zones 1-4 were set at 280° C. and zone 5 (nozzle) was set at 260° C. The screw speed was lowered from ca. 100 rpm during transitions to 30 rpm during sample collection. The melt temperature was about 260° C. The extruder die having two ⅛ inch orifices was scraped clean with a spatula, molten polymer was extruded through one of the orifices, and the new strand was caught on one spatula while a second spatula was used to cut the strand and then held on top of the first to keep the strand on the spatula. Within about 5 seconds from collection, the molten strand was immersed into the TEG bath according to the procedure below. The time zero molten samples used as the reference were immediately submerged in ice water to quench and stop or prevent the induction of any crystallization. Other timed samples were caught the same way as the time zero samples; however, the molten strand was submerged within about 20 seconds from collection in 500 g of TEG at the temperature designated in Table 1 contained in a steel beaker fitted with a heating mantle, a variac, and a foil cover. It should be noted that the TEG target temperature on reference samples 102 et.seq. was targeted for 150° C. However, the actual measured values ranged from 152 to 154.3 ° C. It should be noted that the TEG target temperature on reference samples 105 et.seq. was targeted for 170° C. However, the actual measured values ranged from 167.5 to 168.7 ° C. When the indicated time of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 15 min. had passed, the molten polymer samples were quickly moved from the hot TEG bath into an ice water bath to quench the sample and to prevent further crystallization. Some of the runs with shorter times were repeated. After cooling for several minutes, the strands were towel-dried, cut with wire cutters and submitted for a first heating scan by DSC at 20° C./min where the sample sizes were 9 to 10 mg to determine the low melting peak temperature, the high melting peak temperature and the percent crystallinity. After the DSC sample was removed from each strand, the samples were routed for testing by GPC to estimate the Ih.V. TABLE 1 Molten Polymer Est.. A * Temp— Time Tm1a Peak % IhV Tm1b Peak Sample # (deg C.) (min) Comments Temp_(deg C.) Crystallinity (dL/g) Temp_(deg C.) 102-1 150 0 8.11 0.542 248.47 102-2 150 1 22.72 0.539 249.77 102-3 150 2 166.82 34.41 0.54 248.15 102-4 150 4 163.44 35.03 0.538 247.11 102-5 150 8 166.52 35.46 0.539 248.88 102-6 150 15 167.48 38.44 0.538 249.03 102-7 150 1 repeat 27.37 0.54 248.13 102-8 150 0 pellets 171.45 39.28 0.56 247.49 105-1 170 0 9.00 0.541 249.09 105-2 170 1 28.96 0.533 248.43 105-3 170 2 39.68 0.534 250.17 105-4 170 4 183.89 30.69 0.533 249.39 105-5 170 8 177.9 33.47 0.533 248.37 105-6 170 15 179.16 34.06 0.539 247.93 105-7 170 4 repeat 177.52 33.69 0.531 248.96 105-8 170 2 repeat 177.85 38.71 0.534 250.14 105-9 170 0 pellets 172.52 36.78 0.554 250.73 * Polymer A as a starting pellet was a 0.565 Ih.V. PET polymer modified with 2.2 wt. % 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) and 1.7 wt. % DEG. The data shows that each of these samples crystallized at 150° C. in TEG, except for the molten, time-zero sample and the 1 min. sample and its repeat (102-1, -102-2, -102-7), had a low melting point detected at a 20° C./min DSC scan rate. The shortest timed samples (1 min. or less) appeared to be reorganizing on the time scale of the test. For these samples, a faster DSC scan rate could be used to see the low melting peak at about the crystallization temperature plus around 20° C. The 102-8 sample consisted of the conventionally crystallized pellets, i.e., the same ones that were fed to the extruder. FIG. 5 graphically illustrates the data from Table 1 with respect to the increase in the degree of crystallinity over time at a crystallization temperature of 1 50° C. The percent crystallinity increased with time until it leveled out around the mid-thirties after about two minutes. The 102-8 sample consisted of the conventionally crystallized pellets, i.e., the same ones that were fed to the extruder. Table 1 also shows the estimated Ih.V. of the polymer melt over time at a crystallization temperature of 150° C. There did not appear to be much glycolysis at 150° C. as the Ih.V.'s for all the timed runs (15 min. maximum) are about the same. The results set forth in Table 1 also set forth the low peak melting temperature of the molten polyester polymer crystallized over time in 1 70° C. TEG. By increasing the crystallization temperature from 150 to about 170° C., the low peak melt temperature increased by about 10° C. The results in FIG. 6 and Table 1 also show the degree of crystallization over time at a crystallization temperature of about 170° C. The 105-9 sample consisted of the conventionally crystallized pellets, i.e., the same ones that were fed to the extruder. A high degree of crystallinity was obtained in a short time when crystallized at 170° C. Table 1 also shows that there was a slight Ih.V. loss of about 0.013 dL/g. However, there did not appear to be much glycolysis at 170° C. as there was no clear trend of decreasing Ih.V. with increasing time. Example 2 The same procedure as used in Example 1 was followed, except that a different polyester polymer was used as the test sample. The results are reported in Table 2. TABLE 2 Molten Polymer B Reference Temp_(deg Time Tm1b Peak % IV # C.) (min) Temp (deg C.) Crystallinity (dL/g) 103-1 150 0 245.12 4.98 0.727 103-2 150 1 246.33 11.58 0.723 103-3 150 2 245.7 24.28 0.725 103-4 150 4 246.37 32.17 0.73 103-5 150 8 247.2 29.20 0.721 103-6 150 15 245.5 29.80 0.724 103-7 150 2 247.25 22.14 0.727 *Polymer B as a starting pellet was a 0.79 Ih.V. PET polymer modified with 2.7 mole % isophthalic acid (IPA) and 3.7 mole % DEG. FIG. 7 graphically illustrates the data in Table 2 with respect to the degree of crystallinity obtained from the melt over time. As can be seen from FIG. 7, a high Ih.V. polymer melt successfully crystallized very quickly in 150° CTEG. Between 2 to 5 minutes, the molten polyester polymer had achieved a degree of crystallization of about 30% or more. The data in Table 2 also shows that the high Ih.V. polymer did not suffer glycolysis as there was no trend downward in its Ih.V. values. Example 3 The previous samples and runs in the above examples were carried out by charging crystallized PET pellets, melting the pellets in an extruder to substantially erase its thermal history and crystallinity, followed by extruding the polymer melt and crystallizing it in hot TEG. The previously-crystalline extrudate may be nucleated by some remnant of its past heat history. Example 3 now demonstrates the effect of subjecting molten polymer exiting a melt-phase line which has no prior thermal crystallization history, to the process of the invention. To demonstrate that a polymer melt exiting a melt phase line will also crystallize from the melt at a reasonable rate, the following experiment was conducted. Molten Polymer C had a similar composition as used in Example 1, that is, a 0.575 Ih.V. PET polymer modified with 2.2 wt % 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) and 1.8 wt. % DEG, except that this polymer was not previously isolated as a pellet below Tg nor crystallized from the glass (Molten Polymer C). Molten material obtained from a valve after the finisher and between the filter and the gear pump on a PET line was transferred to the 150° C. TEG bath within about 15-20 seconds from collection. The molten material was crystallized in 150° C. TEG for the times given below in Table 3: TABLE 3 Molten Polymer C Tm1a Peak Reference Temp— Time Temp— % Est_ PM95 IV # (deg C.) (min) (deg C.) Crystallinity (dL/g) 123-1 150 0 1.94 0.565 123-2 150 1 20.89 0.564 123-3 150 2 20.07 0.566 123-4 150 4 165.1 37.93 0.563 123-5 150 8 168.13 39.85 0.563 123-6 150 15 170.47 37.83 0.557 123-7 150 1 14.54 0.562 123-8 150 2 28.14 0.562 123-9 150 4 174 44.43 0.564 (shoulder) The results indicate that crystallization from the melt of a newly made polymer that has no thermal crystallization history proceeded at a reasonable rate, and within less than 5 minutes had crystallized to about 35% or more. The low peak melt temperature was about 15 to 20° C. above the crystallization temperature. Moreover, crystallization from the melt of this polymer resulted in only very minor Ih.V. loss of 0.008; not a significant loss. The crystallization results are graphically illustrated in FIG. 8. FIG. 8 shows that it took about 4 minutes to obtain above 30% crystallinity. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>At the beginning of the solid-stating process, PET pellets are crystallized usually with hot air or in mechanically-mixed, hot-oil-heated vessel. Building molecular weight in the solid-state requires extensive crystallization and/or annealing so that pellets will not stick as they enter the solid-stating reactor at typically 195 to 220° C. Polyester (or copolyester) pellets are generally supplied to converters in a semi-crystalline form. Converters desire to process semi-crystalline pellets rather than amorphous pellets because the semi-crystalline pellets can be dried at higher temperatures without agglomerating. Drying the pellets immediately prior to extrusion of the melt to make bottle performs is necessary to prevent hydrolytic degradation and loss of intrinsic viscosity (It.V.) of the melt inside the extruder. However, drying amorphous polyester pellets at or above the T g of PET without first crystallizing the pellets will cause the pellets to agglomerate at higher temperatures (140° C. to 180° C.) in the dryers. Feeding amorphous pellets to an extruder will cause the screw to be wrapped as the pellets become hot enough to crystallize in the extrusion zone. From the pellet manufacturing side, a typical commercial process involves forming the polyester polymer via melt phase polymerizing up to an It.V. ranging from about 0.5 to 0.70, extruding the melt into strands, quenching the strands, cutting the cooled polymer strands into solid amorphous pellets, heating the solid pellets to above their T g and then crystallizing (also known as crystallization from the glass since the pellets to be crystallized start at a temperature below their T g ), and then heating the pellets in the solid state to an even higher temperature while under nitrogen purge (or vacuum) in order to continue to build molecular weight or It.V. (i.e. solid stating). The solid stating process runs hot enough to make it necessary to first crystallize the pellets to prevent agglomeration at the solid stating temperatures. Thus, crystallization is necessary to avoid agglomeration of the pellets during solid stating and during the drying step prior to extruding the melt into bottle performs. Typical melt phase polyester reactors produce only amorphous pellets. To make these pellets crystalline, they are usually heated to elevated temperatures in a crystallization vessel while being constantly stirred using paddles or other mechanical rotary mixing means in order to prevent sticking or clumping in the crystallization vessel. The crystallizer is nothing more that a heated vessel with a series of paddles or agitator blades to keep the pellets stirred (e.g. Hosakawa Bepex Horizontal Paddle Dryer). Rotary mixing means suffer the disadvantage of requiring additional energy for mechanical rotational movement, and rotational mechanical agitation required to keep the pellets from sticking can also cause chipping and other damage to the pellets, leading to dust generation or the presence of “fines” in the crystallizer and product. These small pieces of chipped off plastic can often cause extrusion problems if not properly removed. Alternately, a crystallizer can consist of injecting hot gas into a vessel known as a hot, fluidized mixed bed, mostly containing already crystallized pellets which prevents the amorphous pellets being fed to the vessel from sticking to one another (e.g. a Buhler precrystallizer spout bed unit). Such commercial processes utilize the “thermal” crystallization technique by employing a hot gas, such as steam, air, or nitrogen as the heating medium. The residence time in hot fluidized mixed bed processes is up to six hours. These processes also suffer the disadvantage in that large quantities of gas are required, requiring large blowers and making the processes energy intensive. Each of these crystallization processes is rather slow and energy-intensive. Crystallization processes can take up to six hours, require energy to turn mechanical rotary mixing means in some cases, have high energy requirements to process hot gases or oil, and the pellets are usually cooled from the pelletizer to about 25 to 35° C. after which they are reheated prior to and during crystallization. Moreover, crystallization vessels are fed with low It.V. pellets suitable, which in turn are solid stated into higher It.V. pellets required for making a suitable bottle. It would be desirable to crystallize polyester polymers in a more energy efficient manner or in lower cost equipment. For example, it would be desirable to reduce the residence time of the polyester polymer in the crystallizer, or provide a process which avoids the energy requirements of mechanical rotary mixing means or of cooling and reheating between pelletization and crystallization, or which even could avoid the step of solid stating altogether, while providing to the converter a high temperature crystallized pellet to enable the converter to dry the pellets at conventional temperatures (typically at 140° C. to 180° C.). Obtaining any one of these advantages would be desirable. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There is now provided a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer comprising introducing a molten polyester polymer into a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the T g of the polyester polymer. In another embodiment, there is provided a process for crystallizing a molten polyester polymer comprising: a) directing molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its T g , first contacting the molten polyester with a liquid medium when the liquid medium temperature is greater than the T g of the polyester polymer and crystallizing the molten polyester polymer. In yet another embodiment, there is provided a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising: a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its T g , contacting the molten polyester with a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the T g of the polyester polymer for a time sufficient to provide a crystallized polyester polymer having a degree of crystallinity of at least 10%, followed by c) separating, under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized polyester polymer from the liquid medium. We have also discovered a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer comprising introducing a polyester polymer to a feed of liquid medium, crystallizing the polymer in the liquid medium, separating the polymer and the liquid medium from each other, optionally drying the separated polymer, and directing at least a portion of the separated liquid medium to or as said feed of liquid medium. In the process of the invention, there is also provided a process for separating a crystallized polyester polymer having an It.V. of at least 0.55 from a liquid medium comprising separating said polymer from said liquid medium under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, drying the separated crystallized polyester polymer, and following separation and before drying, directing a flow of cool liquid onto the separated crystallized polyester polymer, wherein the temperature of the cool liquid is less than the temperature of the separated crystallized polyester polymer. Moreover, there is also provided a process for separating a crystallized polyester polymer having an It.V. of at least 0.55 from a liquid medium comprising crystallizing molten polyester polymer is a hot liquid medium having a temperature greater than the T g of the polymer to form a crystallized polyester polymer, separating the crystallized polymer from the hot liquid medium under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, and directing a flow of cool liquid onto the crystallized polymer before separation, wherein the temperature of the cool liquid is less than the temperature of the hot liquid medium. The process of the invention also allows one to crystallize high It.V. polyester polymer comprising contacting a molten polyester polymer having an It.V. of 0.70 dL/g or more with a liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature sufficient to induce crystallinity to the molten polyester polymer, allowing the molten crystallized polymer to cool to a pellet, and isolating the pellet without increasing the molecular weight of the pellet in the solid state. By crystallizing the molten polyester polymer according to the process of the invention, there is now also provided the advantage that a molded part or sheet can be made from pellets comprising: d) drying polyester pellets crystallized from molten polyester polymer; e) introducing the dried pellets into an extrusion zone to form molten PET polymer; and f) forming a sheet, strand, fiber, or a molded part from extruded molten PET polymer. In yet a more detailed embodiment of the process, there is also provided a process for crystallizing a polyester polymer, comprising a) directing a molten polyester polymer through a die, and b) before the temperature of the molten polyester polymer falls below its T g , i) cutting the polymer into globules with a cutter; ii) contacting the globules with a flow of liquid medium at a liquid medium temperature greater than the T g of the polyester polymer to form a flow of slurry; iii) directing the flow of slurry away from the cutter to a crystallizer and allowing the globules to reside in the crystallization zone under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium for a time sufficient to impart a degree of crystallinity of at least 10% to the globules, thereby forming crystallized globules; and c) separating in a separation apparatus under a pressure equal to or greater than the vapor pressure of the liquid medium, the crystallized globules or resulting pellets from the liquid medium to form a stream of crystallized polyester polymer and a stream of separated liquid medium, wherein: i) at least a portion of the source of the flow of liquid medium in step bii) is the stream of separated liquid medium; and ii) the stream of crystallized polyester polymer is directed to a dryer for removing at least a portion of the residual moisture on or in the crystallized polymer. In a part of the process, we have also discovered a process for underfluid cutting a molten polyester polymer comprising a die plate having an inner surface disposed toward a cutter each contained within a housing having an inlet and an outlet, and continuously directing a flow of hot liquid medium having a first temperature through the inlet and exiting through the outlet and continuously directing a flow of a cool liquid medium having a second temperature into the housing, wherein the first temperature is higher than the second temperature. Moreover, we have also discovered a process for thermally crystallizing a molten polyester polymer in a pipe comprising directing a flow of molten polyester polymer in a liquid medium through a pipe having an aspect ratio L/D of at least 15:1, wherein the molten polyester polymer is crystallized in the pipe at a liquid medium temperature greater than the T g of the polyester polymer. In each of these processes, at least one or more of the following advantages are realized: crystallization proceeds rapidly; cooling, transporting, and/or reheating pellets from a pelletizer to a crystallizing vessel is avoided, mechanical rotary mixers are not necessary, the processes are energy efficient because of the high thermal transfer rate to pellets under a hot fluid and no energy is required to transport pellets from a pelletizer to a crystallizer, solid stating may be avoided if desired, and equipment and operating costs are reduced. | 20041110 | 20070320 | 20050714 | 70814.0 | 1 | NUTTER, NATHAN M | THERMAL CRYSTALLIZATION OF A MOLTEN POLYESTER POLYMER IN A FLUID | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,986,299 | ACCEPTED | Local area network of serial intelligent cells | A serial intelligent cell (SIC) and a connection topology for local area networks using Electrically-conducting media. A local area network can be configured from a plurality of SIC's interconnected so that all communications between two adjacent SIC's is both point-to-point and bidirectional. Each SIC can be connected to one or more other SIC's to allow redundant communication paths. Communications in different areas of a SIC network are independent of one another, so that, unlike current bus topology and star topology, there is no fundamental limit on the size or extent of a SIC network. Each SIC can optionally be connected to one or more data terminals, computers, telephones, sensors, actuators, etc., to facilitate interconnectivity among such devices. Networks according to the present invention can be configured for a variety of applications, including a local telephone system, remote computer bus extender, multiplexers, PABX/PBX functionality, security systems, and local broadcasting services. The network can use dedicated wiring, as well as existing wiring as the in-house telephone or electrical wiring. | 1. A device for coupling a computer plug-in card to wiring carrying a bidirectional serial digital data signal, the device comprising: a wiring connector for connecting to the wiring; a modem coupled to said wiring connector for conducting the bidirectional serial digital data signal over the wiring; a plug-in bus slot coupled to said modem and operative for, mechanically and electrically interfacing a computer bus plug-in card, for coupling the plug-in card to the bidirectional serial digital data signal; and a single enclosure housing said wiring connector, said modem and said bus slot. 2. The device according to claim 1, wherein said bus slot conforms to one of ISA, EISA, PCMCIA, IDE and SCSI standards. 3. The device according to claim 1, wherein said enclosure is attachable to a wall. 4. The device according to claim 1, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 5. The device according to claim 1, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within an outlet. 6. The device according to claim 1, wherein the wiring is one of: a twisted wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power lines. 7. The device according to claim 1, wherein said device is addressable. 8. The device according to claim 7, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 9. The device according to claim 7, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 10. The device according to claim 9, wherein said device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 11. The device according to claim 1, further comprising a power supply operative for supplying power to at least said modem. 12. The device according to claim 11, further comprising a power port connectable to a power source, and wherein said power supply is coupled to said power port. 13. The device according to claim 11, wherein said wiring concurrently carries a power signal, and said power supply is coupled to said wiring connector to be powered by the power signal. 14. The device according to claim 13, wherein the power signal is a direct current signal. 15. The device according to claim 13, wherein said wiring concurrently carries the power signal and the digital data signal using frequency division multiplexing, in which the power signal is carried in a power signal frequency band distinct from a digital data frequency band containing the digital data signal, and wherein said device further comprises a filter coupled between said wiring connector and said power supply for passing only the power signal. 16. The device according to claim 1, wherein: the wiring is a service wiring in the walls of a building; the service wiring concurrently carries the digital data and an analog service signal using frequency division multiplexing, in which the digital data signal is carried in a digital data frequency band distinct from an analog service signal frequency band containing the analog service signal; and said device further comprises a filter between said wiring connector and said modem for passing only the digital data signal. 17. The device according to claim 16, further operative to couple the service signal a service unit to, wherein said device further comprises: a second filter coupled to said wiring connector for passing only the analog service signal; and a service connector connected to said filter and connectable to the service unit. 18. The device according to claim 16, wherein: the service wiring is a telephone wiring or a power line wiring; the analog signal is respectively one of a telephone signal and an AC power signal; and said modem is respectively one of a telephone modem and a power line modem. 19. The device according to claim 1, further comprising a computer bus plug-in card electrically connectable and mechanically attachable to said bus slot. 20. A network for remotely coupling a computer plug-in card to a computer over a wiring, said network comprising: wiring carrying bidirectional serial digital data; a first device housed, in a first enclosure, connected to said wiring and connectable to a computer via an interface, said first device being operative for coupling the serial digital data to the computer; and a second device, housed in a second enclosure, connected to said wiring, said second device comprising a bus slot and being operative for mechanically and electrically interfacing a computer bus plug-in card and coupling serial digital data to the plug-in card. 21. The network according to claim 20, wherein said bus slot conforms to one of ISA, EISA, PCMCIA, IDE and SCSI standards. 22. The network according to claim 20, wherein one said first and second enclosures is attached to a wall. 23. The network according to claim 20, wherein one of said first and second enclosures is mounted in an outlet cavity. 24. The network according to claim 20, wherein one of said first and second enclosures is at least in part housed within an outlet. 25. The network according to claim 20, wherein the wiring is one of: a twisted wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power-lines. 26. The network according to claim 20, wherein one of said first and second devices is addressable. 27. The network according to claim 26, wherein said addressable device has a manually assigned address. 28. The network according to claim 26, wherein said addressable device has an automatically assigned address. 29. The network according to claim 28, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 30. The network according to claim 20, wherein said second device further comprises a power supply operative for supplying power to at least part of said second device. 31. The network according to claim 30, wherein: said second device further comprises a power port connectable to a power source; and said power supply is coupled to said power port. 32. The network according to claim 30, wherein the wiring concurrently carries a power signal, and said second device is coupled to the wiring to be powered by the power signal. 33. The network according to claim 32, wherein the power signal is a direct current signal. 34. The network according to claim 32, wherein: the wiring concurrently carries the power signal and the serial digital data using frequency division multiplexing, in which the power signal is carried in a power signal frequency band distinct from a digital data frequency band containing the serial digital data. 35. The network according to claim 20, wherein: the wiring is a service wiring in the walls of a building; and the service wiring concurrently carries the serial digital data and an analog service signal using frequency division multiplexing, in which the serial digital data is carried in a serial digital data frequency band distinct from the analog service signal frequency band. 36. The network according to claim 35, wherein one of said first and second devices is further operative to couple the service signal to a service unit. 37. The network according to claim 35, wherein the service wiring is one of a telephone and a power line wiring, and the analog service signal is respectively one of a telephone signal and an AC power signal. 38. The network according to claim 20, wherein said second device further comprises a computer bus plug-in card. 39. A device for coupling a bidirectional digital data signal to a data terminal equipment unit and for coupling an analog telephone signal to a telephone unit using wiring in a building comprising of at least two wire pairs, by concurrently carrying the analog telephone signal and the bidirectional digital data signal over the same wires, said device comprising: a wiring connector for connecting to the wiring; a telephone connector connectable to the telephone unit; a data connector connectable to the data terminal equipment unit; a coupling unit having first, second and third ports, for passing only the digital data signal between said first and second ports, and for passing only the analog telephone signal between said first and third ports; and a single enclosure housing said wiring connector, said telephone connector, said data connector an said coupling unit, wherein said first port is connected to said wiring connector, said second port is connected to said data connector, and said third port is connected to said telephone connector, and said device is mountable into a wall outlet cavity. 40. The device according to claim 39, wherein said device consists of only non-power consuming components. 41. The device according to claim 1, wherein the analog telephone signal and the digital data signal are carried using frequency division multiplexing, in which the digital data signal is carried in a frequency band distinct from, and higher than, an analog telephone signal frequency band carrying the analog telephone signal, and said coupling unit comprises a high pass filter connected between said first and second ports, and a low pass filter connected between said first and third ports. 42. A point-to-point network for carrying an analog telephone signal and a bidirectional digital data signal, the network comprising: wiring in a building comprising at least two wire pairs and concurrently carrying the analog telephone signal the bidirectional digital data signal over the same wires, said wiring having only first and second end-points; a first device housed in a first enclosure and connected to said wiring first end-point, said first device being connectable to a first data terminal equipment unit via a data connector, said first device being operative for coupling the bidirectional serial digital data signal to the first data terminal equipment unit, and said first device being connectable to a source of the analog telephone signal and being operative for coupling the analog telephone signal to the analog telephone signal source; and a second device housed in a second enclosure and connected to said wiring second end-point, said second device being connectable to a second data terminal equipment unit via a data connector, said second device being operative for coupling the digital data signal to the second data terminal equipment unit, and said second device being connectable to an analog telephone unit and operative for coupling the analog telephone signal to the analog telephone unit, wherein said second device is mounted in an outlet cavity in a wall. 43. The network according to claim 42, wherein the wiring is one of: a twisted wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power lines. 44. The network according to claim 42, wherein said first and second devices consist of only non-power consuming components. 45. The network according to claim 42, wherein the analog telephone signal and the digital data signal are carried in the wiring using frequency division multiplexing, in which the digital data signal is carried in a digital data signal frequency band distinct from, and higher than, an analog telephone signal frequency band carrying the analog telephone signal. 46. A device for coupling a bidirectional packet-based digitized telephony data signal to an analog telephone unit, for use with telephone wiring in a building, the wiring comprising a single wire pair and carrying a bidirectional packet-based digital data signal in a data signal frequency band, the bidirectional packet-based digital data signal comprising a bidirectional packet-based digitized telephony data signal, said device comprising: a wiring connector for connecting to the telephone wire pair; a high pass filter coupled to said wiring connector, for passing only the digital data signal; a telephone wiring modem coupled to said high pass filter for conducting the digital data signal over said telephone wire pair; a telephone connector connectable to an analog telephone unit; a converter coupled between said telephone wiring modem and said telephone connector for converting the digitized telephone signal to an analog telephone signal; and a single enclosure housing said wiring connector, said high pass filter, said telephone wiring modem, said telephone connector and said converter. 47. The device according to claim 46, wherein said enclosure is attachable to a wall. 48. The device according to claim 46, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 49. The device according to claim 46, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within a telephone outlet. 50. The device according to claim 46, wherein said device is addressable. 51. The device according to claim 50, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 52. The device according to claim 50, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 53. The device according to claim 52, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 54. The device according to claim 46, further comprising a power supply operative for supplying power to at least said telephone wiring modem. 55. The device according to claim 54, further comprising a power port connectable to a power source, and wherein said power supply is coupled to said power port. 56. The device according to claim 54, wherein the telephone wiring concurrently carries a power signal, and said power supply is coupled to said wiring connector to be powered by the power signal. 57. The device according to claim 56, wherein the power signal is a direct current signal. 58. The device according to claim 56, wherein the power signal is an alternating current signal. 59. The device according to claim 56, wherein the telephone wiring concurrently carries the power signal and the digital data signal using frequency division multiplexing, in which the power signal is carried in a power signal frequency band distinct from the digital data frequency band, and wherein said device further comprises a second filter coupled between said wiring connector and said power supply for passing only the power signal. 60. The device according to claim 46, wherein the digital data signal is ADSL based, and the telephone wiring modem is an ADSL modem. 61. A device for coupling a bidirectional packet-based digitized telephony data signal to an analog telephone unit for use with a coaxial cable in a building, the cable carrying a bidirectional packet-based digital data signal and the digitized telephony data signal, said device comprising: a coaxial connector for connecting to the coaxial cable; a filter coupled to said coaxial connector, for passing only the digital data signal; a coaxial cable modem coupled to said filter for conducting the digital data signal over the coaxial cable; a telephone connector connectable to the analog telephone unit; a converter coupled between said coaxial cable modem and said telephone connector for converting the digitized telephone signal to an analog telephone signal; and a single enclosure housing said coaxial connector, said filter, said coaxial cable modem, said telephone connector and said converter. 62. The device according to claim 61, wherein said enclosure is attachable to a wall. 63. The device according to claim 61, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 64. The device according to claim 61, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within an outlet. 65. The device according to claim 61, wherein said device is addressable. 66. The device according to claim 65, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 67. The device according to claim 65, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 68. The device according to claim 67, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 69. The device according to claim 61, further comprising a power supply operative for supplying power to at least said coaxial cable modem. 70. The device according to claim 69, further comprising a power port connectable to a power source, and wherein said power supply is coupled to said power port. 71. The device according to claim 69, wherein the coaxial cable concurrently carries a power signal, and said power supply is coupled to said coaxial connector to be powered by the power signal. 72. The device according to claim 71, wherein the power signal is a direct current signal. 73. The device according to claim 71, wherein the power signal is an alternating current signal. 74. The device according to claim 71, wherein the coaxial cable concurrently carries the power signal and the digital data signal using frequency division multiplexing, in which the power signal is carried in a power signal frequency band distinct from the digital data frequency band, and wherein said device further comprises a second filter coupled between said coaxial cable connector and said power supply for passing only the power signal. 75. A device for coupling a bidirectional packet-based digitized telephony data signal to an analog telephone unit for use with AC power wiring in a building concurrently carrying a bidirectional packet-based digital data signal in a digital data signal frequency band, an AC power signal in a power signal frequency band using frequency division multiplexing and the digitized telephony data signal, wherein the digital data signal frequency band is distinct from, and higher than, the AC power signal frequency band, said device comprising: a wiring connector for connecting to the AC power wiring; a high pass filter coupled to said wiring connector for passing only the digital data signal; a power line modem coupled to said high pass filter for conducting the digital data signal over the AC power wiring; a telephone connector connectable to the analog telephone unit; a converter coupled between said power line modem and said telephone connector, for converting the digitized telephone data signal into an analog telephone signal; a power supply coupled to said wiring connector to be powered by the power signal; and a single enclosure housing said wiring connector, said high pass filter, said power line modem, said telephone connector, said converter and said power supply, wherein the power line modem is coupled to said power supply to be powered from said power supply. 76. The device according to claim 75, wherein said enclosure is attachable to a wall. 77. The device according to claim 75, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 78. The device according to claim 75, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within an outlet. 79. The device according to claim 75, wherein said device is addressable. 80. The device according to claim 79, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 81. The device according to claim 79, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 82. The device according to claim 81, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 83. The device according to claim 75, further operative for powering an appliance, said device further comprising a power connector connectable to the appliance and coupled to said wiring connector for coupling the AC power signal to the appliance. 84. A device for coupling a bidirectional packet-based digitized telephony data signal to an analog telephone unit for use with a network wiring in a building concurrently carrying a bidirectional packet-based digital data signal and a power signal, the bidirectional packet-based digital data signal comprising a digitized telephony data signal, said device comprising: a network wiring connector for connecting to the network wiring; a transceiver coupled to the network wiring for conducting the digital data signal over the network wiring; a telephone connector connectable to an analog telephone unit; a converter coupled between said transceiver and said telephone connector for converting the digitized telephone signal into an analog telephone signal; a power supply coupled to said network wiring connector to be powered by the power signal; and a single enclosure housing said network wiring connector, said transceiver, said telephone connector, said converter and said power supply, wherein said transceiver is coupled to said power supply to be powered from said power supply. 85. The device according to claim 84, wherein said enclosure is attachable to a wall. 86. The device according to claim 84, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 87. The device according to claim 84, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within an outlet. 88. The device according to claim 84, wherein said device is addressable. 89. The device according to claim 88, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 90. The device according to claim 88, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 91. The device according to claim 90, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 92. The device according to claim 84, further operative for powering an appliance, said device further comprising a power connector connectable to the appliance and coupled to said network wiring connector for coupling the power signal to the appliance. 93. A device for coupling bidirectional digital data signals to a data unit for use with multiple service wirings in walls in a building, each wiring concurrently carrying a bidirectional digital data signal in a digital data signal frequency band and an analog service signal in an analog service signal frequency band using frequency division multiplexing, the digital data signal frequency band beings distinct from the analog service signal frequency band, said device comprising: a first wiring connector connectable to a first service wiring and operative to connect to one of a coaxial cable, telephone wiring, and power line wiring, for coupling to a first bidirectional digital data signal and a first analog service signal carried in the first service wiring; a first data filter coupled to said first wiring connector for passing only the first bidirectional digital data signal; a first modem coupled to said first data filter for conducting the first bidirectional digital data signal over the first service wiring; a first service filter coupled to said first wiring connector for passing only the first analog service signal; a second wiring connector for connectable to a second service wiring for coupling to a second bidirectional digital data signal and a second analog service signal carried in the second service wiring; a second data filter coupled to said second wiring connector for passing only the second bidirectional digital data signal; a second modem coupled to said second data filter for conducting the second bidirectional digital data signal over said second service wiring; a second service filter coupled to said second wiring connector for passing only the second analog service signal; a data connector connectable to a data-unit; an analog service connector connectable to a third analog service signal; and a single enclosure housing said first and second wiring connectors, said first and second data filters, said first and second modems, said first and second service filters, said data connector and said analog service connector, wherein: said first and second modems are coupled to said data connector; the first bidirectional digital data signal is at least at certain times distinct from the second bidirectional digital data signal; and said first and second wiring connectors are coupled to said analog service connector for coupling the third analog service signal to the first and second service wirings. 94. The device according to claim 93, wherein said enclosure is attachable to a wall. 95. The device according to claim 93, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 96. The device according to claim 93, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within an outlet. 97. The device according to claim 93, wherein said device is addressable. 98. The device according to claim 97, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 99. The device according to claim 97, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 100. The device according to claim 99, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 101. The device according to claim 93, wherein the first and second bidirectional digital data signals are packet based. 102. The device according to claim 93, wherein the second wiring connector is operative to connect to one of: a twisted-wire pair connector; a coaxial cable connector; a telephone wiring connector; and a power line wiring connector. 103. A device for coupling first and second bidirectional digital data signals to a data unit the for use with first and second network wiring segments in walls in a building, each segment concurrently carrying one of the bidirectional digital data signal and a respective power signal, said device comprising: a power connector couplable to an AC power signal; a data connector connectable to the data unit; a first transceiver coupled to said data connector for conducting the first bidirectional digital data signal over the first network wiring segment; a first wiring connector connectable to the first network wiring segment and connectable to one of: a twisted-wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power line wiring, for coupling to the first bidirectional digital data signal and the power signal carried in the first network wiring segment; a first power/data coupling unit having first, second and third ports, for passing only a digital data signal between said first and second ports and for passing only a power signal between said first and third ports, said first port being coupled to said first wiring connector, said second port being coupled to said power connector and said third port being coupled to said first transceiver, a second transceiver coupled to said data connector for conducting the first bidirectional digital data signal over the second network wiring segment; a second wiring connector connectable to the second network wiring segment and connectable to one of: a twisted-wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power line wiring, for coupling to the second bidirectional digital data signal and the power signal carried in the second network wiring segment; a second power/data coupling unit having first, second and third ports, for passing only digital data signal between said first and second ports and passing only a power signal between said first and third ports, said first port being coupled to said second wiring connector, said second port being coupled to said power connector and said third port being coupled to said second transceiver; and a single enclosure housing said power connector, said data connector, said first and second transceivers, said first and second wiring connectors and said first and second power/data coupling units, wherein the first bidirectional digital data signal is distinct from the second bidirectional digital data signal at least at certain times. 104. The device according to claim 103, wherein said enclosure is wall mountable. 105. The device according to claim 103, wherein said enclosure is mountable in an outlet cavity. 106. The device according to claim 103, wherein said enclosure is at least in part housed within an outlet. 107. The device according to claim 103, wherein said device is addressable. 108. The device according to claim 107, wherein said device has a manually assigned address. 109. The device according to claim 107, wherein said device has an automatically assigned address. 110. The device according to claim 109, wherein the device address is assigned by a data unit connected to said device. 111. The device according to claim 103, wherein the first and second bidirectional digital data signals are packet based. 112. The device according to claim 103, wherein said first power signal is a direct current signal. 113. The device according to claim 103, wherein the first network wiring segment concurrently carries the first digital data signal in a first digital data signal frequency band and the respective power signal in using frequency division multiplexing wherein the power signal is carried in a frequency band distinct and above from the digital data frequency band, and wherein said first power/data coupling unit comprises a low pass first between its first and second ports, and high pass filter between its first and third ports. 114. The device according to claim 103, wherein said first power/data coupling unit comprises a center-tapped transformer. 115. The device according to claim 103, further comprising means for monitoring the power signal carried in the first network wiring segment. 116. The device according to claim 103, further comprising means for turning on and off said power signal carried in the first network wiring segment. 117. A local area network for distributing digital data and power signals, the network comprising: a first wiring segment at least in part in a wall in a building and having first and second ends, said first wiring segment comprising two conductors for concurrently carrying a first bidirectional digital data signal and a first power signal, said first wiring segment being one of: a twisted-wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power line wiring; a first outlet attached to a wall in the building and connected to said first end of said first wiring segment, said first outlet comprising a first connector connectable to a first data unit, for coupling both the first bidirectional digital data signal and the first power signal to the first data unit; a second wiring segment at least in part in a wall in the building and having first and second ends, said second wiring segment comprising two conductors and concurrently carrying a second bidirectional digital data signal and a second power signal, said second wiring segment being one of: a twisted-wire pair; a coaxial cable; telephone wiring; and power line wiring; a second outlet attached to a wall in the building and connected to said first end of said second wiring segment, said second outlet comprising a second data connector connectable to a second data unit, for coupling both said second bidirectional digital data signal and said second power signal to the second data unit; and a device connected to said second end of said first wiring segment and to said second end of said second wiring segment, said device being connectable to a third data unit and to a power source for coupling to a third power signal from the power source, the device being further operative to couple the first and second bidirectional digital data signals to the third data unit and to couple the third power signal to the first and second power signals, wherein the first bidirectional digital data signal is distinct from the second bidirectional digital data signal at least at certain times. 118. The network according to claim 117, wherein said device is addressable. 119. The network according to claim 118, wherein said device has a manually assigned network address. 120. The network according to claim 118, wherein said device has an automatically assigned network address. 121. The network according to claim 120, wherein the network address is assigned by a data unit connected to the network. 122. The network according to claim 117, wherein the first and second bidirectional digital data signals are packet based. 123. The network according to claim 117, wherein the first power signal is a direct current signal. 124. The network according to claim 117, wherein said first network wiring segment concurrently carries the first digital data signal in a first digital data signal frequency band and the first power signal in a first power signal frequency band using frequency division multiplexing wherein the first power signal frequency band is distinct from, and lower than, the first digital data frequency signal band. 125. The network according to claim 117, further comprising means for monitoring the first power signal. 126. The network according to claim 117, further operative to turn on and off said first power signal. | This is a continuation of copending parent application Ser. No. 10/178,223, filed Jun. 25, 2002, which itself is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/123,486 filed Jul. 28, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,480,510, issued Nov. 12, 2002 FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to local area networks and, more particularly, to local area network topologies based on serial intelligent cells. Bus Topology Most prior art local area networks (LAN) use a bus topology as shown by example in FIG. 1. A communication medium 102 is based on two conductors (usually twisted pair or coaxial cable), to which data terminal equipment (DTE) units 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112 are connected, via respective network adapters 114, 116, 118, 120, and 122. A network adapter can be stand-alone or housed within the respective DTE. This prior art bus topology suffers from the following drawbacks: 1. From the point of view of data communication, the medium can vary significantly from one installation to another, and hence proper adaptation to the medium cannot always be obtained. 2. The bus topology is not optimal for communication, and hence: a) the maximum length of the medium is limited; b) the maximum number of units which may be connected to the bus is limited; c) complex circuitry is involved in the transceiver in the network adapter; d) the data rate is limited. 3. Terminators are usually required at the ends of the medium, thus complicating the installation. 4. Only one DTE can transmit at any given time on the bus, and all other are restricted to be listeners. 5. Complex arbitration techniques are needed to determine which DTE is able to transmit on the bus. 6. In case of short circuit in the bus, the whole bus malfunctions, and it is hard to locate the short circuit. 7. Addresses should be associated independently with any network adapter, and this is difficult to attain with bus topology. Star Topology A number of prior art network devices and interconnections summarized below utilize star topology. The multiplexer is a common item of equipment used in communication, both for local area networks and wide-area networks (WAN's). It is used in order to provide access to a data communications backbone, or in order to allow sharing of bandwidth between multiple stations. As shown in FIG. 2, one side of a multiplexer 202 is usually connected to a single high data rate connection 204 (“highway”), but several such connections can also be used. The other side of multiplexer 202 has multiple low data rate connections 206, 208, 210, 212, and 214. The ellipsis . . . indicates that additional connections can be made. Each low data rate connection uses part of the bandwidth offered by the high data rate connection. These low data rate connections can be of the same type or different types, and can have different or identical data rates. The multiplexing technique most commonly used is time-domain multiplexing (TDM). However, frequency-domain multiplexing (FDM) is also used. A popular multiplexer in use is the voice multiplexer, shown in FIG. 3. A pulse-code modulation (PCM) bus 304 handling 2.048 megabits per second, containing 30 channels of 64 kilobits per second is connected to one side of a PABX/PBX 302, and up to 30 telephone interfaces 308, 312, and 316 are connected to the other side via connections 306, 310, and 314. The ellipsis . . . indicates that additional connections can be made. In this configuration, each channel in the PCM bus can be switched or be permanently dedicated to a specific telephone line. An example of such system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,924,077 to Blakeslee. Similarly a small private branch exchange (PABX/PBX), as shown in FIG. 4, is widely used (usually in an office or business environment) where several outside lines 403, 404, and 405 are connected to one side of a PABX/PBX 402, and multiple telephones 408, 412, and 416 are connected to the other side via lines 406, 410, and 414, respectively. The ellipsis . . . indicates that additional connections can be made. The PABX/PBX connects an outside line to a requesting or requested telephone, and allows connection between telephones in the premises. In the configurations described above, star topology is used in order to connect to the units to the multiplexer, which functions as the network hub. The disadvantages of star topology include the following: 1. A connection between each unit and the network hub is required, and the wiring required for this connection can involve a lengthy run. Thus, when adding new unit, an additional, possibly lengthy, connection between the new unit and the network hub must be added. 2. No fault protection is provided: Any short circuit or open circuit will disrupt service to the affected units. 3. The multiplexer can impose extensive space and power requirements. Computer Interfaces Various interface standards have been established in order to allow interoperability between the PC (personal computer) or workstation and its various connected elements. These standards usually relate to both mechanical and electrical interfaces, and include industry standard architecture (ISA), extended industry standard architecture (EISA), Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (PCMCIA), intelligent drive electronics (IDE), small computer system interface (SCSI), and others. Each added hardware unit usually utilizes a specific software driver for interoperability with the specific platform. These protocols are applicable to small distances only, and allow units to be housed within or nearby the PC or workstation enclosures. For example, equipping a PC for video capture could involve a plug-in ISA card housed within the PC on the motherboard, a video camera connected to the card, and a software driver. This configuration does not allow remote video monitoring. Relevant Prior Art The use of the same wire pair or pairs for both power and data communication is well known, and is widely used in telecommunications, from “Plain Old Telephone Service” (“POTS”) to Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and broadband services in the local-loop including other Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL) technologies. Such a concept is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,825,349 to Marcel, describing using two pairs for such a scheme. A DC-to-DC converter for such DC feeding is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,507,721 to Yamano et al. The concept of power line communication (PLC) is also widely known. However, in most cases the connection is similar to a LAN environment, in which a single transmitter occupies the entire medium. Examples of such techniques include X-10 and the consumer electronics bus (CEBus, described in the EIA-600 standard). Much of this technology uses complex spread-spectrum techniques in order to accommodate problematic media (characterized by high amounts of noise and interference). Even with such improved technologies, however, the data rate obtained is relatively low. Prior art in this field includes U.S. Pat. No. 5,684,826 to Ratner, U.S. Pat. No. 5,491,463 to Sargeant et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,504,454 to Daggett et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,351,272 tb Abraham, U.S. Pat. No. 5,404,127 to Lee et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,065,133 to Howard, U.S. Pat. No. 5,581,801 to Spriester et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,772,870 to Reyes, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,782,322 to Lechner et al. Other patents can be found in U.S. Class 340/310 (sub-classes A/R and others) and International Class H04M 11/04. The concept of using existing telephone wiring also for data communication is first disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,010,399 to Goodman et al., where video signals superimposed over the telephone signals are used. However, the scheme used is of the bus type and has the drawbacks of that topology. Similarly, the idea of data transmission over a public switched telephone network (PSTN) using the higher frequency band is widely used in the XDSL systems, as is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,247,347 to Litteral et al. The patent discloses an asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system. However, only a single point-to-point transmission is described over the local-loop, and existing in-house wiring is not discussed, and thus this prior art does not disclose how to configure a full multipoint network. Multiplexing XDSL data and the POTS/ISDN data uses FDM principles, based on the fact that the POTS/ISDN services occupy the lower portion of the spectrum, allowing for the XDSL system to use the higher bandwidth. A home bus network using dedicated wiring is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,896,349 to Kubo et al., and a home automation network based on a power line controller (PLC) is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,579,221 to Mun. U.S. Pat. No. 4,714,912 to Roberts et al. is the first to suggest communicating data over power lines not in bus topology but as ‘break-and-insert’. However, only single conductor is used, and the receivers are all connected again using a bus topology. In addition, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/734,921, Israel Patent Application No. 119454, and PCT Patent Application No. PCT/IL97/00195 of the present inventor disclose a distributed serial control system of line-powered modules in a network topology for sensing and control. These documents, however, do not disclose a local area network for data communications. The prior art documents mentioned above are representative examples in the field. Certain applications are covered by more than one issued patent. There is thus a widely recognized need for, and it would be highly advantageous to have, a means of implementing a local area network for data communications which does not suffer from the limitations inherent in the current methods. This goal is met by the present invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is of a local area network for data communication, sensing, and control based on serially connected modules referred to as “serial intelligent cells” (SIC's). An example of a local area network of such devices according to the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 7, to which reference is now briefly made. In this example, SIC's 700, 702, 704, 706, and 708 are connected by one or more conducting wire pairs (such as a twisted pair 710). This allows chaining, such as SIC 700 to SIC 702 to SIC 704. However, SIC 700, SIC 706, and SIC 708, located at the ends are equipped with single connection. SIC 704 is equipped with three connections, and even more connections are possible. A SIC may be interfaced to one or more DTE's, as illustrated by a DTE 714 interfaced to SIC 700 and by DTE's 716 and 718 interfaced to SIC 704. SIC's need not have an interface, however, as is illustrated by SIC 706 and SIC 702. SIC 702, though, serves as a repeater, connecting SIC 700 and SIC 704. It is to be noted that the networks according to the present invention utilize electrically-conducting media to interconnect the SIC's. Each electrically-conducting medium connects exactly two SIC's into a communicating pair of SIC's which communicate bidirectionally and independently of other communicating pairs in the local area network. Electrically-conducting media are media which transmit signals by conducting electrical current or by propagating electrical potential from one point to another. Electrically-conducting media include, but are not limited to wires, twisted pair, and coaxial cable. But electrically-conducting media do not include media such as fiber optic lines, waveguides, microwave, radio, and infrared communication media. As noted above, SIC's in a communicating pair communicate bidirectionally. For example, SIC 704 can initiate communication (as a sender) to SIC 702 (as a receiver), but SIC 704 can just as well initiate simultaneous communication (as a sender) to SIC 700 (as a receiver). Bidirectional communication can take place simultaneously, and herein is taken to be equivalent to “full duplex” communication. In addition, as noted above, the communication between the SIC's of a communicating pair is independent of the communication between the SIC's of any other communicating pair, in that these communications neither preclude nor affect one another in any way. Furthermore, every communication between SIC's is a “point-to-point communication”, which term herein denotes a communication that takes place between exactly one sender and exactly one receiver. This is in contrast to a bus-based communication, in which there are many (potential) receivers and many (potential) senders. Consequently, in the topology according to the present invention, there is automatically a termination in the physical layer at each end of a connection (a SIC), both simplifying the installation and insuring more reliable communication. The topology according to the present invention is superior to the prior art bus topology in the following ways: 1. There is no physical limit to the number of SIC's which may be installed in the network, and hence no physical limit to the number of DTE's in the network. 2. Point-to-point communication allows higher data rates over greater distances. 3. Point-to-point communication requires less complex circuitry than bus circuitry. 4. Several SIC's can transmit and receive simultaneously. For example, SIC 700 can communicate with SIC 702 while SIC 704 communicates simultaneously with SIC 706. 5. There is no need for arbitration, allowing more efficient utilization of the network. Furthermore, priorities can be assigned to each SIC or, alternatively, to each specific message to allow the data routing to take care of priorities. 6. Addresses may be assigned by the network. 7. In the case of failure of any conductor or SIC, the network can sense the fault immediately, and the specific location of the fault (up to the specific SIC pair) is easily obtained. Therefore, according to the present invention there is provided a local area network for data communication, sensing, and control including a plurality of serial intelligent cells interconnected exclusively by electrically-conducting media into at least one communicating pair, wherein: (a) each of the electrically-conducting media interconnects no more than two of the serial intelligent cells; (b) each of the communicating pair includes one of the electrically-conducting media and exactly two of the serial intelligent cells; (c) each of the communicating pair engages in a communication exclusively over the electrically-conducting media; and (d) each of the communicating pair engages in the communication bidirectionally and independently of the communication of any other of the communicating pair. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention is herein described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 shows a common prior art LAN bus topology. FIG. 2 shows a typical prior art multiplexer. FIG. 3 shows a prior art voice multiplexer (star topology). FIG. 4 shows a prior art voice exchange configuration (star topology). FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a SIC for control applications according to the present invention. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a SIC for data communications according to the present invention. FIG. 7 shows a LAN topology utilizing the devices of the present invention. FIG. 8 shows an alternative LAN topology utilizing the devices of the present invention. FIG. 9 shows a SIC-based multiplexer—PABX/PBX according to the present invention. FIG. 10 shows a local area network according to the present invention used as a computer bus extender. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The principles and operation of a local area network according to the present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings and the accompanying description. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a representative SIC 500 for use in control applications. A first line interface 502 is a first port for connecting to the previous SIC to receive incoming electrical power and local area network data over electrically-conducting medium 503, which may optionally be connected to an electrical power main 501, so that SIC 500 may be powered from electrical power main 501. Line interface 502 may include the connector, fuse, lightning arrester and other protection such as noise filters, etc. The incoming power/data signal is fed to a first power/data splitter/combiner 504, which de-couples the (high frequency alternating current) data signal from the power. Such a power/data splitter/combiner 504 (denoted for brevity in FIG. 5 as “P/D s/c”) can be implemented by methods well-known in the art, such as using a center-tap transformer, or alternatively with active components. The data signal is fed to a first modem 506 allowing bidirectional communication, while the power is fed to a power supply 520. The above scheme assumes that both power and data are carried by the same network wires (line-powering). FIG. 5 illustrates the case where the SIC is line-powered by alternating current (for example, by the electrical power main), in which case power/data splitter/combiner 504 is an AC power/data splitter/combiner, which separates a low-frequency alternating current power from the higher-frequency data signal. Otherwise, in the case where the SIC is line-powered by direct current, power/data splitter/combiner 504 is a DC power/data splitter/combiner, which separates direct current power from the data signal. In some cases the line-powering method is not used. For example, power can be carried by dedicated lines routed in conjunction with the data wiring. Alternatively, the SIC can be locally powered by a local power-supply. In both cases, the power/data splitter/combiner is not required, and the power lines are directly connected to the SIC power-supply, while the data connects directly to the modems. Parts of the SIC are shown optionally housed within an electrical outlet 524, such that connections to the local area network as well as to the electrical power mains may be made from electrical outlet 524. Electrical power from electrical outlet 524 can be fed to an optional electrical appliance 525. In addition, SIC 500 contains an optional electrical power main feed 505 which can also power electrical appliances or other devices. Power-supply 520 provides the required voltages for the SIC and payload operation, and also outputs the power to a second Power/data splitter/combiner 510, for coupling to the next SIC. Communication with the next (fed) SIC is performed via a second modem 512 connected to a second line interface 514 via power/data splitter/combiner 510, similar to power/data splitter/combiner 504 as previously described. Line interface 514 feeds to electrically-conducting medium 515, which connects to the next SIC. Modems 506 and 512 can be standard RS-485, RS-232, or any simple similar data interface transceiver. Alternatively, a complex transceiver can be used for achieving long ranges or high-speed operation. CPU and firmware contained in a control block 522 control and monitor the unit operation and communication, as well as control the payload through a payload interface 508 interfacing with a payload illustrated by a sensor/actuator 509. For example, interface 508 can implement a 4-20 ma standard interface. In a similar way, SIC 500 can be used for communication over the power line. To do this, payload interface 508 is replaced by a communication port and sensor/actuator 509 will be replaced by a DTE. A SIC for use in data communications as shown in FIG. 6 is substantially similar to that used in control applications as shown in FIG. 5, but has some specific differences as noted. Also illustrated in FIG. 6 is the case where the local area network data is carried over electrically-conducting media which are part of the telephone wiring of a building. A SIC 600 has a first line interface 602 as a first port for connecting to the previous SIC to receive incoming power, local area network data, and telephony data via an electrically-conducting medium 603. Line interface 602 may include the connector, fuse, lightning arrester and other protection such as noise filters, etc. The incoming power/telephony/data signal is fed to a first telephony/data splitter/combiner 604 (denoted for brevity in FIG. 6 as “T/D s/c”), which de-couples the local area network data from the power and telephony data. Such a telephony/data splitter/combiner 604 can be implemented by methods well-known in the art, such as using a high-pass/low pass filter, or alternatively with active components. The local area network data signal is fed to a first modem 606 allowing bidirectional communication, while the power (DC) is fed to a power supply 620, and the telephony data is fed to power/telephone interface 624. Power-supply 620 provides the required voltages for the SIC and payload operation, and also outputs the power to a second telephony/data splitter/combiner 610, for coupling to the next SIC. Communication with the next (fed) SIC is performed via a second modem 612 connected to a second line interface 614 via telephony/data splitter/combiner 610, similar to telephony/data splitter/combiner 604 as previously described. Line interface 614 connects to an electrically-conducting medium 615, which connects to the next SIC. Modems 606 and 612 can be standard RS-485, RS-232 or any simple similar data interface transceiver. Alternatively, a complex transceiver can be used for achieving long ranges or high-speed operation. CPU and firmware contained in a control block 622 control and monitor the unit operation and communication, as well as control the payload through a payload interface 608 interfacing with a payload 609, which may include sensors and actuators. For example, interface 608 can implement a 4-20 ma standard interface. SIC 600 also includes an optional power/telephone interface 624, contained for example in a telephone outlet 625, as well as one or more communications interfaces, such as a communication interface 626 connected to a DTE 628. In the case of DC line feeding, the power supply may be equipped with a line reversal function (for example, a diode-based bridge) in order to accommodate a possible wire reversal. Note that a SIC can be implemented as single device with all component parts contained within one enclosure, but does not necessarily have to be so implemented. In the case of a SIC used for data communications or control applications, the hardware may be optionally divided between the SIC module and the DTE/Payload units. In the case of a SIC used for telephone applications, the hardware may optionally be divided between the SIC, the DTE payload unit, and the telephone outlet, such as telephone outlet 625, which allows connections to both telephone services (such as through a telephone 623) and the local area network (such through DTE 628). Telephone outlet 625 may be a wall outlet or jack. All or part of the SIC may be housed within a telephone outlet such as telephone outlet 625, if desired. Furthermore, for SIC's used only as repeaters, a payload interface is not necessary. Power/data splitter/combiner 510 (FIG. 5) can use various techniques known in the art. Coupling can be implemented, for example, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,745,391 to Gajjar. Power-supply 520 (FIG. 5) can be connected to the network using dedicated adapter or via specific SIC. The payload can also be connected using standard Ethernet or other LAN interface, hence emulating the network using the SIC's. This configuration makes use of standard interfaces, but operates at higher throughput and data-rates than a conventional LAN. SIC Addressing A SIC can include an address. Addresses of SIC's on the network can be assigned via automatic assignment by the local area network itself by algorithms known in the art, for example as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,535,336 to Smith et al. Addresses can also be assigned via manual assignment, such as by the setting of mechanical switches on the SIC unit. Addresses can also be determined by the DTE connected to the SIC, either by means of higher layers as done in most LAN systems, or physically be means of the connection to the SIC (such as by address lines). SIC Powering A SIC can receive electrical power locally, via a power source located near the SIC. However, one power source may be used to power some or all the SIC's in the local area network using dedicated power lines. These lines can be routed with the data communication wires. Alternatively, the same electrically-conducting media (the data communication wires) can be used to carry both electrical power and local area network data to the SIC's, by means of techniques well-known in the art, for example as in telephone systems. In such a case, a unit is required for coupling the power supply to the local area network. This can make use of a SIC (such as SIC 706 in FIG. 7) or in a specific dedicated module. Since electrical power is typically distributed at low frequencies (e.g., 60 Hertz), whereas local area network data is typically at a much higher frequency, electrical power can be combined with local area network data using frequency-domain multiplexing. A SIC can therefore be powered from the electrical power mains, and can also deliver electrical power, as illustrated in FIG. 5 and detailed herein above. The DTE's, sensors, and actuators connected to the SIC's can also be locally powered from the SIC's, or can use the same power resources via the same channels as the SIC's. Part or all of a SIC can be housed within an electrical outlet so that the electrical outlet allows connection to the local area network as well as to electrical power. Control Although mainly intended to be used as communication network, the system according to the present invention can also be used as a platform to implement a sensing, control, and automation system. This is achieved by adding to one or more of the SIC's interfaces to sensors or actuators. The signals received by the sensors are transmitted over the network via logic contained in the SIC's or in the DTE's, which thereupon operate the relevant actuators. This automation function can be monitored by one or more of the DTE's. The operation of the control may be associated with data communicated over the network (for example, sensing the availability of power to a DTE) or may be independent of it, to allow control decisions to be made locally. DTE Interface The DTE interface can be a proprietary interface or any standard serial or parallel interface, such as ITU-T V.35, ITU-T V.24, etc. In addition, a telephone interface (POTS) or ISDN may be used. This can suit intercom or PBX applications. Fault Protection The SIC topology described above can be modified to allow for single failure correction. In such a case, the SIC's are connected in a network with redundant paths, such as a circular topology as shown in FIG. 8. In this example, a SIC 800 is connected to a SIC 802, which is in turn connected to a SIC 804, which is in turn connected to a SIC 806, which is in turn connected to SIC 800. When connected in such configuration, any single failure in any conductor, such as in conductor pair 810, will not effect the system operation, as data routing from any SIC to any other SIC can be achieved via an alternate path. The term “circular topology” herein denotes the topology of any local area network of SIC's according to the present invention which contains at least two communication paths between two different SIC's. For example, in FIG. 8, there are two communication paths from SIC 800 to SIC 804: one communication path is from SIC 800 to SIC 802 to SIC 804, and the other path is from SIC 800 to SIC 806 to SIC 804. Circular topology provides redundant communication paths that increase the immunity of the local area network to communication faults. It should be noted that the circular topology according to the present invention, as shown in FIG. 8, differs significantly from the well-known “Token Ring topology” of the prior art, as discussed following. Although circular topology as defined herein can be superficially similar to the Token Ring topology, there are major differences between them. One difference is in the data framing. The Token Ring uses the same frame structure throughout all communication links in the network, and this requires that the same framing must be recognized by all the cells in the network. In the SIC network according to the present invention, however, each communication link (between any two connected SIC's) is totally independent from all other network communication. Hence, a first SIC can communicate with a second SIC using one type of frame structure and protocol, while the same first SIC can communicate with a third SIC using a different type of frame structure and protocol. In addition, in a Token Ring network, there is single direction of data flow at any given time from a single transmitter to one or more receivers, and usually, the direction of data flow is constant. The SIC network according to the present invention, however, does not impose any limitation on the data flow in any of the communication links. Full duplex, half duplex or unidirectional communication is possible, and can even vary from link to link throughout the network. This allows the SIC network to support two independent communication routes simultaneously, provided different segments are used. In FIG. 8, for example, SIC 800 can communicate with SIC 802 while SIC 804 simultaneously communicates different data with SIC 806. This capability is not supported by any of the other network configurations. The above differences affect, for example, the vulnerability of the respective networks to faults. In case of single break or short-circuit anywhere in the medium, the Token Ring network will collapse, disabling any further communication in the system. As another example, in the network disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,918,690 to Markkula et al. (hereinafter referred to as “Markkula”), this fault affects the physical layer by disabling the media's signal-carrying capability. The Token Ring network will not function at all since the data layer functionality based on unidirectional transmission will not be supported. In contrast, however, a SIC network according to the present invention, will continue to function fully, except for the specific faulty link itself. All other links continue to function normally. Furthermore, the ability to localize the fault is not easily performed either in a Token Ring network or in the Markkula network. In the SIC network according to the present invention, however, it is simple and straightforward to trace the fault to the affected link. Data Distribution over Electrical Power Lines An important configuration for a network according to the present invention uses the electrical power wiring of a building as a communication media. This can be used, for example, to implement an inexpensive ‘home LAN’. Typical house mains have a connection to single feeder with numerous distribution points and outlets. The principles according to the present invention specify a SIC to be located within each outlet and at each distribution point. This will allow SIC-based communications network, where communication takes place between each pair of SIC's connected via the wiring. In such a case it is also expected that the mains will also be used to power the SIC's. Aside from using the same wiring media, the electrical distribution and the communication system sharing the same mains can be totally decoupled. Another configuration involves adding the SIC to the Mains wiring at points distinguished from the mains outlets. The preferred embodiment, however, consists of using the outlets points for both the electrical supply and the DTE connection points. This involves replacing all electrical outlets and distribution points with ‘smart’ outlets, having both electrical connections and a communications jack. In addition, such unit may include visual indicators (e.g. LED's) to show the communication status, and may also include switches or other means to determine the outlet address. Such a communication system could be used for applications associated with power distribution, as for example to control the load connected to a specific outlet, for remote on/off operation of appliances, timing of operations, delayed start, disconnection after pre-set time period, and so forth. Such a communication system could also be used to monitor the power consumed by specific outlets, such as for Demand Side Management (DSM) or Automatic Meter Reading (AMR), allowing remote meter reading. The above described topology may also apply to existing wiring. One common example may be power wiring to consumers located in different locations. Such wiring typically relies on bus topology with taps. In order to use SIC technology, the wiring must be broken, and a SIC installed between both ends. In a similar manner, a communication network employing the electrical power wiring of vehicles and vessel can be implemented, such as for aircraft, ships, trains, buses, automobiles, and so forth. Implementing a Local Communication/Telephone System using SIC's In this application, existing telephone wiring (either POTS or ISDN) is used as the electrically-conducting media for the local area network, and is used for both local area network data communication and for telephony. The term “telephony” herein denotes any telephone or telephonic communication, including both including voice (POTS) and data (ISDN). Telephone outlets are usually connected in point-to-point topology without a distribution point. To set up a network, each outlet is replaced with SIC-based outlet. If there are distribution points, these distribution points must also be SIC equipped. This configuration results in a high-performance LAN between the telephone outlets. Aside from sharing the same media, the local area network can be decoupled from the telephone system. Alternatively, the local area network and the telephone system can be combined, such that telephony is digitally integrated into the local area network data. The outside telephone service can be treated according to one of the following alternatives: 1. No telephone support. In this configuration, the connection to the network (usually to the public network) is cut, and the network is fully internal, with no external telephone service. 2. Telephone as Payload. In this configuration, the telephone capability is retained, and telephony data may be integrated into the data communication of the local area network. One of the SIC's (usually the one closest to a public telephone network interface) or other dedicated module interconnects (via the communication interface for example) to the network interface (NI). This unit emulates a telephone interface to the NI, so that public network operation is transparent and continues to perform as normal. However, the signals associated with the telephone interface, either the voice itself and the control/signaling (on hook/off hook, ringing, etc.) are digitized and transmitted in the network as data stream, as part of the communication taking place in the network. In the SIC's interfaced to telephones, these signals are converted back to analog (or in any original form) and thus can be used with standard telephones. In this case, telephone functionality is fully retained. However, failure in the communication network may result in loss of the telephone service. This can be improved by means of a system which disconnects the SIC's circuitry and restores the original wiring routing (this can be easily implemented by relays, which bypass the SIC's upon failure detection, manual intervention, or other relevant occasion). 3. Communication over POTS or ISDN. In this method, the electrically-conducting media interconnecting SIC's is the telephone wiring of a building. This method involves the known mechanism ‘POTS Splitting’, currently used in conjunction with XDSL technologies. This requires a filter which separates the low-frequency portion of the spectrum (usually carrying the POTS associated signals and power) from the high-frequency portion of the spectrum (used for communication). In such an application, the AC/DC units in the SIC are replaced with such POTS splitter modules. The low-frequency band (POTS related) is passed transparently (similar to the power pass), and branched to the telephone jack. The high-frequency band is used for the communication between the SIC's. This combining of high-frequency local area network communication on the same electrically-conducting media with low-frequency telephony data is a form of frequency-domain multiplexing. In the latter two alternatives, each in-wall telephone outlet is replaced with a SIC based outlet having both a telephone jack and one (or more) communication jacks. Computer Bus Extender The SIC network can be used as a computer bus extender, such as an ‘ISA bus extender’, as illustrated in FIG. 10. In this configuration, a SIC 1006 is equipped with a computer bus connector 1004 which is connected, for example, to one of the ISA bus slots in a computer 1002, to transport data between the local area network and computer 1002. Another SIC 1010, remotely located, also has a computer bus connector 1012, such as an ISA bus extender. This allows for a transparent ISA bus capability, where the ISA bus data will be transported in both directions over electrically-conducting medium 1008. The ellipses ( . . . ) indicate that additional SIC's and electrically-conducting media may be present in the local area network between SIC 1006 and SIC 1010. Shown as an example, a video frame grabber card 1014 is plugged into computer bus connector 1012, and a video camera 1016 is connected to video frame grabber card 1014. Normally, video frame grabber card 1014 is plugged directly into an ISA bus slot, such as in computer 1002. Here, however, the local area network acts as a bus extender so that video frame grabber 1014 and video camera 1016 can be located remotely from computer 1002. The normal software driver for the ISA bus slot in computer 1002 can used, since computer 1002 is unaware of the fact that only ISA emulation is taking place. This way, the capability of having general remote PC components and peripherals can be easily achieved. This configuration features the above-described advantages, and this method can be used to attain various goals, such as fault protection. Similarly, this method can be used to connect several units remotely to a computer, using different ports in the computer. Implementing Multiplexers and PABX/PBX Functionality A network of SIC's may be used to implement a multiplexer or a PABX/PBX functionality, as illustrated in FIG. 9. In this example, a SIC 900 is connected to a high data rate connection, such as PCM bus 916, while SIC 902 and SIC 906 are connected to telephones 908, 910, and 912. SIC 904 functions as a repeater in this example. In this example, the local area network functions as a multiplexer, wherein the bandwidth of the high data rate connection (PCM bus 916) is multiplexed through SIC 900 to SIC 902 and SIC 906, each of which may use a different portion of the bandwidth of the high data rate connection (PCM bus 916). Moreover, by the addition of telephones 908, 910, and 912, the local area network of FIG. 9 functions as a voice multiplexer. Other Applications of the Invention A number of applications of the present invention have been discussed above. Additional applications include, but are not limited to: intercom, PABX/PBX, security systems, video surveillance, entertainment broadcasting services, time (clock) distribution, and audio/video signal distribution. The networks implemented by the present invention can extend locally within a single building or over a neighborhood. While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments and applications, it will be appreciated that many variations, modifications and other applications of the invention may be made. | <SOH> FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to local area networks and, more particularly, to local area network topologies based on serial intelligent cells. Bus Topology Most prior art local area networks (LAN) use a bus topology as shown by example in FIG. 1 . A communication medium 102 is based on two conductors (usually twisted pair or coaxial cable), to which data terminal equipment (DTE) units 104 , 106 , 108 , 110 , and 112 are connected, via respective network adapters 114 , 116 , 118 , 120 , and 122 . A network adapter can be stand-alone or housed within the respective DTE. This prior art bus topology suffers from the following drawbacks: 1. From the point of view of data communication, the medium can vary significantly from one installation to another, and hence proper adaptation to the medium cannot always be obtained. 2. The bus topology is not optimal for communication, and hence: a) the maximum length of the medium is limited; b) the maximum number of units which may be connected to the bus is limited; c) complex circuitry is involved in the transceiver in the network adapter; d) the data rate is limited. 3. Terminators are usually required at the ends of the medium, thus complicating the installation. 4. Only one DTE can transmit at any given time on the bus, and all other are restricted to be listeners. 5. Complex arbitration techniques are needed to determine which DTE is able to transmit on the bus. 6. In case of short circuit in the bus, the whole bus malfunctions, and it is hard to locate the short circuit. 7. Addresses should be associated independently with any network adapter, and this is difficult to attain with bus topology. Star Topology A number of prior art network devices and interconnections summarized below utilize star topology. The multiplexer is a common item of equipment used in communication, both for local area networks and wide-area networks (WAN's). It is used in order to provide access to a data communications backbone, or in order to allow sharing of bandwidth between multiple stations. As shown in FIG. 2 , one side of a multiplexer 202 is usually connected to a single high data rate connection 204 (“highway”), but several such connections can also be used. The other side of multiplexer 202 has multiple low data rate connections 206 , 208 , 210 , 212 , and 214 . The ellipsis . . . indicates that additional connections can be made. Each low data rate connection uses part of the bandwidth offered by the high data rate connection. These low data rate connections can be of the same type or different types, and can have different or identical data rates. The multiplexing technique most commonly used is time-domain multiplexing (TDM). However, frequency-domain multiplexing (FDM) is also used. A popular multiplexer in use is the voice multiplexer, shown in FIG. 3 . A pulse-code modulation (PCM) bus 304 handling 2.048 megabits per second, containing 30 channels of 64 kilobits per second is connected to one side of a PABX/PBX 302 , and up to 30 telephone interfaces 308 , 312 , and 316 are connected to the other side via connections 306 , 310 , and 314 . The ellipsis . . . indicates that additional connections can be made. In this configuration, each channel in the PCM bus can be switched or be permanently dedicated to a specific telephone line. An example of such system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,924,077 to Blakeslee. Similarly a small private branch exchange (PABX/PBX), as shown in FIG. 4 , is widely used (usually in an office or business environment) where several outside lines 403 , 404 , and 405 are connected to one side of a PABX/PBX 402 , and multiple telephones 408 , 412 , and 416 are connected to the other side via lines 406 , 410 , and 414 , respectively. The ellipsis . . . indicates that additional connections can be made. The PABX/PBX connects an outside line to a requesting or requested telephone, and allows connection between telephones in the premises. In the configurations described above, star topology is used in order to connect to the units to the multiplexer, which functions as the network hub. The disadvantages of star topology include the following: 1. A connection between each unit and the network hub is required, and the wiring required for this connection can involve a lengthy run. Thus, when adding new unit, an additional, possibly lengthy, connection between the new unit and the network hub must be added. 2. No fault protection is provided: Any short circuit or open circuit will disrupt service to the affected units. 3. The multiplexer can impose extensive space and power requirements. Computer Interfaces Various interface standards have been established in order to allow interoperability between the PC (personal computer) or workstation and its various connected elements. These standards usually relate to both mechanical and electrical interfaces, and include industry standard architecture (ISA), extended industry standard architecture (EISA), Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (PCMCIA), intelligent drive electronics (IDE), small computer system interface (SCSI), and others. Each added hardware unit usually utilizes a specific software driver for interoperability with the specific platform. These protocols are applicable to small distances only, and allow units to be housed within or nearby the PC or workstation enclosures. For example, equipping a PC for video capture could involve a plug-in ISA card housed within the PC on the motherboard, a video camera connected to the card, and a software driver. This configuration does not allow remote video monitoring. Relevant Prior Art The use of the same wire pair or pairs for both power and data communication is well known, and is widely used in telecommunications, from “Plain Old Telephone Service” (“POTS”) to Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and broadband services in the local-loop including other Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL) technologies. Such a concept is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,825,349 to Marcel, describing using two pairs for such a scheme. A DC-to-DC converter for such DC feeding is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,507,721 to Yamano et al. The concept of power line communication (PLC) is also widely known. However, in most cases the connection is similar to a LAN environment, in which a single transmitter occupies the entire medium. Examples of such techniques include X-10 and the consumer electronics bus (CEBus, described in the EIA-600 standard). Much of this technology uses complex spread-spectrum techniques in order to accommodate problematic media (characterized by high amounts of noise and interference). Even with such improved technologies, however, the data rate obtained is relatively low. Prior art in this field includes U.S. Pat. No. 5,684,826 to Ratner, U.S. Pat. No. 5,491,463 to Sargeant et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,504,454 to Daggett et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,351,272 tb Abraham, U.S. Pat. No. 5,404,127 to Lee et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,065,133 to Howard, U.S. Pat. No. 5,581,801 to Spriester et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,772,870 to Reyes, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,782,322 to Lechner et al. Other patents can be found in U.S. Class 340/310 (sub-classes A/R and others) and International Class H04M 11/04. The concept of using existing telephone wiring also for data communication is first disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,010,399 to Goodman et al., where video signals superimposed over the telephone signals are used. However, the scheme used is of the bus type and has the drawbacks of that topology. Similarly, the idea of data transmission over a public switched telephone network (PSTN) using the higher frequency band is widely used in the XDSL systems, as is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,247,347 to Litteral et al. The patent discloses an asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system. However, only a single point-to-point transmission is described over the local-loop, and existing in-house wiring is not discussed, and thus this prior art does not disclose how to configure a full multipoint network. Multiplexing XDSL data and the POTS/ISDN data uses FDM principles, based on the fact that the POTS/ISDN services occupy the lower portion of the spectrum, allowing for the XDSL system to use the higher bandwidth. A home bus network using dedicated wiring is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,896,349 to Kubo et al., and a home automation network based on a power line controller (PLC) is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,579,221 to Mun. U.S. Pat. No. 4,714,912 to Roberts et al. is the first to suggest communicating data over power lines not in bus topology but as ‘break-and-insert’. However, only single conductor is used, and the receivers are all connected again using a bus topology. In addition, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/734,921, Israel Patent Application No. 119454, and PCT Patent Application No. PCT/IL97/00195 of the present inventor disclose a distributed serial control system of line-powered modules in a network topology for sensing and control. These documents, however, do not disclose a local area network for data communications. The prior art documents mentioned above are representative examples in the field. Certain applications are covered by more than one issued patent. There is thus a widely recognized need for, and it would be highly advantageous to have, a means of implementing a local area network for data communications which does not suffer from the limitations inherent in the current methods. This goal is met by the present invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is of a local area network for data communication, sensing, and control based on serially connected modules referred to as “serial intelligent cells” (SIC's). An example of a local area network of such devices according to the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 7 , to which reference is now briefly made. In this example, SIC's 700 , 702 , 704 , 706 , and 708 are connected by one or more conducting wire pairs (such as a twisted pair 710 ). This allows chaining, such as SIC 700 to SIC 702 to SIC 704 . However, SIC 700 , SIC 706 , and SIC 708 , located at the ends are equipped with single connection. SIC 704 is equipped with three connections, and even more connections are possible. A SIC may be interfaced to one or more DTE's, as illustrated by a DTE 714 interfaced to SIC 700 and by DTE's 716 and 718 interfaced to SIC 704 . SIC's need not have an interface, however, as is illustrated by SIC 706 and SIC 702 . SIC 702 , though, serves as a repeater, connecting SIC 700 and SIC 704 . It is to be noted that the networks according to the present invention utilize electrically-conducting media to interconnect the SIC's. Each electrically-conducting medium connects exactly two SIC's into a communicating pair of SIC's which communicate bidirectionally and independently of other communicating pairs in the local area network. Electrically-conducting media are media which transmit signals by conducting electrical current or by propagating electrical potential from one point to another. Electrically-conducting media include, but are not limited to wires, twisted pair, and coaxial cable. But electrically-conducting media do not include media such as fiber optic lines, waveguides, microwave, radio, and infrared communication media. As noted above, SIC's in a communicating pair communicate bidirectionally. For example, SIC 704 can initiate communication (as a sender) to SIC 702 (as a receiver), but SIC 704 can just as well initiate simultaneous communication (as a sender) to SIC 700 (as a receiver). Bidirectional communication can take place simultaneously, and herein is taken to be equivalent to “full duplex” communication. In addition, as noted above, the communication between the SIC's of a communicating pair is independent of the communication between the SIC's of any other communicating pair, in that these communications neither preclude nor affect one another in any way. Furthermore, every communication between SIC's is a “point-to-point communication”, which term herein denotes a communication that takes place between exactly one sender and exactly one receiver. This is in contrast to a bus-based communication, in which there are many (potential) receivers and many (potential) senders. Consequently, in the topology according to the present invention, there is automatically a termination in the physical layer at each end of a connection (a SIC), both simplifying the installation and insuring more reliable communication. The topology according to the present invention is superior to the prior art bus topology in the following ways: 1. There is no physical limit to the number of SIC's which may be installed in the network, and hence no physical limit to the number of DTE's in the network. 2. Point-to-point communication allows higher data rates over greater distances. 3. Point-to-point communication requires less complex circuitry than bus circuitry. 4. Several SIC's can transmit and receive simultaneously. For example, SIC 700 can communicate with SIC 702 while SIC 704 communicates simultaneously with SIC 706 . 5. There is no need for arbitration, allowing more efficient utilization of the network. Furthermore, priorities can be assigned to each SIC or, alternatively, to each specific message to allow the data routing to take care of priorities. 6. Addresses may be assigned by the network. 7. In the case of failure of any conductor or SIC, the network can sense the fault immediately, and the specific location of the fault (up to the specific SIC pair) is easily obtained. Therefore, according to the present invention there is provided a local area network for data communication, sensing, and control including a plurality of serial intelligent cells interconnected exclusively by electrically-conducting media into at least one communicating pair, wherein: (a) each of the electrically-conducting media interconnects no more than two of the serial intelligent cells; (b) each of the communicating pair includes one of the electrically-conducting media and exactly two of the serial intelligent cells; (c) each of the communicating pair engages in a communication exclusively over the electrically-conducting media; and (d) each of the communicating pair engages in the communication bidirectionally and independently of the communication of any other of the communicating pair. | 20041112 | 20060822 | 20050728 | 62476.0 | 2 | BOAKYE, ALEXANDER O | LOCAL AREA NETWORK OF SERIAL INTELLIGENT CELLS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,986,565 | ACCEPTED | Conveyor | A conveyor (10) that delivers product to a plurality of transverse conveyors of chutes (11). The conveyor (10) includes conveyor segments (12) along which the product is conveyed. Product is removed from the conveyor (10) by the lateral displacement of an upstream end 15 or a downstream end 16 of adjacent conveyor segments (12). | 1. A conveyor including: a base; a first conveyor segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, the upstream end being provided to receive said item; a second conveyor segment mounted on the base, said second segment having a conveyor longitudinally extending surface upon which the items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the second segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, with said second segment being mounted relative to said first segment so that items leaving the first segment downstream end are delivered to the second segment upstream end; and wherein said segments are mounted to provide for lateral relative displacement between the first segment downstream end relative to the second segment upstream end so that a desired quantity of said items pass from said first segment to said second segment, with a further desired quantity of said items being removed from said conveyor as a result of relative displacement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. 2. The conveyor of claim 1, wherein both conveyor surfaces are upwardly facing, and at least one of said segments is mounted for angular movement to provide for relative angular movement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. 3. The conveyor of claim 2, wherein the first segment downstream end is located above the second segment upstream end. 4. The conveyor of claim 3, wherein at least one of said segments is pivotally mounted so as to be movable in a generally horizontal plane to change the relative position of the first segment downstream end with respect to the second segment upstream end to thereby provide said lateral relative displacement. 5. The conveyor of claim 4 further including a transverse conveyor positioned below said first segment downstream end and said second segment upstream end so that items leaving said first segment downstream end and not delivered to said second segment upstream end are delivered to said transverse conveyor. 6. The conveyor of claim 5, wherein each segment is a slip conveyor. 7. The conveyor of claim 5, wherein said segments are linear conveyors. 8. The conveyor of claim 7, wherein said first segment is pivotally moved in a generally horizontal plane relative to said second segment. 9. A conveyor including: a base; a first conveyor segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, the upstream end being provided to receive said item; a second conveyor segment mounted on the base, said second segment having a conveyor longitudinally extending surface upon which the items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the second segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, with said second segment being mounted relative to said first segment so that items leaving the first segment downstream end are delivered to the second segment upstream end; and wherein said segments are mounted to provide for lateral relative displacement between the first segment downstream end relative to the second segment upstream end so that a desired quantity of said items pass from said first segment to said second segment, with a further desired quantity of said items being removed from said conveyor as a result of relative displacement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end, with the first segment downstream end being located above the second segment upstream end. 10. The conveyor of claim 9, wherein both conveyor surfaces are upwardly facing, and at least one of said segments is mounted for angular movement to provide for relative angular movement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. 11. The conveyor of claim 10, wherein at least one of said segments is pivotally mounted so as to be movable in a generally horizontal plane to change the relative position of the first segment downstream end with respect to the second segment upstream end to thereby provide said lateral relative displacement. 12. The conveyor of claim 11 further including a transverse conveyor positioned below said first segment downstream end and said second segment upstream end so that items leaving said first segment downstream end and not delivered to said second segment upstream end are delivered to said transverse conveyor. 13. The conveyor of claim 12, wherein each segment is a slip conveyor. 14. The conveyor of claim 12, wherein said segments are linear conveyors. 15. The conveyor of claim 14, wherein said first segment is pivotally moved in a generally horizontal plane relative to said second segment. 16. A conveyor including: a base; a first conveyor segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, the upstream end being provided to receive said item; a second conveyor segment mounted on the base, said second segment having a conveyor longitudinally extending surface upon which the items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the second segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, with said second segment being mounted relative to said first segment so that items is leaving the first segment downstream end are delivered to the second segment upstream end; and wherein said segments are mounted to provide for lateral relative displacement between the first segment downstream end relative to the second segment upstream end so that a desired quantity of said items pass from said first segment to said second segment, with a further desired quantity of said items being removed from said conveyor as a result of relative displacement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end, with at least one of said segments being pivotally mounted so as to be movable in a generally horizontal plane to change the relative position of the first segment downstream end with respect to the second segment upstream end to thereby provide said lateral relative displacement. 17. The conveyor of claim 1, wherein both conveyor surfaces are upwardly facing, and at least one of said segments is mounted for angular movement to provide for relative angular movement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. 18. The conveyor of claim 17, wherein the first segment downstream end is located above the second segment upstream end. 19. The conveyor of claim 18 further including a transverse conveyor positioned below said first segment downstream end and said second segment upstream end so that items leaving said first segment downstream end and not delivered to said second segment upstream end are delivered to said transverse conveyor. 20. The conveyor of claim 19, wherein each segment is a slip conveyor. 21. The conveyor of claim 19, wherein said segments are linear conveyors. 22. The conveyor of claim 21, wherein said first segment is pivotally moved in a generally horizontal plane relative to said second segment. 23. A conveyor including: a base; a first slip conveyor segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, the upstream end being provided to receive said item; a second slip conveyor segment mounted on the base, said second segment having a conveyor longitudinally extending surface upon which the items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the second segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, with said second segment being mounted relative to said first segment so that items leaving the first segment downstream end are delivered to the second segment upstream end; and wherein said segments are mounted to provide for lateral relative displacement between the first segment downstream end relative to the second segment upstream end so that a desired quantity of said items pass from said first segment to said second segment, with a further desired quantity of said items being removed from said conveyor as a result of relative displacement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. 24. The conveyor of claim 23, wherein both conveyor surfaces are upwardly facing, and at least one of said segments is mounted for angular movement to provide for relative angular movement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. 25. The conveyor of claim 24, wherein the first segment downstream end is located above the second segment upstream end. 26. The conveyor of claim 25, wherein at least one of said segments is pivotally mounted so as to be movable in a generally horizontal plane to change the relative position of the first segment downstream end with respect to the second segment upstream end to thereby provide said lateral relative displacement. 27. The conveyor of claim 26 further including a transverse conveyor positioned below said first segment downstream end and said second segment upstream end so that items leaving said first segment downstream end and not delivered to said second segment upstream end are delivered to said transverse conveyor. | TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to conveyors and more particularly to conveyors that have at spaced locations along the conveyors means enabling removal of items being conveyed. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The packaging industry, particularly in the packaging of snack foods, use conveyors to transport product to be packaged to spaced packaging locations. At each location there is typically a weighing machine and a packaging machine that places weighed batches of product in bags. The conveyors needs to feed sufficient product to each packaging machine. Accordingly, at spaced locations along the conveyor product is removed and delivered to the packaging machine. Typically, the product is removed by having the conveyors provided with gates that are opened and closed and through which the product is removed is from the conveyor and delivered to a further conveyor extending to the associated packaging machine. Typically, these further conveyors are transverse of the primary conveyor. A known conveyor is a slip conveyor. A slip conveyor has a conveyor surface that is vibrated longitudinally to transport product longitudinally of the conveyor. Where a number of conveyor surfaces are provided, it is known to displace the conveyor surfaces longitudinally to provide a gap between adjacent surfaces through which product is delivered. The above discussed conveyor arrangements have a number of disadvantages including insufficient control of the delivery of product to the transverse conveyors and problems in respect of cleaning. OBJECT OF THE INVENTION It is the object of the present invention to overcome or substantially ameliorate the above disadvantage. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION There is disclosed herein a conveyor including: a base; a first conveyor segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, the upstream end being provided to receive said item; a second conveyor segment mounted on the base, said second segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which the items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the second segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, with said second segment being mounted relative to said first segment so that items leaving the first segment downstream end are delivered to the second segment upstream end; and wherein said segments are mounted to provide for relative lateral displacement between the first segment downstream end relative to the second segment upstream end so that a desired quantity of said items pass from said first segment to said second segment, with a further desired quantity of said items being removed from said conveyor as a result of relative displacement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end to thereby provide said lateral relative displacement. Preferably, both conveyor surfaces are upwardly facing, and at least one of said segments is mounted for angular movement to provide for relative angular movement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. Preferably, the first segment downstream end is located above the second segment upstream end. Preferably, at least one of said segments is pivotally mounted so as to be movable in a generally horizontal plane to change the relative position of the first segment downstream end with respect to the second segment upstream end. Preferably, there is further provided a transverse conveyor positioned below said first segment downstream end and said second segment upstream end so that items leaving said first segment downstream end and not delivered to said second segment upstream end are delivered to said transverse conveyor. Preferably, each segment is a slip conveyor. Preferably, said segments are linear conveyors. Preferably, said first segment is pivotally moved in a generally horizontal plane relative to said second segment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A preferred form of the present invention will now be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic top plan view of a conveyor; and FIG. 2 is a schematic side elevation of the conveyor of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT In the accompanying drawings there is schematically depicted a linear slip conveyor 10 that delivers product to a plurality of transverse conveyors or chutes 11. Typically, if the conveyor 10 is used to transport snack foods, the product is delivered from the transverse conveyors 11 to a packaging machine. The conveyor 10 includes a plurality of conveyor segments 12 that are mounted on a base 13. The base 13 is longitudinally extending so as pass beneath each of the segments 12. Each segment 12 includes an upstream end 15, and a downstream end 16 between which a generally horizontal conveyor surface 17 passes. Product is located on each surface 17 so as to be conveyed thereby in the direction of the arrows 18. Preferably each segment 12 is pivotally mounted on the base 13 by means of a shaft 14 at or adjacent the upstream end 15. By this, the arrangement each downstream end 16 can be laterally displaced without any significant displacement of the upstream end 15 of that segment 12. Associated with each segment 12 is a slide member 19 upon which the associated segment slidably rests. The base 13 is supported on a plurality of pivotally mounted arms 20, with the base caused to reciprocate in the direction of the arrow 21 so that the conveyor 12 operates as a slip conveyor. The segments 12 overlap so that the downstream end 16 of each segment 12 is located above the upstream end 15 of the next adjacent downstream segment 12. Attached to each segment 12 is a motor 21 such as an air or hydraulic cylinder. Operation of each motor 22 causes pivoting of the associated segment 12 angularly in the direction of the arcuate arrows 23. Pivoting of each segment 12 is about a generally vertical axis 24 provided by the respective shaft 14. This angular movement is further provided by each segment 12 being slidably supported on its respective slide member 19. By operation of the motors 22, the alignment of each overlapping downstream end 16 with respect to its associated upstream end 15 can be adjusted. By displacing each downstream end 16 laterally relative to its associated upstream end 15, product is allowed to leave the downstream end 16 and be delivered to the adjacent transverse conveyor 11. The greater the degree of misalignment the more product that is delivered to the associated transverse conveyor 11. Accordingly, in the above described preferred embodiment, the delivery of product to the transverse conveyors can be better controlled. This is at least partly due to the motors 21 being operable to “continuously” vary the alignment of the ends 15 and 16. In an alternative embodiment the downstream upstream end 15 could be laterally displaced rather than the downstream end 16. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The packaging industry, particularly in the packaging of snack foods, use conveyors to transport product to be packaged to spaced packaging locations. At each location there is typically a weighing machine and a packaging machine that places weighed batches of product in bags. The conveyors needs to feed sufficient product to each packaging machine. Accordingly, at spaced locations along the conveyor product is removed and delivered to the packaging machine. Typically, the product is removed by having the conveyors provided with gates that are opened and closed and through which the product is removed is from the conveyor and delivered to a further conveyor extending to the associated packaging machine. Typically, these further conveyors are transverse of the primary conveyor. A known conveyor is a slip conveyor. A slip conveyor has a conveyor surface that is vibrated longitudinally to transport product longitudinally of the conveyor. Where a number of conveyor surfaces are provided, it is known to displace the conveyor surfaces longitudinally to provide a gap between adjacent surfaces through which product is delivered. The above discussed conveyor arrangements have a number of disadvantages including insufficient control of the delivery of product to the transverse conveyors and problems in respect of cleaning. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There is disclosed herein a conveyor including: a base; a first conveyor segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, the upstream end being provided to receive said item; a second conveyor segment mounted on the base, said second segment having a longitudinally extending conveyor surface upon which the items to be conveyed are longitudinally transported, the second segment having an upstream end and a downstream end, with said second segment being mounted relative to said first segment so that items leaving the first segment downstream end are delivered to the second segment upstream end; and wherein said segments are mounted to provide for relative lateral displacement between the first segment downstream end relative to the second segment upstream end so that a desired quantity of said items pass from said first segment to said second segment, with a further desired quantity of said items being removed from said conveyor as a result of relative displacement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end to thereby provide said lateral relative displacement. Preferably, both conveyor surfaces are upwardly facing, and at least one of said segments is mounted for angular movement to provide for relative angular movement between the first segment downstream end and the second segment upstream end. Preferably, the first segment downstream end is located above the second segment upstream end. Preferably, at least one of said segments is pivotally mounted so as to be movable in a generally horizontal plane to change the relative position of the first segment downstream end with respect to the second segment upstream end. Preferably, there is further provided a transverse conveyor positioned below said first segment downstream end and said second segment upstream end so that items leaving said first segment downstream end and not delivered to said second segment upstream end are delivered to said transverse conveyor. Preferably, each segment is a slip conveyor. Preferably, said segments are linear conveyors. Preferably, said first segment is pivotally moved in a generally horizontal plane relative to said second segment. | 20041110 | 20070306 | 20050721 | 66662.0 | 1 | DILLON JR, JOSEPH A | CONVEYOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,986,820 | ACCEPTED | Sharps container, a process of manufacturing the sharps container, and a method of storing sharps in a container | A sharps container, a process of manufacturing thereof, and a method of storing needles are disclosed. The sharps container utilizes a blocking member which does not interfere with a needle being inserted into the sharps container, and a latch mechanism which does not require a protruding tab. The latch mechanism requires at least a dual action to open the sharps container, and limits the movement required for opening the sharps container. | 1. A sharps container comprising: a space which accommodates at least one needle therein; an opening dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough, to be accommodated in the space; and a blocking member which blocks the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged towards the opening, and otherwise, does not block the opening. 2. A process or manufacturing a sharps container comprising: forming an enclosed space for accommodating at least one needle therein, the enclosed space having an opening; and forming a blocking member which blocks the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged towards the opening, and otherwise, does not block the opening. 3. A method of storing at least one needle comprising: placing a needle into a container through an opening in the container, the container comprising a space which accommodates at least one needle therein; accommodating the needle in the space; and blocking the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged towards the opening, and otherwise, not blocking the opening. 4. The sharps container as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a breaking member which applies a force to a needle received in the opening to break off at least a portion of the needle which has passed through the opening, the portion to be accommodated in the space. 5. The sharps container as claimed in claim 1, wherein the space comprises an internal housing; the opening provides access for the at least one needle to the internal housing; and the blocking member comprises a ball which is movable within the internal housing. 6. The sharps container as claimed in claim 5, wherein the internal housing further comprises a first and a second retaining wall positioned on a first interior surface of the internal housing to accommodate the ball there between and to guide the ball between a first position where the ball blocks the opening and a second position where the ball does not block the opening. 7. The sharps container as claimed in claim 6, wherein the internal housing further comprises a third retaining wall positioned to accommodate the ball in the second position. 8. The sharps container as claimed in claim 7, wherein the third retaining wall is curved. 9. The sharps container as claimed in claim 7, wherein the third retaining wall is integrally formed with at least one of the first and the second retaining wall. 10. The sharps container as claimed in claim 5, wherein the internal housing further comprises a guide rail positioned on a first surface of the internal housing, the guide rail having a sloped surface facing the ball, the sloped surface being sloped towards the first surface in a direction away from the opening. 11. The sharps container as claimed in claim 6, wherein the internal housing further comprises a rib member positioned on a second interior surface of the internal housing, which is opposite to the first interior surface, to facilitate retention of the ball between the first and the second retaining wall. 12. The process as claimed in claim 2, further comprising forming a breaking member which facilitates application of force to a needle received in the opening to break off at least a portion of the needle which has passed through the opening, the portion to be accommodated in the enclosed space. 13. The process as claimed in claim 2, wherein the forming of the enclosed space comprises forming an internal housing comprising the opening which provides access for the at least one needle to the internal housing; and the forming of the blocking member comprises forming a ball and positioning the ball to be movable within the internal housing. 14. The process as claimed in claim 13, wherein the forming of the enclosed space further comprises forming a first and a second retaining wall on a first interior surface of the internal housing to accommodate the ball therebetween and to guide the ball between a first position where the ball blocks the opening and a second position where the ball does not block the opening. 15. The process as claimed in claim 14, wherein the forming of the enclosed space further comprises forming a third retaining wall positioned to accommodate the ball in the second position. 16. The process as claimed in claim 15, wherein the third retaining wall is curved. 17. The process as claimed in claim 15, wherein the third retaining wall is integrally formed with at least one of the first and the second retaining wall. 18. The process as claimed in claim 13, wherein the forming of the enclosed space further comprises forming a guide rail positioned on a first surface of the internal housing, the guide rail having a sloped surface facing the ball, the sloped surface being sloped towards the first surface in a direction away from the opening. 19. The process as claimed in claim 14, wherein the forming of the enclosed space further comprises forming a rib member on a second interior surface of the internal housing opposite to the first interior surface, the rib member being positioned to facilitate retention of the ball between the first and the second retaining wall. 20. The method as claimed in claim 3, further comprising applying a force to the needle received in the opening to break off at least a portion of the needle which has passed through the opening, the portion to be accommodated in the space. 21. The method as claimed in claim 3, wherein the space comprises an internal housing comprising the opening which provides access for the at least one needle to the internal housing, and the blocking of the opening comprises urging a ball, which is positioned within the internal housing, toward, and away from, the opening. 22. The method as claimed in claim 21, wherein the internal housing comprises a first and a second retaining wall positioned on a first interior surface of the internal housing for accommodating the ball therebetween; and the blocking of the opening further comprises guiding the ball between a first position where the ball blocks the opening and a second position where the ball does not block the opening. 23. The method as claimed in claim 22, wherein the internal housing further comprises a third retaining wall positioned to accommodate the ball in the second position. 24. The method as claimed in claim 23, wherein the third retaining wall is curved. 25. The method as claimed in claim 23, wherein the third retaining wall is integrally formed with at least one of the first and the second retaining wall. 26. The method as claimed in claim 21, wherein the internal housing further comprises a guide rail positioned on a first surface of the internal housing, the guide rail having a sloped surface facing the ball, the sloped surface being sloped towards the first surface in a direction away from the opening. 27. The method as claimed in claim 22, wherein the internal housing further comprises a rib member positioned on a second interior surface of the internal housing opposite to the first interior surface, the rib member being positioned to facilitate retention of the ball between the first and the second retaining wall. 28. The sharps container as claimed in claim 4, wherein the breaking member comprises an external housing, the external housing being movable relative to the opening between an open position and a closed position; the external housing comprises a second opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; the second opening and the opening overlap when in the open position, so that an area of overlap of the second opening and the opening is dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; and the force is applied to the needle by reducing the area of overlap, whereby the needle is broken off when in the closed position. 29. The sharps container as claimed in claim 28, wherein the space comprises an internal housing which accommodates the at least one needle; and the external housing comprises a first latch member engaged with the internal housing when in the closed position, and a second latch member engaged with the internal housing when in the closed position. 30. The sharps container as claimed in claim 29, wherein the open position is achieved by disengaging the first latch member and the second latch member. 31. The sharps container as claimed in claim 29, wherein the first latch member comprises a first exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the internal housing when in the closed position; and the second latch member comprises a second exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to the contour of the exterior surface of the internal housing when in the closed position. 32. The sharps container as claimed in claim 29, wherein the internal housing comprises at least one tab on an exterior surface thereof; the first latch member comprises a first tab on the interior surface thereof, the interior surface of the first latch member facing the exterior surface of the internal housing when in closed position; the second latch member comprises a second tab on the interior surface thereof, the interior surface of the second latch member facing the exterior surface of the internal housing when in closed position; and at least one of the first and the second tab engages the at least one tab on the exterior surface of the internal housing when in the closed position. 33. The sharps container as claimed in claim 32, wherein the internal housing comprises at least one other tab on the exterior surface thereof; and another of the at least one of the first and the second tab engages the at least one other tab on the exterior surface of the internal housing when in the closed position. 34. The sharps container as claimed in claim 29, further comprising a spring mechanism which urges the external housing with respect to the internal housing in a direction facilitating the open position. 35. The sharps container as claimed in claim 30, wherein the disengaging of the first latch member and the second latch member if facilitated by essentially simultaneous manipulation of the first latch member and the second latch member. 36. A sharps container comprising: a first housing comprising a space, which accommodates at least one needle therein, and a first opening, dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough to be accommodated in the space; and a breaking member comprising an engaging mechanism and a second opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; wherein the second opening and the first opening overlap when in an open position to receive the at least one needle through the first opening and the second opening via an area of overlap between the first opening and the second opening; a force is applied to the needle by moving at least one of the breaking member and the first housing relative to each other to reducing the area of overlap, whereby the needle is broken off when in a closed position; the engaging mechanism comprises: a first engaging member securing the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position; and a second engaging member securing the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position; and the open position is achieved by manipulating the first engaging member and the second engaging member. 37. The sharps container as claimed in claim 36, wherein the first housing comprises at least one latch cam on an exterior surface the first engaging member comprises a first latch cam on the interior surface thereof, the interior surface of the first engaging member facing the exterior surface of the first housing when in closed position; the second engaging member comprises a second latch cam on the interior surface thereof, the interior surface of the second engaging member facing the exterior surface of the first housing when in closed position; and at least one of the first and the second latch cam engages the at least one latch cam on the exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 38. The sharps container as claimed in claim 36, wherein the first housing comprises at least one other latch cam on the exterior surface thereof; and another of the at least one of the first and the second latch cam engages the at least one other latch cam on the exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 39. The sharps container as claimed in claim 29, further comprising a spring mechanism which urges the breaking member with respect to the first housing in a direction facilitating the open position. 40. The sharps container as claimed in claim 36, wherein the open position is facilitated by essentially simultaneous manipulation of the first engaging member and the second engaging member. 41. The sharps container as claimed in claim 36, wherein the engaging mechanism comprises an exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 42. The sharps container as claimed in claim 36, wherein the first engaging member comprises a first exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position; and the second engaging member comprises a second exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to the contour of the exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 43. The sharps container as claimed in claim 36, wherein the first engaging member comprises a first interior surface facing an exterior surface of the first housing; the second engaging member comprises a second interior surface facing the exterior surface of the first housing; and the manipulating of at least one of the fist engaging member and the second engaging member is limited, respectively, by a first distance between the first interior surface and the exterior surface of the first housing and by a second distance between the second interior surface and the exterior surface of the first housing. 44. A sharps container comprising: a first housing comprising a space, which accommodates at least one needle therein, and a first opening dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough, to be accommodated in the space; and a breaking member comprising an engaging mechanism and a second opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; wherein the second opening and the first opening overlap when in an open position to receive the at least one needle through the first opening and the second opening via an area of overlap between the first opening and the second opening; a force is applied to the needle by moving at least one of the breaking member and the first housing relative to each other to reduce the area of overlap, whereby the needle is broken off when in a closed position; the engaging mechanism secures the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position; and the engaging mechanism comprises an exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 45. The sharps container as claimed in claim 44, wherein the engaging mechanism comprises a first lever and a second lever; and the open position is facilitated by manipulating the first lever and the second lever. 46. The sharps container as claimed in claim 45, wherein the first housing comprises a first latch cam on an exterior surface thereof; the engaging mechanism comprises a second latch cam on the interior surface thereof, the interior surface of the engaging mechanism facing the exterior surface of the first housing when in closed position; the first latch cam engages the second latch cam when in the closed-position; and disengagement of the first latch cam and the second latch cam is facilitated by the manipulating of the first lever and the second lever. 47. The sharps container as claimed in claim 46, wherein the first housing further comprises a third latch cam on the exterior surface thereof; the engaging mechanism comprises a fourth latch cam on the interior surface thereof; the third latch cam engages the fourth latch cam when in the closed position; the disengagement of the first latch cam and the second latch cam is facilitated by the manipulating of the first lever; and the disengagement of the third latch cam and the forth latch cam is facilitated by the manipulating of the second lever. 48. The sharps container as claimed in claim 44, further comprising a spring mechanism which urges the breaking member with respect to the first housing in a direction facilitating the open position. 49. The sharps container as claimed in claim 45, wherein the open position is facilitated by essentially simultaneous manipulation of the first lever and the second lever. 50. The sharps container as claimed in claim 45, wherein: the first lever comprises a first exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position; and the second lever comprises a second exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to the contour of the exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 51. A process of manufacturing a sharps container comprising: forming a first housing comprising a space, which accommodates at least one needle therein, and a first opening, dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough to be accommodated in the space; forming a breaking member comprising an engaging mechanism and a second opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; and engaging the first housing and the breaking member so that the first housing and the breaking member are movable between an open position and a closed position; wherein the second opening and the first opening overlap when in the open position to receive the at least one needle through the first opening and the second opening via an area of overlap between the first opening and the second opening; a force is applied to the needle when at least one of the breaking member and the first housing move relative to each other to reduce the area of overlap, whereby the needle is broken off when in the closed position; the engaging mechanism comprises: a first engaging member securing the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position, and a second engaging member securing the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position; and the open position is achieved by manipulating the first engaging member and the second engaging member. 52. A method of storing at least one needle in a sharps container, the sharps container comprising: a first housing comprising a space, which accommodates at least one needle therein, and a first opening dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough; and a breaking member comprising an engaging mechanism and a second opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; wherein the first housing and the breaking member are movable between an open position and a closed position, the second opening and the first opening overlap when in the open position to receive the at least one needle through the first opening and the second opening via an area of overlap between the first opening and the second opening, and the second opening and the first opening do not overlap in the closed position; wherein the engaging mechanism comprises: a first engaging member securing the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position; and a second engaging member securing the first housing and the breaking member when in the closed position; the method comprising: manipulating the first engaging member and the second engaging member to facilitate the open position; inserting a needle into the first opening and the second opening via the area of overlap between the first opening and the second opening when in the open position; moving at least one of the breaking member and the first housing relative to each other to reduce the area of overlap until the needle is broken off; and further moving at least one of the breaking member and the first housing relative to each other until the breaking member and the first housing member are secured in the closed position by the first engaging member and the second engaging member. 53. A process of manufacturing a sharps container comprising: forming a first housing comprising a space, which accommodates at least one needle therein, and a first opening, dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough to be accommodated in the space; forming a breaking member comprising an engaging mechanism and a second opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough; and engaging the first housing and the breaking member so that the first housing and the breaking member are movable between an open position and a closed position; wherein the second opening and the first opening overlap when in the open position to receive the at least one needle through the first opening and the second opening via an area of overlap between the first opening and the second opening; a force is applied to the needle when at least one of the breaking member and the first housing move relative to each other to reduce the area of overlap, whereby the needle is broken off when in the closed position; and the engaging mechanism comprises an exterior surface whose contour is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the first housing when in the closed position. 54. The process as claimed in claim 53, wherein at least one of the forming of the first housing and the forming of the breaking member comprises injection molding. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to safety devices, and in particular to a sharps container for cutting and storing hypodermic needles from syringes and pen needles. The invention also relates to a method for storing the needles and to a process of manufacturing the sharps container. 2. Discussion of the Background After a hypodermic needle has been used for an injection, it is desirable to remove and store the hypodermic needle in a safe container. A sharps container which is known in the art comprises an inner box member and an outer housing member. The box and the housing each have an aperture which is dimensioned to receive the hypodermic needle. The box and the housing are hingedly connected to each other so that in an open position the apertures of the box and the housing overlap and the needle may be inserted through both of the apertures to project into the box. After the needle has been inserted into the apertures, the box and the housing are moved with respect to each other, for example in a scissor motion, so that the needle is clipped. After being clipped, the needle drops into the box for storage and subsequent disposal. The box maybe urged into the open position by spring action, and retained in a closed position by latching the housing with the box. When the container is in the closed position, the apertures of the box and the housing do not overlap, and therefore, the sharps cannot escape the box. However, when the latch is released, the box and the housing move into the open position with respect to each other so that the aperture of the box coincide with aperture of the housing, and therefore, there may exist a situation where a needle is liable to escape from the box through the apertures. An example of such a circumstance is when the openings are positioned such that the force of gravity forces the needle toward the openings and possibly through the openings. A known solution to the problem of keeping needles from falling out of the box when in the open position is to include a blocking member in the interior of the box. The blocking member includes a ball movable between a blocking position, where the ball blocks the apertures of the box, and an unblocking position, where the ball does not block the aperture of the box. In particular, the ball is movable within the internal housing from the blocking position to the unblocking position, such that the ball is retained in the blocking position. When a needle is inserted into the opening of the box, the ball is forced away from the opening by the action of the inserted needle. After the needle has been broken off and subsequently falls into the box, the ball is returned to the blocking position. That is, in the known devices, the metal ball was designed to normally block the needle aperture, and to move away from the aperture only when a needle inserted into the aperture moves the ball bearing out of the way. After the needle has been broken off (i.e., clipped and falls into the box), the ball rolls back in front of the needle aperture. A drawback of such a blocking arrangement is that in many cases the needles do not fall freely into the box after being clipped, but become wedged against the ball, hampering its motion. This renders the device unusable because additional needles cannot be inserted due to the jam. Another drawback of the known blocking mechanism is that it is not well-suited for short needles because the needles need to be a certain minimum length to push the ball completely out of the way. That is, when a short needle is inserted through both apertures, the ball does not get pushed completely out of the way, and after being clipped, the needle is not allowed to fall into the box, instead becoming wedged against the ball and jamming the aperture of the box. As described above, the box and the housing are retained in the closed position by latching the box with the housing so that in the closed position the apertures of the box and the housing do not overlap, thereby effectively blocking the opening of the box and preventing the needles from falling out. However, several drawbacks have been observed with known mechanisms for latching the box and the housing. For example, known latch mechanisms include a tab which protrudes from the device and has been known to easily break off, thereby rendering the device unusable. Another example of known latching mechanisms employs a single tab to retain the box and the housing in a hinged positioned. A drawback of such an arrangement is that the device is prone to inadvertent activation (i.e., inadvertent opening). Yet another drawback of the known latch mechanisms is that the tab is designed to be moved freely whereby the permitted excessive movement of the tab (beyond the range of movement required for unlatching the box and the hosing) facilitates breakage of the tab during the normal operation of the device. The present invention addresses the above-noted drawback of the known sharps containers by providing a sharps container, a process of manufacturing thereof, and a method of storing needles, where a blocking member does not interfere with a needle being inserted into the sharps container, where a latch mechanism does not require a protruding tab, where a latch mechanism requires at least a dual action to open the sharps container, and where a latch mechanism limits the movement required for opening the sharps container. An embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container comprising a space which accommodates at least one needle therein and an opening dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough, to be accommodated in the space. The sharps container includes a blocking member which blocks the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged towards the opening, and otherwise, does not block the opening. Another embodiment of the invention provides a process of manufacturing a sharps container which comprises forming an enclosed space for accommodating at least one needle therein, the enclosed space having an opening. In particular, the process provides forming a blocking member which blocks the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged toward the opening, and otherwise, does not block the opening. Yet another embodiment of the invention provides a method of storing at least one needle in a container by placing the needle through an opening in the container and blocking the opening only when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space inside the container is urged toward the opening, and otherwise, not blocking the opening. A further embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container, and a process of manufacturing thereof, which has an internal housing for accommodating at least one needle therein, and an opening, dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough to be accommodated in the housing. The sharps container has an external housing, which functions as a breaking member, comprising an engaging mechanism and another opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough. When the sharps container is in an open position, the openings of the interior and external housings overlap allowing a needle to be inserted through both opening into the internal housing. When the sharps container is urged into a closed position, a force is applied to the needle by the movement of the breaking member (i.e., the external housing) and the internal housing relative to each other which reduces the area of overlap of the opening, whereby the needle is broken off when in a closed position. The engaging mechanism comprises at least two engaging members securing the internal housing and the external housing when in the closed position, so that the open position is achieved by manipulating both of the engaging members. A still further embodiment of the invention provides a method for storing needles in a sharps container, which requires a step of performing at least a dual action to produce an open position of the sharps container. A non-limiting example of such a method includes producing the open position by simultaneously manipulating at least two engaging members which secure the sharps container in a closed position. A still further embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container, and a process of manufacturing thereof, where the contour of the exterior surface of the engaging mechanism is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the internal housing when in the closed position. Thus, protrusions which may break off or cause inadvertent opening (as in known devices) are avoided. A still further embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container having an internal housing for storing needles and an engaging member for maintaining the sharps container in a closed positions, and a process of manufacturing thereof. In particular, the engaging member comprises at least one lever constructed such that manipulation of the engaging member to facilitate an open position comprises urging a lever of the engaging member toward the internal housing, so that the manipulation of the engaging member is limited by, for example, a distance between the interior surface of the engaging member and an exterior surface of the internal housing. The above-noted solutions maybe implemented together, or in any desired combination, in a sharps container, in a process of manufacturing thereof, and in a method for storing needles, according to the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other objects and novel features of the invention will be more readily appreciated from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which FIG. 1 is an overhead view of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a side view of a sharps container in a closed position according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 is a side view of a sharps container in an open position according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is an illustration of a needle-storage (interior) housing of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 5a-5f illustrate in detail a needle-storage (interior) housing of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5b is a sectional view along line I-I of FIG. 5a, FIG. 5e is a sectional view of FIG. 5C along line II-II, and FIG. 5f is a sectional view of FIG. 5c along line III-III. FIG. 6 is an illustration of a base (i.e., external housing which may serve as a breaking member) of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 7a-7f illustrate a manufacturing process of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. Throughout the drawings, like reference characters refer to like structures. DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIGS. 1-4, a sharps container 1 comprises an internal housing (e.g., a box member) 2 which is pivotally mounted in an external housing (e.g., a breaking member) 3. The external housing 3 is provided with an external cutter 4 comprising a bent sheet of metal with an aperture 5 (see FIGS. 2 and 3). Internal housing 2 is provided with an internal cutter 6, comprising a metal disc with an internal aperture 7 (see FIGS. 3 and 4). When container 1 is in an open position, as illustrated in FIG. 3, apertures 5 and 7 overlap so as to permit insertion of a hypodermic needle, point first, into the box member 2. Container 1 is biased in the open position by, for example, a leaf spring 11 (shown in FIGS. 7c and 7d described below) formed from hardened spring steel. Container 1 can be moved into a closed position by pushing internal housing 2 into external housing 3 until tabs 8 engage with tabs 9 to retain the container in the closed position. A user can return container 1 to the open position by simultaneously pushing together, as shown, for example, in FIG. 6 (see arrows 11), levers 10 which have tabs 9 thereon to release the internal housing 2. The internal housing 2 and external housing 3 are formed from, for example, 20% glass fiber filled polycarbonate. The external cutter 4 is formed from, for example, CS70 hardened and tempered steel, and the internal cutter 6 is formed from, for example, CS2 case hardened steel. Other non-limiting examples of materials which may be used for the external and internal cutters include, inter alia, 440A hardened stainless steel and/or PHI 7-7 precipitation hardened stainless steel. As shown in FIG. 4, the internal housing 2 comprises a base part 41 and a box part 42. The box part 42, which is, for example, ultrasonically welded to the base part 41, has a recess 43 in which an internal cutter is fit once the box part 42 and base part 41 are ultrasonically welded. An internal aperture 44 at the center of the recess 43 provides access for a needle to the inside of the internal housing 2. The box part 42 is provided with a molded groove 45 which snap-fits with the external housing 3 (see FIGS. 7c and 7d) to enable the assembled internal housing 2 to be pivotally mounted on the external housing 3. Referring to FIGS. 5a-5f, the inside 51 of the box part 42 is hollow for receiving and storing hypodermic needles (see FIGS. 5e and 5f). As shown in FIGS. 5a and 5b, base part 41 of internal housing 2 includes retaining walls 52 and 53 (see also FIG. 4) molded to internal surface 54 of the base part 41. The retaining walls 52 and 53 are constructed to retain a ball bearing 55 when the internal housing 2 is assembled by, for example, ultrasonic welding of the base part 41 to the box part 42. FIGS. 4 and 5a show a straight retaining wall 53 and a curved retaining wall 52. Retaining wall 52 is a single curved wall curved to retain the ball bearing 55; however, the single curved wall structure may be replaced by, for example, multiple retaining walls arranged with respect to each other to facilitate retention of ball bearing 55. The base part 41 further comprises a ramp 56 molded to internal surface 54 of the base part 41 between the retaining walls 52 and 53. Ramp 56 has a downward slope towards the surface 54 in a direction away from the internal aperture 44. The design of ramp 56 facilitates ball bearing 55 blocking aperture 44 when container 1 is tilted in such a way that the needle apertures are at the lowest point of container 1. The box part 42 comprises a rib 57 molded to its internal surface 58. Rib 57 is positioned such that when the internal housing 2 is assembled by, for example, ultrasonic welding of the base part 41 to the box part 42, rib 57 prevents ball bearing 55 from falling out of a guide channel formed by the retaining walls 52 and 53 (see FIGS. 5e and 5f). That is, when the base part 41 is welded to the box part 42, base part 41 and box part 42 cooperate to cage the ball bearing 55 (as shown, for example, in FIG. 5f). As discussed above, a sharps contained 1 includes an internal housing 2 pivotally connected to an external housing 3. A shown in FIG. 6, the external housing 3 is provided with a pivot structure 61 for engagement with the groove 45 on the internal housing 2, and a retention structure 67 to retain a leaf spring 11. External housing 3 comprises a transverse flex latch mechanism which allows one to easily open or close a sharps container. That is, as described above, the sharps container 1 has a stationary housing component (e.g., external member 3), which may be referred to as a base, and a needle storage component (e.g., internal member 2), which may be referred to as a lever, which is hinged to the base. The lever is permitted to move within a certain range of motion (see, for example, FIGS. 7e and 7f). Spring 11 is fixed to the base (3) and makes contact with the lever (2), thus urging it to one extreme of this range of motion. The transverse flex latch enables the user of the sharps container 1 to easily set the lever from one extreme to the other extreme. It accomplishes this by using two latch cams (e.g., tabs 8) on the lever and two latch cams (e.g., tabs 9) on the base. The two latch cams on the lever are a set distance apart. The two latch cams on the base are placed on flexible structures (e.g., levers 10), such that the distance between them may vary. As shown, for example, in FIGS. 7e and 7f, the two latch cam pairs (e.g., tabs 8 and 9, respectively) are arranged geometrically such that the latch cams on the base can interfere with the latch cams on the lever. In this mode, the latch cams on the base hold the lever in the closed position, against the spring which is urging the lever towards the open position. Squeezing the designated area on the device (see, for example, FIG. 6, arrows 12) causes the distance between the base latch cams to decrease and no longer be held back by the lever latch cams, which are a fixed distance apart. To close the device, the lever latch cams are forced past the base latch cams by means of angled surfaces (see, for example, surface 71 of tabs 8, as shown in FIG. 7a) which force the base latch cams together, allowing the lever latch cams to pass. Once they are clear, the base latch cams spring apart and constrain the movement of the lever (see, for example, FIG. 7f). As shown, for example, in FIG. 1, the contour of exterior surface 101 of external housing 3 is essentially parallel to the contour of the exterior surface 100 of the internal housing 2. That is, in contrast to previous devices, the transverse latch mechanism avoids having any protruding members (tabs or otherwise) on the exterior surface 101 of the external housing 3, even in the area of the latching mechanism. The latch cams which comprise tabs 8 and 9 are safely hidden away between the exterior surface 100 of the internal housing 2 and interior surface 102 of the external housing 3. Furthermore, the movement of levers 10 to facilitate the opening of sharps container 1 is limited by the distance between the exterior surface 100 of the internal housing 2 and interior surface 102 of the external housing 3 (see, for example, FIG. 1, distance d). Referring to FIGS. 7a-7d, a process of manufacturing a sharps container according the invention comprises the following steps: 1. As shown in FIG. 7a, forming (preferably by injection molding) a base part 41 and a box part 42, where the base part 42 includes ball bearing retaining structure comprising walls 52 and 53 and a ramp 56, and the base part includes rib 57 (see FIG. 5e), and attaching base part 41 and box part 42 (preferably by ultrasonic welding) with ball bearing 55 placed in the retaining structure to complete the internal housing 2. 2. As shown in FIG. 7b, forming (preferably by injection molding) an external housing 3 comprising transverse latch mechanism structure (comprising levers 10 and tabs 9) and an opening 700 (for receiving an external cutter 4 comprising a bent sheet of metal with an aperture 5), and securing the external cutter 4 in the opening 700. 3. As shown in FIG. 7c, securing an internal cutter 6 in recess 43 of internal housing 2 making sure that openings 7 and 44 are aligned, and securing spring mechanism 11 to external housing 3. 4. As shown in FIG. 7d, hingedly attaching external housing 3 and internal housing 2. Referring to FIGS. 7e and 7f, during normal operation the natural position of the container 1 is such that, when a hypodermic needle (not shown) is pushed through the external aperture 5 and the internal aperture 7 when the container 1 is in the open position, the needle protrudes fully into the inside of the box part 42 of the internal housing 2 (FIG. 7e), and the ball bearing 55 is in an unblocking position due to the geometry of the ramp 56. When container 1 is urged into the closed position (FIG. 7f), the movement of the container 1 to the closed position cuts the needle (not shown) pushed through the external aperture 5 and the internal aperture 7 with a scissor movement and the needle drops into the box part 42 of the internal housing 2. Due to the structure of the ball bearing guiding members including retaining walls 52, 53, ramp 56 and rib 57, only when the container 1 is held with apertures 5 and 7 nearest the ground, the ball bearing 55 rests over the internal opening 44, preventing egress of needles; otherwise, ball bearing 55 does not block opening 44. While detailed descriptions of certain embodiments of the invention have been set forth above, a skilled artisan would readily appreciate that numerous additional modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in the light of the above teachings without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, internal housing 2 may further comprise a magnet which would facilitate retention of the needles within the box part 42, without adversely affecting the operation of the blocking mechanism which may include a ball bearing made of non-magnetic material (e.g., a ceramic). Thus, it is to be understood that the scope of the invention is set forth below in the appended claims and equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to safety devices, and in particular to a sharps container for cutting and storing hypodermic needles from syringes and pen needles. The invention also relates to a method for storing the needles and to a process of manufacturing the sharps container. 2. Discussion of the Background After a hypodermic needle has been used for an injection, it is desirable to remove and store the hypodermic needle in a safe container. A sharps container which is known in the art comprises an inner box member and an outer housing member. The box and the housing each have an aperture which is dimensioned to receive the hypodermic needle. The box and the housing are hingedly connected to each other so that in an open position the apertures of the box and the housing overlap and the needle may be inserted through both of the apertures to project into the box. After the needle has been inserted into the apertures, the box and the housing are moved with respect to each other, for example in a scissor motion, so that the needle is clipped. After being clipped, the needle drops into the box for storage and subsequent disposal. The box maybe urged into the open position by spring action, and retained in a closed position by latching the housing with the box. When the container is in the closed position, the apertures of the box and the housing do not overlap, and therefore, the sharps cannot escape the box. However, when the latch is released, the box and the housing move into the open position with respect to each other so that the aperture of the box coincide with aperture of the housing, and therefore, there may exist a situation where a needle is liable to escape from the box through the apertures. An example of such a circumstance is when the openings are positioned such that the force of gravity forces the needle toward the openings and possibly through the openings. A known solution to the problem of keeping needles from falling out of the box when in the open position is to include a blocking member in the interior of the box. The blocking member includes a ball movable between a blocking position, where the ball blocks the apertures of the box, and an unblocking position, where the ball does not block the aperture of the box. In particular, the ball is movable within the internal housing from the blocking position to the unblocking position, such that the ball is retained in the blocking position. When a needle is inserted into the opening of the box, the ball is forced away from the opening by the action of the inserted needle. After the needle has been broken off and subsequently falls into the box, the ball is returned to the blocking position. That is, in the known devices, the metal ball was designed to normally block the needle aperture, and to move away from the aperture only when a needle inserted into the aperture moves the ball bearing out of the way. After the needle has been broken off (i.e., clipped and falls into the box), the ball rolls back in front of the needle aperture. A drawback of such a blocking arrangement is that in many cases the needles do not fall freely into the box after being clipped, but become wedged against the ball, hampering its motion. This renders the device unusable because additional needles cannot be inserted due to the jam. Another drawback of the known blocking mechanism is that it is not well-suited for short needles because the needles need to be a certain minimum length to push the ball completely out of the way. That is, when a short needle is inserted through both apertures, the ball does not get pushed completely out of the way, and after being clipped, the needle is not allowed to fall into the box, instead becoming wedged against the ball and jamming the aperture of the box. As described above, the box and the housing are retained in the closed position by latching the box with the housing so that in the closed position the apertures of the box and the housing do not overlap, thereby effectively blocking the opening of the box and preventing the needles from falling out. However, several drawbacks have been observed with known mechanisms for latching the box and the housing. For example, known latch mechanisms include a tab which protrudes from the device and has been known to easily break off, thereby rendering the device unusable. Another example of known latching mechanisms employs a single tab to retain the box and the housing in a hinged positioned. A drawback of such an arrangement is that the device is prone to inadvertent activation (i.e., inadvertent opening). Yet another drawback of the known latch mechanisms is that the tab is designed to be moved freely whereby the permitted excessive movement of the tab (beyond the range of movement required for unlatching the box and the hosing) facilitates breakage of the tab during the normal operation of the device. The present invention addresses the above-noted drawback of the known sharps containers by providing a sharps container, a process of manufacturing thereof, and a method of storing needles, where a blocking member does not interfere with a needle being inserted into the sharps container, where a latch mechanism does not require a protruding tab, where a latch mechanism requires at least a dual action to open the sharps container, and where a latch mechanism limits the movement required for opening the sharps container. An embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container comprising a space which accommodates at least one needle therein and an opening dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough, to be accommodated in the space. The sharps container includes a blocking member which blocks the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged towards the opening, and otherwise, does not block the opening. Another embodiment of the invention provides a process of manufacturing a sharps container which comprises forming an enclosed space for accommodating at least one needle therein, the enclosed space having an opening. In particular, the process provides forming a blocking member which blocks the opening when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space is urged toward the opening, and otherwise, does not block the opening. Yet another embodiment of the invention provides a method of storing at least one needle in a container by placing the needle through an opening in the container and blocking the opening only when the opening is positioned so that at least one needle accommodated in the space inside the container is urged toward the opening, and otherwise, not blocking the opening. A further embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container, and a process of manufacturing thereof, which has an internal housing for accommodating at least one needle therein, and an opening, dimensioned to receive at least one needle therethrough to be accommodated in the housing. The sharps container has an external housing, which functions as a breaking member, comprising an engaging mechanism and another opening dimensioned to receive the at least one needle therethrough. When the sharps container is in an open position, the openings of the interior and external housings overlap allowing a needle to be inserted through both opening into the internal housing. When the sharps container is urged into a closed position, a force is applied to the needle by the movement of the breaking member (i.e., the external housing) and the internal housing relative to each other which reduces the area of overlap of the opening, whereby the needle is broken off when in a closed position. The engaging mechanism comprises at least two engaging members securing the internal housing and the external housing when in the closed position, so that the open position is achieved by manipulating both of the engaging members. A still further embodiment of the invention provides a method for storing needles in a sharps container, which requires a step of performing at least a dual action to produce an open position of the sharps container. A non-limiting example of such a method includes producing the open position by simultaneously manipulating at least two engaging members which secure the sharps container in a closed position. A still further embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container, and a process of manufacturing thereof, where the contour of the exterior surface of the engaging mechanism is essentially parallel to a contour of an exterior surface of the internal housing when in the closed position. Thus, protrusions which may break off or cause inadvertent opening (as in known devices) are avoided. A still further embodiment of the invention provides a sharps container having an internal housing for storing needles and an engaging member for maintaining the sharps container in a closed positions, and a process of manufacturing thereof. In particular, the engaging member comprises at least one lever constructed such that manipulation of the engaging member to facilitate an open position comprises urging a lever of the engaging member toward the internal housing, so that the manipulation of the engaging member is limited by, for example, a distance between the interior surface of the engaging member and an exterior surface of the internal housing. The above-noted solutions maybe implemented together, or in any desired combination, in a sharps container, in a process of manufacturing thereof, and in a method for storing needles, according to the invention. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>These and other objects and novel features of the invention will be more readily appreciated from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which FIG. 1 is an overhead view of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a side view of a sharps container in a closed position according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 is a side view of a sharps container in an open position according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is an illustration of a needle-storage (interior) housing of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 5 a - 5 f illustrate in detail a needle-storage (interior) housing of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 b is a sectional view along line I-I of FIG. 5 a , FIG. 5 e is a sectional view of FIG. 5C along line II-II, and FIG. 5 f is a sectional view of FIG. 5 c along line III-III. FIG. 6 is an illustration of a base (i.e., external housing which may serve as a breaking member) of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 7 a - 7 f illustrate a manufacturing process of a sharps container according to an embodiment of the invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? Throughout the drawings, like reference characters refer to like structures. | 20041115 | 20130903 | 20060518 | 93762.0 | B65D8310 | 0 | PICKETT, JOHN G | SHARPS CONTAINER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,004 |
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10,986,948 | ACCEPTED | Reversible child resistant cap and combination of a container and a reversible child resistant cap | The present invention relates to a reversible child resistant cap and a closure system having two positions, the first being a child resistant position and the other being a non-child resistant position. The cap is characterized in that it has a closure plane, a circumferential outer skirt for engaging a container, and a circumferential resilient depending inner member. | 1. A reversible child resistant cap for use with a container, the cap having a child resistant mode when applied to the container in a first child resistant position and having a non-child resistant mode when applied to the container in a second non-child resistant position, the cap comprising: a closure plane; a circumferential outer skirt comprising an upper portion extending in an upward direction from the closure plane, a lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane; an inner skirt inside the circumferential outer skirt, the inner skirt having an upper end and a lower end; a non-child resistant engaging means for engaging the container and positioned above the closure plane; and wherein the inner surface of the lower portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a child resistant engaging means for engaging the container. 2. The cap in accordance with claim 1, wherein: the upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt includes an upper end; and the upper end of the inner skirt is positioned at substantially the same distance from the closure plane as the upper end of the circumferential outer skirt. 3. The cap in accordance with claim 1, wherein the upper end of the inner skirt is closed and the lower end of the inner skirt is open. 4. The cap in accordance with claim 1, further comprising: the upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt including an inner surface; and an annular gap between the upper end of the inner skirt and the inner surface of the upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt. 5. The cap in accordance with claim 1, wherein the upper end of the inner skirt comprises the non-child resistant engaging means. 6. A container comprising: a body open at a first end and closed at a second end opposite from said first end, said body having an interior surface, an exterior surface, and a uniform diameter; a non-child resistant closure engaging means disposed near said open end at a first distance from said open end; at least one camming latch disposed on said exterior surface near said open end at a second distance from said open end, wherein said second distance is greater than said first distance. 7. The container of claim 6, wherein said non-child resistant closure engaging means comprises an element selected from the group consisting of an endless closure bead, a thread bead, and a double entry thread bead. 8. The container of claim 6, wherein the non-child resistant closure engaging means and the child resistant closure engaging means are mutually exclusive. 9. The container of claim 6, wherein the container cooperates with a cap having a non-child resistant element, the body interior surface adjacent to the body open end shaped to mate with the non-child resistant element on the cap. 10. A reversible child resistant cap for use with a container having an opening with an opening diameter, the cap having a child resistant mode when applied to the container in a first child resistant position and having a non-child resistant mode when applied to the container in a second non-child resistant position, the cap comprising: a closure plane; a cap upper portion extending an upward direction from the closure plane and including an upper circumferential outer skirt, a non-child resistant engaging closure for engaging the container, and an upper inner skirt inside the upper circumferential outer skirt; and a cap lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane and including a lower circumferential outer skirt, a lower inner skirt inside the lower circumferential outer skirt, and a child resistant engaging closure for engaging the container. 11. The cap in accordance with claim 10, wherein the lower circumferential outer skirt includes an inner surface and the child resistant engaging closure is positioned on the inner surface of the lower circumferential outer skirt. 12. The cap in accordance with claim 11, wherein the upper circumferential outer skirt includes an inner surface and the inner surface of the upper circumferential outer skirt includes a non-child resistant engaging closure means for engaging the container. 13. The cap in accordance with claim 10, wherein the upper inner skirt is closed and the lower inner skirt is open. 14. The cap in accordance with claim 10, wherein the upper circumferential outer skirt includes an inner surface and the inner surface of the upper circumferential outer skirt includes a non-child resistant engaging closure means for engaging the container. 15. The cap in accordance with claim 10, wherein the upper inner skirt includes a first diameter and the lower inner skirt includes a second diameter, the first diameter being less than the opening diameter of the container and the second diameter being less than the opening diameter of the container. 16. A reversible child resistant cap for use with a container having an opening, the cap having a child resistant mode when applied to the container in a first child resistant position and having a non-child resistant mode when applied to the container in a second non-child resistant position, the cap comprising: a closure plane; a circumferential outer skirt including an upper portion extending in an upward direction from the closure plane and a lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane; an depending inner member inside the circumferential outer skirt, the depending inner member having an upper end extending in an upward direction from the closure plane and a lower end extending in a downward direction from the closure plane; a non-child resistant engaging means positioned above the closure plane for engaging the container; and a child resistant engaging means positioned below the closure plane for engaging the container. 17. The cap in accordance with claim 16, wherein the non-child resistant engaging means is positioned on the upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt. 18. The cap in accordance with claim 16, wherein the child resistant engaging means is positioned on the lower portion of the circumferential outer skirt. 19. The cap in accordance with claim 16, wherein the upper end of the depending inner member plugs the opening of the container when in the second non-child resistant position. 20. The cap in accordance with claim 16, wherein the lower end of the depending inner member plugs the opening of the container when in the first child resistant position. 21. A reversible child resistant cap for use with a container having an opening, the cap having a child resistant mode when applied to the container in a first child resistant position and having a non-child resistant mode when applied to the container in a second non-child resistant position, the cap comprising: a closure plane; a cap upper portion extending an upward direction from the closure plane and including a circumferential outer skirt, an inner skirt inside the circumferential outer skirt, and a non-child resistant engaging closure for engaging the container; and a cap lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane and including a circumferential outer skirt, an inner skirt inside the circumferential outer skirt, and a child resistant engaging closure for engaging the container. | CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation application which claims benefit of copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/302,954 filed Nov. 25, 2002, entitled “Reversible Child Resistant Cap and Combination of a Container and a Reversible Child Resistant Cap”, which is a Continuation application claiming benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/236,940 filed Sep. 9, 2002, entitled “Reversible Child Resistant Cap and Combination of a Container and a Reversible Child Resistant Cap”, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,523,709 on Feb. 25, 2003, which claimes benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/794,157 filed Feb. 28, 2001, entitled “Reversible Child Resistant Cap and Combination of a Container and a Reversible Child Resistant Cap”, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,446,823 on Sep. 10, 2002, which claims benefit of U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 60/185,706 filed Feb. 29, 2000, of which the entireties of all of the afore mentioned are hereby incorporated by reference herein. TECHNICAL FIELD AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention relates to a reversible child resistant cap. Specifically, the invention relates to a cap which may be applied to a vial or other container in one of two positions, the first being a child resistant position and the second being a non-child resistant position. The child resistant position provides an obstacle to children being able to remove the cap from the container, whilst the non-child resistant position allows for ready removal of the cap from the container. The present invention also provides a reversible child resistant cap and container assembly. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There are many varying types of child resistant closure systems disclosed in the art. An example of a particular type of child resistant closure system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,449,078, which relates to a combination of a container and safety cap. The aforementioned patent is herein incorporated by reference. While many child resistant caps effectively provide protection against the danger of small children being able to remove potentially harmful pills from vials or other containers, they also provide a problem for a considerable portion of the adult population that require medication, however, lack the manual dexterity or strength to remove the child resistant cap. This is of a particular concern to the elderly population or people suffering from arthritis and other disabilitating diseases. Accordingly, this problem has been addressed by the development of closure systems having a child resistant mode and a non-child resistant mode such that, in the non-child resistant mode, the caps are more easily opened by adults. However, many such caps have a complex, multi part, structure making the caps expensive or the closure systems suffer from the problem of providing an inferior moisture and air barrier when used in the non-child resistant mode. Further, other attempts to develop reversible child resistant closure systems have resulted in caps that when used in their non-child resistant mode tended to come off from the vial or container inadvertently, for example, when being carried in a bag with other articles. In light of the foregoing, there is a need for a reversible child resistant closure that overcomes the aforementioned deficiencies of the prior art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a reversible child resistant cap and closure system that substantially obviates one or more of the problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description that follows, and in part will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by the system particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. To achieve these and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described, the invention provides a reversible child resistant cap. In the first position, or child resistant position, the cap when applied to a container provides an effective protection against children being able to remove the closure, whilst at the same time allow ready removal of the cap by normal adults. In the second position, or the non-child resistant position, the cap allows for easy removal of the cap from the container even by persons whose ability to use their hands is severely limited. In another embodiment, the present invention also provides a reversible child resistant closure system, comprising the combination of a container and reversible child resistant cap. In accordance with the invention, the reversible child resistant cap comprises a closure plane, a circumferential outer skirt for engaging a container, and a circumferential resilient depending inner member. The circumferential outer skirt comprises an upper portion extending in an upward direction from the closure plane and a lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane. The upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a non-child resistant engaging means for engaging a container. The lower portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a child resistant engaging means for engaging a container. The circumferential resilient depending inner member has an outer surface that is tapered from a larger diameter portion adjacent the closure plane to a smaller diameter portion remote from the closure plane. In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, the reversible child resistant closure system comprises a cap and a container. The cap comprises a closure plane and a circumferential outer skirt for engaging the container and having a circumferential resilient depending inner member. The circumferential outer skirt comprises an upper portion extending in an upward direction from the closure plane and a lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane. The upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a non-child resistant engaging means for engaging the container. The lower portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a child resistant engaging means for engaging the container. The circumferential resilient depending inner member has a tapered outer surface that is tapered from a larger diameter portion adjacent the closure plane to a smaller diameter portion remote from the closure plane. The container has a rigid wall having an engaging end for engagement with the cap. The engaging end of the container has an outer surface for engaging the non-child resistant engaging means of the cap. The engaging end of the container also has an inner surface for engaging the tapered outer surface of the cap to provide a seal and a bias on the cap in a direction of removal of the cap. The container also includes means disposed on the container remotely from the engaging end of the container in cooperative means with the child resistant engaging means of the cap. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the invention and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the reversible child resistant cap and container assembly in its first child resistant position. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the cap of FIG. 1 in its first child resistant position. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the cap of FIG. 1 in its second non-child resistant position. FIG. 4 is a top view of the cap of FIG. 1 in its first child resistant position. FIG. 5 is a bottom view of the cap of FIG. 1 in its first child resistant position. FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view of the cap of FIG. 4 as viewed along line A-A. FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view of the cap of FIG. 4 as viewed along line B-B. FIG. 8 is a cross sectional view of the cap of FIG. 4 as viewed along line C-C. FIG. 9 is a more detailed view of FIG. 6. FIG. 10 is a top view of a first embodiment of the container of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a side view of the first embodiment of the container of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a bottom view of the first embodiment of the container of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a cross sectional view of the container depicted in FIG. 10 as viewed along line E-E. FIG. 14 is a fragmentary elevational view, partly in sectional, of the container and the neck thereof with the cap thereon in a locked and sealed position. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION Referring now to the drawings of the present disclosure in which like numbers represent the same structure in the various views, a perspective view of an embodiment of the reversible child resistant closure system of the present invention is shown generally at 1 in FIG. 1 and comprises a reversible child resistant cap 2 and a container 3. Specifically, FIG. 1 shows the reversible child resistant closure system in the first child resistant position. Thus, when the closure system is in the first child resistant position the child resistant engaging means of the cap mates with the child resistant engaging means on the container. However, the cap 2 may also be used in an inverted orientation, as shown in FIG. 3, i.e. in a second non-child resistant position. In this second non-child resistant position the non-child resistant engaging means of the cap engage with the non-child resistant engaging means of the container. FIGS. 6, 7 and 8 are cross sectional views of a preferred embodiment of the cap 2 depicted in FIG. 4. taken along lines A-A, B-B, and C-C respectively. A more detailed view of FIG. 6 is provided by FIG. 9. As shown in FIGS. 4-9, the reversible child resistant cap 2 a closure plane 5, a circumferential outer skirt 10, and a circumferential resilient depending inner member 15. The circumferential outer skirt 10 comprises an upper portion 20 extending in an upward direction from the closure plane 5. The outer skirt 10 also comprises a lower portion 25 extending in a downward direction from the closure plane 5. The upper portion 20 of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a non-child resistant engaging means for engaging the container. Any suitable non-child resistant engaging means may be used. Suitable examples include an endless closure bead, a thread bead, and a double thread bead. FIGS. 4-9 depict a thread bead 30 as the non-child resistant engaging means, however, a double entry thread bead is preferred. The lower portion 25 of the circumferential outer skirt 10 comprises a child resistant engaging means for engaging the container 3. Any suitable child resistant engaging means may be used. In the preferred embodiment shown in FIGS. 2-9 the suitable child resistant engaging means comprises one or more locking lugs 35. The circumferential outer skirt 10 may also comprise a gripping means to facilitate rotation of the cap 2 to aid in both putting the cap onto the container and then the subsequent removal of the cap 2. Any suitable gripping means maybe utilized. In a preferred embodiment, knerlments 37 are disposed about the outer surface of the outer skirt 10. The circumferential resilient depending inner member 15 has an outer surface 40 which is tapered from a larger diameter portion adjacent the closure plane 5 to a smaller diameter portion remote from the closure plane 5. Referring to FIGS. 11-13, the container 3 has a neck portion 45 having an inner surface 50 for engaging the tapered outer surface 40 of the cap 2. When the closure system of the present invention is used in the first child resistant position, the inner surface 50 engages the tapered outer surface 40 of the cap to provide a seal. Further, the neck portion 45 is preferably made such that when the inner surface 50 engages the outer surface 40, the neck portion 45 bends of flexes in an outward direction to provide a bias on the cap 2 in a direction of removal of the cap 2. The neck 45 may have any suitable construction to provide the bias on the cap 2. For example, the neck 45 may have a thickness sufficiently thin such that the neck 45 flexes or bends in an outward direction when the cap 2 is locked in the first child resistant position. The neck 45 of the container 3 also comprises a top edge surface 55 which contacts the closure plane 5 of the cap 2 when the closure system is in the second non-child resistant position. This contact of the top edge surface 55 and the closure plane 5 is sufficient to form a seal. A non-child resistant engaging means is disposed about the outer surface 60 of the neck 45 to engage the non-child resistant engaging means of the cap 2. Any suitable engaging means may be used. Suitable engaging means may include an endless bead, a thread bead, and a double entry thread bead. As shown in FIGS. 10 and 11, in a preferred embodiment a double entry thread bead 65 is used. The container 3 also comprises a child resistant engaging means disposed on the container remotely from the neck 45 to cooperate with the child resistant engaging means of the cap 2. In a preferred embodiment, the child resistant engaging means disposed on the container cooperates with the child resistant engaging means on the cap 2 to prevent the cap 2 from being removed from the container without the simultaneous depression and rotation of the cap 2 on the container 3. Referring now to FIG. 11 the child resistant engaging means on the container 3 comprises a camming latch 70 having a cam receiving notch 75 therein and in which the child resistant engaging means on the cap 2 comprises a locking lug 35 which is guided into the notch 75 upon rotation of the cap 2 on the container 3 when the cap 2 is applied to close and seal the container 3 in the first child resistant position. FIG. 14 represents the cap 2 on the container 3 in is first child resistant position with the locking lug 35 seated in notch 75 so that the cap 2 is locked on the container 3. The tapered outer surface 40 of the cap is disposed inside the inner surface 50 of the neck 45 of the container 3 causing an upward bias on the cap 2. Accordingly, the cap cannot be removed from the container merely by rotating the cap 2. Instead, the cap 2 must be depressed on the container to unseat the lock lug 35 from the notch 75 and then rotated in a counter clockwise direction so that the lock lug can be positioned between camming latch 70 and the next adjacent camming latch, so that the cap 2 can be removed by then directly upward motion. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the cap 2 and the container 3 of the present invention have the following dimensions 7/.sub.1, 7/.sub.2, 8/.sub.1, 8/.sub.2, 8/.sub.3, 8/.sub.4, 8/.sub.5, 8/.sub.6, 9/.sub.1, 9/.sub.2, 9/.sub.3, 9/.sub.4, 9/.sub.5, 9/.sub.6, 9/.sub.7, 9/.sub.8, 9/.sub.10, 11/.sub.1, 11/.sub.2, 11/.sub.3, 13/.sub.1, and 13/.sub.2 as depicted in FIGS. 7, 8, 9, 11 and 13. In a more preferred embodiment angle .alpha. as depicted in FIG. 6 is about 3 degrees. In an even more preferred embodiment, some or all dimensions 7/.sub.1, 7/.sub.2, 8/.sub.1, 8/.sub.2, 8/.sub.3, 8/.sub.4, 8/.sub.5, 8/.sub.6, 9/.sub.1, 9/.sub.2, 9/.sub.3, 9/.sub.4, 9/.sub.5, 9/.sub.6, 9/.sub.7, 9/.sub.8, 9/.sub.10, 11/.sub.1, 11/.sub.2, 11/.sub.3, 13/.sub.1, and 13/.sub.2 are 0.125, 1.184, 1.313, 1.254, 1.010, 1.160, 1.314, 1.204, 1.020, 0.950, 0.040, 0.230, 0.615, 0.075, 0.230, 0.345, 0.150, 1.076, 0.090, 1.190, and 1.190 mm respectively. Any suitable method known to one of ordinary skill in the art may be used to manufacture the cap 2 and container 3 of the present invention. However, to aid in the manufacture of the cap 2 of the present invention, comprising a locking lug 35, the cap 2 preferably comprises molding holes 90 positioned above each locking lug 35 such that portions of an upper mold may pass through the molding holes to form the top surface 80 of the locking lug 35. To retain the moisture and air barrier properties of the closure system, the molding holes 90 are positioned between the outer surface of the skirt 10 and the position at which the closure plane 5 contacts the top edge surface 55 of the container 3 when the cap 2 is applied to the container 3 in the second non-child resistant position. The use of molding holes 90 also enables the locking lug 35 to protrude a greater amount from the inner surface 85 of the lower portion 25 of the skirt 10 than would otherwise be achievable. In addition, the molding holes also allows the locking lug 35 to have a top surface 80 that is substantially perpendicular to the inner surface 85 of the lower portion 25 of the outer skirt 10. Preferably, the cap is linerless, but liners may be provided if desired. The cap is preferably made from a plastic material, such as high density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene. The container is preferably made from a plastic material, such as low density polyethylene (LDPE) or polypropylene. More preferably, the container is made from polypropylene. The skilled artisan, having the benefit of the instant disclosure, will readily appreciate that the caps and containers may be made from other suitable materials. Numerous alterations of the structure herein disclosed will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art. However, it is understood that the present disclosure relates to preferred embodiments of the invention for the purposes of illustration only and should not be construed as to be a limitation of the invention. All such modifications and alterations which do not depart from the spirit of the invention are intended to be included within the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There are many varying types of child resistant closure systems disclosed in the art. An example of a particular type of child resistant closure system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,449,078, which relates to a combination of a container and safety cap. The aforementioned patent is herein incorporated by reference. While many child resistant caps effectively provide protection against the danger of small children being able to remove potentially harmful pills from vials or other containers, they also provide a problem for a considerable portion of the adult population that require medication, however, lack the manual dexterity or strength to remove the child resistant cap. This is of a particular concern to the elderly population or people suffering from arthritis and other disabilitating diseases. Accordingly, this problem has been addressed by the development of closure systems having a child resistant mode and a non-child resistant mode such that, in the non-child resistant mode, the caps are more easily opened by adults. However, many such caps have a complex, multi part, structure making the caps expensive or the closure systems suffer from the problem of providing an inferior moisture and air barrier when used in the non-child resistant mode. Further, other attempts to develop reversible child resistant closure systems have resulted in caps that when used in their non-child resistant mode tended to come off from the vial or container inadvertently, for example, when being carried in a bag with other articles. In light of the foregoing, there is a need for a reversible child resistant closure that overcomes the aforementioned deficiencies of the prior art. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a reversible child resistant cap and closure system that substantially obviates one or more of the problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description that follows, and in part will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by the system particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. To achieve these and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described, the invention provides a reversible child resistant cap. In the first position, or child resistant position, the cap when applied to a container provides an effective protection against children being able to remove the closure, whilst at the same time allow ready removal of the cap by normal adults. In the second position, or the non-child resistant position, the cap allows for easy removal of the cap from the container even by persons whose ability to use their hands is severely limited. In another embodiment, the present invention also provides a reversible child resistant closure system, comprising the combination of a container and reversible child resistant cap. In accordance with the invention, the reversible child resistant cap comprises a closure plane, a circumferential outer skirt for engaging a container, and a circumferential resilient depending inner member. The circumferential outer skirt comprises an upper portion extending in an upward direction from the closure plane and a lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane. The upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a non-child resistant engaging means for engaging a container. The lower portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a child resistant engaging means for engaging a container. The circumferential resilient depending inner member has an outer surface that is tapered from a larger diameter portion adjacent the closure plane to a smaller diameter portion remote from the closure plane. In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, the reversible child resistant closure system comprises a cap and a container. The cap comprises a closure plane and a circumferential outer skirt for engaging the container and having a circumferential resilient depending inner member. The circumferential outer skirt comprises an upper portion extending in an upward direction from the closure plane and a lower portion extending in a downward direction from the closure plane. The upper portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a non-child resistant engaging means for engaging the container. The lower portion of the circumferential outer skirt comprises a child resistant engaging means for engaging the container. The circumferential resilient depending inner member has a tapered outer surface that is tapered from a larger diameter portion adjacent the closure plane to a smaller diameter portion remote from the closure plane. The container has a rigid wall having an engaging end for engagement with the cap. The engaging end of the container has an outer surface for engaging the non-child resistant engaging means of the cap. The engaging end of the container also has an inner surface for engaging the tapered outer surface of the cap to provide a seal and a bias on the cap in a direction of removal of the cap. The container also includes means disposed on the container remotely from the engaging end of the container in cooperative means with the child resistant engaging means of the cap. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the invention and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. | 20041112 | 20060704 | 20051027 | 60572.0 | 2 | NGO, LIEN M | REVERSIBLE CHILD RESISTANT CAP AND COMBINATION OF A CONTAINER AND A REVERSIBLE CHILD RESISTANT CAP | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,987,079 | ACCEPTED | Debit purchasing of stored value car for use by and/or deliveries to others | A method of issuing a purchase card is provided. The method includes the steps of presenting a purchaser with the opportunity to buy the purchase card, determining whether the purchaser has sufficient funds to pay for the purchase card, creating a purchase card account for a recipient designated by the purchaser, and issuing the purchase card. The purchase card may also be issued in connection with another credit card, for example as a rebate for purchases on the credit card. The purchase card may also be converted to a credit card. | 1. A computer-implemented method for issuing a stored value card associated with a predetermined transaction network, an issuer, and a sponsoring entity, the method comprising: creating one account associated with the stored value card, wherein a sponsoring entity funds the account and the account is independent from any other account; and issuing the stored value card to a cardholder, wherein: a) the stored value card is marked with the cardholder's name and at least one of a transaction network identification indicia associated with the transaction network and an issuer identification indicia associated with the issuer; b) the stored value card is accepted wherever cards associated with the predetermined transaction network are accepted; and c) the stored value card uses a one-way only transfer of identification information from the stored value card to the predetermined transaction network. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the cardholder activates the stored value card. 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the stored value card is active for a predetermined period of time. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the sponsoring entity funds the account more than once. 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the sponsoring entity is unable to add funds to the account beyond an initial issue amount of the stored value card. 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the sponsoring entity receives records regarding account transactions. 7. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: notifying the issuer that the cardholder has received the stored value card. 8. The method according to claim 7, further comprising the step of the issuer notifying the sponsoring entity that the stored value card has been received by the cardholder. 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein the sponsoring entity and the cardholder are the same entity. 10. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: receiving a designation of merchants where the stored value card may be used to make purchases, wherein the designated merchants accept cards associated with the predetermined transaction network. 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein the predetermined transaction network is a credit network. 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the sponsoring entity receives records regarding account transactions. 13. The method according to claim 1, wherein the cardholder is a recipient designated by the sponsoring entity. 14. The method according to claim 1, wherein the sponsoring entity is an individual human purchaser. 15. The method according to claim 1, wherein the transaction network and the issuer each have separate identification indicia. 16. The method according to claim 1, wherein the stored value card is marked with an indicia of the sponsoring entity. 17. A computer-implemented method for issuing an account identifier storage device associated with a predetermined transaction network, an issuer, and a sponsoring entity, the method comprising: creating one account associated with an account identifier storage device, wherein the account identifier storage device stores account identifier information, and wherein a sponsoring entity funds the account and the account is independent from any other account; and issuing the account identifier storage device to an accountholder, wherein: a) the account identifier storage device is marked with the accountholder's name and at least one of a transaction network identification indicia associated with the transaction network and an issuer identification indicia associated with the issuer; b) the account identifier storage device is accepted wherever cards associated with the predetermined transaction network are accepted; and c) the account identifier storage device uses a one-way only transfer of identification information from the stored value card to the predetermined transaction network. 18. A computer-implemented system for issuing a stored value card associated with a predetermined transaction network, an issuer, and a sponsoring entity, the method comprising: means for creating one account associated with the stored value card, wherein a sponsoring entity funds the account and the account is independent from any other account; and means for issuing the stored value card to a cardholder, wherein: a) the stored value card is marked with the cardholder's name and at least one of a transaction network identification indicia associated with the transaction network and an issuer identification indicia associated with the issuer; b) the stored value card is accepted wherever cards associated with the predetermined transaction network are accepted; and c) the stored value card uses a one-way only transfer of identification information from the stored value card to the predetermined transaction network. 19. The system according to claim 18, wherein the cardholder activates the stored value card. 20. The system according to claim 19, wherein the stored value card is active for a predetermined period of time. 21. The system according to claim 18, wherein the sponsoring entity funds the account more than once. 22. The system according to claim 18, wherein the sponsoring entity is unable to add funds to the account beyond an initial issue amount of the stored value card. 23. The system according to claim 18, wherein the sponsoring entity receives records regarding account transactions. 24. The system according to claim 18, further comprising: means for notifying the issuer that the cardholder has received the stored value card. 25. The system according to claim 24, further comprising: means for notifying the sponsoring entity that the stored value card has been received by the cardholder. 26. The system according to claim 18, wherein the sponsoring entity and the cardholder are the same entity. 27. The system according to claim 18, further comprising: means for receiving a designation of merchants where the stored value card may be used to make purchases, wherein the designated merchants accept cards associated with the predetermined transaction network. 28. The system according to claim 18, wherein the predetermined transaction network is a credit network. 29. The system according to claim 18, wherein the sponsoring entity receives records regarding account transactions. 30. The system according to claim 18, wherein the cardholder is a recipient designated by the sponsoring entity. 31. The system according to claim 18, wherein the sponsoring entity is an individual human purchaser. 32. The system according to claim 18, wherein the transaction network and the issuer each have separate identification indicia. 33. The system according to claim 18, wherein the stored value card is marked with an indicia of the sponsoring entity. 34. A computer-implemented system for issuing an account identifier storage device associated with a predetermined transaction network, an issuer, and a sponsoring entity, the system comprising: means for creating one account associated with an account identifier storage device, wherein the account identifier storage device stores account identifier information, and wherein a sponsoring entity funds the account and the account is independent from any other account; and means for issuing the account identifier storage device to an accountholder, wherein: a) the account identifier storage device is marked with the accountholder's name and at least one of a transaction network identification indicia associated with the transaction network and an issuer identification indicia associated with the issuer; b) the account identifier storage device is accepted wherever cards associated with the predetermined transaction network are accepted; and c) the account identifier storage device uses a one-way only transfer of identification information from the stored value card to the predetermined transaction network. 35. A computer-implemented system for issuing a stored value card associated with a predetermined transaction network, an issuer, and a sponsoring entity, the system comprising: a computer storage system for storing information about an account associated with a stored value card, wherein a sponsoring entity funds the account and the account is independent from any other account; and an output device for passing the stored value card to a cardholder, wherein: a) the stored value card is marked with the cardholder's name and at least one of a transaction network identification indicia associated with the transaction network and an issuer identification indicia associated with the issuer; b) the stored value card is accepted wherever cards associated with the predetermined transaction network are accepted; and c) the stored value card uses a one-way only transfer of identification information from the stored value card to the predetermined transaction network. 36. A computer-implemented method for issuing a stored value card associated with a predetermined transaction network, an issuer, and a sponsoring entity, the method comprising: creating one account associated with the stored value card, wherein a sponsoring entity funds the account and the account is independent from any other account; and issuing the stored value card to a cardholder by an issuer, wherein: a) the stored value card is marked with the cardholder's name and at least one of a transaction network identification indicia associated with the transaction network and an issuer identification indicia associated with the issuer; b) the stored value card is accepted wherever cards associated with the predetermined transaction network are accepted; and c) the stored value card uses a one-way only transfer of identification information from the stored value card to the predetermined transaction network; receiving notification by the issuer that the cardholder has received the stored value card; notifying the sponsoring entity that the stored value card has been received by the cardholder; and passing account transaction records to the sponsoring entity. 37. (canceled) 38. (canceled) 39. (canceled) 40. (canceled) 41. (canceled) 42. (canceled) 43. (canceled) 44. (canceled) 45. (canceled) 46. (canceled) 47. (canceled) 48. (canceled) 49. (canceled) 50. (canceled) 51. (canceled) 52. (canceled) 53. (canceled) 54. (canceled) 55. (canceled) | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a system for purchasing or transferring of stored value or debit purchasing cards, which can be pre-arranged to be given as a gift to a designated recipient. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION On many occasions, consumers, other bank customers, credit card holders, and other persons find it is desirable to arrange for another person, perhaps a relative, to have access to a specified sum of money. For example, a parent might want to arrange for a child to have access to money when the child is taking a trip or going away to college. One may also find it desirable to mail a gift to another person who is geographically distant. In these and other cases, it is often undesirable to give away or send cash. If lost or stolen, cash is practically unrecoverable. Traveler's checks are also undesirable as they must be purchased at a bank and are not acceptable for many types of purchases. Gift certificates are also undesirable because they require the recipient to purchase from the merchant that issued the gift certificate. These and other drawbacks exist to the aforementioned alternatives. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the invention is to overcome these and other drawbacks in existing purchase schemes. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for issuing a purchase card comprising: presenting a purchaser with the opportunity to buy the purchase card, determining whether the purchaser has sufficient funds to pay for the purchase card, creating a purchase card account for a recipient designated by the purchaser; and issuing the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the recipient activates the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card account contains a monetary amount determined by the purchaser of the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where money can be added to the balance of an issued purchase card account. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card is activated when the issuer of the purchase card is notified that the recipient has received the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the issuer of the purchase card notifies the purchaser that the recipient has received the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchaser may designate with which merchants the purchase card may be used. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card is activated for a predetermined period of time. Another object is to provide a method for issuing a purchase card as a rebate award comprising: issuing a credit card to a cardholder, said credit card being associated with a sponsor. calculating a rebate amount based upon cardholder purchases made with said credit card, issuing a purchase card to a cardholder or to a recipient designated by said cardholder, said purchase card having a purchase value determined by said rebate amount. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the recipient of the purchase card activates the card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the recipient activates the purchase card by notifying the issuer that the recipient has received the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card is activated for a predetermined period of time. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the rebate is calculated based on all purchases made with the credit card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the rebate is calculated based on purchase from the sponsor made with the credit card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the sponsor notifies the issuer of the amount of rebate due a credit card holder, and the issuer creates a purchase card in that amount. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the rebate is based on the monetary value of the purchases. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method for converting a purchase card into a credit card comprising: creating a purchase card account for a recipient designated by the purchaser; issuing the purchase card; receiving a request from the recipient to convert the purchase card into a credit card; determining whether the recipient meets predetermined credit criteria to convert the purchase card into a credit card; creating a credit card account; and converting the purchase card into a credit card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the balance of the purchase card account is transferred to the credit card account. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the credit cards is immediately activated upon being converted from a purchase card. Other objects and advantages exist for the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a flow diagram for a portion of the purchase card system. FIG. 2 shows a flow diagram for another portion of the purchase card system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS One embodiment of the purchase card system is shown in FIG. 1. In this embodiment the purchase card process begins with an offer to purchase a gift card at step 100. The offer may be in any suitable form that would notify prospective purchasers 105 of the availability of the purchase card. For example, a written solicitation may be mailed or otherwise distributed to potential purchasers 105. The offer may also be in the form of oral notification, for example, a telephone call to prospective purchasers 105. Alternatively, the offer may be published over a computer network, for example, on an Internet Web site. Other forms of offering the sale of a purchase card are also possible. In one embodiment of the invention, offers are made to prospective purchasers who already have a financial relationship with the offeror. Other potential purchasers may also be offered the opportunity to obtain a purchase card. The offer may be accepted by a purchaser 105 by notifying a customer service center 110. The acceptance may be in any form acceptable to the customer service center 110. For example, the purchaser may mail, fax, or otherwise transmit a written acceptance, telephone an acceptance, or electronically transmit, for example, via Web Site, an acceptance by computer or other suitable device. At step 120, the customer service center 110 receives pertinent information to identify the purchaser 105 and the purchaser's desired spending limit for the purchase card. For example, the customer service center may identify the purchaser 105 by name, address, credit card account number, social security number, other unique identifiers or a combination of identifiers. At step 130, the customer service center 120 is checked to verify that the caller or purchaser was included in the solicitations for this program. If the caller or purchaser was not originally solicited, customer service 120 determines whether to extend an offer in step 135. If the caller or purchaser was solicited 130, certain purchaser 105 information may be accessed at 140. If, for example, the purchaser wishes to pay for the purchase card with a credit card, the purchaser's credit card account information may be accessed. For example, the purchaser's available credit limit may be accessed at 145 to verify that sufficient credit is available to cover the spending amount of the purchase card. If the available credit is insufficient, the purchaser 105 may be so informed at 150. The purchaser 105 may be given the opportunity to modify the purchase card spending amount, at 155, in order to ensure that the purchase amount does not exceed the available credit. The process may terminate at 160 if, for example, the purchaser 105 does not wish to modify the purchase amount. After it has been determined that the purchaser's available credit is sufficient, a transaction may be posted to the purchaser's credit card for the amount of the purchase at 170. In another embodiment of the present invention, a purchaser may use a check, cash, or other financial methods to obtain a purchase card. Regardless of the purchasing method, the issuer of the purchase card must determine whether the purchaser has sufficient funds to purchase the card. When the purchase card is paid for by credit or bank account, the purchaser's account balance is updated at 175 to reflect the purchase. The account balance information, as well as information identifying the purchaser 105 and the recipient, may be stored in a retrievable and accessible fashion. For example, the information may be stored in computer database 180. After the purchaser 105 has paid (or authorized payment) for the purchase card, and it is posted to a credit card account, the acceptance process is complete and the acceptance process terminates at 160. An account for the purchase card is created at 190. This may be performed by a third party processor that establishes and manages purchase card accounts. for example, at 200. Creation of the purchase card account may comprise various actions, such as, recording the recipients 215 name, address and phone number, imprinting a card with an account number, a recipient name and an expiration date, encoding the card to record the purchase value stored thereon, and other actions, such as, for example, preparing account fulfillment documents (e.g. card carrier activation, etc.). When the purchase card account is complete, the card is delivered. In one embodiment of the invention, card may be affiliated with a particular network, such a credit network, or debit network. For example, a card may be affiliated with the VISA® network. The delivery may be to the purchaser 105 or to the recipient 215, as shown at 210. The place of delivery may be arranged during the initial purchase of the card or other suitable time before delivery. Information regarding an account is sent to account file 220, where an account can be monitored. In one embodiment, account file 220 allows monitoring of the current balance of an account, any activity in the account, including debits and credits, transaction updates, and the like. Other information about an account, such as purchase dispute resolutions, the history provided by the customer, and account status, may also be monitored. Before the purchase card can be used to make purchases, it must be activated as shows in FIG. 2 at 230. Activation may be accomplished in any suitable manner. For example, the recipient 215 of the card may place a telephone call to an activation center 240. Activation center 240 may act as a telemarketing vendor by verifying information about the recipient (i.e. name, address, telephone number, etc.) before the purchase card is activated. The activation center 240 may then transmit the data about the recipient to Data Service 200 to activate the purchase card for use. Activation center 240 may also modify information about a recipient, such as, for example, a change of address. Other forms of activation, such as by computer network may also be used. During activation certain verifications may be made at 250 to ensure that the intended recipient 215 is the person attempting to activate the purchase card. These security checks 250 may entail questions about personal information (e.g., name, address, telephone number, etc.) or may utilize other well known methods of authenticating the recipient 215. If the person attempting to activate the purchase card does not pass the security check 250, the purchase card will be denied activation at 255 and the activation process may terminate at 260. If the person attempting to activate the purchase card passes the security check 250, they may be prompted at 252 for more information. The information may be used for subsequent security checks, should they be required, or to verify or complete the purchase card account information. After activation the purchase card is ready for use. In some embodiments of the invention the activation process will end at this point. The recipient 215 may now use the purchase card to make purchases where ever, for example, VISA® cards are accepted. Each time a purchase is made using the card, the amount of the purchase will be debited from the card's available balance. The purchase card will continue to operate as long as a positive balance remains on the card. Some embodiments of the purchase card may have the capacity to have additional purchase value added to them after they have been activated. If the recipient of a purchase card is someone other than the purchaser, the issuer of the card may notify the purchaser regarding various aspects of the card. For example, in one embodiment of the invention, the issuer could notify the purchaser that the purchase card has been received and activated by the intended recipient. An issuer may also notify a purchaser where the purchase card is being used, or what products are being purchased with the purchase card. Some embodiments of the purchase card will include an expiration date. After the expiration date has passed the purchase card will be de-activated and cease to operate. In another embodiment of the present invention, a recipient or a purchaser of a purchase card may add to the balance of the purchase card account. This may take place in a manner substantially similar to the original purchasing of the purchase card. For example, a recipient of a purchase card may request that an amount be posted to the recipient's credit card and that the same amount then be credited to the recipient's purchase card account. Other methods of adding to the balance of a purchase card account may also be used. Another embodiment of the invention allows the recipient 215 to convert the purchase card into a credit card. Conversion may be accomplished in the following manner. The recipient 215 calls the activation center 240 to activate the purchase card and the security check 250 may be performed in the usual manner. After passing the security check, the age of the recipient 215 is determined at 270. If the recipient 215 is an adult (e.g., over the age of 18) an offer to convert the purchase card into a credit card may be extended at 271. At step 275 the recipient 215 may decline the offer to convert, in which case the process may terminate at 280. If the recipient 215 elects to convert the purchase card to a credit card the activation center 240 may capture additional data 285 from recipient 215, in order to complete a credit card application. At step 290 the credit card application data is forwarded to a credit decisioning office 300. The credit decisioning office 300 may make inquiries to a credit bureau 305, for example, obtaining a credit report on the recipient 215. At 310 the decision is rendered whether to approve the credit card application. If the application for a credit card is declined at 315, the recipient 215 may be notified at 320. Notification may be in any suitable form, for example, a letter explaining the declined application may be mailed at 320 to the recipient 215. Other forms of notification may also be used to notify recipient 215 of the declined application. Even though the credit card application is declined at 310, the purchase card is activated for use. At 330, the account settings allowing a card to be used at merchants are sent to the data service 200 and the card will be activated as a purchase card account. Information pertaining to the purchase card account is stored in a retrievable and accessible manner. For example, the purchase card account information may be stored in a computer 332. If the decision at 310 is to accept the application for a credit card, the recipient 215 may be notified at 340. Again, notification may be in any suitable form, for example, a letter or other suitable notification. Regardless of the decision whether to convert the purchase card into a credit card, the purchase card is activated at the end of the activation call. If the purchase card is not already active, it may be activated at 345. At 350 the purchase card is converted to a credit card. The credit card will function in a manner usual for such credit instruments. For example, a credit limit may be assigned, periodic account activity statements may be generated and finance charges may be applied to any outstanding balance. In one embodiment, any remaining balance from the purchase card account may be transferred and applied to the credit card account. At 355 an update is sent to a retrievable data storage system, for example, computer 360. The update 355 sends credit card application decisions into a database. In another embodiment of the purchase card, a financial institution (e.g., a bank) issues a credit card to a cardholder. The card may be a co-branded card issued in cooperation with a sponsor. In this embodiment, the sponsor offers a rebate to the cardholder based upon the dollar value amount of purchases made with the co-branded credit card. The rebate may apply to all purchases made or just to purchases made from the sponsor. The rebate may be calculated in a manner specified by the terms of the cardholder agreement or other disclosures to the cardholder. In one embodiment of the invention, disclosure about the rebate is provided to the cardholder in a separate form included with the cardholder agreement. For example, the sponsor may offer a flat percentage rebate for purchases made. In one embodiment of the invention, the card issuer calculates the rebate due the cardholder based on the balance paid. In another embodiment, the sponsor notifies the financial institution of the amount of rebate to be awarded to the cardholder. The financial institution will then issue a purchase card for the amount of the rebate. The purchase card may be used for purchases in the above described manner, for example, everywhere VISA® is accepted, or the purchase card may be used for purchases solely with the sponsor or other designated entities. Other embodiments and uses of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. The specification and examples should be considered exemplary only. The scope of the invention is only limited by the claims appended hereto. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>On many occasions, consumers, other bank customers, credit card holders, and other persons find it is desirable to arrange for another person, perhaps a relative, to have access to a specified sum of money. For example, a parent might want to arrange for a child to have access to money when the child is taking a trip or going away to college. One may also find it desirable to mail a gift to another person who is geographically distant. In these and other cases, it is often undesirable to give away or send cash. If lost or stolen, cash is practically unrecoverable. Traveler's checks are also undesirable as they must be purchased at a bank and are not acceptable for many types of purchases. Gift certificates are also undesirable because they require the recipient to purchase from the merchant that issued the gift certificate. These and other drawbacks exist to the aforementioned alternatives. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the invention is to overcome these and other drawbacks in existing purchase schemes. Another object of the invention is to provide a method for issuing a purchase card comprising: presenting a purchaser with the opportunity to buy the purchase card, determining whether the purchaser has sufficient funds to pay for the purchase card, creating a purchase card account for a recipient designated by the purchaser; and issuing the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the recipient activates the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card account contains a monetary amount determined by the purchaser of the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where money can be added to the balance of an issued purchase card account. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card is activated when the issuer of the purchase card is notified that the recipient has received the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the issuer of the purchase card notifies the purchaser that the recipient has received the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchaser may designate with which merchants the purchase card may be used. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card is activated for a predetermined period of time. Another object is to provide a method for issuing a purchase card as a rebate award comprising: issuing a credit card to a cardholder, said credit card being associated with a sponsor. calculating a rebate amount based upon cardholder purchases made with said credit card, issuing a purchase card to a cardholder or to a recipient designated by said cardholder, said purchase card having a purchase value determined by said rebate amount. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the recipient of the purchase card activates the card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the recipient activates the purchase card by notifying the issuer that the recipient has received the purchase card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the purchase card is activated for a predetermined period of time. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the rebate is calculated based on all purchases made with the credit card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the rebate is calculated based on purchase from the sponsor made with the credit card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the sponsor notifies the issuer of the amount of rebate due a credit card holder, and the issuer creates a purchase card in that amount. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the rebate is based on the monetary value of the purchases. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method for converting a purchase card into a credit card comprising: creating a purchase card account for a recipient designated by the purchaser; issuing the purchase card; receiving a request from the recipient to convert the purchase card into a credit card; determining whether the recipient meets predetermined credit criteria to convert the purchase card into a credit card; creating a credit card account; and converting the purchase card into a credit card. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the balance of the purchase card account is transferred to the credit card account. A further object of the invention is to provide a purchase card where the credit cards is immediately activated upon being converted from a purchase card. Other objects and advantages exist for the present invention. | 20041115 | 20070206 | 20050505 | 73278.0 | 1 | MEINECKE DIAZ, SUSANNA M | DEBIT PURCHASING OF STORED VALUE CARD FOR USE BY AND/OR DELIVERIES TO OTHERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,987,114 | ACCEPTED | Shunt device and method for treating glaucoma | Shunt devices and a method for continuously decompressing elevated intraocular pressure in eyes affected by glaucoma by diverting excess aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye into Schlemm's canal where post-operative patency can be maintained with an indwelling shunt device which surgically connects the canal with the anterior chamber. The shunt devices provide uni- or bi-directional flow of aqueous humor into Schlemm's canal. | 1-48. (canceled) 49. An ocular device comprising: a body for implantation into Schlemm's canal of a living eye comprising a portion for insertion into the canal, and a portion sized to extend from a position within the canal to a position within an anterior chamber of the eye; and wherein the body is configured and dimensioned such that implantation of the body in living tissue of the canal permits dynamic flow of aqueous humor toward an episcleral venous system of the eye; and wherein the device comprises a therapeutic agent. 50. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein the body is configured and dimensioned to permit dynamic flow of aqueous humor at a flow rate below about 2.5 microliters per minute. 51. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein tubular body is configured and dimensioned to permit dynamic flow of aqueous humor at a flow rate sufficient to maintain intraocular pressure above 6.0 mmHg. 52. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein tubular body is configured and dimensioned to permit dynamic flow of aqueous humor at a flow rate that maintains intraocular pressure between 15 mmHg and 21 mmHg. 53. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein a portion of the body for insertion into Schlemm's canal is flexible, and the flexible portion is adapted to conform to a radius of curvature of about 6 mm. 54. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein the body comprises a substantially tubular body comprising open ends, and wherein the tubular body defines an aqueous humor directing channel extending between ends of the tubular body that is sized to permit flow of aqueous humor therein. 55. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body comprises first and second integrally formed sections disposed transverse to each other. 56. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body has an inner diameter of between 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. 57. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body defines an aqueous humor directing channel with a maximum width between 0.2 mm and 0.5 mm. 58. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body further comprises an anchor portion for stabilizing the tubular body in Schlemm's canal. 59. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body comprises an arcuate outer surface. 60. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body comprises a cylindrical outer cross-section. 61. The ocular device of claim 54, wherein the tubular body is curved. 62. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein the device further comprises a unidirectional valve. 63. The ocular device of claim 49, wherein at least a portion of the device comprises a solid material. 64. The ocular device of claim 63, wherein a portion of the device for insertion into Schlemm's canal comprises a solid material. 65. The ocular device of claim 63, wherein a portion of the device for positioning within the anterior chamber comprises a solid material. 66. The ocular device of claim 63, wherein the solid material is porous. 67. The ocular device of claim 49 or 63, wherein the device comprises a V-shape. 68. The ocular device of claim 67, wherein the aqueous humor is directed in a unidirectional manner within Schlemm's canal. 69. The ocular device of claim 67, wherein the portion of the device for insertion into Schlemm's canal comprises an opening adjacent to a junction with the portion for positioning within the anterior chamber, to facilitate bi-directional flow of fluid within Schlemm's canal. 70. The ocular device of claim 49 or 63, wherein the device comprises a T-shape. 71. The ocular device of claim 70, wherein one portion of the T-shaped device inserts into the anterior chamber of the eye, and two portions of the device insert within Schlemm's canal in a substantially bi-directional manner. 72. The ocular device of claim 71, wherein the portion for insertion within Schlemm's canal comprises a lumen therethrough that directs the passage of fluid into Schlemm's canal. 73. The ocular device of claim 71, wherein the portion for insertion within the anterior chamber has a lumen therethrough that facilitates the passage of fluid into the portion of the device that is inserted within Schlemm's canal. 74. The ocular device of claim 71, wherein the portion for insertion within the anterior chamber has two lumens therethrough that facilitate the passage of fluid into the portion of the device that is inserted within Schlemm's canal in opposite directions within Schlemm's canal. 75. An ocular device for use in a living eye having an anterior chamber and a Schlemm's canal for relieving intraocular pressure by facilitating drainage from the anterior chamber of the living eye into Schlemm's canal, the implant comprising: a proximal portion in fluid communication with a distal portion, the proximal portion being sized and shaped to fit at least partially in the anterior chamber of the eye, and the distal portion being sized and shaped to fit at least partially in Schlemm's canal of the eye; wherein the device comprises a therapeutic agent. 76. The ocular device of claim 75, wherein the device further comprises an anchor portion for stabilizing the device within Schlemm's canal. 77. The ocular device of claim 75, wherein the distal portion comprises an arcuate outer surface. 78. The ocular device of claim 75, wherein the device comprises a unidirectional valve. 79. The ocular device of claim 75, wherein the distal portion is flexible, and the flexible portion is adapted to conform to a radius of curvature of about 6 mm. 80. The ocular device of claim 75, wherein at least a portion of the device comprises a substantially tubular body comprising an open end. 81. The ocular device of claim 80, wherein the tubular body has an inner diameter of between 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. 82. The ocular device of claim 80, wherein the tubular body defines an aqueous humor directing channel with a maximum width between 0.2 mm and 0.5 mm. 83. The ocular device of claim 80, wherein the tubular body comprises a cylindrical outer cross-section. 84. The ocular device of claim 80, wherein the tubular body is curved. 85. The ocular device of claim 75, wherein at least a portion of the device comprises a solid material. 86. The ocular device of claim 85, wherein the distal portion of the device comprises a solid material. 87. The ocular device of claim 85, wherein the proximal portion comprises a solid material. 88. The ocular device of claim 85, wherein the solid material is porous. 89. The ocular device of claim 75 or 85, wherein the device comprises a V-shape. 90. The ocular device of claim 89, wherein the device directs aqueous humor in a unidirectional manner within Schlemm's canal. 91. The ocular device of claim 89, wherein the distal portion of the device comprises an opening adjacent to a junction with the proximal portion, to facilitate bi-directional flow of fluid within Schlemm's canal. 92. The ocular device of claim 75 or 85, wherein the device comprises a T-shape. 93. The ocular device of claim 92, wherein one portion of the T-shaped device inserts into the anterior chamber of the eye, and two portions of the device insert within Schlemm's canal in a substantially bi-directional manner. 94. The ocular device of claim 92, wherein the portion for insertion within Schlemm's canal comprises a lumen therethrough that directs the passage of fluid into Schlemm's canal. 95. The ocular device of claim 92, wherein the portion for insertion within the anterior chamber has a lumen therethrough that facilitates the passage of fluid into the portion of the device that is inserted within Schlemm's canal. 96. The ocular device of claim 92, wherein the portion for insertion within the anterior chamber has two lumens therethrough that facilitate the passage of fluid into the portion of the device that is inserted within Schlemm's canal in opposite directions within Schlemm's canal. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/131,030, filed Apr. 26, 1999. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention is generally directed to a surgical treatment for glaucoma, and relates more particularly to a device and method for continuously decompressing elevated intraocular pressure in eyes affected by glaucoma by diverting aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye into Schlemm's canal where post-operative patency can be maintained with an indwelling shunt which can be surgically placed to connect the canal with the anterior chamber. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Glaucoma is a significant public health problem, because glaucoma is a major cause of blindness. The blindness that results from glaucoma involves both central and peripheral vision and has a major impact on an individual's ability to lead an independent life. Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy (a disorder of the optic nerve) that usually occurs in the setting of an elevated intraocular pressure. The pressure within the eye increases and this is associated with changes in the appearance (“cupping”) and function (“blind spots” in the visual field) of the optic nerve. If the pressure remains high enough for a long enough period of time, total vision loss occurs. High pressure develops in an eye because of an internal fluid imbalance. The eye is a hollow structure that contains a clear fluid called “aqueous humor.” Aqueous humor is formed in the posterior chamber of the eye by the ciliary body at a rate of about 2.5 microliters per minute. The fluid, which is made at a fairly constant rate, then passes around the lens, through the pupillary opening in the iris and into the anterior chamber of the eye. Once in the anterior chamber, the fluid drains out of the eye through two different routes. In the “uveoscleral” route, the fluid percolates between muscle fibers of the ciliary body. This route accounts for approximately ten percent of the aqueous outflow in humans. The primary pathway for aqueous outflow in humans is through the “canalicular” route that involves the trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal. The trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal are located at the junction between the iris and the sclera. This junction or corner is called “the angle.” The trabecular meshwork is a wedge-shaped structure that runs around the circumference of the eye. It is composed of collagen beams arranged in a three-dimensional sieve-like structure. The beams are lined with a monolayer of cells called trabecular cells. The spaces between the collagen beams are filled with an extracellular substance that is produced by the trabecular cells. These cells also produce enzymes that degrade the extracellular material. Schlemm's canal is adjacent to the trabecular meshwork. The outer wall of the trabecular meshwork coincides with the inner wall of Schlemm's canal. Schlemm's canal is a tube-like structure that runs around the circumference of the cornea. In human adults, Schlemm's Canal is believed to be divided by septa into a series of autonomous, dead-end canals. The aqueous fluid travels through the spaces between the trabecular beams, across the inner wall of Schlemm's canal into the canal, through a series of about 25 collecting channels that drain from Schlemm's canal and into the episcleral venous system. In a normal situation, aqueous production is equal to aqueous outflow and intraocular pressure remains fairly constant in the 15 to 21 mmHg range. In glaucoma, the resistance through the canalicular outflow system is abnormally high. In primary open angle glaucoma, which is the most common form of glaucoma, the abnormal resistance is believed to be along the outer aspect of trabecular meshwork and the inner wall of Schlemm's canal. It is believed that an abnormal metabolism of the trabecular cells leads to an excessive build up of extracellular materials or a build up of abnormally “stiff” materials in this area. Primary open angle glaucoma accounts for approximately eighty-five percent of all glaucoma. Other forms of glaucoma (such as angle closure glaucoma and secondary glaucomas) also involve decreased outflow through the canalicular pathway but the increased resistance is from other causes such as mechanical blockage, inflammatory debris, cellular blockage, etc. With the increased resistance, the aqueous fluid builds up because it cannot exit fast enough. As the fluid builds up, the intraocular pressure (IOP) within the eye increases. The increased IOP compresses the axons in the optic nerve and also may compromise the vascular supply to the optic nerve. The optic nerve carries vision from the eye to the brain. Some optic nerves seem more susceptible to IOP than other eyes. While research is investigating ways to protect the nerve from an elevated pressure, the only therapeutic approach currently available in glaucoma is to reduce the intraocular pressure. The clinical treatment of glaucoma is approached in a step-wise fashion. Medication often is the first treatment option. Administered either topically or orally, these medications work to either reduce aqueous production or they act to increase outflow. Currently available medications have many serious side effects including: congestive heart failure, respiratory distress, hypertension, depression, renal stones, aplastic anemia, sexual dysfunction and death. Compliance with medication is a major problem, with estimates that over half of glaucoma patients do not follow their correct dosing schedules. When medication fails to adequately reduce the pressure, laser trabeculoplasty often is performed. In laser trabeculoplasty, thermal energy from a laser is applied to a number of noncontiguous spots in the trabecular meshwork. It is believed that the laser energy stimulates the metabolism of the trabecular cells in some way, and changes the extracellular material in the trabecular meshwork. In approximately eighty percent of patients, aqueous outflow is enhanced and IOP decreases. However, the effect often is not long lasting and fifty percent of patients develop an elevated pressure within five years. The laser surgery is not usually repeatable. In addition, laser trabeculoplasty is not an effective treatment for primary open angle glaucoma in patients less than fifty years of age, nor is it effective for angle closure glaucoma and many secondary glaucomas. If laser trabeculoplasty does not reduce the pressure enough, then filtering surgery is performed. With filtering surgery, a hole is made in the sclera and angle region. This hole allows the aqueous fluid to leave the eye through an alternate route. The most commonly performed filtering procedure is a trabeculectomy. In a trabeculectomy, a posterior incision is made in the conjunctiva, the transparent tissue that covers the sclera. The conjunctiva is rolled forward, exposing the sclera at the limbus. A partial thickness scleral flap is made and dissected half-thickness into the cornea. The anterior chamber is entered beneath the scleral flap and a section of deep sclera and trabecular meshwork is excised. The scleral flap is loosely sewn back into place. The conjunctival incision is tightly closed. Post-operatively, the aqueous fluid passes through the hole, beneath the scleral flap and collects in an elevated space beneath the conjunctiva. The fluid then is either absorbed through blood vessels in the conjunctiva or traverses across the conjunctiva into the tear film. Trabeculectomy is associated with many problems. Fibroblasts that are present in the episclera proliferate and migrate and can scar down the scleral flap. Failure from scarring may occur, particularly in children and young adults. Of eyes that have an initially successful trabeculectomy, eighty percent will fail from scarring within three to five years after surgery. To minimize fibrosis, surgeons now are applying antifibrotic agents such as mitomycin C (MMC) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) to the scleral flap at the time of surgery. The use of these agents has increased the success rate of trabeculectomy but also has increased the prevalence of hypotony. Hypotony is a problem that develops when aqueous flows out of the eye too fast. The eye pressure drops too low (usually less than 6.0 mmHg); the structure of the eye collapses and vision decreases. Trabeculectomy creates a pathway for aqueous fluid to escape to the surface of the eye. At the same time, it creates a pathway for bacteria that normally live on the surface of the eye and eyelids to get into the eye. If this happens, an internal eye infection can occur called endophthalmitis. Endophthalmitis often leads to permanent and profound visual loss. Endophthalmitis can occur anytime after trabeculectomy. The risk increases with the thin blobs that develop after MMC and 5-FU. Another factor that contributes to infection is the placement of a bleb. Eyes that have trabeculectomy performed inferiorly have about five times the risk of eye infection than eyes that have a superior bleb. Therefore, initial trabeculectomy is performed superiorly under the eyelid, in either the nasal or temporal quadrant. In addition to scarring, hypotony and infection, there are other complications of trabeculectomy. The bleb can tear and lead to profound hypotony. The bleb can be irritating and can disrupt the normal tear film, leading to blurred vision. Patients with blebs generally cannot wear contact lenses. All of the complications from trabeculectomy stem from the fact that fluid is being diverted from inside the eye to the external surface of the eye. When trabeculectomy doesn't successfully lower the eye pressure, the next surgical step often is an aqueous shunt device. An aqueous diversion device of the prior art is a silicone tube that is attached at one end to a plastic (polypropylene or other synthetic) plate. With an aqueous shunt device, an incision is made in the conjunctiva, exposing the sclera. The plastic plate is sewn to the surface of the eye posteriorly, usually over the equator. A full thickness hole is made into the eye at the limbus, usually with a needle. The tube is inserted into the eye through this hole. The external portion of the tube is covered with either donor sclera or pericardium. The conjunctiva is replaced and the incision is closed tightly. With prior art aqueous diversion devices, aqueous drains out of the eye through the silicone tube to the surface of the eye. Deeper orbital tissues then absorb the fluid. The outside end of the tube is protected from fibroblasts and scarring by the plastic plate. Many complications are associated with aqueous shunt devices. A thickened wall of scar tissue that develops around the plastic plate offers some resistance to outflow and in many eyes limits the reduction in eye pressure. In some eyes, hypotony develops because the flow through the tube is not restricted. Many physicians tie an absorbable suture around the tube and wait for the suture to dissolve post-operatively at which time enough scar tissue has hopefully formed around the plate. Some devices contain a pressure-sensitive valve within the tube, although these valves may not function properly. The surgery involves operating in the posterior orbit and many patients develop an eye muscle imbalance and double vision post-operatively. With prior art aqueous shunt devices, a pathway is created for bacteria to get into the eye and endophthalmitis can potentially occur. The prior art includes a number of such aqueous shunt devices, such as U.S. Pat. No. 4,936,825 (providing a tubular shunt from the anterior chamber to the corneal surface for the treatment of glaucoma), U.S. Pat. No. 5,127,901 (directed to a transscleral shunt from the anterior chamber to the subconjunctival space), U.S. Pat. No. 5,180,362 (teaching a helical steel implant that is placed to provide drainage from the anterior chamber to the subconjunctival space), and U.S. Pat. No. 5,433,701 (generally teaching shunting from the anterior chamber to the scleral or conjunctival spaces). In addition to the prior art aqueous shunt devices described above, other prior art devices for glaucoma surgery have used setons, or other porous, wick-like components to divert and convey excess aqueous from the anterior chamber to the exterior ocular surface. Examples include U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,634,418 and 4,787,885 (teaching the surgical treatment of glaucoma using an implant that consists of a triangular seton (wick)), and U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,436, (teaching the use of a porous device to shunt anterior chamber to subscleral space). These patents do not teach placement in Schlemm's canal. Some prior art references for glaucoma management have been directed at Schlemm's canal, but these have not involved the placement of long-term, indwelling shunts. U.S. Pat. No. 5,360,399 teaches the temporary placement of a plastic or steel tube with preformed curvature in Schlemm's canal with injection of a viscous material through the tube to hydraulically expand and hydrodissect the trabecular meshwork. The tube is removed from the canal following injection. Because the tube is directed outwardly from the eye for injection access, the intersection of the outflow element with the preformed curved element within Schlemm's canal is at about a 90 degree angle relative to the plane of the curvature, and 180 degrees away from the anterior chamber. Therefore, at no time does any portion of the '399 device communicate with the anterior chamber. Furthermore, relative to that portion within Schlemm's canal, this tube has a larger diameter injection cuff element, which serves as an adapter for irrigation. Therefore, this device is not adapted for shunting aqueous between the anterior chamber and Schlemm's canal. Most of the problems that have developed with current glaucoma treatment devices and procedures have occurred because aqueous fluid is drained from inside of the eye to the surface of the eye. A need exists, then, for a more physiologic system to enhance the drainage of aqueous fluid from the anterior chamber into Schlemm's canal. In the vast majority of glaucoma patients, the resistance problem lies between Schlemm's canal and the anterior chamber. The canal itself, the collecting channels and the episcleral venous system all are intact. Enhancing aqueous flow directly into Schlemm's canal would minimize the scarring that usually occurs with external filtration procedure since the internal angle region is populated with a single line of nonproliferating trabecular cells. Enhancing aqueous flow directly into Schlemm's canal would minimize hypotony since the canal is part of the normal outflow system and is biologically engineered to handle the normal volume of aqueous humor. Enhancing aqueous flow directly into Schlemm's canal would eliminate complications such as endophthalmitis and leaks. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a novel shunt and an associated surgical method for the treatment of glaucoma in which the shunt is placed to divert aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye into Schlemm's canal. The present invention therefore facilitates the normal physiologic pathway for drainage of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber, rather than shunting to the sclera or another anatomic site as is done in most prior art shunt devices. The present invention is further directed to providing a permanent, indwelling shunt to provide increased egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal for glaucoma management. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is an illustration showing an overhead perspective view of one embodiment of the present invention, in which the inventive shunt is comprised of tubular elements extending bi-directionally within Schlemm's canal. FIG. 1B is an overhead view of the embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 1A, with phantom lines detailing the internal communication between the lumens of the tubular elements comprising the inventive device. FIG. 1C is an illustration showing an overhead perspective view of one embodiment of the present invention, in which the inventive shunt is comprised of mesh tubular elements extending bi-directionally within Schlemm's canal. FIG. 1D is an illustration showing an overhead perspective view of one embodiment of the present invention, in which the inventive shunt is comprised of solid, porous elements extending bi-directionally within Schlemm's canal. FIG. 1E is an overhead perspective view of another embodiment of the present invention, with phantom lines detailing the internal communication between the two proximal lumens and the single distal lumen of the inventive device. FIG. 2 is an illustration showing another embodiment of the present invention, in which the inventive shunt is comprised of perforated tubular elements and with an angulated terminal aspect of the proximal portion. FIG. 3A is an illustration showing a perspective of another embodiment of the present invention in which the inventive shunt is comprised of elements that are partially tubular and partially open in their configuration. FIG. 3B is an illustration showing a top view of the embodiment of the present invention in FIG. 3A, with phantom lines detailing the internal communication of the device. FIG. 3C is an illustration showing a side view from the proximal end of the embodiment of the present invention in FIG. 3A. FIG. 3D is an illustration showing a perspective of another embodiment of the present invention in which the inventive shunt is comprised of elements that are partially open and trough-like in their configuration. FIG. 4 is an illustration showing another embodiment of the present invention, in which the inventive shunt is comprised of distal elements having wicking extensions at their terminal ends, and in which the proximal portion has a sealed, blunted tip with a portal continuous with the lumen of the proximal portion, oriented to face away from the iris when the device is implanted in Schlemm's canal. FIG. 5A is an illustration showing another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which a portion of the device enters Schlemm's canal in only one direction and shunts fluid in a non-linear path from the anterior chamber. FIG. 5B is an illustration showing an alternative embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the entire shunt is placed within Schlemm's canal but contains a fenestration to maintain fluid egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal. FIG. 5C is an illustration showing a side view of one embodiment of the present invention, in which the inventive shunt is comprised of tubular elements, with a proximal portion extending towards the anterior chamber that is shorter relative to the distal portions which extend bi-directionally within Schlemm's canal. FIG. 5D is an illustration showing an alternative embodiment of the inventive shunt comprised of a partially open trough-like element which is placed within Schlemm's canal but contains a portal to maintain fluid egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal. FIG. 5E is an illustration showing an alternative embodiment of the inventive shunt comprised of a solid, but porous wick-like element which is placed within Schlemm's canal. FIG. 6A is an illustration showing certain anatomic details of the human eye. FIG. 6B is a cross-sectional illustration showing the anatomic relationships of the surgical placement of an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6C is a cross-sectional illustration showing the anatomic relationships of the surgical placement of another exemplary embodiment of the present invention in which the proximal portion has an angulated terminal aspect with a sealed, blunted tip with a portal continuous with the lumen of the proximal portion, oriented to face away from the iris when the device is implanted in Schlemm's canal. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PRESENT INVENTION The present invention provides an aqueous humor shunt device to divert aqueous humor in the eye from the anterior chamber into Schlemm's canal, in which the shunt device comprises a distal portion having at least one terminal aspect sized and shaped to be circumferentially received within a portion of Schlemm's canal, and a proximal portion having at least one terminal aspect sized and shaped to be received within the anterior chamber of the eye, wherein the device permits fluid communication between the proximal portion in the anterior chamber to the distal portion in Schlemm's canal. Fluid communication can be facilitated by an aqueous humor directing channel in either the proximal or distal portions, as described below. Fluid communication can also be facilitated by a wicking function of a solid proximal or distal portions of the device, for example. The present invention also provides embodiments of an inventive shunt comprising a body of biocompatible material of a size and shape adapted to be at least partially circumferentially received within a portion of Schlemm's canal to divert aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the human eye to and within Schlemm's canal, and wherein the body facilitates the passage of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber into Schlemm's canal. This embodiment of the device of the present invention can be produced without the proximal portion of the previous embodiment extending into the anterior chamber. An aqueous humor directing channel can facilitate the passage of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber into Schlemm's canal. Fluid communication can also be facilitated by a wicking function of a solid body portion, for example. The invention contemplates many different configurations for an aqueous humor directing channel, provided that each assists in channeling aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal, such as by providing a lumen, trough, wick or capillary action. For example, the aqueous humor directing channel can be a fully enclosed lumen, a partially enclosed lumen, or a trough-like channel that is at least partially open. The invention contemplates that a solid monofilament or braided polymer, such as proline, can be inserted into Schlemm's canal to provide a wicking function to facilitate the passage of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal. Such a wicking extension can also be grooved or fluted along any portion of the length thereof, so as to be multi-angular or star-shaped in cross-section. The devices of the present invention can be constructed of a solid, matrix, mesh, fenestrated, or porous material, or combinations thereof. Traditional glaucoma teaching states that Schlemm's canal in an adult is divided by septa into separate canals, rendering the complete passage of a suture impossible. Preliminary studies on adult human eye bank eyes have shown that Schlemm's canal is, indeed, patent. A suture can be passed through the entire circumference of the canal. It has not been heretofore determined that Schlemm's canal is patent throughout its circumference in normal adult individuals, as opposed to being divided by septae into multiple dead end canals. The invention utilizes this knowledge to access Schlemm's canal and to create and maintain the natural physiologic egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal and to the collecting channels. The present invention also provides methods of use of the shunt devices. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a surgical method to divert aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye into Schlemm's canal with a device that is implanted to extend from within the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal. The portion of the device extending into Schlemm's canal can be fashioned from a flexible material capable of being received within a portion of the radius, curvature, and diameter of Schlemm's canal. All or parts of the device may be solid, porous, tubular, trough-like, fenestrated, or pre-curved. One embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 1A, in which the shunt device 100 is shown in a side view. The shunt device 100 of this embodiment is comprised of two portions, a proximal portion 10 which joins a distal portion 25. The proximal portion 10 and distal portion 25 shown create an enclosed tubular channeling structure. The total length of the distal portion 25 may be between about 1 and 40 mm, preferably about 6 mm. The same embodiment of the present invention is illustrated with phantom lines showing the internal fluid communication path in FIG. 1B. The lumen or channeling space defined by the walls of the proximal portion 10 and the distal portion(s) 25 are continuous at their junction at the distal portion portal 20. An alternate embodiment of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1C, in which the shunt device 100 is comprised of two luminal mesh elements, with a proximal portion 10 which joins a distal portion 25. Yet another embodiment of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1D, in which the shunt device 100 is comprised of two solid, porous elements which may provide wick-like fluid communication therethrough, with a proximal portion 10 which joins a distal portion 25. An alternate embodiment of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1E, in which the shunt device 100 is comprised of a proximal portion 10 having two lumens therein terminating in proximal portion portals 18. The distal portion 25 shaped and sized to be received within Schlemm's canal extends in either direction having separate lumens traversing therethrough from each of the distal portion portals 20. Other examples of embodiments of the present invention are shown in FIGS. 2-5D. FIG. 2 shows an embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the device 100 is tubular and fenestrated (15, 30) in its configuration, with an acute (<90°) angle of junction between the proximal portion 10 and the plane defined by the distal portion 25. Such fenestrations (15, 30) may be placed along any portion of the device 100 to facilitate the passage of fluid therethrough, but are particularly directed towards the collecting channels of the eye. FIG. 2 further shows an alternate embodiment of the present invention in which the terminal aspect 16 of the proximal portion is angulated toward the iris 40 with respect to the main axis of the proximal portion 10, with the portal 18 of the proximal portion directed toward from the iris 40. In alternate embodiments as shown in FIG. 6C, the portal 18 of the proximal portion 16 is directed away from the iris 40. FIG. 3A shows an embodiment of the inventive shunt in which a portion of the channeling device is enclosed and tubular in configuration at the junction of the proximal portion 10 and the distal portion 25, but where the distal portion 10 is a trough-like channel. The distal portion portal 20 is also shown. The invention contemplates that any portion of the device 100 can be semi-tubular, open and trough-like, or a wick-like extension. Tubular channels can be round, ovoid, or any other enclosed geometry. Preferably the non-tubular trough-like aspects are oriented posteriorly on the outer wall of the canal to facilitate aqueous humor drainage to the collecting channels of the eye, as shown in FIG. 3A. FIG. 3B shows an overhead view of the embodiment of the inventive shunt of FIG. 3A, further detailing the relationship among the proximal portion 10 and the distal portion 25. The aqueous humor directing channel is shown in dashed lines. FIG. 3C shows a proximal view of the embodiment of the inventive shunt of FIG. 3A, further detailing the relationship among the proximal portion 10 and the distal portion 25. FIG. 3D shows another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the structure of the device 100 comprises an aqueous humor directing channel that is both open and curved in a continuous trough-like configuration along the proximal portion 10 and the distal portion 25. The distal portion portal 20 is also an open trough-like channel. FIG. 4 shows another embodiment of the inventive shunt with the addition of aqueous humor-wicking extensions 32 which are either continuous with, or attached to the terminal aspects of the distal portion 25. The wicking extensions 32 can be fashioned from a monofilament or braided polymer, such as proline, and preferably have a length of 1.0 mm to 16.0 mm. Furthermore, the proximal portion 10 is curved with a sealed, blunted tip 16 and contains a portal 18 in fluid communication with the lumen of the proximal portion and oriented to face away from the iris when the shunt device 100 is implanted in its intended anatomic position. The shunt device 100 can also help to maintain the patency of Schlemm's canal in a stenting fashion. FIG. 5A shows another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the proximal portion 10 joins a single, curved distal portion 25 in a “V-shaped,” tubular configuration. The embodiment shown in FIG. 5A can also have a portal (not shown) in the distal portion 25 adjacent to the junction with the proximal portion 10 in order to facilitate bi-directional flow of fluid within the canal. Fenestrations and non-tubular, trough-like terminal openings are contemplated in all embodiments of the invention, and these fenestrations and openings may be round, ovoid, or other shapes as needed for optimum aqueous humor channeling function within the anatomic spaces involved. FIG. 5B shows another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the body or device 100 comprises only a single, curved distal portion 25 which contains a distal portion portal 20 oriented towards the anterior chamber to allow egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal. The body of this device can have a length of about 1.0 mm to 40 mm, preferably about 6 mm. The external diameter can be about 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm, or about 0.3 mm. FIG. 5C shows another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the device 100 comprises a bi-directional tubular distal portion 25 which is intersected by a proximal portion 10 which is short in length relative to the distal portion 25 and is directed towards the anterior chamber. FIG. 5D shows still another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the device 100 comprises a bi-directional, trough-like, curved distal portion 25 for insertion into Schlemm's canal, which contains a distal portion portal 20 oriented to allow egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber, wherein the trough-like distal portion 25 is oriented to open toward the collecting channels to facilitate the egress of aqueous humor. FIG. 5E shows another embodiment of the inventive shunt in which the device 100 comprises a bi-directional, solid distal portion 25 for insertion into Schlemm's canal to facilitate the egress of aqueous humor from the canal to the collecting channels in a wicking capacity. The solid distal portion 25 can be porous or non-porous. As the inventive device is an implant, it can be fabricated from a material that will be compatible with the tissues and fluids with which it is in contact. It is preferable that the device not be absorbed, corroded, or otherwise structurally compromised during its in situ tenure. Moreover, it is equally important that the eye tissues and the aqueous remain non-detrimentally affected by the presence of the implanted device. A number of materials are available to meet the engineering and medical specifications for the shunts. In the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the shunt device 100 is constructed of a biologically inert, flexible material such as silicone or similar polymers. Alternate materials might include, but are not limited to, thin-walled Teflon, polypropylene, other polymers or plastics, metals, or some combination of these materials. The shunt device 100 may be constructed as either porous or solid in alternate embodiments. The material can contain a therapeutic agent deliverable to the adjacent tissues. In the embodiments shown in FIGS. 1-4, the proximal portion 10 joins the distal portion(s) 25 at an angle sufficient to allow the placement of the proximal portion 15 within the anterior chamber of the eye when the distal portion 25 is oriented in the plane of Schlemm's canal. The proximal portion 10 is preferably of sufficient length, about 0.1 to 3.0 mm or about 2.0 mm, to extend from its junction with the distal portion 25 in Schlemm's canal towards the adjacent space of the anterior chamber. While many geometries can be used for channeling aqueous humor, the diameter or width of the proximal portion 10 can be sized to yield an internal diameter of between about 0.1 and 0.5 mm, preferably 0.20 mm. for a tubular or curved shunt, or a comparable maximal width for a shunt with a multiangular configuration. In other embodiments, the proximal portion is a non-luminal, non-trough-like wicking extension that provides an aqueous humor directing channel along the length thereof. Because the nature of the iris 40 is such that it tends to comprise a plurality of rather flaccid fimbriae of tissue, it is desirable to avoid said fimbriae from being drawn into the lumen of an implant, thus occluding the shunt device. Therefore, the proximal portion 10 may contain a plurality of fenestrations to allow fluid ingress, arranged to prevent occlusion by the adjacent iris. Alternately, the proximal portion 10 may comprise only a proximal portion portal 18 in the form of a fenestration oriented anteriorly to provide continuous fluid egress between the anterior chamber of the eye and the directing channel of the shunt. Said fenestrations may be any functional size, and circular or non-circular in various embodiments of the present invention. In addition, a porous structural material can assist in channeling aqueous humor, while minimizing the potential for intake of fimbriae. Furthermore, the proximal portion 10 may be positioned sufficiently remote from the iris 40 to prevent interference therewith such as by traversing a more anterior aspect of the trabecular meshwork into the peripheral corneal tissue. In yet another possible embodiment, as shown in FIG. 6C, the device 100 may comprise a proximal portion 10 in which the terminal aspect of said proximal portion. 10 is curved or angled toward the iris 40, and with a, blunted, sealed tip 16 and a portal 18 oriented anteriorly to face away from the underlying iris 40. Such a configuration would tend to decrease the possibility of occlusion of the shunt device by the iris 40. The device 100 may contain one or more unidirectional valves to prevent backflow into the anterior chamber from Schlemm's canal. The internal lumen for an enclosed portion of the device or the internal channel defined by the edges of an open portion of the device communicates directly with the inner lumen or channel of the distal portion at the proximal portion portal 20. The distal portion 25 may have a pre-formed curve to approximate the 6.0 mm radius of Schlemm's canal in a human eye. Such a pre-formed curvature is not required when flexible material is used to construct the shunt device 100. The distal portion 25 may be of sufficient length to extend from the junction with the proximal portion 10 through any length of the entire circumference of Schlemm's canal. Embodiments having a distal portion 25 that extends in either direction within Schlemm's canal can extend in each direction about 1.0 mm to 20 mm, or about 3.0 mm. to permit circumferential placement through Schlemm's canal. The diameter or width of the distal portion 25 can be sized to yield an outer diameter of between about 0.1 and 0.5 mm, or about 0.3 mm, for a tubular or curved shunt, or a comparable maximal width for a shunt with a multiangular configuration. The distal portion 25 may contain a plurality of fenestrations to allow fluid egress, arranged to prevent occlusion by the adjacent walls of Schlemm's canal. In other embodiments, the distal portion is a non-luminal, non-trough-like wicking extension that provides an aqueous humor directing channel along the length thereof. In the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the shunt device may be either bi-directional, with the distal portion of the implant intersecting with the proximal portion in a “T-shaped” junction as shown in FIGS. 1A-1E, 2, 3A-3D, 4 and 5C, or uni-directional, with a “V-shaped” junction of the proximal and distal shunt portions, as shown in FIG. 5A. A bi-directional shunt device can have a distal portion that is threaded into opposing directions within Schlemm's canal. In the case of the uni-directional shunt, only the distal shunt portion is placed within Schlemm's canal. In these exemplary embodiments, “non-linear fluid communication” means that at least some portion of the shunt through which fluid passes is not in a straight line. Examples of non-linear shunts are the above described bi-directional “T” shapes, and the uni-directional “V” shapes, or shunts having two channel openings which are not in straight alignment with each other. The surgical anatomy relevant to the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 6A. Generally, FIG. 6A shows the anterior chamber 35, Schlemm's canal 30, the iris 40, cornea 45, trabecular meshwork 50, collecting channels 55, episcleral veins 60, pupil 65, and lens 70. FIG. 6B illustrates the surgical placement of the exemplary embodiment of the present invention, with the relevant anatomic relationships. It should be noted that the inventive device is designed so that placement of the distal portion 25 within Schlemm's canal 30 results in an orientation of the proximal portion 10 within the anterior chamber 35 within the angle defined by the iris 40 and the inner surface of the cornea 45. Therefore, if the plane defined by Schlemm's canal is defined as zero degrees, the proximal portion 10 can extend therefrom at an angle of between about +60 degrees towards the cornea 45 or −30 degrees toward the iris 40, more preferably in the range of 0 to +45 degrees. This range may vary in individuals having a slightly different location of Schlemm's canal 30 relative to the limbal angle of the anterior chamber 35. In yet another embodiment of the present invention not shown, the shunt device 100 is configured with one distal portion 25 which is tubular to provide a shunting functionality and a plurality of proximal portions 10 which provide an anchoring function to stabilize the overall implant device, in addition to providing fluid communication from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's Canal. The surgical procedure necessary to insert the device requires an approach through a conjunctival flap. A partial thickness scleral flap is then created and dissected half-thickness into clear cornea. The posterior aspect of Schlemm's canal is identified and the canal is entered posteriorly. The anterior chamber may be deepened with injection of a viscoelastic and a miotic agent. The proximal portion of the shunt is then inserted through the inner wall of Schlemm's canal and trabecular meshwork into the anterior chamber within the angle between the iris and the cornea. In some cases, as incision may be needed from Schlemm's canal through the trabecular meshwork into the anterior chamber to facilitate passage of the proximal portion therethrough. One arm of the distal portion of the shunt device is grasped and threaded into Schlemm's canal. In a similar fashion, the other arm of the distal portion of the shunt device (when present) is inserted into Schlemm's canal in the opposing direction from the first. The scleral flap and conjunctival wound are closed in a conventional manner. While the above-described embodiments are exemplary, the invention contemplates a wide variety of shapes and configurations of the shunt to provide fluid communication between the anterior chamber and Schlemm's canal. The above-described embodiments are therefore not intended to be limiting to the scope of the claims and equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Glaucoma is a significant public health problem, because glaucoma is a major cause of blindness. The blindness that results from glaucoma involves both central and peripheral vision and has a major impact on an individual's ability to lead an independent life. Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy (a disorder of the optic nerve) that usually occurs in the setting of an elevated intraocular pressure. The pressure within the eye increases and this is associated with changes in the appearance (“cupping”) and function (“blind spots” in the visual field) of the optic nerve. If the pressure remains high enough for a long enough period of time, total vision loss occurs. High pressure develops in an eye because of an internal fluid imbalance. The eye is a hollow structure that contains a clear fluid called “aqueous humor.” Aqueous humor is formed in the posterior chamber of the eye by the ciliary body at a rate of about 2.5 microliters per minute. The fluid, which is made at a fairly constant rate, then passes around the lens, through the pupillary opening in the iris and into the anterior chamber of the eye. Once in the anterior chamber, the fluid drains out of the eye through two different routes. In the “uveoscleral” route, the fluid percolates between muscle fibers of the ciliary body. This route accounts for approximately ten percent of the aqueous outflow in humans. The primary pathway for aqueous outflow in humans is through the “canalicular” route that involves the trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal. The trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal are located at the junction between the iris and the sclera. This junction or corner is called “the angle.” The trabecular meshwork is a wedge-shaped structure that runs around the circumference of the eye. It is composed of collagen beams arranged in a three-dimensional sieve-like structure. The beams are lined with a monolayer of cells called trabecular cells. The spaces between the collagen beams are filled with an extracellular substance that is produced by the trabecular cells. These cells also produce enzymes that degrade the extracellular material. Schlemm's canal is adjacent to the trabecular meshwork. The outer wall of the trabecular meshwork coincides with the inner wall of Schlemm's canal. Schlemm's canal is a tube-like structure that runs around the circumference of the cornea. In human adults, Schlemm's Canal is believed to be divided by septa into a series of autonomous, dead-end canals. The aqueous fluid travels through the spaces between the trabecular beams, across the inner wall of Schlemm's canal into the canal, through a series of about 25 collecting channels that drain from Schlemm's canal and into the episcleral venous system. In a normal situation, aqueous production is equal to aqueous outflow and intraocular pressure remains fairly constant in the 15 to 21 mmHg range. In glaucoma, the resistance through the canalicular outflow system is abnormally high. In primary open angle glaucoma, which is the most common form of glaucoma, the abnormal resistance is believed to be along the outer aspect of trabecular meshwork and the inner wall of Schlemm's canal. It is believed that an abnormal metabolism of the trabecular cells leads to an excessive build up of extracellular materials or a build up of abnormally “stiff” materials in this area. Primary open angle glaucoma accounts for approximately eighty-five percent of all glaucoma. Other forms of glaucoma (such as angle closure glaucoma and secondary glaucomas) also involve decreased outflow through the canalicular pathway but the increased resistance is from other causes such as mechanical blockage, inflammatory debris, cellular blockage, etc. With the increased resistance, the aqueous fluid builds up because it cannot exit fast enough. As the fluid builds up, the intraocular pressure (IOP) within the eye increases. The increased IOP compresses the axons in the optic nerve and also may compromise the vascular supply to the optic nerve. The optic nerve carries vision from the eye to the brain. Some optic nerves seem more susceptible to IOP than other eyes. While research is investigating ways to protect the nerve from an elevated pressure, the only therapeutic approach currently available in glaucoma is to reduce the intraocular pressure. The clinical treatment of glaucoma is approached in a step-wise fashion. Medication often is the first treatment option. Administered either topically or orally, these medications work to either reduce aqueous production or they act to increase outflow. Currently available medications have many serious side effects including: congestive heart failure, respiratory distress, hypertension, depression, renal stones, aplastic anemia, sexual dysfunction and death. Compliance with medication is a major problem, with estimates that over half of glaucoma patients do not follow their correct dosing schedules. When medication fails to adequately reduce the pressure, laser trabeculoplasty often is performed. In laser trabeculoplasty, thermal energy from a laser is applied to a number of noncontiguous spots in the trabecular meshwork. It is believed that the laser energy stimulates the metabolism of the trabecular cells in some way, and changes the extracellular material in the trabecular meshwork. In approximately eighty percent of patients, aqueous outflow is enhanced and IOP decreases. However, the effect often is not long lasting and fifty percent of patients develop an elevated pressure within five years. The laser surgery is not usually repeatable. In addition, laser trabeculoplasty is not an effective treatment for primary open angle glaucoma in patients less than fifty years of age, nor is it effective for angle closure glaucoma and many secondary glaucomas. If laser trabeculoplasty does not reduce the pressure enough, then filtering surgery is performed. With filtering surgery, a hole is made in the sclera and angle region. This hole allows the aqueous fluid to leave the eye through an alternate route. The most commonly performed filtering procedure is a trabeculectomy. In a trabeculectomy, a posterior incision is made in the conjunctiva, the transparent tissue that covers the sclera. The conjunctiva is rolled forward, exposing the sclera at the limbus. A partial thickness scleral flap is made and dissected half-thickness into the cornea. The anterior chamber is entered beneath the scleral flap and a section of deep sclera and trabecular meshwork is excised. The scleral flap is loosely sewn back into place. The conjunctival incision is tightly closed. Post-operatively, the aqueous fluid passes through the hole, beneath the scleral flap and collects in an elevated space beneath the conjunctiva. The fluid then is either absorbed through blood vessels in the conjunctiva or traverses across the conjunctiva into the tear film. Trabeculectomy is associated with many problems. Fibroblasts that are present in the episclera proliferate and migrate and can scar down the scleral flap. Failure from scarring may occur, particularly in children and young adults. Of eyes that have an initially successful trabeculectomy, eighty percent will fail from scarring within three to five years after surgery. To minimize fibrosis, surgeons now are applying antifibrotic agents such as mitomycin C (MMC) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) to the scleral flap at the time of surgery. The use of these agents has increased the success rate of trabeculectomy but also has increased the prevalence of hypotony. Hypotony is a problem that develops when aqueous flows out of the eye too fast. The eye pressure drops too low (usually less than 6.0 mmHg); the structure of the eye collapses and vision decreases. Trabeculectomy creates a pathway for aqueous fluid to escape to the surface of the eye. At the same time, it creates a pathway for bacteria that normally live on the surface of the eye and eyelids to get into the eye. If this happens, an internal eye infection can occur called endophthalmitis. Endophthalmitis often leads to permanent and profound visual loss. Endophthalmitis can occur anytime after trabeculectomy. The risk increases with the thin blobs that develop after MMC and 5-FU. Another factor that contributes to infection is the placement of a bleb. Eyes that have trabeculectomy performed inferiorly have about five times the risk of eye infection than eyes that have a superior bleb. Therefore, initial trabeculectomy is performed superiorly under the eyelid, in either the nasal or temporal quadrant. In addition to scarring, hypotony and infection, there are other complications of trabeculectomy. The bleb can tear and lead to profound hypotony. The bleb can be irritating and can disrupt the normal tear film, leading to blurred vision. Patients with blebs generally cannot wear contact lenses. All of the complications from trabeculectomy stem from the fact that fluid is being diverted from inside the eye to the external surface of the eye. When trabeculectomy doesn't successfully lower the eye pressure, the next surgical step often is an aqueous shunt device. An aqueous diversion device of the prior art is a silicone tube that is attached at one end to a plastic (polypropylene or other synthetic) plate. With an aqueous shunt device, an incision is made in the conjunctiva, exposing the sclera. The plastic plate is sewn to the surface of the eye posteriorly, usually over the equator. A full thickness hole is made into the eye at the limbus, usually with a needle. The tube is inserted into the eye through this hole. The external portion of the tube is covered with either donor sclera or pericardium. The conjunctiva is replaced and the incision is closed tightly. With prior art aqueous diversion devices, aqueous drains out of the eye through the silicone tube to the surface of the eye. Deeper orbital tissues then absorb the fluid. The outside end of the tube is protected from fibroblasts and scarring by the plastic plate. Many complications are associated with aqueous shunt devices. A thickened wall of scar tissue that develops around the plastic plate offers some resistance to outflow and in many eyes limits the reduction in eye pressure. In some eyes, hypotony develops because the flow through the tube is not restricted. Many physicians tie an absorbable suture around the tube and wait for the suture to dissolve post-operatively at which time enough scar tissue has hopefully formed around the plate. Some devices contain a pressure-sensitive valve within the tube, although these valves may not function properly. The surgery involves operating in the posterior orbit and many patients develop an eye muscle imbalance and double vision post-operatively. With prior art aqueous shunt devices, a pathway is created for bacteria to get into the eye and endophthalmitis can potentially occur. The prior art includes a number of such aqueous shunt devices, such as U.S. Pat. No. 4,936,825 (providing a tubular shunt from the anterior chamber to the corneal surface for the treatment of glaucoma), U.S. Pat. No. 5,127,901 (directed to a transscleral shunt from the anterior chamber to the subconjunctival space), U.S. Pat. No. 5,180,362 (teaching a helical steel implant that is placed to provide drainage from the anterior chamber to the subconjunctival space), and U.S. Pat. No. 5,433,701 (generally teaching shunting from the anterior chamber to the scleral or conjunctival spaces). In addition to the prior art aqueous shunt devices described above, other prior art devices for glaucoma surgery have used setons, or other porous, wick-like components to divert and convey excess aqueous from the anterior chamber to the exterior ocular surface. Examples include U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,634,418 and 4,787,885 (teaching the surgical treatment of glaucoma using an implant that consists of a triangular seton (wick)), and U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,436, (teaching the use of a porous device to shunt anterior chamber to subscleral space). These patents do not teach placement in Schlemm's canal. Some prior art references for glaucoma management have been directed at Schlemm's canal, but these have not involved the placement of long-term, indwelling shunts. U.S. Pat. No. 5,360,399 teaches the temporary placement of a plastic or steel tube with preformed curvature in Schlemm's canal with injection of a viscous material through the tube to hydraulically expand and hydrodissect the trabecular meshwork. The tube is removed from the canal following injection. Because the tube is directed outwardly from the eye for injection access, the intersection of the outflow element with the preformed curved element within Schlemm's canal is at about a 90 degree angle relative to the plane of the curvature, and 180 degrees away from the anterior chamber. Therefore, at no time does any portion of the '399 device communicate with the anterior chamber. Furthermore, relative to that portion within Schlemm's canal, this tube has a larger diameter injection cuff element, which serves as an adapter for irrigation. Therefore, this device is not adapted for shunting aqueous between the anterior chamber and Schlemm's canal. Most of the problems that have developed with current glaucoma treatment devices and procedures have occurred because aqueous fluid is drained from inside of the eye to the surface of the eye. A need exists, then, for a more physiologic system to enhance the drainage of aqueous fluid from the anterior chamber into Schlemm's canal. In the vast majority of glaucoma patients, the resistance problem lies between Schlemm's canal and the anterior chamber. The canal itself, the collecting channels and the episcleral venous system all are intact. Enhancing aqueous flow directly into Schlemm's canal would minimize the scarring that usually occurs with external filtration procedure since the internal angle region is populated with a single line of nonproliferating trabecular cells. Enhancing aqueous flow directly into Schlemm's canal would minimize hypotony since the canal is part of the normal outflow system and is biologically engineered to handle the normal volume of aqueous humor. Enhancing aqueous flow directly into Schlemm's canal would eliminate complications such as endophthalmitis and leaks. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a novel shunt and an associated surgical method for the treatment of glaucoma in which the shunt is placed to divert aqueous humor from the anterior chamber of the eye into Schlemm's canal. The present invention therefore facilitates the normal physiologic pathway for drainage of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber, rather than shunting to the sclera or another anatomic site as is done in most prior art shunt devices. The present invention is further directed to providing a permanent, indwelling shunt to provide increased egress of aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to Schlemm's canal for glaucoma management. | 20041112 | 20101214 | 20050428 | 63996.0 | 1 | CHAPMAN, GINGER T | SHUNT DEVICE AND METHOD FOR TREATING GLAUCOMA | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,987,228 | ACCEPTED | Gun shell catcher device | A shell catcher for use with hand-held firearms adjustably detachably mounts on a side of the firearm for receiving and retaining spent shells expelled by the firearm. The shell catcher has a base, which mounts on a side of the firearm and a collapsible flexible housing, which is detachably pivotally mounted on the mounting base. The housing is stretched on a rigid frame that moves between a closed position when the shells are received in the housing and an open position allowing unobstructed view of the gun chamber. The spent shells are removed from the housing by means of opening the bottom of the housing or by removing the housing from the base. | 1. A shell catcher device for a hand-held firearm, comprising: a collapsible shell receiving housing means having an open end adapted for receiving spent shells expelled from the firearm; a means for detachably adjustably mounting the housing means on the firearm; and a means for pivotally moving the housing means in relation to the firearm. 2. The device of claim 1, further comprising a means for detachably engaging the housing means with the mounting means. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein said housing means comprises a rigid frame and a flexible collapsible body stretched on said frame. 4. The device of claim 3, wherein said housing means further comprises an engagement plate configured for detachable engagement with the mounting means. 5. The device of claim 4, wherein said mounting means comprises an elongated plate having an inner surface contacting the firearm when the shell catcher device is mounted on the firearm and an exterior surface, and wherein a spring member is mounted on the exterior surface of the elongated plate. 6. The device of claim 5, wherein said engagement plate is configured for detachable positioning between said elongated plate and the spring member. 7. The device of claim 4, wherein said plate carries at least one sleeve on a side adjacent the frame, and wherein a release pin member is releasably engaged with said sleeve. 8. The device of claim 7, wherein said release pin carries a compression spring normally urging the release pin into engagement within said at least one sleeve. 9. The device of claim 8, wherein said frame is adapted for a pivotal movement away from the firearm when the release pin is disengaged from said at least one sleeve. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein said mounting means comprises a first member adapted for engaging one side of the firearm and a second member adapted for engaging an opposite side of the firearm, said first member and said second member being slidably engaged with each other to allow adapting the mounting member to a configuration of the firearm. 11. The device of claim 10, wherein said mounting means comprises a means for retaining said first member and said second member in a mutually aligned position. 12. The device of claim 11, wherein said means for retaining said first member and said second member in a mutually aligned position comprises a threaded pin secured to said first member and said second member. 13. The device of claim 3, wherein said collapsible body has a normally closed bottom for retaining the shells expelled by the firearm. 14. A shell catcher device for a hand-held firearm, comprising: a shell receiving housing means having a collapsible flexible body stretched on a rigid frame, said body provided with an open end adapted for receiving spent shells expelled from the firearm; a means for detachably adjustably mounting the housing means on the firearm, said means comprising a first member contacting a side of the firearm and a second member slidably engaged with the first member and contacting an opposite side of the firearm when the shell catcher device is mounted on the firearm; and a means for pivotally moving the frame of the housing means in relation to the first member, said means comprising an engagement plate secured on the rigid frame and adapted for detachable engagement with the first member, at least one sleeve mounted on said engagement plate and a release pin releasably engageable with said at least one sleeve. 15. The device of claim 14, further comprising a means for detachable engagement of the frame to the mounting means. 16. The device of claim 15, wherein said means for detachable engagement comprises a spring member carried by the first member of the housing means, and wherein said engagement plate is adapted for positioning between the spring member and said first member, said spring member normally retaining said engagement plate in contact with the first member of the mounting means. 17. The device of claim 14, wherein said mounting means comprises a means for retaining said first member and said second member in a mutually aligned position. 18. The device of claim 17, wherein said means for retaining said first member and said second member in a mutually aligned position comprises a threaded pin secured to said first member and said second member. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to firearms, and more particularly, to shell catchers attachable to hunting rifles, handguns, and other similar devices for collecting of empty shells expelled by the firearm. During practice or competition, gun aficionados use a large amount of ammunition, resulting in a pile of empty shells, which fall from the gun to the ground and have to be collected and then disposed in a prescribed manner. A hunter may prefer to retrieve the shells so as to remove the scent of the foreign smell in a hunting area and not alert the prey to the hunter's presence in the area. During hunting, the shells may fall into tall grass where the shell collecting is tiresome and time-consuming. The present invention contemplates provision of a shell catcher device that can be detachably mounted on a firearm, be it a handheld gun, hunting rifle, or other such weapon. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a shell catcher device, which can be detachably mounted on a hand-held firearm for catching spent shells. It is another object of the present invention to provide a shell catcher device that safely retains the shells in a compact bag attachable to the side of the firearm to make collection of the shells easy. These and other objects of the present invention are achieved through a provision of shell catcher device that is detachably mountable on a side of a firearm adjacent an area, where the empty shells are expelled. The shell catcher device comprises a mounting base adjustably detachably securable on the hand-held firearm, and a housing for receiving the spent shells detachably pivotally mountable on the firearm. The housing comprises a soft, flexible, collapsible bag stretched on a frame and a securing plate, which detachably engages the mounting base. A release pin carried by the frame allows to pivotally move the housing into an open position away from the firearm and into a closed position in contact with the firearm. The pin is spring loaded to normally retain the housing in the closed position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Reference will now be made to the drawings, wherein like parts are designated by like numerals and wherein FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the gun shell catcher device in accordance with the present invention mounted on a handheld firearm. FIG. 2 is a front view of the gun shell catcher device of the present invention as mounted on the handheld firearm. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the frame of the shell catcher device of the present invention, with the collapsible housing removed for clarity. FIG. 4 is a front view of the shell catcher device of the present invention, with the collapsible housing removed for clarity, showing the front view of the frame and the mounting base, with the frame in a closed position. FIG. 5 is a front view of the frame of the shell catcher device, with the frame in an open position. FIG. 6 is a side view of the shell catcher device of the present invention, with the frame detached and the mounting base secured on the side of the gun. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Turning now to the drawings in more detail, numeral 10 designates the gun shell catcher device in accordance with the present invention. The shell catcher device comprises a base means 12 for mounting the device on a firearm and a shell receiving collapsible housing means 14. The housing 14 is stretched over a frame assembly 16, which is detachably secured on the base mounting means 12. The frame assembly 16 comprises a lower inner supporting rod 18, an outer supporting rod 20, a first transverse supporting rod 22 and a second transverse supporting rod 24. The rods 18, 20, 22, and 24 follow a generally rectangular supporting frame. Extending outwardly from the rods 22 and 24 is an upright support member 26 and 28, respectively. Each upright member 26 and 28 has a lower bent part 30 and 32, respectively. The part 30 (FIG. 4) extends inwardly toward the outer rod 20 and engages the proximate end 34 of the first transverse rod 22. The curved lower part 32 of the upright member 28 engages a plate 36 securely attached to a proximate end of the second transverse rod 24. One end of the lower inner supporting rod 18 is fixedly engaged with the plate 36. A second end of the road 18 is secured to the proximate end 34 of the first transverse rod 22. An upper inner supporting rod 40 extends between the upright rods 26 and 28 in a generally parallel relationship to the lower inner supporting rod 18 and the outer supporting rod 20. The rod 40 extends approximately from a point of intersection of the curved portions 30 and 32 with their respective upright rods 26, 28 in order to provide further stability to the collapsible housing member 14. The frame assembly 16 further comprises a securing plate 42, which carries at least one sleeve 44 on the outer surface thereof. The sleeve 44 is sized and configured to receive a portion of the inner supporting rod 18 therethrough. A pair of spaced apart engagement sleeves 46 and 48 (FIG. 6) is secured a distance from the sleeve 44. A release pin 50 is slidably engaged within the sleeve 46 and 48. The release pin 50 comprises a generally J-shaped member having a first portion 52 and a curved portion 54. The curved portion 54 is engaged within the sleeves 46 and 48, while a compression spring 56 is mounted about the portion 52. The compression spring 56 urges against a head 58 of the release pin 50 on one end, and against the sleeve 46—at its opposite end. The release pin 50 allows the frame assembly 16 to move into a locked, close position in close proximity to a firearm 80 as shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, and 6 and to pivot into an open position as shown in FIG. 5. When the user pushes on the head 58, the free end of the release pin 50 is released from the sleeve 48, allowing a pivotal movement of the frame assembly 16 about an axis formed by the rod 18. To bring the frame assembly 16 into a closed position, the user again pushes on the head 58, against the force of the compression spring 56 and then moves the free end of the release pin 50 into a sliding engagement with the sleeve 48. The engagement plate 42 is adapted for a detachable engagement with a mounting base 60. The mounting base 60 is comprised of adjustably movable members mounted in a sliding relationship to each other. The first mounting base member has at least a portion having an L-shaped configuration in cross section. Of course, other cross-sectional configurations may be employed depending on the style and shape of the gun. The first mounting base member has an upright portion 62 and a horizontal portion 64. The upright portion 62 is provided with a leaf spring 66 (FIG. 6) which is securely attached to the exterior surface of the upright portion 62. The engagement plate 42 is adapted for sliding between the leaf spring 66 and the exterior surface of the portion 62, thus detachably engaging the frame 16 on the firearm 80. The second mounting base member 70 has a portion having a generally L-shaped cross section, with a horizontal part 72 and a vertical upright part 74. As mentioned above, other cross-sectional configurations may be employed depending on the style and shape of the gun, on which the shell catching device of the present invention is to be positioned. A horizontal part 72 of the member 70 slidably engages the horizontal portion 64. The horizontal plate 72 slides for a pre-determined adjustable distance along the top of the horizontal portion 64 of the first mounting base member. An engagement pin 76 extends through the vertical part 62 of the first member and engages with the plate 72 of the second mounting base member 70. The engagement pin 76 may be a threaded bolt, which is rotated to allow the vertical part 74 move toward and away from the vertical part 62. When positioned on a firearm 80, the upright part 74 engages one side of the firearm body, while the second upright portion 62 engages the opposite side of the firearm body. Due to the sliding engagement between the two portions of the mounting base 60, the shell catching device of the present invention can accommodate different width firearms, assuring that the shell catching device 10 is securely positioned and tightly engages the firearm 80. As a result, the shell catching device 10 retains its firm engagement with the firearm 80 whether the shell catching device is in a closed or open position, or the housing is removed from the base completely. The frame assembly 16 further comprises an upper inner rod 90, which is secured to upper ends of the upright members 26 and 28. Connecting rod members 92 and 94 extend between the rod 90 and the outer supporting rod member 20, thereby forming a cage for stretching of the collapsible housing 14 thereon. A first panel 96 of the collapsible member 14 is stretched between the upper rod member 90 and the lower outer rod member 20. A second panel 98 is stretched between the rod members 26, 94, and 22, while the third panel member is stretched between the rod members 28, 92, and 24. The third panel member is a mirror image of the panel member 98. A bag-shaped enclosure 100 is suspended from the rods 20, 22, 18, and 24. The enclosure 100 is fixedly attached to the panels 96, 98 and a third panel (not shown). The enclosure 100 serves as a housing for receiving spent shells expelled by the firearm 80. The side of the housing 14 opposite the panel 96 is open, allowing the spent shells to be received by the housing 14 and delivered by gravity into the enclosure 100. The collapsible housing body 14 can be formed from a strong flexible, collapsible material such as canvas or other fabric and is designed to withstand the weight of the shells housed within the closure 100. In operation, the user positions the mounting base 60 on the firearm 80 and tightens the screw or bolt 76 such that the sides 74 and 62 tightly engage opposite sides of the firearm 80. The user then engages the engagement plate 42 between the leaf spring 66 and the mounting base 60, thereby suspending the housing 14 stretched on the frame assembly 16 on the firearm 80. The protective cover of the panel 96 extends above and over the opening from which the shells are expelled. After the shooting competition or the hunt is over, the user can easily detach the housing 14 by pulling the frame 16 upward and releasing the plate 42 from its engagement on the mounting base 60. The mounting base 60 can then be disengaged from the firearm 80 and stored separately from the housing 14, if desired. The shells are then removed from the housing 14 and disposed of in the desired manner. Many changes and modifications can be made in the apparatus of the present invention without departing from the spirit thereof. We therefore pray that our rights to the present invention be limited only by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to firearms, and more particularly, to shell catchers attachable to hunting rifles, handguns, and other similar devices for collecting of empty shells expelled by the firearm. During practice or competition, gun aficionados use a large amount of ammunition, resulting in a pile of empty shells, which fall from the gun to the ground and have to be collected and then disposed in a prescribed manner. A hunter may prefer to retrieve the shells so as to remove the scent of the foreign smell in a hunting area and not alert the prey to the hunter's presence in the area. During hunting, the shells may fall into tall grass where the shell collecting is tiresome and time-consuming. The present invention contemplates provision of a shell catcher device that can be detachably mounted on a firearm, be it a handheld gun, hunting rifle, or other such weapon. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a shell catcher device, which can be detachably mounted on a hand-held firearm for catching spent shells. It is another object of the present invention to provide a shell catcher device that safely retains the shells in a compact bag attachable to the side of the firearm to make collection of the shells easy. These and other objects of the present invention are achieved through a provision of shell catcher device that is detachably mountable on a side of a firearm adjacent an area, where the empty shells are expelled. The shell catcher device comprises a mounting base adjustably detachably securable on the hand-held firearm, and a housing for receiving the spent shells detachably pivotally mountable on the firearm. The housing comprises a soft, flexible, collapsible bag stretched on a frame and a securing plate, which detachably engages the mounting base. A release pin carried by the frame allows to pivotally move the housing into an open position away from the firearm and into a closed position in contact with the firearm. The pin is spring loaded to normally retain the housing in the closed position. | 20041112 | 20070130 | 20060518 | 60868.0 | F41A1500 | 0 | CLEMENT, MICHELLE RENEE | GUN SHELL CATCHER DEVICE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | F41A | 2,004 |
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10,987,318 | ACCEPTED | Automotive systems | An occupant detection system comprises a weight sensor and an electric field sensor, each operatively coupled to a seat. The electric field sensor generates an electric field from at least one electrode in the seat bottom of the seat, provides for generating a response to an influence of the occupant thereupon, and is adapted to provide for discriminating from the response a seated infant or child seating condition from another seating condition. If a measure of weight from the weight sensor is less than a threshold, or if a seated child seating condition is detected by the electric field sensor, then a signal processor provides for disabling an associated restraint actuator. The electric field sensor may comprise a plurality of electrodes over separate first and second regions of differing proximity to a seated infant or child, or at least one electrode in cooperation with a shield or void over at least one of the regions. | 1. An electric field sensor, comprising: a. at least one first electrode; b. at least one second electrode; and c. at least one third electrode, wherein said at least one second electrode is located between said at least one first electrode and said at least one third electrode, said at least one first electrode is located proximate to a region to be sensed by said electric field sensor, and said at least one second electrode is substantially the same size as said at least one first electrode. 2. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 1, wherein said at least one third electrode is electrically connected to a circuit ground. 3. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 1, further comprising a sensing circuit, wherein said sensing circuit is operatively coupled to said at least one first electrode and to said at least one said second electrode. 4. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 3, wherein said sensing circuit applies a first applied signal to said at least one first electrode and applies a second applied signal to said at least one second electrode. 5. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 4, wherein said second applied signal is equal so said first applied signal. 6. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 3, wherein said sensing circuit is operatively coupled to at least one said third electrode and said sensing circuit applies a third applied signal to said third electrode. 7. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 6, wherein said third applied signal is a circuit ground potential. 8. An electric field sensor, comprising: a. at least one electrode; b. a first reference capacitor; c. a second reference capacitor; and d. a sensing circuit comprising a plurality of states, wherein in a first state said sensing circuit is operatively coupled to at least one said electrode so as to provide for generating a first signal responsive to the capacitance of said at least one said electrode, in a second state said sensing circuit is operatively coupled to said first reference capacitor so as to provide for generating a second signal responsive to the capacitance of said first reference capacitor, in a third state said sensing circuit is operatively coupled to said second reference capacitor so as to provide for generating a third signal responsive to the capacitance of said second reference capacitor, and said sensing circuit is adapted to provide for generating a measure responsive to the capacitance of said at least one said electrode responsive to said first signal, said second signal and said third signal. 9. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 8, wherein in said third state, said sensing circuit is also operatively coupled to said first reference capacitor so that said third signal is responsive to the capacitance of a combination of said first and second reference capacitors. 10. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 8, further comprising at least one switch operatively coupling said at least one electrode, said first reference capacitor and said second reference capacitor to said sensing circuit, wherein said first state, said second state, and said third state of said sensing circuit correspond to corresponding states of said at least one switch. 11. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 8, further comprising at least multiplexer or demultiplexer operatively coupling said at least one electrode, said first reference capacitor and said second reference capacitor to said sensing circuit, wherein said first state, said second state, and said third state of said sensing circuit correspond to corresponding states of said at least at least one multiplexer or demultiplexer. 12. An electric field sensor as recited in claim 8, wherein said plurality of states are repetitively sequentially cycled. 13. A method of generating a response from an electric field sensor, comprising: a. operatively coupling an oscillatory voltage signal across a voltage divider, wherein said voltage divider comprises a first impedance operatively coupled to a switched impedance at a node; b. switching said switched impedance in accordance with a plurality of states, wherein in a first state said switched impedance comprises at least one electrode of an electric field sensor, in a second state said switched impedance comprises a first reference capacitor, and in a third state said switched impedance comprises a second reference capacitor; c. generating a plurality of corresponding response signals from said node corresponding to each of said first state, said second state and said third state; and d. generating the response from the electric field sensor responsive to said plurality of corresponding response signals. 14. A method of generating a response from an electric field sensor as recited in claim 13, wherein in said third state, said switched impedance comprises a combination of said first and second reference capacitors. 15. A method of generating a response from an electric field sensor as recited in claim 13, wherein said plurality of states are repetitively sequentially cycled. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The instant application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/153,378, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/614,086 (“Application '086”) filed on Jul. 11, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,392,542, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/143,761 filed on Jul. 13, 1999; U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/144,161 filed on Jul. 15, 1999; and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/207,536 filed on May 26, 2000. Application '086 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/474,600 filed on Dec. 29, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,520,535; and a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/474,673, filed on Dec. 29, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,504. application Ser. No. 10/153,378 is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/474,470 filed on Dec. 29, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,577,023, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/114,269 filed on Dec. 30, 1998; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/133,630 filed on May 11, 1999; U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/133,632 filed on May 11, 1999; and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/143,761 filed on Jul. 12, 1999. application Ser. No. 10/153,378 is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/474,469 filed on Dec. 29, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,563,231, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/114,269 filed on Dec. 30, 1998; U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/133,630 filed on May 11, 1999; U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/133,632 filed on May 11, 1999; and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/143,761 filed on Jul. 12, 1999. The instant application is also related to U.S. application Ser. No. 09/520,866 filed on Mar. 6, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,348,862. The above-identified patents and patent applications are incorporated herein by reference. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings: FIG. 1 illustrates an occupant detection system incorporating a first embodiment of a seat weight sensor; FIG. 2 illustrates an occupant detection system incorporating a second embodiment of a seat weight sensor; FIG. 3 illustrates a child in a typical rear facing infant seat placed on a vehicle seat; FIGS. 4a and 4b illustrate several electrode embodiments in accordance with an electric field sensor; FIGS. 5a and 5b illustrate other electrode embodiments in accordance with an electric field sensor; FIG. 6a illustrates a first embodiment of a circuit for switching a calibration capacitor; FIG. 6b illustrates a second embodiment of a circuit for switching a calibration capacitor; FIG. 7 illustrates a generalized sensing circuit for measuring a capacitance; FIG. 8 illustrates an embodiment of a circuit for sensing capacitance and for controlling a restraint actuator responsive to capacitance measurements and responsive to a measure of seat weight; FIG. 9 illustrates the operation of various switch elements of the sensing circuit of FIG. 8; FIG. 10 illustrates an alternate FET switch embodiment; FIG. 11 illustrates another embodiment of a circuit for sensing capacitance and for controlling a restraint actuator responsive to capacitance measurements and responsive to a measure of seat weight; FIG. 12 illustrates a method of detecting an occupant and controlling a restraint actuator responsive thereto; FIG. 13 illustrates a first method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIG. 14 illustrates an electric field sensor comprising a plurality of electrodes; FIG. 15 illustrates a second method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIG. 16 illustrates a side-view of an embodiment of an electric field sensor incorporating a driven shield; FIG. 17a illustrates an embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad comprising a front driven shield; FIG. 17b illustrates another embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad comprising a front driven shield; FIG. 18a illustrates a cross-section of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17a; FIG. 18b illustrates a cross-section of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17b; FIG. 19 illustrates a front driven shield in a shielding mode in accordance with a second aspect of the instant invention; FIG. 20 illustrates a front driven shield in a sensing mode in accordance with a first embodiment of a second aspect of the instant invention; FIG. 21 illustrates a front driven shield in a sensing mode in accordance with a second embodiment of a second aspect of the instant invention; FIG. 22 illustrates a third method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIG. 23 illustrates a fourth method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIGS. 24a and 24b illustrates the capacitance of the occupant relative to an electric field sensor and relative to a circuit ground; FIG. 25 illustrates an embodiment of a second aspect of a capacitive sensing pad; FIG. 26 illustrates another embodiment of a second aspect of a capacitive sensing pad; FIG. 27 illustrates the performance of the instant invention incorporating a capacitive sensing pad in accordance with the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 26; FIG. 28 illustrates yet another embodiment of a second aspect of a capacitive sensing pad; and FIG. 29 illustrates a third aspect of a capacitive sensing pad. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENT(S) Referring to FIG. 1, an occupant detection system 10 comprises a seat weight sensor 12 and an electric field sensor 14, each operatively connected to a controller 16, for detecting an occupant 18 in a vehicle 20. The seat weight sensor 12 is adapted to generate a measure of weight upon the a vehicle seat 22, e.g. upon the associated seat bottom 24. The electric field sensor 14 comprises at least one electrode 26 located, for example, in the seat bottom 24 under the seat cover 28 and close to the top of a foam cushion 30, and adapted to enable a type of occupant 18 or object that may be upon the seat bottom 24 of the vehicle seat 22 to be distinguished. The seat weight sensor 12 is responsive to a force upon onto the vehicle seat 22. The seat weight sensor 12, for example, may comprise one or more load cells 32 operatively coupled to at least one load path between the seat bottom 24 and the vehicle 20, e.g. between the seat frame 34 and the floor pan 36 of the vehicle 20, e.g. at the corners 38 of the seat frame 34, so as to measure the weight of the entire vehicle seat 22 and objects or occupants 18 placed thereon. For example, the one or more load cells 32 could use a strain gage, a magnetostrictive sensing element, a force sensitive resistive element, or another type of sensing element to measure the associated load. For example, the seat weight sensor 12 may be constructed in accordance with the teachings of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,905,210, 6,069,325 or 6,323,444, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. The seat weight sensor 12 may alternately comprise at least one weight sensing element, e.g. a force sensitive resistive element, a membrane switch element, a pressure sensitive resistive contact, a pressure pattern sensor, a strain gage, a bend sensor, or a hydrostatic weight sensing element, operatively coupled to one or more seating surfaces in the seat base or seat back, e.g. in accordance with the teachings of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,918,696, 5,927,427, 5,957,491, 5,979,585, 5,984,349, 5,986,221, 6,021,863, 6,045,155, 6,076,853, 6,109,117 or 6,056,079, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. For example, referring to FIG. 2, the seat weight sensor 12 may comprise a hydrostatic weight sensing element—e.g. a fluid containing bladder 40, underneath the seat cover 28 of the seat bottom 24 and supported by the seat frame 34—wherein a pressure sensor 42 operatively connected to the bladder 40 measures the pressure of the fluid contained therein so as to provide a measure of occupant weight. The pressure sensor 42 is operatively connected to the controller 16 so as to provide a pressure signal thereto, which determines a measure of weight therefrom. A seat weight sensor 12 within the cushion 30 of the vehicle seat 22, e.g. in the seat bottom 24 only, would typically not be as accurate as a seat weight sensor 12 that measures the weight of the entire vehicle seat 22, but would still provide information about the weight of an occupant on the vehicle seat 22 sufficient for the occupant detection system 10 to control a restraint actuator 44, e.g. an air bag inflator module 44′, responsive thereto. The particular type of seat weight sensor 12 is not considered to be limiting. The seat weight sensor 12 may, for example, be integrated with either the seat frame 34 or the seat bottom 24. As used herein, the term “electric field sensor” refers to a sensor that generates a signal responsive to the influence of that being sensed, upon an electric field. Generally, an electric field sensor comprises at least one electrode to which is applied at least one applied signal; and at least one electrode—which could be the same electrode or electrodes to which the applied signal is applied—at which a received signal (or response) is measured. The applied signal generates an electric field from the at least one electrode to a ground in the environment of the at least one electrode, or to another at least one electrode. The applied and received signals can be associated with the same electrode or electrodes, or with different electrodes. The particular electric field associated with a given electrode or set of electrodes is dependent upon the nature and geometry of the electrode or set of electrodes and upon the nature of the surroundings thereto, for example, the dielectric properties of the surroundings. For a fixed electrode geometry, the received signal or signals of an electric field sensor are responsive to the applied signal or signals and to the nature of the environment influencing the resulting electric field, for example to the presence and location of an object having a permittivity or conductivity different from that of its surroundings. One form of electric field sensor is a capacitive sensor, wherein the capacitance of one or more electrodes is measured—from the relationship between received and applied signals—for a given electrode configuration. The technical paper “Field mice: Extracting hand geometry from electric field measurements” by J. R. Smith, published in IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 35, Nos. 3 &4, 1996, pp. 587-608, incorporated herein by reference, describes the concept of electric field sensing as used for making non-contact three-dimensional position measurements, and more particularly for sensing the position of a human hand for purposes of providing three dimensional positional inputs to a computer. What has commonly been referred to as capacitive sensing actually comprises the distinct mechanisms of what the author refers to as “loading mode”, “shunt mode”, and “transmit mode” which correspond to various possible electric current pathways. In the “shunt mode”, a voltage oscillating at low frequency is applied to a transmit electrode, and the displacement current induced at a receive electrode is measured with a current amplifier, whereby the displacement current may be modified by the body being sensed. In the “loading mode”, the object to be sensed modifies the capacitance of a transmit electrode relative to ground. In the “transmit mode”, the transmit electrode is put in contact with the user's body, which then becomes a transmitter relative to a receiver, either by direct electrical connection or via capacitive coupling. Accordingly, the electric field sensor 14 is either what is commonly known as a capacitive sensor, or more generally an electric field sensor operating in any of the above described modes. The electric field sensor 14 comprises at least one electrode 26 operatively coupled to at least one applied signal 46 so as to generate an electric field proximate to the at least one electrode 26, responsive to the applied signal 46. The applied signal 46, for example, comprises either an oscillating or pulsed signal. At least one electrode 26 is operatively coupled to a sensing circuit 48 that outputs at least one response signal 50 responsive to the electric field at the corresponding electrode 26, wherein the response signal 50 is responsive to at least one electric-field-influencing property—for example, dielectric constant, conductivity, size, mass or distance—of an object proximate to the electric field sensor 14. For example, for the electric field sensor 14 as a capacitance sensor, the sensing circuit 48 measures the capacitance of at least one electrode 26 with respect to either another electrode 26 or with respect to a surrounding ground, for example, a seat frame 34 of the vehicle seat 22, connected to circuit ground 52. The at least one applied signal 46 is, for example, generated by the sensing circuit 48 that also outputs the at least one response signal 50. The sensing circuit 48 and associated at least one applied signal 46 may be adapted to be responsive to the influence of a water soaked vehicle seat 22, on measurements from the electric field sensor 14. The electric field sensor 14 generates an electric field from the applied signal 46 applied to at least one electrode 26 and senses objects proximate to the associated at least one electrode 26, for example in the seat bottom 24 of a vehicle seat 22, from the influence of the electric field on the response signal 50. The at least one electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14, the applied signal 46 applied thereto, and the sensitivity of the sensing circuit 48 are all adapted so that the electric field sensor 14 is, for example, substantially non-responsive to objects that are more than 50 mm above the seat bottom 24, but is substantially responsive to occupants that are normally seated directly on the vehicle seat 22. The at least one electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14 is adapted so as to provide for distinguishing seating conditions for which a restraint actuator 44, for example an air bag inflator module 44′, should be deployed from seating conditions for which the restraint actuator 44 should not be deployed, so as to avoid causing more injury to an occupant 18 than the occupant 18 would otherwise incur without the deployment of the restraint actuator 44. For example, the electrode 26 is adapted so that a capacitance of the at least one electrode 26 with respect to a circuit ground 52 is substantially greater for a seating condition for which the restraint actuator 44 should be deployed, for example an occupant 18 seated in substantially normal seating position on the vehicle seat 22 or a large body immediately above the seat bottom 24; than for a seating condition for which the restraint actuator 44 should not be deployed, for example an empty vehicle seat 22, an infant, child, or booster seat on the vehicle seat 22 with or without an infant or child seated therein, or an occupant 18 on the vehicle seat 22 in a position that is substantially different from a normal seating position. The at least one electrode 26 is, for example, located under the seat cover 28 and substantially the same size as a region to be sensed on the vehicle seat 22, extending from near the back of the seat bottom 24 to near the front of the seat bottom 24. As described hereinbelow, sections of the at least one electrode 26 are removed or selectively shielded so as to selectively reduce the sensitivity thereof proximate to regions where an infant or child, in an infant, child, or booster seat, is closest to the vehicle seat 22, so as to provide for distinguishing between a child seated in a child seat and an occupant 18 that is seated directly on the vehicle seat 22. Responsive to a child in a child seat on the vehicle seat 22, the increase in capacitance of the electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24, relative to that of an empty vehicle seat 22, is relatively small. Stated in another way, the electric field sensor 14 has a relatively short range and principally senses an occupant 18 when a large surface of the occupant is relatively close to the sensor. Occupants normally seated directly on the seat cover 28 typically have a large surface of their body relatively close to the electrode 26. When infants or children are in child seats, most of their body is elevated several inches off the seat bottom surface, resulting in a relatively small influence upon the electric field sensor 14. The electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24 distinguishes between a large body immediately above the seat cover 28—for example a normally seated, forward facing occupant in the seat—and an infant or child seat—including rear facing, front facing and booster seats—located on a vehicle seat 22. When the vehicle seat 22 contains a child seat (including a rear facing infant seats, a forward facing child seat and a booster seats), or when the vehicle seat 22 is empty, no forward facing occupant is detected near to the seat bottom and, as a result, the electric field sensor 14 causes the restraint actuator 44 to be disabled. An electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14 may be constructed in a variety of ways, and the method of construction is not considered limiting. For example, an electrode 26 may be constructed using rigid circuit board or a flexible circuit using known printed circuit board techniques such as etching or deposition of conductive materials applied to a dielectric substrate. Alternately, an electrode 26 may comprise a discrete conductor, such as a conductive film, sheet or mesh that is distinct from or an integral part of the vehicle seat 22 or components thereof. The assembly of one or more electrodes 26 together with the associated substrate is sometimes referred to as a sensing pad or a capacitive sensing pad 54. In an exemplary embodiment, the electric field sensor 14 comprises a capacitive sensing pad 54 connected to an electronics module 56 containing the sensing circuit 48 necessary to measure the capacitance of the capacitive sensing pad 54 relative to the circuit ground 52, or another measurement, responsive to the influence of an electric-field-influencing medium upon the electric field sensor 14. In operation, an occupant 18 seated on the seat bottom 24 of vehicle seat 22 sufficiently increases the capacitance of the electric field sensor 14 so as to indicate the presence of the occupant. The capacitive sensing pad 54 is adapted so as to provide a different response to large objects, such as normally seated adults, on the seat bottom 24—for which an air bag restraint system would be beneficial in a crash,—than to objects such as rear facing infant seats, child seats, and booster seats on the vehicle seat—for which an air bag restraint system would not be beneficial in a crash. The seat weight sensor 12, electric field sensor 14 and a crash sensor 58 are operatively coupled to the controller 16, which operates in accordance with known analog, digital, or microprocessor circuitry and software, and in accordance with one or more processes described hereinbelow, to control the actuation of the restraint actuator 44 responsive to signals from the seat weight sensor 12 and the electric field sensor 14 indicative of a seat occupancy scenario; and responsive to a signal from the crash sensor 58, indicative of a crash. For the example of a restraint actuator 44 comprising an air bag inflator module 44′, responsive to a crash detected by the crash sensor 58, if the occupant detection system 10 has enabled actuation of the restraint actuator 44, then the controller 16 generates a signal 60 which is operatively coupled to one or more initiators 62 of one or more gas generators 64 mounted in an air bag inflator module 44′, thereby controlling the activation of the air bag inflator module 44′ so as to inflate the air bag 66 as necessary to protect the occupant 18 from injury which might otherwise be caused by the crash. The electrical power necessary to carry out these operations is provided by a source of power 68, e.g. the vehicle battery. In another embodiment, the occupant detection system 10 may make the deployment enable/disable decision for the restraint actuator 44, and communicate this decision to the controller 16 for controlling the actuation of the restraint actuator 44. In yet another embodiment, the occupant detection system 10 may incorporate the crash sensor 58 and the elements of the controller 16 in a single module that controls the actuation of the restraint actuator 44 as described hereinabove. Referring to FIG. 3, the occupant detection system 10 can be used to distinguish infants or children in rear facing infant seats, child seats or booster seats, from adults, on the basis that the child 300 therein does not have a large surface of its body very near to the seat bottom 24 and the at least one electrode 26 contained therein. For example, for the electric field sensor 14 providing a signal responsive to the capacitance of at least one electrode 26 thereof, a normally seated occupant provides a substantially larger increase in capacitance relative to an empty seat, than does a child seat 302, e.g. a rear facing infant seat 304. The occupant detection system 10 can discriminate a rear facing infant seat 304 (RFIS), or generally a child seat 302, from an adult occupant 18 because the child 300 in a rear facing infant seat 304 does not have a large surface of its body very near to the seat bottom 24 and the at least one electrode 26 contained therein. The seating contour 306 inside the rear facing infant seat 304 is such that the buttocks of the child 300 are closest to the seat bottom 24 of the vehicle seat 22. Usually there is a significant gap 308, up to several inches, between the child 300 and the seat bottom 24 of the vehicle seat 22. Since child seats are typically made of plastic, the seats themselves are not sensed directly by the electric field sensor 14. Even for a rear facing infant seat 304 for which the gap 308 between the child 300 and the seat bottom 24 of the vehicle seat 22 is relatively small, the inside seating contour 306 still creates a significant gap between the at least one electrode 26 and all parts of the child 300 except the buttocks. Since only a small portion of the surface of the child 300 is near to the at least one electrode 26, the capacitance measured by the electric field sensor 14 is relatively low, and more particularly, less than the threshold capacitance, Cnorm for detecting a normally seated occupant 18. Referring to FIGS. 4a and 4b, the sensitivity to a rear facing infant seat 304 of an elementary capacitive sensing pad 54.1, shown in FIG. 4a, comprising a continuous conductive sheet electrode 26, can be reduced by the modification shown in FIG. 4b, particularly for a rear facing infant seat 304 that exhibits a relatively small gap 308 between the capacitive sensing pad 54.1 and the child 300. Referring to FIG. 4b, the portion of the child seat 302 where the gap 308 is small, when the child seat 302 is properly installed, is usually within a zone between 9 and 12 inches from the seat back and across the entire seat bottom 24. The capacitive sensing pad 54.2 is adapted to make this zone less sensitive than the remaining portion of the capacitive sensing pad 54.1 by removing at least one region 400 of the at least one electrode 26 within the area of greatest sensitivity. Accordingly, this increases the differentiation between a worst case signal for a rear facing infant seat 304 and the signal for a normally seated adult. Whereas, for example, rectangular slots are illustrated in FIG. 4b, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the modification to the capacitive sensing pad 54.2 within the zone can be accomplished with a variety of geometries so as provide for a similar effect on the sensitivity pattern of the capacitive sensing pad 54.2. For example FIGS. 5a and 5b illustrates at least one region 400 within which the conductor is removed from the at least one electrode 26 so as to reduce the sensitivity thereof to an object proximate to the respective at least one region 400. In FIG. 5a, the capacitive sensing pad 54.3 comprises two regions 400 within which the conductor is removed, and in FIG. 5b, the capacitive sensing pad 54.4 comprises one region 400 within which the conductor is removed. The temperature range that is possible in an automotive environment can potentially adversely affect the sensing circuit 48 associated with the electric field sensor 14, causing a drift in the “perceived” sensor reading. One way to combat this drift is to use a reference capacitor that can be switched into the measurement circuit in place of the sensing electrode. Because the reference capacitor can be selected such that its value is relatively stable over temperature, drift can be identified and this information can be used to alter a decision threshold. An alternative scheme is to always measure the difference between a reference capacitor and the sensor capacitance. A second “calibration” capacitor can then be switched in to take the place of the sensor to identify the measurement system gain. Using a reference capacitor and a calibration capacitor allows the system to continuously compensate for variations in the measurement circuit. Rather than attempting to measure the temperature and then make a correction, the reference and calibration capacitor are used to measure the current offset and gain of the measurement circuitry so that measurements are always consistent. Switching between the reference capacitor, the calibration capacitor, or a sensor can be done using a combination of FET's or an analog demultiplexer such as a CD4051 from Texas Instruments. Referring to FIGS. 6a and 6b, the sensing circuit 48 is provided with a switchable calibration capacitor Ccal that enables an associated gain factor to be measured over time during the operation of the electric field sensor 14, so as to provide for drift compensation. Accurately switching in and out a relatively small (e.g. 1 picofarad or less) calibration capacitance can be difficult. One side of the calibration capacitor Ccal is operatively connected to the at least one electrode 26 and to the inverting input of an amplifier 600 (U1). As illustrated in FIG. 6a, the other side of the calibration capacitor Ccal is switched to ground by a first switch S1, so that when first switch S1 is closed, the capacitance of calibration capacitor Ccal is added to that of the electrode 26. However, one problem with this arrangement of FIG. 6a with only a first switch S1 is that when the first switch S1 is opened, the capacitance of the first switch S1 is typically larger than the capacitance Ccal of the calibration capacitor Ccal, thereby defeating the purpose of the calibration capacitor Ccal. For example, a typical FET may have an OFF capacitance of 40 picofarads, so if the capacitance Ccal is 1 picofarad, then the series combination is 0.98 picofarad, which means that effectively the calibration capacitor Ccal is never switched out of the circuit. This problem is overcome by the arrangement of FIG. 6b, wherein the other side of the calibration capacitor Ccal is switched to the non-inverting input of the amplifier 600 (U1) by a second switch S2 When the first switch S1 is closed and the second switch S2 is open, one side of the calibration capacitor Ccal is pulled to ground, thereby switching the calibration capacitor Ccal into the circuit. When the first switch S1 is opened and the second switch S2 is closed, both sides of the calibration capacitor Ccal are driven by the same signal, preventing any current from flowing through the calibration capacitor Ccal, thereby effectively switching the calibration capacitor Ccal out of the circuit. Referring to FIG. 7, one technique for measuring a capacitance CX is to measure the voltage from a capacitive voltage divider 702 comprising a known capacitance C1 in series V X = V s · ( C 1 C 1 + C X ) with the capacitance CX to be measured, wherein an oscillating voltage source VS is applied across the capacitive voltage divider 702 and a voltage VX responsive to the capacitance CX is measured at the junction 704 of the capacitive voltage divider 702 between the known capacitance C1 and the capacitance CX to be measured. For both the known capacitance C1 and the capacitance CX to be measured represented as pure capacitances for purposes of illustration, the voltage VX is given by: Accordingly, if both C1 and VS are known, then CX can be determined from VX. However, as described above, VS, C1 or the associated circuitry may subject to drift over time CS 1 = CR 1 + CR 2 · ( 1 - VR 1 VS 1 1 - VR 1 VR 12 ) or as a result of environmental conditions, or subject to system-to-system variation. The affect of this drift or variation is compensated by repetitively switching the capacitance CX to be measured from the unknown capacitance of an electric field sensor to the known capacitance of one or more temperature stable reference capacitors, wherein the repetitive switching process is cycled sufficiently quickly so that that drift or variation over the measurement cycle is negligible. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 7, one or more various capacitances are switched into the capacitive voltage divider 702 as capacitance CX by a switching element 706. For example, as a first step, the switching element 706 connects the at least one electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14 having a capacitance CS1 to the junction 704 of the capacitive voltage divider 702 as capacitance CX and a corresponding voltage VS1 is measured as VX. Then as a second step, the switching element 706 connects a first reference capacitor CR1 to the junction 704 of the capacitive voltage divider 702 as capacitance CX and a corresponding voltage VR1 is measured as VX. Then as a third step, the switching element 706 adds a second reference capacitor CR2 to the junction 704 of the capacitive voltage divider 702 so that the capacitance Cx is given by the sum (CR1+CR2), and a corresponding voltage VR12 is measured as VX. The period of time between the first and third steps is sufficiently short for there to be negligible drift in the measurement of VX over that period of time. The three voltage measurements can then be used to provide a measure of the capacitance CS1 of the at least one electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14—independent of VS or C1—as follows: The capacitance of at least one second electrode 26.2 of the electric field sensor 14 containing first 26.1 and second 26.2 electrodes, is measured by repeating the above three step process, except for switching the at least one second electrode 26.2 instead of the at least one first electrode 26.1 during the first step. Accordingly the electric field sensor 14 comprises at least one electrode 26 operatively coupled to an applied signal Vs thorough a capacitive voltage divider 702 so as to generate an electric field proximate to the at least one electrode 26 responsive to a voltage VX on the at least one electrode 26. The applied signal VS, for example, comprises an oscillating signal. The at least one electrode 26 is operatively coupled to a receiver 708 which outputs a response signal 710 responsive to the electric field at the corresponding at least one electrode 26, wherein the response signal 710 is responsive to at least one electric-field-influencing property—for example dielectric constant, conductivity, size, mass or distance—of an object proximate to the electric field sensor 14. For example, for the electric field sensor 14 as a capacitance sensor, the receiver 708 provides a measure of the capacitance of at least one electrode 26 with respect to a surrounding ground. The applied signal VS is, for example, generated by an oscillator 712 incorporated in a sensing circuit 714 that also incorporates the receiver 708. The sensor measurements can be made by a single sensing circuit 714 that incorporates a switching element 706 to operatively couple either the at least one electrode 26, the at least one first electrode 26.1, or the at least one second electrode 26.2 to a common oscillator 712 and receiver 708 for generating the respective measures of capacitance CS1, CS2. The capacitance of the at least one electrode 26, the at least one first electrode 26.1, or the at least one second electrode 26.2 relative to ground is relatively small, for example less than about 300 picofarads. The temperature range that is possible in an automotive environment can significantly affect the components of the sensing circuit 714, causing drift that could be erroneously interpreted as a measurement that could cause the restraint actuator 44 to be erroneously enabled by the controller 16. The effects of this drift can be mitigated by incorporating a temperature stable reference capacitor in the sensing circuit 714 that is switched in place of either the at least one first electrode 26.1 or the at least one second electrode 26.2 so as to provide a means for making comparative capacitive measurements. Referring to FIG. 8, illustrating an exemplary sensing circuit 714, an oscillator 802 generates an oscillating signal, for example a sinusoidal signal, that is filtered by a first bandpass filter 804 so as to create a first oscillating signal 806. The first oscillating signal 806 is applied to a capacitive voltage divider 808 comprising capacitor C1, resistors R1 and R2, and one or more capacitive elements to be measured, selected from at least one electrode 26, at least one first electrode 26.1, at least one second electrode 26.2, a first reference capacitor CR1, and a second reference capacitor CR2, wherein the capacitive elements to be measured are included or excluded responsive to the states of respective FET switches Q1a, Q1b, Q2a, Q2b, Q3a, Q3b, Q4a and Q4b. Capacitor C1, resistors R1 and R2, and the FET switches Q1a, Q2a, Q3a and Q4a—that when active switch in the respective capacitive elements to be measured,—are all connected to one another at a first node 810, which is connected to the input 812 of a voltage follower U1. The output 814 of the voltage follower U1 is connected to FET switches Q1b, Q2b, Q3b and Q4b that when active, switch out the respective capacitive elements so as to not be measured. The activation of the FET switch elements of FET switch pairs Q1a and Q1b, Q2a and Q2b, Q3a and Q3b and Q4a and Q4b are respectively mutually exclusive. For example if FET switch Q1a is activated or closed, then FET switch Q1b is deactivated or open. A capacitive element being measured adds to the capacitance at the first node, thereby affecting the strength of the signal at the input 812 to the voltage follower U1. A capacitive element, not being measured is disconnected from the first node by its respective first FET switch element, and connected to the output 814 of the voltage follower U1 by its respective second FET switch element, wherein, in accordance with the characteristics of the associated operational amplifier of the voltage follower U1, the output 814 of the voltage follower U1 follows the signal of the first node without that respective capacitive element connected, and voltage follower U1 provides a current through the associated capacitive element through the second respective FET switch element. Moreover, when the respective second FET switch element is activated, the source and drain of the respective first FET switch element are separately coupled to the respective operational amplifier inputs, so that to each is applied the same potential, thereby eliminating the affect of the capacitance of the respective first FET switch on the capacitance measurement. The output 814 of the voltage follower U1 is then coupled to a second bandpass filter 816 of the same pass band as the first bandpass filter 804, the output of which is detected by a detector 818 comprising diode D1, resistor R3 and capacitor C2, and filtered by a first low pass filter 820. The output 822 of the first low pass filter 820 has a DC component corresponding to the capacitance at the first node 810. This DC component is filtered by a blocking capacitor C3, and the resulting signal is filtered by a second low pass filter 824 to provide the amplitude 826 of the oscillating signal at the first node 810, which is related to the total capacitance at that location. The blocking capacitor C3 is adapted so as to provide for a transitory measurement of the amplitude 826. In operation, a microprocessor U2 controls the activation of FET switches Q1a, Q1b, Q2a, Q2b, Q3a, Q3b, Q4a and Q4b, for example in accordance with the control logic illustrated in FIG. 9. With the first reference capacitor CR1 switched in by microprocessor U2, i.e. with Q2a activated and Q2b deactivated, the controller measures a first amplitude. Then with the second reference capacitor CR2 also switched in by microprocessor U2, a second amplitude is measured corresponding to an incremental increase of capacitance at the first node by the capacitance of capacitor CR2. Then a sensitivity factor is computed in Volts/picofarad given the known values of capacitance of capacitors CR1 and CR2 as described hereinabove with reference to FIG. 7. Then, the microprocessor U2 switches out the first CR1 and second reference capacitor CR2, switches in the capacitve sensing pad 102, measures a third amplitude, and calculates the capacitance of either the at least one electrode 26 or the at least one second electrode 26.2—depending upon which is being measured—using the calculated sensitivity factor. A control circuit 828 uses the measures of capacitance from the electric field sensor 14 and the measure of weight W from the seat weight sensor 12—in accordance with the steps described hereinbelow—to control whether or not the restraint actuator 44 is enabled responsive to a crash detected by a crash sensor 58. Whereas FIG. 8 illustrates the microprocessor U2 and control circuit 828 as separate elements, alternate arrangements are possible. For example, both may be combined in one controller, or the microprocessor may be adapted to sense the amplitude measurements, calculate the capacitance of the first 12 and second 14 electric field sensors, and then output these capacitance values to the control circuit 828. The at least one electrode 26 and the at least one second electrode 26.2 may be each modeled as a first capacitance CS1 in parallel with a series combination of a second capacitance CS2 and a resistance RS, wherein the resistance RS is inversely related to the wetness of the seat. The capacitance of the capacitive sensor is dominated by CS1 for a dry seat, but becomes affected by CS2 and RS as the wetness of the seat increases. The values of capacitance for capacitors C1, CR1, and CR2 may be adapted to maximize the dynamic range of the capacitance measurement over the range of expected capacitances of the first 12 and second 14 electric field sensors. Referring to FIG. 10, each FET switch Q1a, Q1b, Q2a, Q2b, Q3a, Q3b, Q4a or Q4b may be replaced by a pair of FET switches Q1 and Q2. Designating the terminals of the original FET switch Q as G, S and D for the gate, source and drain respectively, these terminals are mapped to the terminals of the pair of FET switches Q1 and Q2 as follows: 1) the respective gates G1 and G2 are connected together and are mapped to G; 2) the sources S1 and S2 are connected together; 3) the drain D1 of FET switch Q1 is mapped to D; and 4) the drain D2 of FET switch Q2 is mapped to S. This arrangement is beneficial for three-pin FET switches for which the source is connected to the body, thereby effectively creating a diode junction between the source and drain, as is illustrated in FIG. 10. With the sources S1, S2 interconnected, these effective diode junctions are placed back-to-back in series with opposing polarities, so as to prevent the passage of a signal without being under control of the respective gates G1, G2. Furthermore, the drain-source capacitance of the pair of FET switches Q1 and Q2 is half that of one FET switch Q1, because the respective capacitances are connected in series. FIG. 11 illustrates several other embodiments for various aspects of the sensing circuit 714. For example, the elements to be sensed at the first node 810 may be coupled via an analog demultiplexer 1102, such as a CD4051 from Texas Instruments, wherein under control of the microprocessor U2, the elements to be sensed are coupled, one element at a time, to the first node 810 by the analog demultiplexer 1102. For example, first CR1a and second CR2a reference capacitors and a capacitive sensor are each operatively connected to distinct analog inputs of the analog demultiplexer 1102, and are operatively connected—mutually exclusively—to the first node 810 by the analog demultiplexer 1102. Accordingly, with this arrangement, the calibration process differs from that illustrated in FIGS. 10a-b for which two reference capacitors can be simultaneously operatively connected to the first node 810. A plurality of analog demultiplexers 1102 may be used if more analog channels are required, in which case a separate set of reference capacitors, for example CR1b and CR2b, may be used with each separate analog demultiplexer 1102 to compensate for variations amongst the various analog demultiplexers 1102. As another example of another embodiment, an inductor L1 may be placed between the sensing node 810 and the elements to be sensed in order to reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference. As yet another example of another embodiment, a D/A converter 1104 under control of the microprocessor U2 may be used to cancel offsets in the associated amplitude signal, wherein the output from the D/A converter 1104 is operatively connected to an inverting amplifier 1106, and is subtracted from the filtered detected amplitude signal 1108. By canceling the offset in the amplitude signal, the associated circuit gain can be increased so as to increase the dynamic range of the amplitude signal. As yet another example of another embodiment, a super diode detection circuit 1110 may be used for detecting the signal amplitude. Referring to FIG. 12, in accordance with a method 1200 of detecting an occupant 18 and controlling a restraint actuator 44 responsive thereto, in step (1202), a measure of seat weight W is either provided by or generated responsive to a signal provided by the seat weight sensor 12. Then, in step (1204), if the measure of seat weight W is less than a corresponding weight threshold WThreshold, then, in step (1206), the restraint actuator 44 is disabled. For example, the weight threshold Wthreshold is adapted to correspond to an upper bound of the weight of a small occupant (e.g. about 60 pounds or 27 Kilograms) that would be susceptible to injury from the deployment of the restraint actuator 44. Otherwise, from step (1204), if, in step (1300)—a method 1300 of detecting a child seat 302 on a vehicle seat 22,—a child seat 302 is detected on the vehicle seat 22 by the electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24, then in step (1206), the restraint actuator 44 is disabled. Otherwise, the restraint actuator 44 is enabled. Accordingly, the restraint actuator 44 is disabled for either an empty vehicle seat 22, or for an occupant 18 on the vehicle seat 22 that is potentially at risk of injury from the deployment of the restraint actuator 44, e.g. a sufficiently small child, or a child in a child seat 302, e.g. a rear facing infant seat 304. Otherwise, in step (1208), the restraint actuator 44 is enabled, e.g. for a normally seated adult occupant 18 on the vehicle seat 22. Referring to FIG. 13, in accordance with a first method 1300.1 of detecting a child seat 302 on a vehicle seat 22, in step (1302), the sensing circuit 48 generates a measure of the capacitance C of the at least one electrode 26 of the electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24. The electrode 26 is adapted, e.g. as illustrated in FIGS. 3a, 3b, 4a or 4b, so that the capacitance thereof for a child seat 302 in the vehicle seat 22 is substantially less (i.e. by a detectable difference) than the capacitance of the electrode 26 for an occupant 18 seated on the vehicle seat 22. Then, in step (1304), if the measure of the capacitance C is less than a discrimination threshold CThreshold, then in step (1306) a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has been detected. For example, for one particular electrode 26, the discrimination threshold CThreshold was about 10 picofarads. Otherwise, from step (1304), in step (1308), a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. The measurements of the seat weight sensor 12 and electric field sensor 14 as used in the above-described methods (1200, 1300) are, in one set of embodiments, actually differential measurements with respect to corresponding stored values of measurements for of an empty vehicle seat 22. For example, for a seat weight sensor 12 that measures the weight of the entire vehicle seat 22, the stored weight of the empty vehicle seat 22 is subtracted from the measured seat weight so as to provide the weight of the object on the vehicle seat 22, which is then used in the method 1200 of detecting an occupant 18 and controlling a restraint actuator 44 responsive thereto. Similarly, the stored capacitance measurement of the electric field sensor 14 for an empty seat is subtracted from the capacitance measurement of the electric field sensor 14, and this difference is used in the method 1300 of detecting a child seat 302 on a vehicle seat 22. Whereas a seat weight sensor 12 alone might otherwise have difficulty distinguishing between the 60 lb. child on a 10 pound booster seat (child seat 302) from a small adult occupant 18, the electric field sensor 14 can distinguish between a child seat 302 and an adult occupant 18. Also, if the lap belt were cinched tight on a rear facing infant seat 304, the force on the seat may be very high, but the electric field sensor 14 can identify that there is no adult occupant 18 seated directly on the seat bottom 24. A child 300 is seated directly on the seat bottom 24 can be detected by the seat weight sensor 12. Accordingly, the occupant detection system 10 provides for enabling actuation of the restraint actuator 44, responsive to a crash detected by the crash sensor 58, if the seat weight sensor 12 detects an occupant 18 (or object) of sufficient weight is on the vehicle seat 22, and if the electric field sensor 14 indicates that a child seat 302 is not on the vehicle seat 22. Otherwise, the restraint actuator 44 is disabled so as to not be actuated responsive to a crash detected by the crash sensor 58. A child seat 302 is typically secured to the vehicle seat 22 with a cinched seat belt than can cause a substantial force on the vehicle seat 22, of a magnitude that might otherwise be interpreted as an adult occupant 18. In this case, the seat weight sensor 12 and the electric field sensor 14 cooperate, wherein the electric field sensor 14 detects the presence of the child seat 320 responsive to an associated relatively low measure of capacitance so as to prevent the restraint actuator 44 from otherwise being enabled. The components of the seat weight sensor 12 and the electric field sensor 14 can all be incorporated in the vehicle seat 22 so as to provide for testing of the occupant detection system 10 in the vehicle seat 22 prior to assembly in the vehicle 20. Furthermore, electronics associated with the seat weight sensor 12, electric field sensor 14 and controller 16 can be incorporated in a common electronics module, or incorporated in separate electronics modules. Referring to FIG. 14, the capacitive sensing pad 54.5 mountable within the seat bottom 24 is adapted to detect a child seat 302 thereon by incorporating a plurality of electrodes 26, i.e. first 26.1 and second 26.2 electrodes, wherein the first electrode 26.1 is located and shaped so as to principally sense a region where the gap 308 between the child 300 and the capacitive sensing pad 54.5 could be small, and the second electrode 26.2 senses the remaining portion of the seat bottom 24. Each of the first 26.1 and second 26.2 electrodes is either operatively connected to separate sensing circuits 48, or to separate multiplexed channels of a common sensing circuit 48, so that the one or more sensing circuits 48 provide separate first C1 and second C2 measures of capacitance of the respective first 26.1 and second 26.2 electrodes. If the total signal, i.e. the sum of C1 and C2, is relatively low and is dominated by the signal from the first measure of capacitance C1, then the corresponding object on the vehicle seat 22 is likely a child seat 302, e.g. a rear facing infant seat 304. More particularly, referring to FIG. 15, in accordance with a second method 1300.2 of detecting a child seat 302 on a vehicle seat 22, in step (1502) the sensing circuit 48 generates a first measure of capacitance C1 of the first 26.1 electrode, and in step (1504) the sensing circuit 48 generates a second measure of capacitance C2 of the second electrode 26.2 of the electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24. Then, in step (1506), if the total measure of capacitance (C1+C2) is not less than a discrimination threshold CThreshold2,—e.g. indicative of an occupant 18 likely seated directly on the vehicle seat 22—then in step (1508) a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. Otherwise, in step (1510), if ratio of the first measure of capacitance C1 of the first electrode 26.1—located so as to most proximate to the gap 308 of a child seat 302 when the child seat 302 is on the vehicle seat 22—to the total measure of capacitance (C1+C2), is greater than a threshold, then in step (1512) a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has been detected. Otherwise, from step (1510), in step (1508), a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. The electric field sensor 14 may be adapted to reduce the affect that liquids proximate to an electrode 26 can have on the capacitance thereof with respect to a circuit ground 52, or with respect to another electrode. For example, liquids spilled on and absorbed by the foam cushion 30 can increase the capacitance of an electrode 26 with respect to the circuit ground 52. Referring to FIG. 16, the electric field sensor 14 can be adapted to reduce the effect of a wetting of the foam cushion 30 by incorporating a third electrode 1600, known as a driven shield 1600′, and/or a fourth electrode 1602, known as a ground plane 1602′, under the at least one first electrode 26.1, known as a sense electrode 26′, wherein the first 26.1, third 1600 and fourth 1602 electrodes are insulated from one another, for example by at least one dielectric substrate. For example, the first 26, third 1600 and fourth 1602 electrodes may be integrated so as to form a single capacitive sensing pad 1604′. The driven shield 1600′ is a second conductor under the conductor of the sense electrode 26′ that is driven at the same potential as the sense electrode 26′, resulting in a cancellation of the electric field between the sense electrode 26′ and the driven shield 1600′. The driven shield 1600′ substantially eliminates the sensing capability of the capacitive sensing pad 704′ on the side of the sense electrode 26′ where the driven shield 1600′ is located. A ground plane 1602′ may be placed under the driven shield 1600′ so that the circuit driving the driven shield 1600′ drives a consistent load. Accordingly, as so adapted, the electric field sensor 14 further comprises at least one third electrode 1600 and at least one fourth electrode 1602, wherein the at least one third electrode 1600 is located between the at least one first electrode 26.1 and the at least one fourth electrode 1602, and the at least one third electrode 1600 is operatively coupled to a second applied signal 1606. For example, the at least one third electrode 1600 is substantially the same size as the at least one first electrode 26.1; the second applied signal 1606 is substantially the same as the applied signal 46; the at least one fourth electrode 1602 is located between the at least one first electrode 26.1 and a foam cushion 30 of the vehicle seat 22; the at least one fourth electrode 1602 is substantially the same size as the at least one first electrode 26.1; and the at least one fourth electrode 1602 is operatively connected to a circuit ground 52, or to a third applied signal 1608, wherein the third applied signal 1608 is a circuit ground 52 potential. The driven shield 1600′ and/or ground plane 1602′ are, for example, near to or slightly larger than the sense electrode 26′, and are provided to minimize the effects of liquid in the foam cushion 30 below the driven shield 1600′ and/or the ground plane 1602′ on the capacitance of the sense electrode 26′, rather than to extend the range and sensitivity of the electric field sensor. The driven shield 1600′ and the sense electrode 26′ essentially covers the entire area to be sensed on the vehicle seat 22. Alternately, a plurality of first electrodes 26.1 can be distributed sparsely across the vehicle seat 22, thereby covering a smaller area than the entire area to be sensed on the vehicle seat 22. Each electrode 26 can be embodied in a variety of sizes and shapes, and for a plurality of first electrodes 26.1, the arrangement thereof can be embodied in a variety of patterns. Referring to FIGS. 17a and 18a, a capacitive sensing pad 54.6 comprising a sense electrode (S) 26 may be adapted to provide similar functionality as the capacitive sensing pad 54.5 illustrated in FIG. 14 by incorporating a front driven shield (FDS) 1702 located and shaped similar to the first electrode 26.1 of the capacitive sensing pad 54.5 illustrated in FIG. 14. The front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is located on the side of the sense electrode (S) 26 that is to be sensed thereby. The capacitive sensing pad 54.6 further comprises a rear driven shield (RDS) 1704 that functions similar to the driven shield 1600′ illustrated in FIG. 16. A signal generator 1706 provides an oscillatory signal 1708 that is coupled directly to the rear driven shield (RDS) 1704 and indirectly through the sensing circuit 48 to the sense electrode (S) 26. The oscillatory signal 1708 from the signal generator 1706 is also coupled through a switch 1710 to the front driven shield (FDS) 1702. When the switch 1710 is closed, the charge on the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is substantially the same as on the corresponding region of the sense electrode (S) 26, thereby substantially shielding that region of the sense electrode (S) 26 from external influence. When the switch 1710 is open, the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is electrically floating, thereby enabling an external electrostatic influence of the corresponding region of the sense electrode (S) 26. The front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is insulated from the sense electrode (S) 26 by a first insulator 1712, and the sense electrode (S) 26 is insulated from the rear driven shield (RDS) 1704 by a second insulator 1714. Referring to FIGS. 19 and 20, in accordance with another embodiment, in a shielding mode, the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is switched by a first switch 1716 (S1) to a buffered version of the oscillatory signal 1708 so as to electrostatically shield the sense electrode (S) 26. In a sensing mode, the first switch 1716 (Si) is opened, thereby disconnecting the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 from the oscillatory signal 1708, and the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 either is operatively connected to the sense electrode (S) 26 by closing a second switch 1718 (S2) therebetween, as illustrated in FIG. 20; or is electrically floating, as illustrated in FIG. 21 and described hereinabove. Referring to FIG. 22, the capacitive sensing pad 54.6 is operated in accordance with a third method 1300.3 of detecting a child seat 302 on a vehicle seat 22, wherein in step (2202), the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is activated so as to shield the sense electrode (S) 26, and in step (2204) the sensing circuit 48 generates a second measure of capacitance C2 of the sense electrode (S) 26. Then, in step (2206) the front driven shield (FDS) 1702 is deactivated, and in step (2208) the sensing circuit 48 generates third measure of capacitance C3 of the sense electrode (S) 26. Then, in step (2210), if the total measure of capacitance C3 is not less than a discrimination threshold CThreshold2,—e.g. indicative of an occupant 18 likely seated directly on the vehicle seat 22—then in step (2212) a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. Otherwise, in step (2214), if a ratio of a measure corresponding to the first measure of capacitance C1=C3−C2 of the sense electrode (S) 26 to the total measure of capacitance C3, is greater than a threshold, then in step (2216) a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has been detected. Otherwise, from step (2214), in step (2212), a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. Referring to FIGS. 17b and 18b, a capacitive sensing pad 54.7 comprising a sense electrode (S) 26 may be adapted to provide similar functionality as the capacitive sensing pad 54.5 illustrated in FIG. 14 by incorporating a front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ located and shaped similar to the second electrode 26.2 of the capacitive sensing pad 54.5 illustrated in FIG. 14. The front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ is located on the side of the sense electrode (S) 26 that is to be sensed thereby. The capacitive sensing pad 54.7 further comprises a rear driven shield (RDS) 1704 that functions similar to the driven shield 1600′, 1704 illustrated in FIGS. 16 and 17a respectively. A signal generator 1706 provides an oscillatory signal 1708 that is coupled directly to the rear driven shield (RDS) 1704 and indirectly through the sensing circuit 48 to the sense electrode (S) 26. The oscillatory signal 1708 from the signal generator 1706 is also coupled through a switch 1710 to the front driven shield (FDS) 1702′. When the switch 1710 is closed, the charge on the front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ is substantially the same as on the corresponding region of the sense electrode (S) 26, thereby substantially shielding that region of the sense electrode (S) 26 from external influence. When the switch 1710 is open, the front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ is electrically floating, thereby enabling an external electrostatic influence of the corresponding region of the sense electrode (S) 26. Alternately, the front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ may be switched as illustrated in FIGS. 19 and 20. The front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ is insulated from the sense electrode (S) 26 by a first insulator 1712, and the sense electrode (S) 26 is insulated from the rear driven shield (RDS) 1704 by a second insulator 1714. Referring to FIG. 23, the capacitive sensing pad 54.7 is operated in accordance with a fourth method 1300.4 of detecting a child seat 302 on a vehicle seat 22, wherein in step (2302) the front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ is activated so as to shield the sense electrode (S) 26, and in step (2304) the sensing circuit 48 generates a first measure of capacitance C1 of the sense electrode (S) 26. Then, in step (2306) the front driven shield (FDS) 1702′ is deactivated, and in step (2308) the sensing circuit 48 generates third measure of capacitance C3 of the sense electrode (S) 26. Then, in step (2310), if the total measure of capacitance C3 is not less than a discrimination threshold CThreshold2,—e.g. indicative of an occupant 18 likely seated directly on the vehicle seat 22—then, in step (2312), a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. Otherwise, in step (2314), if ratio of the first measure of capacitance C1 of the sense electrode (S) 26 to the total measure of capacitance C3, is greater than a threshold, then, in step (2316), a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has been detected. Otherwise, from step (2314), in step (2312), a result is provided indicating that a child seat 302 has not been detected. Referring to FIGS. 24a and 24b, one potential source of inconsistent capacitance measurements is inconsistent coupling to circuit ground 52 by the occupant 18. The electric field sensor 14 is sensitive to this coupling because the magnitude of the capacitance being sensed is relatively low. The electric field sensor 14 measures the capacitance from the capacitive sensing pad 54 to circuit ground 52. Because the occupant 18 is very close to the capacitive sensing pad 54 and the occupant 18 may be fairly small, Cso, the capacitance between the capacitive sensing pad 54 and the occupant 18, may be large compared to Cog, the capacitance between the occupant 18 and circuit ground 52. In this case, the measurement of the capacitance from the capacitive sensing pad 54 to circuit ground 52 will be dominated by Cog and the occupant 18 seated directly on the seat may be mistaken as a child seat 302. Referring to FIG. 25, the capacitive sensing pad 54.8 can be adapted in accordance with the instant invention to provide consistently high Cog values. A group of relatively small sense electrodes 2500 are distributed across the sensing area, with relatively small ground planes 2502 distributed therebetween. An occupant 18 seated directly on the vehicle seat 22 is seated close to both the sense electrodes 2500 and the ground planes 2502. Accordingly, Cog will be consistently high such that the total capacitance from the capacitive sensing pad 54.8 to the circuit ground 52 will depend largely on Cso. The ground planes 2502 should be placed far enough away from the sense electrodes 2500 so that the corresponding range of capacitances of the capacitive sensing pad 54.8 is not overly reduced so that the electric field sensor 14.1 becomes impractical. This may require that the driven shield 2504 extend beyond the sense electrode 2502. The driven shield 2504 isolates the sense electrodes 2500 from the ground planes 2502. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that many variations of the capacitive sensing pad 54.8 are possible, and that the arrangement of FIG. 25 is illustrative and not limiting. The sense electrodes 2500, driven shield 2504 and ground planes 2502 may be located either on a common plane, or on separate planes in overlapping relationship with one another. The sense electrodes 2500 are operatively coupled to the sensing circuit 48, which measures the capacitance thereof with respect to the circuit ground 52. Referring to FIG. 26, another embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad 54.9 with reduced sensitivity to a child seat 302 incorporates a sense electrode 2600 that comprises conductive strips 2602 spaced apart in a lattice 2604. The capacitive sensing pad 54.9 further comprises a ground plane 2606 that is located in the region of the electric field sensor 14 where, when mounted in the seat bottom 24, the gap 308 could be small between the seat bottom 24 and a child in a rear facing infant seat 304, so as to reduce the capacitance sensed when a rear facing infant seat 304 is located on the vehicle seat 22. Accordingly, the ground plane 2600 substantially reduces the affect of any object immediately above the area of the ground plane 2600, and precludes the need for a driven shield, as described hereinabove. Referring to FIG. 27, illustrating results from tests of an electric field sensor 14 similar to that of FIG. 26—wherein the data was taken with human subjects seated either directly on the seat bottom 24 or in a child seat 302—there is a clear margin between any of the child seat 302 cases and the occupants 18 weighing over 100 lbs. While a seat weight sensor 12 may have difficulties distinguishing between the 60 pound child 300 on a 10 pound booster seat from a small adult occupant 18, the electric field sensor 14 will identify that there is no adult occupant 18 seated directly on the seat bottom 24, and the system would suppress the air bag inflator module 44′. Also, if the lap belt were very tight on a rear facing infant seat 304, the force on the vehicle seat 22 may be very high, but the electric field sensor 14 would identify that there is no adult occupant 18 seated directly on the seat bottom 24 and, again, the air bag inflator module 44′ would be suppressed. If a child 300 is seated directly on the seat bottom 24, a seat weight sensor 12 generally provides a reliable measurement that can be used to control the air bag inflator module 44′ deployment decision. Referring to FIG. 28, in another embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad 54.10 with reduced sensitivity to a child seat 302, the sensor electrode 2800 comprises conductive strips 2802 spaced apart in a lattice 2804 that is terminated at a plurality of first terminals 2806, providing for improved redundancy and reliability. The first terminals 2806 are operatively coupled to the sensing circuit 48, which measures the capacitance at the first terminals 2806 with respect to circuit ground 52. A ground plane 2808 is terminated at a second terminal 2810, which is either operatively coupled to the sensing circuit 48, or directly coupled to circuit ground 52. The ground planes 2606, 2808 in FIG. 26 and 28 can be switched “in or out” to gain extra information. For example, the ground planes 2606, 2808 could be left electrically floating, resulting in a relatively small affect on the measurement, or could be switched to circuit ground 52 to increase occupant-ground capacitance Cog. Additional information about the seat occupancy scenario can be obtained by switching between these two states. The relatively small area of the sense electrodes 2600, 2800 in FIG. 26 and 28 also reduces the sensor-occupant capacitance Cso sufficiently so as to be significantly less than the occupant-ground capacitance Cog so that the capacitance of the sense electrodes 2600, 2800 to circuit ground 52 is dominated by the sensor-occupant capacitance Cso. Referring to FIG. 29, in another embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad 54.11 with reduced sensitivity to a child seat 302, the electric field sensor 14 may be adapted with a receive electrode 2900 for sensing a signal transmitted from a sense electrode 2902 when an occupant 18 is seated proximate to both the receive electrode 2900 and the sense electrode 2902. When the vehicle seat 22 is relatively wet, the foam cushion 30 may become saturated causing the electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24 to identify an increase in signal large enough to represent an occupant directly on the seat. The receive electrode 2900 in the seat bottom 24 can be used to verify the occupant situation even when the seat is saturated with water. The receive electrode 2900 is preferably in the same plane as the sense electrode 2902, and the two electrodes 2900, 2902 are separated by a ground plane 2904 “gap”. The ground plane 2904 also provides for reduced sensitivity proximate to locations on the vehicle seat 22 that would be closest to a child 300 in a child seat 302 thereon. The receive electrode 2900 senses the changes in the electric potential thereat caused by changes in potential induced on the sense electrode 2902 through capacitive coupling between the receive 2900 and sense 2902 electrodes. The amplitude of the signal from the receive electrode 2900 increase dramatically when there is a conductor coupling the receive 2900 and sense 2902 electrodes, as is the case when a human body part is well coupled to both electrodes 2900, 2902. The relative amplitude of the signal from the receive electrode 2900 is also dependent upon the signal frequency if the vehicle seat 22/seat bottom 24/foam cushion 30 becomes wet. For example, a signal having a relatively high frequency, e.g. above about 1 Megahertz the signal is not conducted through the wet seat materials as well as a signal with a relatively low frequency (or long pulse length). A human body conducts is a relatively good conductor of the relatively high frequency signal. Accordingly, at frequencies above about 1 Megahertz, there can be a substantial difference between a signal received by the receive electrode 2900 in an empty wet vehicle seat 22 and a signal received by the receive electrode 2900 when an occupant 18 is seated directly on the vehicle seat 22 (regardless of whether the vehicle seat 22 is wet or dry). Accordingly, the capacitive sensing pad 54.11 illustrated in FIG. 29 provides for two sensing modes as follows: 1) sensing a measure responsive to the capacitance of the sense electrode 2902, and 2) sensing a signal from the receive electrode 2900 that is coupled thereto from the sense electrode 2902 by an occupant 18. Although the second sensing mode can be preferable with respect to the first sensing mode when the vehicle seat 22 is wet, the first sensing mode is beneficial when the vehicle seat 22 is dry because of a relatively lower susceptibility to errors resulting from various complicating child seat 302 cases. For example, a relatively small piece of metal under the child seat 302 could cause the second sensing mode to misidentify the situation as an adult occupant 18 seated directly on the vehicle seat 22. Small, ungrounded conductors generally do not substantially influence the first sensing mode. Accordingly, both sensing modes used in combination provide for improved robustness of the electric field sensor 14. The effectiveness of a combination of the two sensing modes is improved when a wet vehicle seat 22 is properly identified and/or compensated, which can be done using frequency or phase characteristics of the associated signals when the vehicle seat 22 is wet, as is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,392,543, which is incorporated herein by reference. If the vehicle seat 22 is sufficiently wet to significantly influence the measurements, then the decision as to whether to deploy the restraint actuator 44 is based on the results of the second sensing mode. It is possible to further interdigitize the sense electrode 2902 and the receive electrode 2900 so as to ensure that an occupant 18 seated directly on the vehicle seat 22 will be coupled to both electrodes 2900, 2902 for most seating positions. The seat weight sensor 12 and the electric field sensor 14 may be adapted to further cooperate with one another. For example, for a seat weight sensor 12 comprising a pressure sensing system that makes an assessment of the pressure pattern on the vehicle seat 22, the electric field sensor 14 can be used as an additional source of information to improve system robustness, e.g. so as to properly accommodate otherwise complicating situations such as when a towel is placed under a child seat 302. Furthermore, the electric field sensor 14 in the seat bottom 24 can be integrated with a seat weight sensor 12 comprising either a force sensing resistor or a bend sensors because both sensor technologies could be incorporated in the same sensing mat, possibly sharing one or more common conductive elements thereof. Generally, the sense electrode 2200, 2600, 2800, 2902 of the capacitive sensing pad 54.8, 54.9, 54.10, 54.11 is distributed sparsely across the vehicle seat 22, thereby covering a smaller area than the entire area to be sensed on the vehicle seat 22. The capacitive sensing pad 54.8, 54.9, 54.10, 54.11, and the elements thereof, can be embodied in a variety of shapes. While specific embodiments have been described in detail, those with ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various modifications and alternatives to those details could be developed in light of the overall teachings of the disclosure. Accordingly, the particular arrangements disclosed are meant to be illustrative only and not limiting as to the scope of the invention, which is to be given the full breadth of the appended claims and any and all equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>In the accompanying drawings: FIG. 1 illustrates an occupant detection system incorporating a first embodiment of a seat weight sensor; FIG. 2 illustrates an occupant detection system incorporating a second embodiment of a seat weight sensor; FIG. 3 illustrates a child in a typical rear facing infant seat placed on a vehicle seat; FIGS. 4 a and 4 b illustrate several electrode embodiments in accordance with an electric field sensor; FIGS. 5 a and 5 b illustrate other electrode embodiments in accordance with an electric field sensor; FIG. 6 a illustrates a first embodiment of a circuit for switching a calibration capacitor; FIG. 6 b illustrates a second embodiment of a circuit for switching a calibration capacitor; FIG. 7 illustrates a generalized sensing circuit for measuring a capacitance; FIG. 8 illustrates an embodiment of a circuit for sensing capacitance and for controlling a restraint actuator responsive to capacitance measurements and responsive to a measure of seat weight; FIG. 9 illustrates the operation of various switch elements of the sensing circuit of FIG. 8 ; FIG. 10 illustrates an alternate FET switch embodiment; FIG. 11 illustrates another embodiment of a circuit for sensing capacitance and for controlling a restraint actuator responsive to capacitance measurements and responsive to a measure of seat weight; FIG. 12 illustrates a method of detecting an occupant and controlling a restraint actuator responsive thereto; FIG. 13 illustrates a first method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIG. 14 illustrates an electric field sensor comprising a plurality of electrodes; FIG. 15 illustrates a second method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIG. 16 illustrates a side-view of an embodiment of an electric field sensor incorporating a driven shield; FIG. 17 a illustrates an embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad comprising a front driven shield; FIG. 17 b illustrates another embodiment of a capacitive sensing pad comprising a front driven shield; FIG. 18 a illustrates a cross-section of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17 a; FIG. 18 b illustrates a cross-section of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17 b; FIG. 19 illustrates a front driven shield in a shielding mode in accordance with a second aspect of the instant invention; FIG. 20 illustrates a front driven shield in a sensing mode in accordance with a first embodiment of a second aspect of the instant invention; FIG. 21 illustrates a front driven shield in a sensing mode in accordance with a second embodiment of a second aspect of the instant invention; FIG. 22 illustrates a third method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIG. 23 illustrates a fourth method of detecting a child seat on a vehicle seat; FIGS. 24 a and 24 b illustrates the capacitance of the occupant relative to an electric field sensor and relative to a circuit ground; FIG. 25 illustrates an embodiment of a second aspect of a capacitive sensing pad; FIG. 26 illustrates another embodiment of a second aspect of a capacitive sensing pad; FIG. 27 illustrates the performance of the instant invention incorporating a capacitive sensing pad in accordance with the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 26 ; FIG. 28 illustrates yet another embodiment of a second aspect of a capacitive sensing pad; and FIG. 29 illustrates a third aspect of a capacitive sensing pad. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041115 | 20070220 | 20050616 | 76849.0 | 1 | DEB, ANJAN K | AUTOMOTIVE SYSTEMS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,987,583 | ACCEPTED | Multi-asset participation structured note and swap combination | A unitary investment instrument combining a swap and a structured note, both of which provide multiple utilization of capital. The unitary instrument has three performance components. An investor invests in the issuer the principal amount of the structured note component. The structured note provides its own portfolio exposures as well as serving as collateral for the base benchmark portfolio swap (alternatively, the base benchmark portfolio exposure can be acquired through a separate collateral deposit on the investor's own portfolio). The first component is a benchmark portfolio, which in one preferred embodiment is a financial or stock index such as the S&P 500 Stock Index. The second component is an incremental benchmark portfolio keyed to the same benchmark index and the third component is keyed to a passive commodity index, having long and short positions, which in one preferred embodiment is the Mount Lucas Management Commodity Index. The instrument's passive commodity index exposure is established as the product of a leverage factor and the amount of the benchmark portfolio exposure; thereafter this exposure may be the product of (1) a leverage factor and/or (2) the change in value of the overall investment, the benchmark component and/or the commodity index component. The basic return to the investor comprises the change in value of the benchmark, the incremental benchmark and the passive commodity index exposure over a predetermined period of time. The structured note component of the investment instrument includes a guarantee of the return of the investment principal; the swap does not do so, but rather reflects the full risk of the benchmark portfolio exposure. However, research indicates that the unitary swap/structured note instrument has an unusually high probability of outperforming the benchmark index across a wide range of market cycles. | 1-15. (canceled) 16. An investment comprising: a benchmark performance portfolio having a benchmark portfolio exposure; and a commodity index portfolio, of long and short positions, having a commodity index portfolio exposure equal to the benchmark portfolio exposure multiplied by a leverage factor of at least 100%, which together reduce the risk while increasing the return of the investment. 17. The investment as recited in claim 16, further comprising an incremental benchmark portfolio having an incremental benchmark portfolio exposure. 18. The investment as recited in claim 17, wherein the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure is less than or equal to 20% of the benchmark portfolio exposure. 19. The investment as recited in claim 17, wherein the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure is less than or equal to 50% of the benchmark portfolio exposure. 20. The investment as recited in claim 16, further comprising a return comprising a change in value of the benchmark performance portfolio and the commodity index portfolio over a predetermined time period. 21. The investment as recited in claim 16, further comprising an investment principal that is invested in the commodity index portfolio and serves as collateral for the benchmark performance portfolio. 22. The investment as recited in claim 21, wherein the investment principal invested is returned to an investor by an issuer at the end of a predetermined time period. 23. The investment as recited in claim 21, wherein the investment principal comprises stocks, bonds, T-bills, cash, currencies, mortgages, any other security, or a combination thereof. 24. The investment as recited in claim 16, wherein the commodity index portfolio exposure is releveraged to an amount which is a function of the commodity index portfolio exposure and a second leverage factor. 25. The investment as recited in claim 16, wherein the benchmark portfolio is keyed to an equity index. 26. The investment as recited in claim 25, wherein the equity index comprises the S&P 500 Stock Index. 27. The investment as recited in claim 16, wherein the commodity index portfolio is keyed to the S&P Diversified Trends Indicator. 28. The investment as recited in claim 16, wherein the leverage factor is a function of the performance of the commodity index portfolio over a selected period of time. 29. The investment as recited in claim 28, wherein the leverage factor is a first predetermined number if the commodity index portfolio has had a specified return over the selected period of time and is a second predetermined number if the commodity index portfolio has not had the specified return over the selected period of time. 30. The investment as recited in claim 29, wherein the first predetermined number is at least 100% and the second predetermined number is greater than the first predetermined number. 31. The investment as recited in claim 16, wherein the leverage factor is at least 50%. 32. The investment as recited in claim 16, wherein the leverage factor is less than or equal to 300%. 33. A computer adapted to manage the investment of claim 16. 34. An investment comprising: a benchmark performance portfolio having a benchmark portfolio exposure; an incremental benchmark portfolio having an incremental benchmark portfolio exposure less than or equal to 50% of the benchmark portfolio exposure; a commodity index portfolio, of long and short positions, having a commodity index portfolio exposure equal to the benchmark portfolio exposure multiplied by a leverage factor of at least 100%, which together reduce the risk while increasing the return of the investment; an investment principal that is invested in the commodity index portfolio, serves as collateral for the benchmark performance portfolio and is returned to an investor by an issuer at the end of a predetermined time period; and a return comprising a change in value of the benchmark performance portfolio and the commodity index portfolio over the predetermined time period. 35. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the investment principal comprises stocks, bonds, T-bills, cash, currencies, mortgages, any other security, or a combination thereof. 36. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the commodity index portfolio exposure is releveraged to an amount which is a function of the commodity index portfolio exposure and a second leverage factor. 37. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the benchmark portfolio is keyed to an equity index. 38. The investment as recited in claim 37, wherein the equity index comprises the S&P 500 Stock Index. 39. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the commodity index portfolio is keyed to the S&P Diversified Trends Indicator. 40. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the leverage factor is a function of the performance of the commodity index portfolio over a selected period of time. 41. The investment as recited in claim 40, wherein the leverage factor is a first predetermined number if the commodity index portfolio has had a specified return over the selected period of time and is a second predetermined number if the commodity index portfolio has not had the specified return over the selected period of time. 42. The investment as recited in claim 41, wherein the first predetermined number is at least 100% and the second predetermined number is greater than the first predetermined number. 43. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the leverage factor is at least 50%. 44. The investment as recited in claim 34, wherein the leverage factor is less than or equal to 300%. 45. A computer adapted to manage the investment of claim 34. 46. An investment comprising: a first investment having a first exposure; and a second investment that is not correlated to the first investment and has a second exposure equal to the first exposure multiplied by a leverage factor of at least 100%, which together reduce the risk while increasing the return of the investment. | TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention pertains in general to financial instruments and in particular to such instruments which base their return on a combination of notional portfolios created through the use of a swap combined with a structured note. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION One of the dilemmas of contemporary money management is whether it is feasible, or worthwhile, to attempt to outperform broad-based financial indices (typically equity or debt indices) in managing a core portfolio over time. This question is of particular importance to institutional money managers who are typically evaluated on the basis of their performance compared to a broad-based market index. One aspect of this question has been whether the addition of non-traditional investment components to a traditional portfolio of stocks and bonds can reliably improve the risk/reward ratio of a portfolio by diversifying a portion of such portfolio into assets likely both to perform positively over time and in a manner generally non-correlated with the general debt and equity markets. Financial products have increasingly emphasized the value of diversification. Modern Portfolio Theory has demonstrated that over time a diversified portfolio, by reducing the incidence of major drawdowns, can generate high cumulative returns with reduced volatility (a commonly-used measure of risk), as compared to conventional portfolios consisting of stocks and bonds. “Non-traditional” investments are incorporated into an investment strategy because they are likely to demonstrate a significant degree of performance non-correlation to a “benchmark portfolio,” typically the general equity and/or debt markets. By combining non-traditional and traditional portfolio components, an “efficient frontier” of investment performance can be developed in which the addition of the non-traditional component increases returns while also reducing volatility up to the point of the desired level of portfolio efficiency (risk/reward ratio) and maximum non-traditional exposure. In the case of instruments of the present invention, the “efficiency” of the instruments designed pursuant to the invention is in large part a function of the extent to and consistency with which they outperform the selected financial benchmark. One of the difficulties in implementing the diversification strategy of Modern Portfolio Theory has been to identify a reliably non-correlated and positively performing non-traditional investment instrument or class. Diversifying into a non-traditional investment can reduce volatility but not ultimately benefit a portfolio if the non-traditional investment is not profitable. In addition, many non-traditional investments have not, in fact, proved to be non-correlated with the broader markets, especially during periods of market stress (when the risk control benefits of diversification are potentially of the most importance). Modern Portfolio Theory was developed in the 1950s. In the early 1960s, published financial portfolio research demonstrated that managed futures might serve as a non-traditional “asset class” for purposes of diversifying a traditional portfolio in a manner consistent with the tenets of such Theory. Since that time, while futures/commodities have been increasingly accepted as a means of diversifying traditional portfolios, the dominant approach to incorporating futures into a portfolio has focused on the use of managed futures—futures accounts actively managed by professional “Commodity Trading Advisors” and “Commodity Pool Operators.” The futures markets provide efficient and leveraged access to a wide range of potentially non-correlated assets. However, the performance of managed futures products has been unreliable. Whether managed on a discretionary basis or pursuant to computer models, actively managed futures strategies have demonstrated significant periods of under-performance. Furthermore, even when a managed futures investment is successful, it is impossible to predict with any confidence what its likely near- to mid-term performance will be. This uncertainty means that it is impossible to know whether any given non-traditional investment will be (1) profitable and/or (2) non-correlated with an investor's benchmark portfolio. A related impediment to the efficient implementation of Modern Portfolio Theory investment products through the use of non-traditional investments is that non-traditional investment portfolio managers typically regard both their strategies and their market positions as proprietary and confidential. Uncertainty of performance is combined with uncertainty as to holdings and methods of strategy implementation. These uncertainties have caused many institutions (especially those which believe that their fiduciary obligations to their investors or beneficiaries require that they have access to position data) to avoid non-traditional investments. The “entry barrier” of not providing trade transparency is heightened because most actively managed non-traditional strategies are subject to a non-quantifiable “risk of ruin”—the possibility of sudden and dramatic losses of a large percentage of an overall portfolio. In today's market environment, this is a particularly topical concern due to the massive and wholly unexpected losses suffered by a number of non-traditional, “hedge funds” in 1998, many of which had previously exhibited excellent risk/reward characteristics. “Risk of ruin” is not generally considered to be a component of traditional equity and debt investments, and can be best monitored by “real time” knowledge of strategies and positions. Finally, non-traditional investment alternatives are frequently highly illiquid. Many non-traditional strategies have a statistically significant incremental likelihood of success the longer the time horizon of the strategy cycle. This is especially the case with relative value, quasi-arbitrage methodologies but is characteristic of many non-traditional approaches. As a result, many non-traditional investments require investment commitments of 12 months or longer, eliminating investors' ability to limit their losses or adjust portfolio exposure by terminating or reducing their investment. The present invention provides a non-traditional investment instrument which eliminates the illiquidity and trade non-transparency, as well as a substantial component of the unpredictability, of many alternative non-traditional investments and which has produced consistently successful and non-correlated performance over 38 years of researched price histories. The present invention is directed in particular at combining a swap instrument which achieves full exposure to a benchmark index and a structured note which adds to the overall unitary instrument structured pursuant to this investment both (i) an incremental exposure to the selected benchmark index, plus (ii) exposure to a passive, long and short, commodity index. The incremental exposure to the benchmark index provides the potential to outperform this index in favorable periods, while the commodity index exposure provides potentially valuable diversification benefits by providing access to a non-traditional exposure which avoids or reduces the illiquidity, trade transparency and unpredictability typical of actively managed non-traditional investments. Many traditional money managers are evaluated in large part on the basis of their ability to match or exceed a benchmark index. Instruments of the present invention provide such managers with full exposure to their benchmark index through a swap on such index, plus incremental exposure to such index through the component of the structured note which is itself keyed, in part, to such index, while also providing an exposure to a passive commodity index of long and short positions. The incremental benchmark index exposure can permit instruments of the present invention to outperform the benchmark index when it is moving upwards. In fact, it would only be if the passive commodity index not only underperforms but incurs losses equal to or in excess of the incremental benchmark exposure that the unitary instrument would not outperform. In addition, the passive commodity index component of the structured note, by providing diversification from the index, provides a return which can permit the instrument to perform profitably when the index is declining, potentially contributing significantly to cumulative outperformance of the index by the unitary swap/structured note instrument. The use of the structured note also limits the overall risk of instruments of the present invention, as the structured note assures the investor the full return of the principal invested in such note after a specified period of time. In historical simulations, the combination of a swap on one preferred embodiment of the selected benchmark for the invention—the S&P 500 Stock Index—and a structured note combining a 20% incremental exposure to the S&P 500 plus an exposure of 100%-150% to the Mount Lucas Management Commodity Index (percentage figures, in each case, are of the total amount invested in the instrument) has outperformed the S&P in all rolling 8 year periods (the duration of one preferred embodiment of instruments of the present invention) since 1961 to a significant degree. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is a unitary investment combining a swap instrument and a structured note. The swap creates a market exposure indexed to a benchmark selected by the investor to reflect the investor's portfolio needs and objectives. Because this market exposure is achieved through the use of derivatives, it can be supported entirely by the collateral of the structured note; it can also be based on a deposit of a small amount of collateral specifically designated for the swap; however, using the structured note itself as collateral for the swap—as well as an independent source of rate of return—is the preferred embodiment of instruments of the present invention, permitting a double utilization of capital. The swap provides a return to the investor equal to the benchmark index selected. This benchmark index exposure is combined with a structured note which adds an incremental exposure to the benchmark index as well as exposure to a passive commodity index portfolio of long and short positions. The passive commodity index portfolio creates an exposure in an amount substantially equal to the product of the benchmark portfolio exposure of the swap multiplied by a leverage factor which together defines a commodity index portfolio exposure. The commodity exposure may be subject to periodic leverage adjustment. The return to the investor comprises substantially the change in value of the benchmark portfolio exposure obtained through the swap, the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure obtained through one component of the structured note and the commodity index portfolio exposure obtained through the other component of the structured note, in each case over a predetermined period of time. Investors are generally guaranteed the return of the principal invested in the structured note as of the end of a specified time period. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a swap/structured note instrument in accordance with the present invention, FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating the possible periodic leverage adjustment mechanism to the passive commodity index component of the swap/structured note instrument as well as how the performance of the instrument in one time period is compounded into its performance in the next. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The preferred embodiments of the present invention utilize two well-established and independently maintained financial indices (although it is not necessary that a financial index be used as the benchmark). These are the Standard & Poor's 500 Stock Index (referred to as the “S&P”) of large capitalization U.S. stocks and the Mount Lucas Management Commodity Index (referred to as the “MLM”). The S&P is a widely-used index. It is employed in the preferred embodiments of the present invention rather than the (at least) equally familiar Dow Jones Industrial Average due to the significantly greater liquidity of derivative instruments available on the S&P. This liquidity is important to the design of instruments of the present invention because the banks and dealers which may issue these instruments reflect market liquidity (which, in turn, is directly reflected in the costs incurred by such banks and dealers in hedging their risks under the present invention instruments) in the pricing of such instruments. The higher the hedging transaction costs imposed on the issuers of the subject instruments, the lower the efficiency of these instruments to the investor. The MLM tracks 25 different commodities/futures including 6 currencies, 3 U.S. bonds and 16 traditional commodities (collectively, the “MLM Objects”). The MLM is an unleveraged index which has been analyzed over 38 years of price histories and has been used to manage institutional accounts since 1993. It is comprised of long and/or short positions in each of the 25 MLM Objects, each with an equal dollar value, rebalanced monthly. All MLM positions are established as long or short on the basis of a straightforward trend-following model as of the beginning of each month and held until month-end; no trades occur intra-month. A long position is taken if the current spot price is above the average month-end spot price during the past 12 months (indicating an upward price trend); otherwise a short position is taken. There is no discretionary input into the MLM; consequently, it can be mathematically applied to historical market data to generate researched price histories. The MLM does not function as an all long commodity price index. On the contrary, because it acquires both long and short positions in the various MLM Objects, the performance of the MLM is substantially non-correlated to overall commodity prices, adding a further dimension to the diversification of the instruments of the present invention. The present invention creates, not by active management but by the application of a passive index, a non-traditional portfolio component which has a statistically very high likelihood of exceeding the performance of the selected benchmark through a wide range of different market conditions and economic cycles. The MLM is an unusual type of passive index in that unlike the standard commodities indices—the Commodity Research Bureau Index and the Goldman Sachs Commodity Index—the MLM takes both long and short positions in the different MLM Objects. In historical simulations, as well as actual institutional account performance since 1993, the results of the MLM have substantially outperformed the all-long commodities indices as well as exhibiting significantly greater diversification effects when combined with the S&P. Moreover, combinations of the MLM and the S&P, structured in accordance with the present invention, have yielded returns and risk control parameters substantially superior to the S&P considered on a stand-alone basis over periods of time generally consistent with institutional investment time horizons (8 years is one preferred embodiment of the instruments of the present invention), as well as substantially superior to many alternative combinations of non-traditional and traditional investments. In addition, even brief periods of underperformance were rare. Furthermore, due to the liquidity of the MLM Objects and the resulting ease with which the MLM can be hedged, the present invention can be provided by a large number of different banks and dealers on competitive economic terms. An index of the type represented by the MLM is referred to herein as a passive, long and short, commodity index. The essential aspects of such an index are that (1) it is primarily based on commodities, (2) it is passive, which means it is determined by a formula rather than active management, and (3) it takes both long and short positions. The use of a passive index eliminates any uncertainty as to how instruments of the present invention will perform under any given market scenario while also allowing total transparency of trading positions and strategies. In addition, the present invention is able to adjust to a wide range of different end-user risk/reward tolerance levels by permitting wide flexibility in adjusting both initial leverage and the ratio of the benchmark portfolio exposure (both base and incremental) to the instrument's passive, long and short, commodity index portfolio exposure. Once initially calibrated, instruments of the present invention perform robotically in accordance with the performance exposure and risk components designed into the initial parameters, although they can be varied if so desired by the investor during the term of the investment. Investment instruments pursuant to the preferred embodiments of the present invention are internally diversified when considered as a stand-alone (unitary) investment, each combining the S&P and the MLM. In addition, the overall investment instrument represents a diversification from traditional portfolio components. Specifically, however, the present invention has been directed to meeting the portfolio objectives of institutional money managers who are themselves focused on outperforming (or at least not underperforming) a particular financial index. The unitary combination of the swap and structured note in instruments of the present invention is particularly designed to outperform the selected benchmark due to the instrument's incremental benchmark exposure (as well as the potentially profitable exposure of the instrument's passive commodity index) in favorable markets and through its potentially non-correlated passive commodity index performance in unfavorable benchmark markets. Investors may be able to redeem investments of the present invention at any time (subject to the imposition of a redemption charge in the case of the structured note component of the unitary investment instrument). The ability to redeem combined with total trade transparency provides investors with a layer of risk control unavailable in most non-traditional investment alternatives. Because of the passive character of the indices incorporated in the present invention, if is also possible to fix the costs applicable to these instruments at the time each instrument is designed. Changes in market conditions subsequent to product inception have no effect on the pricing to the investors. This eliminates the risk that a material increase in market volatility (and, accordingly, the hedging cost to the issuer of an instrument of the present invention) will result in a commensurate increase in embedded costs, and corresponding degradation of investment potential. Actively managed non-traditional investments, on the other hand, can be subject to extreme variability of costs, a feature which is especially unacceptable to institutional investors when they are denied access to the trade information necessary to monitor the actual level of transactions being executed. The performance of the MLM cannot be predicted in the abstract; however, given any assumed market movements, this performance can be determined with high probability. This enables investors to apply market sensitivity analysis—a basic method of quantifying market risk exposure—to the positions held by the instruments of the present invention with a high degree of accuracy. On the other hand, it is not possible to conduct reliable market sensitivity, “value at risk” or Monte Carlo simulation market exposure analysis on most actively managed alternative investment products. The “risk of ruin” in instruments of the present invention can be clearly quantified; in most non-traditional investments it is effectively unknowable. Statistical analysis also indicates a remarkably high degree of non-correlation between the S&P, as well as other securities market indices, and the MLM throughout a wide range of different market cycles. The use of the MLM in combination with an investor's benchmark index addresses many of the difficulties encountered to date in incorporating non-traditional investments as a “mainstream” component of traditional portfolios, while also designing a non-traditional investment specifically adopted to institutional investors' need to outperform (or at least not underperform for any significant period) selected financial indices. FIGS. 1-2 generally indicate a progressive time period going from the top to the bottom of each Figure. The base benchmark exposures, the incremental benchmark exposure and the passive, long and short, commodity index portfolio exposure are separated horizontally although they are part of the unitary investment instruments of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, there is illustrated a swap/structured note instrument 20 in accordance with the present invention. The instrument 20 comprises a swap component and a note component. The swap component comprises a base benchmark portfolio exposure 24. The note component comprises an incremental benchmark exposure 28 and a passive, long and short, commodity exposure 30. An investor who wishes to utilize the swap/structured note instrument 20 with a specified face amount invests that amount as investment principal 26 in the structured note. The structured note at once serves as collateral for the swap component and as the investment in the note. The base benchmark portfolio exposure 24 is acquired through the swap (further described below). The initial base benchmark portfolio exposure 24 is generally equal to the face amount of the instrument 20. The preferred method of financing the instrument 20 is for the investor to provide the investment principal 26 in a dollar amount to equal the note component which in turn provides full collateral to the swap component, which is of equal face value to that of the note component. An investor may select to provide separate collateral, such as a part of his own portfolio, for the swap component of the instrument 20 with separate investment principal for the note component. The issuer of the structured note (typically also the issuer of the swap) guarantees the return of the investment principal 26 as of the end of a specified period (8 years in one preferred embodiment). The investment principal 26 is used to acquire the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 28 and the passive long and short commodity index exposure 30 which is equal to the benchmark portfolio exposure 24 multiplied by a leverage factor L1. An overall structured note exposure 32 comprises incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 28 and commodity index exposure 30. The return provided to the investor is measured by a performance exposure portfolio which comprises the benchmark portfolio exposure 24 and the combination of the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 28 and the passive, long and short, commodity index exposure 30. The face amount of the benchmark portfolio exposure 24 is identified by the term P1. The face amount of the passive commodity index exposure 30 is the product of a leverage factor L1 and the benchmark portfolio exposure 24 (P1). The face amount of the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 28 is a fraction of the benchmark portfolio exposure 24 (in one preferred embodiment, 20%). The leverage factor L1 is determined by a formula that is based on the performance of the selected commodity index used for the commodity exposure 30. If the commodity index performance in the preceding 12 months (or other period of time) equaled or exceeded 15% (in the case of the MLM under market conditions in late 1998; using a different commodity index and/or under different market conditions, this figure could vary from 15%), L1 is selected to be 100%, but if the total performance of the selected commodity index is less than 15% during the preceding 12 months (or other period of time), the leverage factor L1 is selected to be 150%. These are preferred leverage factors, but other leverage factor values may also be used. The swap/structured note instrument 20 includes a predetermined time period 34 which preferably is one year. Typically, the instrument 20 is not terminated at the end of one year, but is reset as further described with reference to FIG. 2. The initial performance portfolio for the swap instrument 20 comprises the benchmark portfolio exposure 24, the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 28 and passive, long and short, commodity index exposure 30. After the time period 34 has elapsed, the final performance portfolio comprises a final benchmark portfolio exposure 36 and a combination incremental benchmark portfolio and a passive, long and short, commodity index exposure 44. The base benchmark portfolio exposure 36 has two components which are the initial base benchmark portfolio 24 and a value change 24a. The structured note exposure 44 has four components which are the initial incremental benchmark exposure 28, a value change 28a for exposure 28, the initial commodity index exposure 30, and a value change 30a for exposure 30. The combination of exposures 28 and 28a comprises an exposure 38. The combination of exposures 30 and 30a comprises an exposure 40. The return for the time period 34 has three components. The first comprises the base benchmark portfolio value change 24a, which is expressed as the term ΔVB1. The second comprises the incremental base benchmark portfolio value change 28a which is expressed as the term ΔVB2, and the third is the passive, long and short, commodity index value change 30a, which is expressed as the term ΔVC1. Thus, the return on the swap instrument 20 for the time period 34 is represented by the sum of ΔVB1 plus ΔVB2 plus ΔVC1. At the end of the time period 34, the passive commodity index exposure 40 of structured note (indicated as 20′) is subject to releveraging as illustrated in FIG. 2. The amount of investment principal 26′ as of the beginning of time period 46 equals the initial investment principal 26 plus ΔVB1, plus ΔVB2, plus ΔVC1. Although the base benchmark portfolio exposure has increased by ΔVB1, the increase in investment principal provides adequate collateral for this increased exposure. The initial base benchmark portfolio exposure 36 as of the beginning of time period 46 is the final benchmark portfolio 36 at the end of time period 34. Similarly, the initial incremental benchmark exposure 38 as of the beginning of time period 46 is the final incremental benchmark exposure 38 at the end of time period 34. The final passive commodity index exposure 40 (from FIG. 1) is, however, subject to releveraging at the beginning the second time period 46. TABLE 1 UNITARY SWAP/STRUCTURED NOTE INSTRUMENT MARKET SECTOR ALLOCATIONS Percentages Are of Total Portfolio Exposure S&P (Benchmark Portfolio; assumes 20% Incremental Benchmark Exposure) Equities 54.0% 44.0% (Base Benchmark plus Incremental Benchmark) MLM (Passive, Long and Short, Commodity Index Portfolio) 100% Leverage 150% Leverage Bonds 5.46% 6.68% Currencies 10.92% 13.35% Energy 7.28% 8.89% Grains 9.10% 11.11% Other Agricultural 7.28% 8.89% Metals 5.46% 6.68% 100.00% 100.00% Percentages are of amounts invested in the unitary swap/structured note instrument. The releveraging to produce the commodity index exposure 42 at the beginning of time period 46 is effected using the same formula utilized initially to determine the leverage factor for the commodity index exposure 30, as described above in reference to FIG. 1. The ending value of the passive commodity index portfolio 40, represented by CP2, is divided by the leveraging factor L1 used at the beginning of time period 34 to calculate a “unit” of passive commodity index exposure. That unit is then multiplied by the new leverage factor L2, determined as previously described, to establish the commodity index portfolio exposure 42 for time period 46. For the present example, the initial leveraging factor applied in determining the commodity index exposure 30 is referenced as L1, which may be assumed to be 100%. If the newly-calculated leverage factor L2 is assumed to be 150%, then the passive commodity index exposure 42 will be 1.5 times as large as the passive commodity index exposure 40 and also greater than the initial passive commodity index exposure 30 (barring a greater than ⅓ loss in the passive, long and short, commodity index exposure in time period 34). If the value of the passive commodity index portfolio exposure 40 is represented by CP2, the passive commodity index exposure 42 is determined by the formula, exposure 42=(L2×CP2÷L1). If L1 and L2 are respectively 100% and 150%, then the value of exposure 42 will be 1.5×CP2. Should the original value of L1 be 150% and L2 be 100%, then exposure 42 will be 0.66% of CP2. Upon expiration of the second time period 46, there is a value change 36a (ΔVB3) in the base benchmark portfolio exposure 36, a value change 38a (ΔVB4) in the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 38 and a value change 42a in the commodity index portfolio exposure 42. After the expiration of the time period 46, there is produced a final benchmark portfolio exposure 48 includes the basic component exposure 36 and a value change 36a, which is represented by the term ΔVB3. Similarly, following the completion of time period 46, there is produced an incremental benchmark portfolio 50 having a basic component 38 and a value change 38a ΔVB4 and a final passive, long and short, commodity index exposure 52 comprising the basic component exposure 42 and a value change 42a, which is represented by the term ΔVC2. The combination of exposures 50 and 52 is a final structured note exposure 54. The return to the investor over time period 46 equals ΔVB3 plus ΔVB4 plus ΔVC2. The leverage factor applied to generate the commodity index exposure 42 can be constant, the same as was applied to generate commodity index exposure 30, or it can be the result of the changes in the leverage factor effected periodically over the life of the note instrument 20′ with releveraging performed as described above in reference to FIG. 2. The note component of the instrument 20 can have a payout factor which can be 100%, or more or less than 100%, of the notional changes 28a and 30a. The payout factor is set at the initiation of the instrument 20. The payout factor number generally depends on the volatility of the underlying basis and nominal rates at the time. A numerical example of an instrument of the present invention is as follows. Assume that $10 million is invested in the unitary swap/structured note instrument 20, this $10 million is the investment principal 26 which is invested in the structured note exposure 32 as well as serving as collateral for the swap component (exposure 24). The initial base benchmark portfolio exposure 24 (P1) would represent a $10 million S&P exposure in one preferred embodiment of the present invention. Similarly, the incremental benchmark portfolio 28 could represent a $2 million S&P exposure in such embodiment. Assuming that the initial leverage factor L1 is 100%, the initial passive long and short commodity index exposure 30 would be $10 million. If during the initial time period 34 the S&P exposure 24 increases 10% and the MLM exposure 30 increases 5%, the value change 24a in the base benchmark portfolio exposure 24 would be $1 million and the value change 28a in the incremental portfolio exposure 28 would be $0.2 million. The value change 30a in the passive commodity index exposure 30 would be $0.5 million. Consequently, the total return to the investor in time period 34 would be $1 million (ΔVB1), plus $0.2 million (ΔVB2) plus $0.5 million (ΔVC1), for a total of $1.7 million. The value of exposure 40 at the end of time period 34 is $10.5 million. At the beginning of time period 46 the base benchmark portfolio exposure 36 would equal $11 million, and the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 38 would equal $2.2 million. Assuming that the leveraging factor applied to the passive long and short commodity index portfolio 40 (CP2) as of the beginning of time period 34 was L1 rather than L2 and that L2 was 150% rather than 100%, the releveraged commodity index exposure 42 would equal 150% (L2)×$10.5 million (CP2)÷100% (L1), or $15.75 million. The overall exposure 44 of the structured note component would, accordingly, equal the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 38 of $2.2 million plus $15.75 million 42, or $17.95 million. If in the time period 46 the S&P exposure 24 increases 5% and the MLM exposure 30 increases 10%, the value change 36a in the base benchmark portfolio 36 would equal $0.55 million, the value change 38a in the incremental portfolio exposure 38 would equal $0.11 million and the value change 42a in the releveraged commodity index exposure 42 would equal $1.575 million. Consequently, the total return to the investor over time period 46 would be $0.55 million (ΔVB3) Plus $0.11 million (ΔVB4) plus $1.575 million (ΔVC2), or $2.235 million. The new base benchmark portfolio exposure 48 would equal $11.55, the new incremental benchmark portfolio exposure 50 would equal $2.31 million and the new passive long and short commodity index exposure 52 would be $12.075 million (subject to releveraging as of the beginning of a time period 3). The return of $2.235 million is based on a payout factor of 100%. Had the payout factor been different, the return would be changed proportionately. If a unitary swap/structured note instrument is held to maturity, an investor will receive back not only the performance of the instrument (ΔVB1 plus ΔVB2 plus ΔVC1 in time period 34; ΔVB3 plus ΔVB4 plus ΔVC2, in time period 46, etc.), but also the amount of the original investment principal 26, however, losses can result in a loss of principal from the base benchmark portfolio exposure 24. A reporting and accounting system can provide daily and intra-day trading positions and net asset value information directly to investors, as well as calculating all fees embedded in the investment instruments. It is not necessary that the investor acquire the “benchmark portfolio” (base or incremental) component of the investment instrument as a part of the instrument itself. The benchmark portfolio may comprise a pre-existing portfolio held by an investor. Furthermore, an investor need not maintain a static benchmark portfolio during the term of the investment instrument. Changing the make-up of the benchmark portfolio will affect the overall results achieved, but this is not inconsistent with the invention. The investment instruments of the present invention may be evaluated by portfolio managers as internally diversified, stand-alone investments as well as in terms of constituting non-traditional investment alternatives providing the potential for diversifying a traditional portfolio. These instruments are also specifically designed for portfolio managers who are directed towards equaling or exceeding the performance of a given (typically, but not necessarily, financial) benchmark. One of the preferred embodiments of the instruments of the present invention is an 8 year instrument combining the S&P and the MLM; this embodiment has outperformed, in historical price research, the S&P in all rolling 8 year periods since 1961. The parties involved in structuring the swap/structured note instruments, marketing these instruments, consulting and managing the releveraging processes (and possible recalibrating or rebalancing decisions), monitoring net asset values and issuing the swap/structured note instruments will receive a variety of fees from the investors. In certain cases, these fees may be paid directly by investors, outside of their investment in an instrument; in other cases, these fees will be deducted from the amount invested. These fees may include percentage fees based on the benchmark exposure of an instrument, or only on the commodity index component thereof, as well as percentage fees based on the actual Net Asset Value of the instrument. Percentage fees may generally be assumed to range up to 3% per annum in total, but will vary on a case-by-case basis. Incentive fees based on the performance of an overall instrument, calculated either periodically or over the entire term of the investment, may also be charged, and may be calculated over a hurdle rate reflecting the performance of the benchmark portfolio. These fees may generally be assumed to range from 15%-25%, but will vary on a case-by-case basis. There will also be a monthly charge to reflect the issuer's costs of adjusting its hedges to reflect the monthly internal rebalancing of the MLM by executing the corresponding trades in the futures markets. A licensing fee of approximately 0.5 of 1% per annum is also payable for the use of the MLM, and, in the case of the structured note component of the instrument, there is an indirect cost in the form of the loss of any interest earned on the investment principal (investors being guaranteed only the return of the principal of the structured note component, not any interest, as of the maturity date). All fees and charges are subject to individual negotiation, as well as in the case of certain fees, to market conditions at the time an instrument is issued. For example, the monthly charge reflecting the hedging costs associated with the MLMs internal rebalancing as well as the payout factor are both directly affected by market volatility. Although several embodiments of the invention have been illustrated in the accompanying drawings and described in the foregoing Detailed Description, it will be understood that the invention is not limited to the embodiments disclosed, but is capable of numerous rearrangements, modifications and substitutions without departing from the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One of the dilemmas of contemporary money management is whether it is feasible, or worthwhile, to attempt to outperform broad-based financial indices (typically equity or debt indices) in managing a core portfolio over time. This question is of particular importance to institutional money managers who are typically evaluated on the basis of their performance compared to a broad-based market index. One aspect of this question has been whether the addition of non-traditional investment components to a traditional portfolio of stocks and bonds can reliably improve the risk/reward ratio of a portfolio by diversifying a portion of such portfolio into assets likely both to perform positively over time and in a manner generally non-correlated with the general debt and equity markets. Financial products have increasingly emphasized the value of diversification. Modern Portfolio Theory has demonstrated that over time a diversified portfolio, by reducing the incidence of major drawdowns, can generate high cumulative returns with reduced volatility (a commonly-used measure of risk), as compared to conventional portfolios consisting of stocks and bonds. “Non-traditional” investments are incorporated into an investment strategy because they are likely to demonstrate a significant degree of performance non-correlation to a “benchmark portfolio,” typically the general equity and/or debt markets. By combining non-traditional and traditional portfolio components, an “efficient frontier” of investment performance can be developed in which the addition of the non-traditional component increases returns while also reducing volatility up to the point of the desired level of portfolio efficiency (risk/reward ratio) and maximum non-traditional exposure. In the case of instruments of the present invention, the “efficiency” of the instruments designed pursuant to the invention is in large part a function of the extent to and consistency with which they outperform the selected financial benchmark. One of the difficulties in implementing the diversification strategy of Modern Portfolio Theory has been to identify a reliably non-correlated and positively performing non-traditional investment instrument or class. Diversifying into a non-traditional investment can reduce volatility but not ultimately benefit a portfolio if the non-traditional investment is not profitable. In addition, many non-traditional investments have not, in fact, proved to be non-correlated with the broader markets, especially during periods of market stress (when the risk control benefits of diversification are potentially of the most importance). Modern Portfolio Theory was developed in the 1950s. In the early 1960s, published financial portfolio research demonstrated that managed futures might serve as a non-traditional “asset class” for purposes of diversifying a traditional portfolio in a manner consistent with the tenets of such Theory. Since that time, while futures/commodities have been increasingly accepted as a means of diversifying traditional portfolios, the dominant approach to incorporating futures into a portfolio has focused on the use of managed futures—futures accounts actively managed by professional “Commodity Trading Advisors” and “Commodity Pool Operators.” The futures markets provide efficient and leveraged access to a wide range of potentially non-correlated assets. However, the performance of managed futures products has been unreliable. Whether managed on a discretionary basis or pursuant to computer models, actively managed futures strategies have demonstrated significant periods of under-performance. Furthermore, even when a managed futures investment is successful, it is impossible to predict with any confidence what its likely near- to mid-term performance will be. This uncertainty means that it is impossible to know whether any given non-traditional investment will be (1) profitable and/or (2) non-correlated with an investor's benchmark portfolio. A related impediment to the efficient implementation of Modern Portfolio Theory investment products through the use of non-traditional investments is that non-traditional investment portfolio managers typically regard both their strategies and their market positions as proprietary and confidential. Uncertainty of performance is combined with uncertainty as to holdings and methods of strategy implementation. These uncertainties have caused many institutions (especially those which believe that their fiduciary obligations to their investors or beneficiaries require that they have access to position data) to avoid non-traditional investments. The “entry barrier” of not providing trade transparency is heightened because most actively managed non-traditional strategies are subject to a non-quantifiable “risk of ruin”—the possibility of sudden and dramatic losses of a large percentage of an overall portfolio. In today's market environment, this is a particularly topical concern due to the massive and wholly unexpected losses suffered by a number of non-traditional, “hedge funds” in 1998, many of which had previously exhibited excellent risk/reward characteristics. “Risk of ruin” is not generally considered to be a component of traditional equity and debt investments, and can be best monitored by “real time” knowledge of strategies and positions. Finally, non-traditional investment alternatives are frequently highly illiquid. Many non-traditional strategies have a statistically significant incremental likelihood of success the longer the time horizon of the strategy cycle. This is especially the case with relative value, quasi-arbitrage methodologies but is characteristic of many non-traditional approaches. As a result, many non-traditional investments require investment commitments of 12 months or longer, eliminating investors' ability to limit their losses or adjust portfolio exposure by terminating or reducing their investment. The present invention provides a non-traditional investment instrument which eliminates the illiquidity and trade non-transparency, as well as a substantial component of the unpredictability, of many alternative non-traditional investments and which has produced consistently successful and non-correlated performance over 38 years of researched price histories. The present invention is directed in particular at combining a swap instrument which achieves full exposure to a benchmark index and a structured note which adds to the overall unitary instrument structured pursuant to this investment both (i) an incremental exposure to the selected benchmark index, plus (ii) exposure to a passive, long and short, commodity index. The incremental exposure to the benchmark index provides the potential to outperform this index in favorable periods, while the commodity index exposure provides potentially valuable diversification benefits by providing access to a non-traditional exposure which avoids or reduces the illiquidity, trade transparency and unpredictability typical of actively managed non-traditional investments. Many traditional money managers are evaluated in large part on the basis of their ability to match or exceed a benchmark index. Instruments of the present invention provide such managers with full exposure to their benchmark index through a swap on such index, plus incremental exposure to such index through the component of the structured note which is itself keyed, in part, to such index, while also providing an exposure to a passive commodity index of long and short positions. The incremental benchmark index exposure can permit instruments of the present invention to outperform the benchmark index when it is moving upwards. In fact, it would only be if the passive commodity index not only underperforms but incurs losses equal to or in excess of the incremental benchmark exposure that the unitary instrument would not outperform. In addition, the passive commodity index component of the structured note, by providing diversification from the index, provides a return which can permit the instrument to perform profitably when the index is declining, potentially contributing significantly to cumulative outperformance of the index by the unitary swap/structured note instrument. The use of the structured note also limits the overall risk of instruments of the present invention, as the structured note assures the investor the full return of the principal invested in such note after a specified period of time. In historical simulations, the combination of a swap on one preferred embodiment of the selected benchmark for the invention—the S&P 500 Stock Index—and a structured note combining a 20% incremental exposure to the S&P 500 plus an exposure of 100%-150% to the Mount Lucas Management Commodity Index (percentage figures, in each case, are of the total amount invested in the instrument) has outperformed the S&P in all rolling 8 year periods (the duration of one preferred embodiment of instruments of the present invention) since 1961 to a significant degree. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is a unitary investment combining a swap instrument and a structured note. The swap creates a market exposure indexed to a benchmark selected by the investor to reflect the investor's portfolio needs and objectives. Because this market exposure is achieved through the use of derivatives, it can be supported entirely by the collateral of the structured note; it can also be based on a deposit of a small amount of collateral specifically designated for the swap; however, using the structured note itself as collateral for the swap—as well as an independent source of rate of return—is the preferred embodiment of instruments of the present invention, permitting a double utilization of capital. The swap provides a return to the investor equal to the benchmark index selected. This benchmark index exposure is combined with a structured note which adds an incremental exposure to the benchmark index as well as exposure to a passive commodity index portfolio of long and short positions. The passive commodity index portfolio creates an exposure in an amount substantially equal to the product of the benchmark portfolio exposure of the swap multiplied by a leverage factor which together defines a commodity index portfolio exposure. The commodity exposure may be subject to periodic leverage adjustment. The return to the investor comprises substantially the change in value of the benchmark portfolio exposure obtained through the swap, the incremental benchmark portfolio exposure obtained through one component of the structured note and the commodity index portfolio exposure obtained through the other component of the structured note, in each case over a predetermined period of time. Investors are generally guaranteed the return of the principal invested in the structured note as of the end of a specified time period. | 20041112 | 20101207 | 20050526 | 84047.0 | 1 | HOLLY, JOHN H | MULTI-ASSET PARTICIPATION STRUCTURED NOTE AND SWAP COMBINATION | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,094 | ACCEPTED | Method for discontinuous transmission, in sections, of data in a network of distributed stations, as well as a network subscriber station as a requesting appliance for carrying out a method such as this, and a network subscriber station as a source appliance for carrying out a method such as this | When data streams are being transmitted in a network of distributed stations (10, 20) in which the network subscriber stations are controlled on the basis of the Internet Protocol, a resource (such as a file) can very often be transmitted using the HTTP-GET method. However, this does not support discontinuous transmission, in sections, of data, as is required, for example, in the case of trick modes (search processes) for a video film. The invention describes an extension to the known HTTP-GET method, such that this application is likewise possible. For this purpose, additional parameters relating to the required search are transmitted to the source appliance (10) in the HTTP-GET request. The source appliance (10) then sends the respective data sections for the search. | 1. A method for discontinuous transmission, in sections, of data in a network of distributed stations between a first (10) and a second network subscriber station (20), comprising the following steps: creation of an HTTP-GET request stating the required parameters, such as the file name, file type, path, playback speed, playback direction, and initial position, transmission of the HTTP-GET request to the source appliance (10) discontinuous transmission, in sections, of the data from the source appliance (10) to the destination appliance (20) in a HTTP response. 2. The Method according to claim 1, wherein the data is transmitted using the HTTP chunked transfer encoding mode. 3. The method as claimed in claim 2, with a specific status code being returned in the response for the transmission of the requested data, signaling that it has been possible to interpret the required parameters in the HTTP-GET request correctly. 4. The method as claimed in one of claims 2, with the required parameter or parameters from the HTTP-GET request being repeated in the response for the transmission of the requested data, as an acknowledgement that it has been possible to interpret the required parameter or parameters in the HTTP-GET request correctly. 5. The method as claimed in claim 2, with the discontinuous transmission, in sections, of the data being used in the case of the request for a fast search. 6. The method as claimed in claim 2, with the data relating to multimedia data, in particular audio or video data. 7. The method as claimed claim 2, with a section of the video data, in particular the data for a video frame, in each case being transmitted with an indication of the data length as a block for discontinuous transmission, in sections, using the HTTP chunked transfer encoding mode. 8. The method as claimed in claim 7, with the data for the intracoded video frames or for the unidirectionally coded video frames in each case being transmitted as a data section for an MPEG2-coded video film. 9. The method as claimed in claim 2, with the network of distributed stations being a network which is controlled on the basis of the Internet Protocol. 10. The method as claimed in claim 9, with the network subscriber stations (10, 20) being designed for control in accordance with the UPnP specification, with UPnP representing Universal Plug and Play. 11. A network subscriber station as a requesting appliance for carrying out the method as claimed in claim 1, comprising program means for creation of an HTTP-GET request with details of the required parameters for discontinuous transmission, in sections, of the data, such as the file name, the file type, the path, the playback speed, the playback direction, the initial position, on request. 12. The network subscriber station as claimed in claim 11, having means for reception of a command for carrying out a fast search process, and means for activation of the program means for creation of the HTTP-GET request in response to this. 13. The network subscriber station as a source appliance for carrying out the method as claimed in claim 1, comprising program means for evaluation of a received HTTP-GET request from a destination appliance (20) for discontinuous transmission, in sections, of data with details of the required parameters such as the file name, the file type, the path, the playback speed, the playback direction, the initial position, and means for transmission, of the requested data to the destination appliance (20). 14. The network subscriber station as claimed in claim 13, wherein said transmission means transfer said requested data using the HTTP chunked transfer encoding mode. 15. The network subscriber station as claimed in claim 14, with means being provided for the transmission of MPEG video data which, in the course of HTTP chunked transfer encoding, transmit the data for the intracoded video frames and/or for the unidirectionally coded video frames in the MPEG video data stream as separate data sections. 16. The network subscriber station as claimed in claim 14, with the means for discontinuous transmission, in sections, of the data in each case also adding position details, which indicate the position of the data section in the data stream. 17. The network subscriber station as claimed in claim 13, with formatting means being provided which return a specific status code in the response for the transmission of the requested data, signaling that it has been possible to interpret the required parameters in the HTTP-GET request correctly. 18. The network subscriber station as claimed in claim 13, with formatting means being provided which repeat the required parameter or parameters from the HTTP-GET request in the response for the transmission of the requested data, as an acknowledgement that it has been possible to interpret the required parameter or parameters in the HTTP-GET request correctly. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to the technical field of data transmission in a network of distributed stations, in particular in a so-called domestic network. In this case, the data is transmitted discontinuously, in sections. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION Various domestic network standards have recently become available for the networking of appliances in the domestic area. A consortium of companies, in particular companies in the computer industry, led by Microsoft, have started an initiative for the specification of a network control software based on the existing Internet Protocol (IP). This network system has become known by the abbreviation UPnP (Universal Plug and Play). In this system, the specification does not relate primarily to entertainment electronic appliances and, in fact, other appliances can also be integrated in the network, in particular personal computers, domestic appliances in the white goods range, such as refrigerators, microwave cookers, washing machines, as well as heating controllers, lighting controllers, alarm systems and so on. A working group of the UPnP forum have worked out the UPnP-AV specification, which builds on the general UPnP specification and extends it, for application of the UPnP method to AV appliances. In order to transfer AV data (audio/video data) in a domestic network such as this between a so-called server (source appliance) and a so-called renderer appliance (destination appliance), the UPnP-AV specification stipulates that known transmission protocols should be used for transportation of the data. The so-called HTTP-GET method (HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and, in addition, the so-called RTP method (RTP stands for Real Time Transport Protocol) are mentioned as known protocols in the specification. These two transport mechanisms are available when the network subscriber stations are linked to one another via Ethernet bus connections. The HTTP-GET method is based on the TCP method (Transmission Control Protocol), which is a basic connection-oriented transport protocol, in which protected data transmission (with error correction) takes place. The TCP method is in turn built on the Internet Protocol (IP). The HTTP-GET method was developed especially for the transmission of files (for example HTML web pages) from a web server to a web browser. In consequence, it is not adapted for real-time data transmission in sections, for example as occurs on transmitting audio or video data streams. On the other hand, the HTTP-GET method is widely used and is designed to be very simple for the application programmer, so that it is widely popular. The transport mechanism according to the RTP method is based on the UDP method (User Datagram Protocol), which is likewise built on the Internet Protocol, operates without any connection and does not use error correction, so that disturbances may occur when data is transmitted using this method. On the other hand, the RTP method is better suited to real-time data transmissions, because it uses intermediate buffers, additional time stamps and sequence numbers. In this respect, it is thus more suitable for transmission of audio or video information, particularly on the Internet, which is characterized by numerous bottlenecks. The transport mechanism based on the HTTP-GET method is recommended for the transmission of AV data streams in the UPnP specification. The HTTP-GET method was intended primarily for requesting a resource which is available in the network, which in many cases is an existing file, and then to transmit this entirely in one piece to the destination appliances. In addition, the so-called chunked transfer encoding method was introduced in HTTP Version 1.1, as well, and this is intended to be used whenever a resource is to be transmitted whose overall length is not yet entirely known at the time when the transmission starts. In this case, the resource should be transmitted in sections but continuously (that is to say without any gaps). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Against the background of the described prior art, the object of the invention is to extend the transport mechanism based on the HTTP-GET method such that it is also possible to implement so-called trick modes in the transmission of data streams. Trick modes such as these include, for example in the case of AV data streams, fast forward (searching in the forward direction) and fast reverse (searching in the backward direction). The invention solves this problem by defining additional parameters for the HTTP-GET method which, for example, relate to the playback speed and playback direction, as well as to the initial position for the playback process. Normally, only individual data blocks are required for the playback process in trick modes such as these, for example only individual video frames are reproduced during a fast forward search through a video film, and other video frames between the reproduced frames are suppressed. Effectively, this therefore results in repeated jumping from one video frame N to a video frame N+X (forward) or N−X (reverse). In order to carry out this discontinuous transmission of the data in sections, it is possible to send out the new type of HTTP GET request with the additional parameters such as, playback speed and playback direction, as well as the initial position for the playback process. The source device sends the requested data sections for the requested trick mode back with a HTTP Get response. This invention makes it possible to use the simple transport mechanism HTTP-GET for implementation of trick modes for real-time data transmission as well, in particular for AV data. This invention likewise makes it possible to implement so-called navigation commands which, for example, allow a deliberate jump to a position in the data stream which occurs at a specific time or later, for example 15 minutes later than the current playing time. The measures specified in the dependent claims allow advantageous developments and improvements of the method according to the invention. One advantageous embodiment of the invention is to use the chunked transfer encoding mode in the HTTP-GET method. Specifically, a data section to be reproduced is always transmitted as a chunk. Also, in this case, the data is not transmitted continuously, that is to say without gaps, and, instead, there are other areas which are omitted between the individual transmitted data sections, that is to say this represents discontinuous data transmission, in sections. The time position of each chunk can also be indicated in a commentary line. This has the advantage of having more time accuracy when the current trick mode is stopped or interrupted by a new type of trick mode request. As an acknowledgement that it has been possible to correctly interpret the parameters in the HTTP-GET request according to the invention, it is either possible to return an agreed special status code, or else the parameters can be repeated once again in the response. In the case of an appliance which is not designed according to the invention, the response would be different, so that the requesting appliance can emit suitable information to the operator if the addressed appliance does not support such trick mode reproduction. Correspondingly advantageous measures for a network subscriber station as the requesting appliance for carrying out the method according to the invention are listed in claims 11 and 12. Correspondingly advantageous measures for a network subscriber station as source appliance for carrying out the method according to the invention are listed in claims 13 to 18. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Exemplary embodiments of the invention will be explained in more detail in the following description, and are illustrated in the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 shows rough block diagrams of a source appliance and destination appliance in a network of distributed stations; FIG. 2 shows the format of an HTTP-GET request according to the invention, which is sent from the destination appliance to the source appliance; FIG. 3 shows an example of a universal remote control; FIG. 4 shows a schematic illustration illustrating, as an example, a triple speed search in the forward direction for MPEG2 coded video data; FIG. 5 shows the format of the HTTP-GET response according to the invention; FIG. 6 shows a flowchart for a program, using which the HTTP-GET request is created and is sent to the source appliance; FIG. 7 shows the flowchart of a program which is processed in the source appliance, for creation and transmission of the HTTP-GET response using the chunked transfer encoding mode; and FIG. 8 shows the transmission of an HTTP-GET request from the destination appliance to the source appliance with details of an absolute URL, which is separated by question marks and likewise contains the required parameters for the requested playback process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a source appliance 10 and a destination appliance 20 in a network of distributed stations. As illustrated, the individual network subscriber stations are intended to be connected to one another by means of Ethernet bus connections 15. It is also assumed that the individual network subscriber stations are designed to the UPnP Standard. The UPnP specification can be obtained from the company Microsoft. Further information is also available on the official Internet site for the UPnP system. Reference should be made to the Internet site www.UPnP.org for this purpose. The terminology for the source appliance corresponds to that for the UPnP system in a server. The terminology for the destination appliance 20 in the UPnP system corresponds to that for a renderer appliance, corresponding to the destination appliance. In the example illustrated in FIG. 1, the two major components of the source appliance 10 are the memory device 12 and the HTTP server 11, which are emphasized separately. Typical source appliances for audio/video data are, for example, DVD players, DVD recorders, hard disk recorders, DVHS recorders, CD players, MP3 players, video cameras or else a personal computer. The AV data which can be played back is stored in the memory device 13 in the source appliance 10. The HTTP server component 11 is essential for a UPnP appliance such as this according to the UPnP specification, and may be in the form of software. The corresponding program methods are known from the prior art, and reference should be made in particular to the UPnP specification with regard to the disclosure of these components. The major components in the destination appliance 20 are an HTTP transmitter/receiver 22, an HTTP server 21, a buffer store 23, and decoding logic 24. Destination appliances 20 may, for example, be a digital television, which may also be in the form of a set-top box, DVD player, and MP3 player or else a personal computer. The decoding unit 24 must be designed as an MPEG2 decoder for transmission of MPEG2-coded video information. The buffer store 23 should preferably be in the form of a RAM memory unit. The following text is based on the assumption that a connection for data transmission of AV data has been set up between the source appliance and the destination appliance. It is also assumed that the source appliance 10 is playing back a video film at normal speed, and that the associated AV data stream is being transmitted continuously to the destination appliance 20 via the connection that has been set up. The user then requests a fast search in the forward direction on the destination appliance 20. As is shown in FIG. 3, this may be done using a remote control 30. By way of example, FIG. 3 shows a universal remote control which is equipped with a touch-screen display 31, on which the control functions for a digital video recorder are displayed. Universal remote controls such as these are known from the prior art. As an example, reference is made to the prior art of the European Patent Application EP-A-0 780 990. The buttons which are shown on the display 31 are a stop button 32, a replay button 33, a pause button 34, a record button 34, a button for fast reverse 36, a button for fast forward 37, a button for a forward title jump 38 and a button for a reverse title jump 39. The operator has pressed the button 37 on the destination appliance 20 in order to request a fast forward search. This command is then converted by the destination appliance 20 to an appropriate HTTP-GET request, which is transmitted via the network cable 15 to the source appliance. FIG. 2 shows the details of the structure of the HTTP-GET request. In the example shown there, the requested file name follows the keyword GET. This is signaled by the parameter name ITEM. For example, the file name is MenInBlack.MPG, which corresponds to a typical name for a video film. The HTTP version details, on the same line, are followed on the next line by the details of the appliance in which this file can be found. In order to identify this parameter, the expression HOST precedes the server name in the second line. The server name shown in the example is www.my.server. The next parameter, on the line following this, is the details of the playback speed. The parameter name is accordingly AV_SPEED. However, at the same time, this parameter also includes the playback direction. In the illustrated example, the parameter details comprise the expression Forward—3 which indicates that the intention is to carry out a fast forward search at three times normal speed. However, a separate parameter could additionally have been introduced for the playback direction. The fourth line of the HTTP-GETrequest also includes the parameter details for the initial position of the requested search. The parameter name for this is AV_STARTTIME. The parameter name is followed by the position details 01.02.03.02, which indicate the current playing time position, specifically one hour, 2 minutes, 3 seconds, frame 02. An appropriate program is provided in the destination appliance 20 for creation of the HTTP-GET request, which is initiated by requesting the search process by pushing the button 37. This will also be explained in more detail in the following text. FIG. 4 now shows the requested search process at three times the playback speed in the forward direction, in more detail. The illustration shows the display sequence of digitally coded video frames, with the digital video frames being coded on the basis of the MPEG2 Standard. This Standard draws a distinction between intracoded frames (I frames), bidirectional coded frames (B frames) and unidirectional coded frames (P frames). The highest data compression rate is used for B frames, followed by the P frames. The intracoded frames are the least compressed, but can also be used as support frames, that is to say their frame content can be reconstructed without any knowledge of a previous or subsequent frame. A sequence of frames in the MPEG2 Standard is recommended as a so-called Group of Pictures GOP, in the form: IBBPBBPBBPBB. FIG. 4 shows three successive Groups of Pictures such as this. The procedure for carrying out a triple speed search in the forward direction is now as follows: only the I frames and the P frames of the Groups of Pictures are reproduced. Four different frames can thus be displayed from a Group of Pictures with 12 frames, thus resulting altogether in a triple speed search in the forward direction. Jumps therefore take place during the search process from I frame to P frame, from P frame to P frame and from P frame to I frame in the data stream. For further details relating to the technique as to how trick modes can be implemented for MPEG2-coded video frames, reference should be made to the article “Entwicklung eines DVD-Players: Problem und Lösungen” [Development of the DVD player: problems and solutions] by Ingo Hütter and Dirk Adolph in FKT No. 11/1999, pages 664 et seqq. FIG. 5 shows the format of the HTTP response which is emitted from the source appliance 10 once the fast search has been requested. The status message for a successfully received HTTP-GET request is produced in the first line. This also includes the version details relating to the HTTP method. The date and clock time are stated in the second line of the response. In the third line, the keyword CONTENT-TYPE is used to signal the data type which will subsequently be transmitted. In the cited example, this is video data, coded using the MPEG2 format. The fourth line is then used to signal that the following transmission will use the chunked transfer encoding mode. The first data section is then transmitted. This is preceded by details of the length of the relevant data section, using hexadecimal digits. Since, as already explained in conjunction with FIG. 4, only the data for the I frames and P frames is transmitted for the search, the video data for an I frame in each case follows here as a data section. The amount of data for one such I frame for a standard video frame is about 120 kbytes. This fluctuates, of course, from one frame content to the next. The respective time details in a transmitted video frame follow on the same line, separated from the length details by a semicolon. The search was requested at the start time 01:02:03:02, see FIG. 2. Starting from this time, the source appliance 10 searched for the next I frame. This was found at the time 01:02:03:04. The time in the fifth line of the HTTP-GET response thus corresponds precisely to this value. The video data for the notified I frame then follows in the next lines. Once this video frame has been transmitted, the length details for the next video frame to be transmitted, together with the appropriate time and the position at which this frame has been located in the video film follow in the next line. This is followed by the associated video data. FIG. 5 then also shows the corresponding details for the third P frame that is jumped to and is then transmitted. The process continues until either the search is ended by the user controller, or the end of the video film is reached. The end of data transmission in the chunked transfer encoding mode is indicated by a line which transmits only the value 0 as the value. This is likewise shown in FIG. 4. As described, this comprises discontinuous transmission, but in sections, of the video data according to the invention. This is discontinuous because only the video data for individual frames, in this case the I and P frames, is transmitted while, in contrast, the video data for the frames between them is not transmitted. Since it is perfectly possible for an HTTP request according to the invention to be sent to an appliance which does not support trick modes of the described type, the response from an appliance which does support trick modes should make it clear that the request has been understood and that the data stream will comply with the parameters in the request. This could be achieved by means of a specific HTTP status code in the response (for example “210”, “Trick mode OK”), as shown in FIG. 5. Alternatively, the trick mode parameter may also be repeated in the response, in order to indicate this. The response would then be formed as follows: HTTP/1.1 200 OK Date: Fri, 31 Dec. 2003 17:59:59 GMT Content-Type: video/mpeg Transfer-Encoding: chunked AV_SPEED: forward—3 AV_STARTTIME: 01.02.03.04 1EAEO; time=01:02:03:04 The known status code 200 OK is simply used in this response. However, the trick mode parameters are in fact repeated for this purpose, which no standard appliance would do if it could not interpret the trick mode parameters. In the details of the parameter AV_STARTTIME, the time has been made to match the value associated with the first transmitted video frame. This is optional. It is also possible to simply repeat only the time of the request. FIG. 6 shows an example of a flowchart for a program which is processed in the destination appliance 20 once the fast search process has been requested by the user. The program starts with the program step 40, once the operator has operated the forward search button 37. Since a video film has already been played back at normal speed, the required parameters for the search process can also be extracted from the video film that is being played, in the next program step 41. These are firstly the time of the current playing time, the file name of the film being shown, the name of the server on which the video film is stored. A parameter for the new operating mode is also recorded. In a simple case, this parameter may be permanently associated with the operation of the search button 37. This button is then permanently associated with the forward search (three times speed) parameter. Normal replay of the video film being watched is stopped in the next program step 42. The buffer store 23, which may still contain data for further video frames, is deleted in the next program step 43. This measure means that a dedicated transition takes place from normal replay to search reproduction, to be precise without any major delay time, which may possibly be found to be disturbing. In the next program step 44, the program creates the necessary HTTP-GET request for the fast search process. FIG. 2 shows the format for the request to be created. This HTTP-GET request is sent to the source appliance 10 in the program step 45. This program section is then ended in the program step 46. FIG. 7 shows an example of a flowchart for a program which is processed in the source appliance after reception of the described HTTP-GET request. The start of the program is identified by the program step 50. This is initiated by the reception of the previously described HTTP-GET request. The HTTP-GET request that has been received is evaluated in the program step 51. The parameters transmitted in this request, in particular the initial position for the new playback process, the file name, server name and the operating mode, that is to say search at what speed in the forward or reverse direction, are extracted from the HTTP-GET request. The playback that was currently being watched was ended automatically after transmission of the HTTP-GET request by the existing TCP/IP connection, in the program step 42. Starting from the transmitted initial position, the I frame following this is searched for in the next program step 52. The new playback process then starts at the I frame found in this way. The video data read for this purpose is included in an HTTP response message. The format of the HTTP response message is as shown in FIG. 5. The HTTP chunked transfer encoding mode is thus used. This step is identified by the reference number 53 in the program in FIG. 7. Once the video data for the selected I frame has been transmitted, the drive for the source appliance 10 jumps to the location of the next subsequent I frame in the video data file. Separate pointer information items are included in the video data stream for this purpose, in accordance with the MPEG2 Standard. The data for the next I frame is then transmitted as the next item to the destination appliance 20. This process is repeated continuously until either the connection from the destination appliance has been interrupted or until the end of the video film. The endless loop that is shown in FIG. 7 is then terminated. An alternative embodiment for an HTTP-GET request according to the invention is illustrated in FIG. 8. According to the invention, the path name shown therein includes not only the file name but also all the other required parameters for the search that is now to be started. The example is designed so as to list all of the required parameters in the path after a question mark. The parameters shown are the file name, the playback speed and direction, and the initial position. The question mark symbol allows dedicated defined parameters to be transmitted separately to the server by means of the & symbol in a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). This method is described in more detail in the Internet Technology RFC 1738 (RFC stands for Request For Comment). The invention can be used not only for implementation of trick modes (searches) for the transmission of AV data. Searches such as these are also possible with other multimedia data. A file in which the contents of a book are stored is mentioned as one example. Furthermore, the invention is not just restricted to the application of carrying out a trick mode (search). Typical navigation processes, for example jumping to an indicated position in the document (for example to a position 15 minutes later in the data stream) can thus also be carried out. In this case, the speed details for replay in the HTTP-GET request would indicate normal replay, although the new start position would correspond to the position 15 minutes later in the data stream. Furthermore, the number and nature of the parameters required may vary, depending on the embodiment. For example, there is no need to always transmit the initial position as a parameter, if a specific initial position is permanently preset. In the case of a short item, it is possible to provide for the forward search to always start from the absolute start position. | <SOH> BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION <EOH>Various domestic network standards have recently become available for the networking of appliances in the domestic area. A consortium of companies, in particular companies in the computer industry, led by Microsoft, have started an initiative for the specification of a network control software based on the existing Internet Protocol (IP). This network system has become known by the abbreviation UPnP (Universal Plug and Play). In this system, the specification does not relate primarily to entertainment electronic appliances and, in fact, other appliances can also be integrated in the network, in particular personal computers, domestic appliances in the white goods range, such as refrigerators, microwave cookers, washing machines, as well as heating controllers, lighting controllers, alarm systems and so on. A working group of the UPnP forum have worked out the UPnP-AV specification, which builds on the general UPnP specification and extends it, for application of the UPnP method to AV appliances. In order to transfer AV data (audio/video data) in a domestic network such as this between a so-called server (source appliance) and a so-called renderer appliance (destination appliance), the UPnP-AV specification stipulates that known transmission protocols should be used for transportation of the data. The so-called HTTP-GET method (HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and, in addition, the so-called RTP method (RTP stands for Real Time Transport Protocol) are mentioned as known protocols in the specification. These two transport mechanisms are available when the network subscriber stations are linked to one another via Ethernet bus connections. The HTTP-GET method is based on the TCP method (Transmission Control Protocol), which is a basic connection-oriented transport protocol, in which protected data transmission (with error correction) takes place. The TCP method is in turn built on the Internet Protocol (IP). The HTTP-GET method was developed especially for the transmission of files (for example HTML web pages) from a web server to a web browser. In consequence, it is not adapted for real-time data transmission in sections, for example as occurs on transmitting audio or video data streams. On the other hand, the HTTP-GET method is widely used and is designed to be very simple for the application programmer, so that it is widely popular. The transport mechanism according to the RTP method is based on the UDP method (User Datagram Protocol), which is likewise built on the Internet Protocol, operates without any connection and does not use error correction, so that disturbances may occur when data is transmitted using this method. On the other hand, the RTP method is better suited to real-time data transmissions, because it uses intermediate buffers, additional time stamps and sequence numbers. In this respect, it is thus more suitable for transmission of audio or video information, particularly on the Internet, which is characterized by numerous bottlenecks. The transport mechanism based on the HTTP-GET method is recommended for the transmission of AV data streams in the UPnP specification. The HTTP-GET method was intended primarily for requesting a resource which is available in the network, which in many cases is an existing file, and then to transmit this entirely in one piece to the destination appliances. In addition, the so-called chunked transfer encoding method was introduced in HTTP Version 1.1, as well, and this is intended to be used whenever a resource is to be transmitted whose overall length is not yet entirely known at the time when the transmission starts. In this case, the resource should be transmitted in sections but continuously (that is to say without any gaps). | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Against the background of the described prior art, the object of the invention is to extend the transport mechanism based on the HTTP-GET method such that it is also possible to implement so-called trick modes in the transmission of data streams. Trick modes such as these include, for example in the case of AV data streams, fast forward (searching in the forward direction) and fast reverse (searching in the backward direction). The invention solves this problem by defining additional parameters for the HTTP-GET method which, for example, relate to the playback speed and playback direction, as well as to the initial position for the playback process. Normally, only individual data blocks are required for the playback process in trick modes such as these, for example only individual video frames are reproduced during a fast forward search through a video film, and other video frames between the reproduced frames are suppressed. Effectively, this therefore results in repeated jumping from one video frame N to a video frame N+X (forward) or N−X (reverse). In order to carry out this discontinuous transmission of the data in sections, it is possible to send out the new type of HTTP GET request with the additional parameters such as, playback speed and playback direction, as well as the initial position for the playback process. The source device sends the requested data sections for the requested trick mode back with a HTTP Get response. This invention makes it possible to use the simple transport mechanism HTTP-GET for implementation of trick modes for real-time data transmission as well, in particular for AV data. This invention likewise makes it possible to implement so-called navigation commands which, for example, allow a deliberate jump to a position in the data stream which occurs at a specific time or later, for example 15 minutes later than the current playing time. The measures specified in the dependent claims allow advantageous developments and improvements of the method according to the invention. One advantageous embodiment of the invention is to use the chunked transfer encoding mode in the HTTP-GET method. Specifically, a data section to be reproduced is always transmitted as a chunk. Also, in this case, the data is not transmitted continuously, that is to say without gaps, and, instead, there are other areas which are omitted between the individual transmitted data sections, that is to say this represents discontinuous data transmission, in sections. The time position of each chunk can also be indicated in a commentary line. This has the advantage of having more time accuracy when the current trick mode is stopped or interrupted by a new type of trick mode request. As an acknowledgement that it has been possible to correctly interpret the parameters in the HTTP-GET request according to the invention, it is either possible to return an agreed special status code, or else the parameters can be repeated once again in the response. In the case of an appliance which is not designed according to the invention, the response would be different, so that the requesting appliance can emit suitable information to the operator if the addressed appliance does not support such trick mode reproduction. Correspondingly advantageous measures for a network subscriber station as the requesting appliance for carrying out the method according to the invention are listed in claims 11 and 12 . Correspondingly advantageous measures for a network subscriber station as source appliance for carrying out the method according to the invention are listed in claims 13 to 18 . | 20041112 | 20120605 | 20050602 | 99821.0 | 22 | STRANGE, AARON N | METHOD FOR DISCONTINUOUS TRANSMISSION, IN SECTIONS, OF DATA IN A NETWORK OF DISTRIBUTED STATIONS, AS WELL AS A NETWORK SUBSCRIBER STATION AS A REQUESTING APPLIANCE FOR CARRYING OUT A METHOD SUCH AS THIS, AND A NETWORK SUBSCRIBER STATION AS A SOURCE APPLIANCE FOR CA | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,261 | ACCEPTED | Interlaced multiband antenna arrays | Antenna arrays which can work simultaneously in various frequency bands thanks to the physical disposition of the elements which constitute them, and also the multiband behaviour of some elements situated strategically in the array. The configuration of the array is described based on the juxtaposition or interleaving of various conventional mono-band arrays working in the different bands of interest. In those positions in which elements of different multiband arrays come together, a multiband antenna is employed which covers the different working frequency bands. The advantages with respect to the classic configuration of using one array for each frequency band are: saving in cost of the global radiating system and its installation (one array replaces several), and its size and visual and environmental impact are reduced in the case of base stations and repeater stations for communication systems. | 1. Interlaced multiband antenna arrays which works simultaneously on various frequencies characterised in that the position of the elements in the array is obtained from the juxtaposition of as many mono-band arrays as there are working frequencies required, employing a single multiband antenna, capable of covering the different working frequencies, in those positions of the array in which the positions of two or more elements of the mono-band arrays come together. | OBJECT OF THE INVENTION The present invention consists of antenna arrays which can be operated simultaneously in various frequency bands thanks to the physical disposition of the elements that constitute it, as well as the multiband behaviour of some elements situated strategically in the array. The array configuration is described on a basis of the juxtaposition or interleaving of various conventional single-band arrays operating in the different bands of interest. In those positions where elements of different multiband arrays come together, use is made of a multiband antenna which covers the different working frequency bands. The use of a multiband interleaved antenna array (hereinafter simply Multiband Interleaved Array, MIA) implies a great advantage over the classical solution of employing an array for each frequency band: there is a cost saving in the overall radiating system and in its installation (one array replaces several), its size is reduced as well as its visual and environmental impact in the case of base and repeater stations for communication systems. The present invention finds its application in the field of telecommunications and more specifically in radiocommunication systems. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Antennas started to be developed at the end of the nineteenth century based on the fundamental laws of electromagnetism postulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864. The invention of the first antenna has to be attributed to Heinrich Hertz in 1886 who demonstrated the transmission through air of electromagnetic waves. In the mid-1940's the fundamental restrictions regarding the reduction in size of antennas were shown with respect to wavelength and at the beginning of the sixties appeared the first frequency-independent antennas (E. C. Jordan, G. A. Deschamps, J. D. Dyson, P. E. Mayes, “Developments in Broadband Antennas,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 1, pp. 58-71, April 1964; V. H. Rumsey, Frequency-Independent Antennas. New York Academic, 1966; R. L. Carrel, “Analysis and design of the log-periodic dipole array,” Tech. Rep. 52, Univ. of Illinois Antenna Lab., Contract AF33 (616)-6079, October 1961; P. E. Mayes, “Frequency Independent Antennas and Broad-Band Derivatives Thereof”, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, January 1992). At that time proposals were made for helical, spiral, log-periodic arrays, cones and structures defined exclusively by angle pieces for the implementation of broadband antennas. Antenna array theory goes back to the works of Shelkunoff (S. A. Schellkunhoff, “A Mathematical Theory of Linear Arrays,” Bell System Technical Journal, 22,80), among other classic treatises on antenna theory. Said theory establishes the basic design rules for shaping the radiation properties of the array (principally its radiation pattern), though its application is restricted mainly to the case of mono-band arrays. The cause of said restriction lies in the frequency behaviour of the array being highly dependent on the ratio between the distance between elements (antennas) of the array and the working wavelength Said spacing between elements is usually constant and preferably less than one wavelength in order to prevent the appearance of diffraction lobes. This implies that once the spacing between elements is fixed, the operating frequency (and the corresponding wavelength) is also fixed, it being particularly difficult that the same array work simultaneously at another higher frequency, given that in that case the magnitude of the wavelength is less than the spacing between elements. The log-periodic arrays suppose one of the first examples of antenna arrays capable of covering a broad range of frequencies (V. H. Rumsey, Frequency-Independent Antennas. New York Academic, 1966; R. L. Carrel, “Analysis and design of the log-periodic dipole array,” Tech. Rep. 52, Univ. Illinois Antenna Lab., Contract AF33 (616)-6079, October 1961; P. E. Mayes, “Frequency Independent Antennas and Broad-Band Derivatives Thereof”, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, Jan. 1992). Said arrays are based on distributing the elements that constitute it in such a manner that the spacing between adjacent elements and their length vary according to a geometric progression. Although said antennas are capable of maintaining a same radiation and impedance pattern over a broad range of frequencies, their application in practice is restricted to some concrete cases due to their limitations regarding gain and size. Thus for example, said antennas are not employed in cellular telephony base stations because they do not have sufficient gain (their gain is around 10 dBi when the usual requirement is for about 17 dBi for such application), they usually have linear polarisation whilst in said environment antennas are required with polarisation diversity, their pattern in the horizontal plane does not have the width necessary and their mechanical structure is too bulky. The technology of individual multiband antennas is markedly more developed. A multiband antenna is understood to be an antenna formed by a set of elements coupled to each other electromagnetically which interact with each other in order to establish the radio-electric behaviour of the antenna, behaviour which with respect to radiation and impedance patterns is similar in multiple frequency bands (hence the name multiband antenna). Numerous examples of multiband antennas are described in the literature. In 1995 antennas of the fractal or multifractal type were introduced (the coining of the terms fractal and multifractal is attributable to B. B. Mandelbrot in his book The Fractal Geometry of Nature, W. H. Freeman and Co. 1983), antennas which by their geometry have a multifrequency behaviour and, in determined cases, a reduced size (C. Puente, R. Pous, J. Romeu, X. Garcia “Antenas Fractales o Mulitfractales”, (Spanish patent P9501019). Subsequently multi-triangular antennas were introduced (Spanish patent P9800954) which could work simultaneously in the GSM 900 and GSM 1800 bands and, more recently, multilevel antennas (Patent PCT/ES99/00296), which offer a clear example of how it is possible to shape the geometry of the antenna in order to achieve a multiband behaviour. The present invention describes how multiband antennas can be combined in order to obtain an array that works simultaneously in several frequency bands. A Multiband Interleaved Array (MIA) consists of an array of antennas which has the particularity of being capable of working simultaneously in various frequency bands. This is achieved by means of using multiband antennas in strategic positions of the array. The disposition of the elements that constitute the MIA is obtained from the juxtaposition of conventional mono-band arrays, employing as many mono-band arrays as frequency bands that it is wished to incorporate in the Multiband Interleaved Array. In those positions in which one or various elements originating in the conventional mono-band arrays coincide, a single multiband antenna (element) shall be employed which covers simultaneously the different bands. In the remaining non-concurrent positions, it can be chosen to employ also the same multiband antenna or else recur to a conventional mono-band antenna which works at the pertinent frequency. The excitation at one or various frequencies of each element of the array depends therefore on the position of the element in the array and is controlled by means of the signal distribution network. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The characteristics expounded in the foregoing, are presented in graphical form making use of the figures in the drawings attached, in which is shown by way of a purely illustrative and not restrictive example, a preferred form of embodiment. In said drawings: FIG. 1 shows the position of the elements of two classic mono-band arrays which work at frequencies f and f/2 respectively, and the disposition of elements in a multiband interleaved array, which has a dual frequency behaviour (at frequencies f and f/2), working in the same manner as classic arrays but with a smaller total number of elements. FIG. 2 shows another particular example of multiband interleaved array but with three frequencies in this case, and the respective three classic mono-band arrays which constitute it. It is a matter of extending the case of FIG. 1 to 3 frequencies f, f/2 and f/4. FIG. 3 shows another particular example of multiband interleaved array, in which the different working frequencies are not separated by the same scale factor. It is a matter of extending the case of FIGS. 1 and 2 to 3 frequencies f, f/2 and f/3. FIG. 4 shows a further particular example of multiband interleaved array, in which the different working frequencies are not separated by the same scale factor. It is a matter of extending the case of FIG. 3 to 3 frequencies f, f/3 and f/4. FIG. 5 shows a multiband interleaved array configuration which requires a repositioning of the elements to obtain frequencies that do not correspond to an integer factor of the highest frequency. In this particular example the frequencies f, f/2 and f/2,33 have been chosen. FIG. 6 shows the extension of the design of an MIA to the two-dimensional or three-dimensional case, specifically, an extension of the example of FIG. 1 to two dimensions. FIG. 7 shows one of the preferred of operating modes (AEM1). It is a matter of an MIA in which the multiband elements are multi-triangular elements. The array works simultaneously at dual frequencies, for example in the GSM 900 and GSM 1800 bands. FIG. 8 shows another of the preferred operating modes (AEM2). It is a matter of an MIA in which the multiband elements are multilevel elements. The array works simultaneously at dual frequencies, for example in the GSM 900 and GSM 1800 bands. FIG. 9 shows another of the preferred operating modes (AEM3). It is a matter of an MIA in which the multiband elements are multilevel elements. The configuration is similar to that of FIG. 8 (AEM2 mode), the difference being that the new disposition permits the total width of the antenna to be reduced. FIG. 10 shows another example of multiband antenna which can be employed in MIAs. It is a matter of a stacked patch antenna, which in this specific example works at two dual frequencies (for example, GSM 900 and GSM 1800). FIG. 11 shows the disposition of said patches in the MIA type array (AEM4 configuration). Observe that, in contrast to the previous cases, in this case multiband antennas are employed only in those positions where it is strictly necessary; in the remainder mono-band elements are employed the radiation pattern of which is sufficiently like that of the multiband element in the pertinent band. FIG. 12 shows another configuration (AEM5), in which the elements have been rotated through 45° in order to facilitate the procurement of double polarisation at +45° or −45°. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION In making the detailed description that follows of the preferred embodiment of the present invention, reference shall constantly be made to the Figures of the drawings, throughout which use has been made of the same numerical references for the same or similar parts. A multiband interleaved array (MIA) is constituted by the juxtaposition of various conventional mono-band arrays. The conventional antenna arrays usually have a mono-band behaviour (that is, they work within a relatively small frequency range, typically of the order of 10% about a centre frequency) and this is not only because the elements (antennas) that constitute it have a mono-band behaviour, but also because the physical spacing between elements conditions the working wavelength. Typically, the conventional mono-band arrays are designed with a spacing between elements of around a half-wavelength, spacing which may be increased in some configurations in order to enhance directivity, though it is usually kept below one wavelength to avoid the appearance of diffraction lobes. This purely geometric restriction (the magnitude of the wavelength conditions the geometry of the elements of the array and their relative spacing) signifies a major drawback in those environments and communication systems in which various frequency bands have to be employed simultaneously. A clear example is the GSM cellular mobile telephony system. Initially located in the 900 MHz band, the GSM system has turned into one of the most widespread on a world scale. The success of the system and the spectacular growth in demand for this type of service has led to the cellular mobile telephony operators expanding its service into a new band, the 1800 MHz band, in order to provide coverage for a greater customer base. Making use of classic mono-band antenna technology, the operators have to duplicate their antenna network in order to provide coverage simultaneously to GSM 900 and GSM 1800. Using a single MIA specially designed for the system (like that described in the particular cases of FIGS. 7 through 12), the operators reduce the cost of their network of base stations, the time to expand into the new band and the visual and environmental impact of their installations (through the simplification of the overall radiating structure). It is important to point out that the scenario which has just been outlined above deals only with one particular example of a type of MIA and its application; as may well be gauged by anyone familiar with the subject, in no way are the MIAs which are described in the present invention restricted to said specific configuration and can easily be adapted to other frequencies and applications. The multiband interleaved arrays base their operation on the physical disposition of the antennas which constitute them and on the particular type of element that is employed in some strategic positions of the array. The positions of the elements in an MIA are determined from the positions of the elements in as many mono-band arrays as there are frequencies or frequency bands required. The design of the array is, in that sense, equal to that of the mono-band arrays insomuch as it is possible to choose the current weighting for each element, in order to shape the radiation pattern according to the needs of each application. The configuration of the MIA is obtained from the juxtaposition of the positions of the different mono-band arrays. Naturally, such juxtaposition proves difficult to implement in practice in those positions in which various antennas of the different arrays coincide; the solution proposed in this invention rests in the use of a multiband antenna (for example of the fractal, multi-triangular, multi-level, etc. type) which covers all the frequencies associated with its position. A basic and particular example of how to arrange the elements in an MIA is described in FIG. 1. In the columns of the FIGS. (1.1) and (1.2) two conventional mono-band arrays are shown in which the positions of the elements (indicated by the black circles and the circumferences respectively) are chosen in such a manner that the spacing between elements is typically less than the working wavelength. Thus, taking as reference the to working frequency f of the array (1.1), the array (1.2) would work at a frequency f/2 as the elements have a spacing double that of the previous case. In FIG. (1.3) the disposition is shown of the elements in the MIA which is capable of working simultaneously on the frequencies f and f/2 conserving basically the same facilities as the two arrays (1.1) and (1.2). In the positions in which elements of the two conventional arrays (indicated in FIG. (1.3) by means of black circles located at the centre of a circumference) coincide, a multiband antenna is employed capable of working in the same manner (same impedance and pattern) on the frequencies (1.1) and (1.2). The remaining not common elements (indicated either by a black circle, or by a circumference) can be implemented either by means of the same multiband element employed in the common positions (and selecting the working frequency by means of the signal distribution network of the array), or by employing conventional mono-band elements. In this example the array (1.3) has a dual behaviour frequency-wise (at frequencies f and f/2), working in the same manner as the arrays (1.1) and (1.2) but with a smaller total number of elements (12 instead of 16). Multiple examples of multiband antennas are already described in the state of the art. Antennas with fractal geometry, multi-triangular antennas, multi-level antennas even stacked patch antennas are some examples of antennas capable of working in like manner in multiple frequency bands. These, and other multiband elements can be employed in the positions of the MIAs in which elements of various mono-band arrays come together. In the following figures other MIA configurations are shown, based on the same inventive concept, though having the disposition of the elements adapted to other frequencies. In FIG. 2 the configuration described is that of a tri-band MIA working at frequencies f, f/2 and f/4. The disposition of elements in the three classic mono-band arrays at the frequencies f, f/2 and f/4 is illustrated in the FIGS. (2.1), (2.2) and (2.3) by means of black circles, circumferences and squares respectively. The position of the elements of the MIA is determined from the configuration of the three mono-band arrays designed for each one of the three frequencies. The three arrays come together in the MIA that is shown in FIG. (2.4). In those positions where elements of the three arrays would come together (indicated in the drawing by the juxtaposition of the different geometric figures identifying each array) use is made of a multiband element. The three-frequency array of FIG. (2.4) behaves in the same manner as the three arrays (2.1), (2.2) and (2.3) at their respective working frequencies, but employing only 13 elements instead of the 21 required in the total of the three mono-band arrays. FIGS. 3, 4 and 5 describe, by way of example and not restrictively, the design of other MIAs based on the same principle though at other frequencies. In the first two cases the frequencies employed are integer multiples of a fundamental frequency; in the case of FIG. 5 the ratio between frequencies is not restricted to any particular rule, though it supposes an example of array in which the frequencies the GSM 900, GSM 1800 and UMTS services can be combined. Specifically, FIG. 3 illustrates another particular example of multiband interleaved array, in which the different working frequencies are not separated by the same scale factor. It concerns the extension of the case of FIGS. 1 and 2 to 3 frequencies f, f/2 and f/3. The disposition of elements of the three classic mono-band arrays at the frequencies f, f/2 and f/3 is shown in FIGS. (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) by means of black circles, circumferences and squares respectively. The column of FIG. (3.4) shows the disposition of elements in the tri-band interleaved array. In those positions in which elements of the three arrays come together (indicated in the drawing by the juxtaposition of the different geometric figures identifying each array), use is made of a multiband element; the same strategy is followed in those positions in which elements of two arrays coincide: use should be made of a multiband element capable of covering the frequencies pertinent to its position, preferentially the same element as that used in the remaining positions, selecting those frequencies which are necessary by means of the feeder network. Notice that as the three-frequency array of FIG. (3.4) behaves in the same manner as the three arrays (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) at their respective working frequencies, but employing only 12 elements instead of the 21 required in the total of the three mono-band arrays. FIG. 4 illustrates a new particular example of multiband interleaved array, in which the different working frequencies are not separated by the same scale factor. It concerns the extension of the case of FIG. 3 to 3 frequencies f, f/3 and f/4. The disposition of elements of the three classic mono-band arrays at the frequencies f, f/3 and f/4 are shown in FIGS. (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3) by means of black circles, circumferences and squares respectively. The column of FIG. (4.4) shows the disposition of elements in the tri-band interleaved array. In those positions where elements of the three arrays would come together (indicated in the drawing by the juxtaposition of the different geometric figures identifying each array), use is made of a multiband element. The three-frequency array of FIG. (4.4) behaves in the same manner as the three arrays (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3) at their respective working frequencies, but employing only 15 elements instead of the 24 required in the total of the three mono-band arrays. It is convenient to re-emphasise that in the particular cases of FIGS. 3 and 4 the arrays can work at 3 frequencies simultaneously. The disposition of elements is such that the three frequencies do not always coincide in all the elements; nonetheless, by employing a tri-band antenna in those positions and selecting the working frequencies for example by means of a conventional frequency-selective network, it is possible to implement the MIA. In some configurations of multiband interleaved array, especially in those in which the different frequencies do not correspond to an integral factor of the highest frequency 1, it is required that the elements be repositioned, as in FIG. 5. In this particular example the frequencies f, f/2 and f/2,33 have been chosen. The disposition of elements of the three classic mono-band arrays at the frequencies f, f/2 and f/2,33 is represented in FIGS. (5.1), (5.2) and (5.3) by means of black circles, circumferences and squares respectively. The column of FIG. (5.4) shows what would be the disposition of elements in the tri-band interleaved array according to the same plan as in the previous examples. Notice how in this case the ratio of frequencies involves the collocation of elements at intermediate positions which make its practical implementation difficult. The solution to be adopted in this case consists in displacing the position of the element of the array that works at the lowest frequency (indicated by arrows) until it coincides with another element (that nearest) of the highest frequency array; then the two or more coincident elements in the new position are replaced with a multiband element. An example of the final configuration once the elements have been repositioned, is shown in FIG. (5.5). It is important that the element displaced be preferentially that of the lowest frequency array, in this way the relative displacement in terms of the working wavelength is the least possible and the appearance of secondary or diffraction lobes is reduced to the minimum. FIG. 6 illustrates how the configuration MIAs is not limited to the linear (one-dimensional) case, but it also includes arrays in 2 and 3 dimensions (2D and 3D). The procedure for distributing the elements of the array in the 2D and 3D cases is the same, replacing also the different coincident elements with a single multiband antenna. More examples of particular configurations of MIAs are described below. In the five examples described, various designs are presented for GSM 900 and GSM 1800 systems (890 MHz-960 MHz and 1710 MHz-1880 MHz bands) It is a question of antennas for cellular telephony base stations, which present basically the same radiofrequency behaviour in both bands; by employing such versions of MIA antenna the operators reduce the number of antennas installed to one half, minimising the cost and environmental impact of their base stations. AEM1 MODE The AEM1 configuration, represented in FIG. 7, is based on the use of GSM 900 and GSM 1800 multi-triangular elements. The array is obtained by interleaving two conventional mono-band arrays with spacing between elements less than one wavelength ( ) in the pertinent band (typically a spacing is chosen less than 0.9 in order to minimise the appearance of the diffraction lobe in the end-fire direction). The original arrays can have 8 or 10 elements, depending on the gain required by the operator. The juxtaposition of both arrays in a single MIA is achieved in this case by employing dual multi-triangular elements. Such elements incorporate two excitation points (one for each band), which allows the working band to be selected according to their position in the array. In FIG. 7 the position of the elements is shown, as well as their working frequencies. The elements shown in white indicate operation in the GSM 900 band; the elements shown in black indicate operation in the GSM 1800 band and the elements marked in black in the lower triangle and in white in their two upper triangles indicate simultaneous operation in both bands. Precisely the simultaneous operation in both bands via a single multiband element (the multi-triangular element) in such positions of the array (those positions at which those of the original mono-band arrays coincide), is one of the main characteristic features of the MIA invention. The manner of feeding the elements of the AEM1 array is not characteristic of the invention of the MIAs and recourse may be had to any conventionally known system. In particular and given that the multi-triangular elements are excited at two different points, it is possible to make use of an independent distribution network for each band. Another alternative consists in employing a broadband or dual band distribution network, by coupling a combiner/diplexer which interconnects the network and the two excitation points of the multi-triangular antenna. Finally, the antenna may therefore come with two input/output connectors (one for each band), or combined in a single connector by means of a combiner/diplexer network. AEM2 MODE This particular configuration of AEM2, shown in FIG. 8, is based on a multilevel antenna which acts as a multiband element. In addition to working simultaneously in the GSM 900 and GSM 1800 bands, the antenna has also double linear polarisation at +45° and −45° with respect to the longitudinal axis of the array. The fact that the antenna has double polarisation signifies an additional advantage for the cellular telephony operator, since in this manner he can implement a diversity system which minimises the effect of fading by multipath propagation. The multilevel element which is described in FIG. 8 is more suitable than the multi-triangular element described previously since the element itself has a linear polarisation at +45° in GSM 900 and at −45° in GSM 1800. The array is obtained by interleaving two conventional mono-band arrays with spacing between elements less than one wavelength ( ) in the pertinent band (typically a spacing less than 0.9 is chosen in order to minimise the appearance of the diffraction lobe in the end-fire direction). The original arrays can have 8 or 10 elements depending on the gain required by the operator. The juxtaposition of both arrays in a single MIA is achieved in this case by employing in-band dual multilevel elements. Such elements incorporate two points of excitation (one for each band), which permits the working band to be selected according to their position in the array. In FIG. 8 the position of the elements is shown, as well as their working frequencies. The elements shown in white indicate operation in the GSM 900 band; the elements shown in black indicate operation in the GSM 1800 band and the elements marked in black in their lower triangle and in white in the upper triangles indicate simultaneous operation in both bands. Precisely the simultaneous operation in both bands via a single multiband element (the multilevel element) in such positions of the array (those positions in which those of the original mono-band arrays coincide), is one of the main characteristic features of the MIA invention. It is possible to achieve double polarisation on a basis of exciting the multilevel element at various points on its surface; nonetheless in order to augment the isolation between connectors of different polarisation, it is chosen in the example described to implement a double column to separate the +45° polarization (left-hand column) from that of −45° (right-hand column). To increase the isolation between bands, it is even possible to interchange the polarisation inclination in the columns of the array in one of the bands (for example in DCS). The manner of feeding the elements of the array AEM2 is not characteristic of the invention of the MIAs and recourse can be had to any conventionally known system. In particular and given that the multi-triangular elements are excited at two different points, it is possible to make use of an independent distribution network for each band and polarisation. Another alternative consists in employing a broadband or dual band distribution network, by coupling a combiner/diplexer which interconnects the network and the two excitation points of the multilevel antenna. The antenna may then come with four input/output connectors (one for each band and polarisation), or else combined in only two connectors (one for each independent polarisation) by means of combiner/diplexer network in each polarisation. AEM3 MODE The AEM3 configuration, as shown in FIG. 9, is very similar to the AEM2 (the position of the multilevel elements and the type of element itself is the same as in the previous case), with the difference that the right-hand column is reversed with respect to that on the left. In this manner an antenna with dual band and polarisation is obtained, the total width of the antenna being reduced with respect to the previous case (in this particular example the width is reduced by about 10%). In order to increase the isolation between the columns of double polarisation it is convenient that oblique fins be inserted between contiguous elements. In that case, lateral fins are also incorporated in all the elements which work in GSM 1800, fins which contribute to narrowing the radiation beam in the horizontal plane (plane at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the array). Nor is the signal distribution system especially characteristic of the MIA configuration and the same system can be used as in the previous case. AEM4 MODE Another example of multiband interleaved array is that termed herein AEM4 and which is shown in schematic form in FIG. 11. In this case, the multiband element is a stacked square patch antenna (FIG. 10), though it is obvious for anyone familiar with the subject that patches of other shapes could be employed. Square- or circular-shaped types are preferred in the event that is wished to work with double polarisation. In the example of FIG. 10 the particular case is described of square patches. The lower patch is of appropriate size for its resonant frequency (associated typically with the patch fundamental mode) to coincide with the lower band (GSM 900 in this specific case); moreover, this patch acts in turn as ground plane of the upper patch. The latter is of a size such that its resonance is centred in the upper band (GSM 1800). The elements of the array are mounted on a metallic or metal-coated surface which acts as ground plane for all the elements of the array. The feeder system is preferentially of the coaxial type, a cable being employed for the lower patch and band and another for the upper patch and band. The excitation points are collocated on the bisectors of the patches (for example, the approximate excitation points are marked by means of circles on the plan view of the antenna) if vertical or horizontal polarisation is desired, or on the diagonals if, on the other hand, linear polarisation inclined at 45° is desired. In the event it is desired that the array work with double polarisation, each of the patches is excited additionally on the bisector or diagonal opposite (orthogonal) to the first. The feeding of the elements of the array AEM4 is not characteristic of the invention of the MIAs and recourse can be had to any conventionally known system. In particular and given that the stacked patch antenna is excited at two different points, it is possible to make use of an independent distribution network for each band and polarisation. Another alternative consists in employing a broadband or dual band distribution network, by coupling a combiner/diplexer which interconnects the network and the two excitation points of the multilevel antenna. The antenna may then come with four input/output connectors (one for each band and polarisation), or else combined in only two connectors (one for each independent polarisation) by means of a combiner/diplexer network in each polarisation. AEM5 MODE The AEM5 configuration, as shown in FIG. 12, adopts the same approach as the AEM4, though all the elements are rotated through 45° in the plane of the antenna. In this manner the radiation pattern is modified in the horizontal plane, in addition to rotating the polarization through 45°. It is of interest to point out that both in the AEM4 configuration and in the AEM5, the multiband element constituted by the stacked patches is really only strictly necessary in those strategic positions in which elements originating in the conventional mono-band arrays coincide. In the remaining positions, it shall be possible to employ indistinctly multiband or mono-band elements that work at the frequency determined for its location, as long as its radiation pattern is sufficiently like that of the stacked patch antenna in order to avoid the appearance of diffraction lobes. It is not deemed necessary to extend further the content of this description in order that an expert in the subject can comprehend its scope and the benefits arising from the invention, as well as develop and implement in practice the object thereof. Notwithstanding, it must be understood that the invention has been described according to a preferred embodiment thereof, for which reason it may be susceptible to modifications without this implying any alteration to its basis, it being possible that such modifications affect, in particular, the form, the size and/or the materials of manufacture. | <SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Antennas started to be developed at the end of the nineteenth century based on the fundamental laws of electromagnetism postulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864. The invention of the first antenna has to be attributed to Heinrich Hertz in 1886 who demonstrated the transmission through air of electromagnetic waves. In the mid-1940's the fundamental restrictions regarding the reduction in size of antennas were shown with respect to wavelength and at the beginning of the sixties appeared the first frequency-independent antennas (E. C. Jordan, G. A. Deschamps, J. D. Dyson, P. E. Mayes, “Developments in Broadband Antennas,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 1, pp. 58-71, April 1964; V. H. Rumsey, Frequency - Independent Antennas . New York Academic, 1966; R. L. Carrel, “Analysis and design of the log-periodic dipole array,” Tech. Rep. 52, Univ. of Illinois Antenna Lab., Contract AF33 (616)-6079, October 1961; P. E. Mayes, “Frequency Independent Antennas and Broad-Band Derivatives Thereof”, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, January 1992). At that time proposals were made for helical, spiral, log-periodic arrays, cones and structures defined exclusively by angle pieces for the implementation of broadband antennas. Antenna array theory goes back to the works of Shelkunoff (S. A. Schellkunhoff, “A Mathematical Theory of Linear Arrays,” Bell System Technical Journal, 22,80), among other classic treatises on antenna theory. Said theory establishes the basic design rules for shaping the radiation properties of the array (principally its radiation pattern), though its application is restricted mainly to the case of mono-band arrays. The cause of said restriction lies in the frequency behaviour of the array being highly dependent on the ratio between the distance between elements (antennas) of the array and the working wavelength Said spacing between elements is usually constant and preferably less than one wavelength in order to prevent the appearance of diffraction lobes. This implies that once the spacing between elements is fixed, the operating frequency (and the corresponding wavelength) is also fixed, it being particularly difficult that the same array work simultaneously at another higher frequency, given that in that case the magnitude of the wavelength is less than the spacing between elements. The log-periodic arrays suppose one of the first examples of antenna arrays capable of covering a broad range of frequencies (V. H. Rumsey, Frequency - Independent Antennas . New York Academic, 1966; R. L. Carrel, “Analysis and design of the log-periodic dipole array,” Tech. Rep. 52, Univ. Illinois Antenna Lab., Contract AF33 (616)-6079, October 1961; P. E. Mayes, “Frequency Independent Antennas and Broad-Band Derivatives Thereof”, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, Jan. 1992). Said arrays are based on distributing the elements that constitute it in such a manner that the spacing between adjacent elements and their length vary according to a geometric progression. Although said antennas are capable of maintaining a same radiation and impedance pattern over a broad range of frequencies, their application in practice is restricted to some concrete cases due to their limitations regarding gain and size. Thus for example, said antennas are not employed in cellular telephony base stations because they do not have sufficient gain (their gain is around 10 dBi when the usual requirement is for about 17 dBi for such application), they usually have linear polarisation whilst in said environment antennas are required with polarisation diversity, their pattern in the horizontal plane does not have the width necessary and their mechanical structure is too bulky. The technology of individual multiband antennas is markedly more developed. A multiband antenna is understood to be an antenna formed by a set of elements coupled to each other electromagnetically which interact with each other in order to establish the radio-electric behaviour of the antenna, behaviour which with respect to radiation and impedance patterns is similar in multiple frequency bands (hence the name multiband antenna). Numerous examples of multiband antennas are described in the literature. In 1995 antennas of the fractal or multifractal type were introduced (the coining of the terms fractal and multifractal is attributable to B. B. Mandelbrot in his book The Fractal Geometry of Nature , W. H. Freeman and Co. 1983), antennas which by their geometry have a multifrequency behaviour and, in determined cases, a reduced size (C. Puente, R. Pous, J. Romeu, X. Garcia “Antenas Fractales o Mulitfractales”, (Spanish patent P9501019). Subsequently multi-triangular antennas were introduced (Spanish patent P9800954) which could work simultaneously in the GSM 900 and GSM 1800 bands and, more recently, multilevel antennas (Patent PCT/ES99/00296), which offer a clear example of how it is possible to shape the geometry of the antenna in order to achieve a multiband behaviour. The present invention describes how multiband antennas can be combined in order to obtain an array that works simultaneously in several frequency bands. A Multiband Interleaved Array (MIA) consists of an array of antennas which has the particularity of being capable of working simultaneously in various frequency bands. This is achieved by means of using multiband antennas in strategic positions of the array. The disposition of the elements that constitute the MIA is obtained from the juxtaposition of conventional mono-band arrays, employing as many mono-band arrays as frequency bands that it is wished to incorporate in the Multiband Interleaved Array. In those positions in which one or various elements originating in the conventional mono-band arrays coincide, a single multiband antenna (element) shall be employed which covers simultaneously the different bands. In the remaining non-concurrent positions, it can be chosen to employ also the same multiband antenna or else recur to a conventional mono-band antenna which works at the pertinent frequency. The excitation at one or various frequencies of each element of the array depends therefore on the position of the element in the array and is controlled by means of the signal distribution network. | <SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Antennas started to be developed at the end of the nineteenth century based on the fundamental laws of electromagnetism postulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864. The invention of the first antenna has to be attributed to Heinrich Hertz in 1886 who demonstrated the transmission through air of electromagnetic waves. In the mid-1940's the fundamental restrictions regarding the reduction in size of antennas were shown with respect to wavelength and at the beginning of the sixties appeared the first frequency-independent antennas (E. C. Jordan, G. A. Deschamps, J. D. Dyson, P. E. Mayes, “Developments in Broadband Antennas,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 1, pp. 58-71, April 1964; V. H. Rumsey, Frequency - Independent Antennas . New York Academic, 1966; R. L. Carrel, “Analysis and design of the log-periodic dipole array,” Tech. Rep. 52, Univ. of Illinois Antenna Lab., Contract AF33 (616)-6079, October 1961; P. E. Mayes, “Frequency Independent Antennas and Broad-Band Derivatives Thereof”, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, January 1992). At that time proposals were made for helical, spiral, log-periodic arrays, cones and structures defined exclusively by angle pieces for the implementation of broadband antennas. Antenna array theory goes back to the works of Shelkunoff (S. A. Schellkunhoff, “A Mathematical Theory of Linear Arrays,” Bell System Technical Journal, 22,80), among other classic treatises on antenna theory. Said theory establishes the basic design rules for shaping the radiation properties of the array (principally its radiation pattern), though its application is restricted mainly to the case of mono-band arrays. The cause of said restriction lies in the frequency behaviour of the array being highly dependent on the ratio between the distance between elements (antennas) of the array and the working wavelength Said spacing between elements is usually constant and preferably less than one wavelength in order to prevent the appearance of diffraction lobes. This implies that once the spacing between elements is fixed, the operating frequency (and the corresponding wavelength) is also fixed, it being particularly difficult that the same array work simultaneously at another higher frequency, given that in that case the magnitude of the wavelength is less than the spacing between elements. The log-periodic arrays suppose one of the first examples of antenna arrays capable of covering a broad range of frequencies (V. H. Rumsey, Frequency - Independent Antennas . New York Academic, 1966; R. L. Carrel, “Analysis and design of the log-periodic dipole array,” Tech. Rep. 52, Univ. Illinois Antenna Lab., Contract AF33 (616)-6079, October 1961; P. E. Mayes, “Frequency Independent Antennas and Broad-Band Derivatives Thereof”, Proc. IEEE, vol. 80, no. 1, Jan. 1992). Said arrays are based on distributing the elements that constitute it in such a manner that the spacing between adjacent elements and their length vary according to a geometric progression. Although said antennas are capable of maintaining a same radiation and impedance pattern over a broad range of frequencies, their application in practice is restricted to some concrete cases due to their limitations regarding gain and size. Thus for example, said antennas are not employed in cellular telephony base stations because they do not have sufficient gain (their gain is around 10 dBi when the usual requirement is for about 17 dBi for such application), they usually have linear polarisation whilst in said environment antennas are required with polarisation diversity, their pattern in the horizontal plane does not have the width necessary and their mechanical structure is too bulky. The technology of individual multiband antennas is markedly more developed. A multiband antenna is understood to be an antenna formed by a set of elements coupled to each other electromagnetically which interact with each other in order to establish the radio-electric behaviour of the antenna, behaviour which with respect to radiation and impedance patterns is similar in multiple frequency bands (hence the name multiband antenna). Numerous examples of multiband antennas are described in the literature. In 1995 antennas of the fractal or multifractal type were introduced (the coining of the terms fractal and multifractal is attributable to B. B. Mandelbrot in his book The Fractal Geometry of Nature , W. H. Freeman and Co. 1983), antennas which by their geometry have a multifrequency behaviour and, in determined cases, a reduced size (C. Puente, R. Pous, J. Romeu, X. Garcia “Antenas Fractales o Mulitfractales”, (Spanish patent P9501019). Subsequently multi-triangular antennas were introduced (Spanish patent P9800954) which could work simultaneously in the GSM 900 and GSM 1800 bands and, more recently, multilevel antennas (Patent PCT/ES99/00296), which offer a clear example of how it is possible to shape the geometry of the antenna in order to achieve a multiband behaviour. The present invention describes how multiband antennas can be combined in order to obtain an array that works simultaneously in several frequency bands. A Multiband Interleaved Array (MIA) consists of an array of antennas which has the particularity of being capable of working simultaneously in various frequency bands. This is achieved by means of using multiband antennas in strategic positions of the array. The disposition of the elements that constitute the MIA is obtained from the juxtaposition of conventional mono-band arrays, employing as many mono-band arrays as frequency bands that it is wished to incorporate in the Multiband Interleaved Array. In those positions in which one or various elements originating in the conventional mono-band arrays coincide, a single multiband antenna (element) shall be employed which covers simultaneously the different bands. In the remaining non-concurrent positions, it can be chosen to employ also the same multiband antenna or else recur to a conventional mono-band antenna which works at the pertinent frequency. The excitation at one or various frequencies of each element of the array depends therefore on the position of the element in the array and is controlled by means of the signal distribution network. | 20041112 | 20070731 | 20050707 | 58900.0 | 7 | WIMER, MICHAEL C | INTERLACED MULTIBAND ANTENNA ARRAYS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,323 | ACCEPTED | Image forming device, print job transmission device, data management device, program, storage medium and method for supplying print sheet | When the image forming device receives a print job including a print condition in its header, an operation control section extracts the print condition from the header, and makes an inquiry to a server. The server extracts an order table, indicative of a priority based on the extracted print condition, from a setting table in which a priority of sheets has been set in advance in accordance with the extracted print condition, and sends the order table by return to the image forming device. In the image forming device, a tray selection section generates a tray selection signal in accordance with the received order table and a detection signal, outputted from a tray detection section, which functions as sheet storage information of a sheet feeding tray section, so as to send the tray selection signal by return to the sheet feeding tray section. The sheet feeding tray section supplies a sheet, corresponding to the print condition, from a tray selected in accordance with the tray selection signal to a printer engine. Thus, it is possible to select an appropriate sheet in accordance with the print condition and to print an image on the appropriate sheet. | 1. An image forming device, comprising: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; a control section for generating a tray selection signal in accordance with a print job inputted to the transmission/reception section, said print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing; and a sheet feeding tray section, having a plurality of sheet trays storing sheets therein, which supplies a sheet from one of the sheet trays that has been selected in accordance with the tray selection signal transmitted from the control section, wherein said control section includes; an operation control section for extracting the print condition from the print job and for obtaining an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition; and a tray selection section for generating the tray selection signal for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table transmitted from the operation control section. 2. The image forming device as set forth in claim 1, wherein the operation control section extracts the print condition from the print job and accesses a data management device, whose connection to the operation control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, so as to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition stored in a first storage section of the data management device. 3. The image forming device as set forth in claim 1, further comprising a second storage section for storing a registration table as the setting information indicative of the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, said registration table being setting information for specifying a main body of the image forming device, wherein the operation control section extracts the print condition from the print job and accesses the second storage section so as to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from the registration table of the second storage section. 4. The image forming device as set forth in claim 3, wherein the operation control section accesses a data management device, whose connection to the operation control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and obtains the registration table, concerning the main body of the image forming device, from the setting information indicative of the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition stored in the first storage section of the data management device, and registers the registration table to the second storage section. 5. The image forming device as set forth in claim 1, wherein the print condition includes at least either device information concerning a print job transmission device, whose connection to the main body of the image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception device, or user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job with the print job transmission device. 6. The image forming device as set forth in claim 1, wherein the print condition includes application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the print job transmission device, whose connection to the main body of the image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, said print job transmission device having transmitted the print job to the transmission/reception section. 7. The image forming device as set forth in claim 1, wherein the print condition includes color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job. 8. The image forming device as set forth in claim 1, wherein: the setting information includes a prohibition table concerning such a combination of a print condition and a sheet type that selection of the combination is prohibited, and the operation control section obtains the order table and the prohibition table from the setting information, and the tray selection section generates the tray selection signal in accordance with the order table and the prohibition table that have been transmitted from the operation control section while excluding a condition indicated by the prohibition table. 9. An image forming device, comprising: a sheet feeding section, having a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein, which supplies a print sheet from one of the sheet trays; an operation control section for selecting an order table, based on a print condition, from a plurality of order tables each of which indicates a sheet priority corresponding to the print condition; and a tray selection section for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table selected by the operation control section, so as to supply the print sheet from thus selected sheet tray. 10. A print job transmission device, comprising: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering a registration table, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition concerning the image forming device, to a second storage section of the image forming device before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job, from the registration table in accordance with the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute. 11. A print job transmission device, comprising: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, to a first storage section of a data management device whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute, from the first storage section of the data management device, in accordance with the setting information and the print condition included in the print job. 12. A print job transmission device, comprising: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a command section for adding the print condition having at least any one of (i) device information concerning a main body of the print job transmission device, (ii) user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job by using the main body of the print job transmission device, (iii) application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the main body of the print job transmission device, and (iv) color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job, to the print job so that the print information is extractable, so as to cause the image forming device, which has been commanded to execute the print job, to select a sheet type in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition included in the print job. 13. A data management device, including a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network, whose connection to an image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, said data management device comprising: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information. 14. The data management device as set forth in claim 13, wherein the control section includes a registration section for accessing the image forming device and obtaining a registration table, indicative of the setting information concerning the image forming device, from a second storage section of the image forming device, so as to register the registration table to the first storage section. 15. The data management device as set forth in claim 13, wherein the control section includes a registration section for accessing a print job transmission device which commands the image forming device to execute the print job and for obtaining the setting information from a third storage section of the print job transmission device, so as to register the setting information to the first storage section. 16. The data management device as set forth in claim 13, wherein the control section includes a response section for obtaining an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition, from the setting information of the first storage section, in response to an inquiry, made by the image forming device, which specifies the print condition, so as to send the order table by return to the image forming device. 17. A program, causing a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering a registration table, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition concerning the image forming device, to a second storage section of the image forming device before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job, from the registration table in accordance with the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute. 18. A program, causing a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, to a first storage section of a data management device whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute, from the first storage section of the data management device, in accordance with the setting information and the print condition included in the print job. 19. A program, causing a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a command section for adding the print condition having at least any one of (i) device information concerning a main body of the print job transmission device, (ii) user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job by using the main body of the print job transmission device, (iii) application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the main body of the print job transmission device, and (iv) color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job, to the print job so that the print information is extractable, so as to cause the image forming device, which has been commanded to execute the print job, to select a sheet type in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition included in the print job. 20. A program, causing a computer to function as a data management device whose connection to an image forming device via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, wherein the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information. 21. A computer-readable storage medium, storing a program which causes a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering a registration table, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition concerning the image forming device, to a second storage section of the image forming device before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job, from the registration table in accordance with the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute. 22. A computer-readable storage medium, storing a program which causes a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, to a first storage section of a data management device whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute, from the first storage section of the data management device, in accordance with the setting information and the print condition included in the print job. 23. A computer-readable storage medium, storing a program which causes a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a command section for adding the print condition having at least any one of (i) device information concerning a main body of the print job transmission device, (ii) user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job by using the main body of the print job transmission device, (iii) application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the main body of the print job transmission device, and (iv) color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job, to the print job so that the print information is extractable, so as to cause the image forming device, which has been commanded to execute the print job, to select a sheet type in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition included in the print job. 24. A computer-readable storage medium, storing a program which causes a computer to function as a data management device whose connection to an image forming device via a network is allowed by a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to the network, wherein the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information. 25. A method for supplying a print sheet from a sheet tray selected from a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein, said method comprising the steps of: obtaining an order table indicative of a priority based on a desired print condition from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, that is stored in a storage section; and selecting a sheet tray from the plurality of sheet trays in accordance with the order table so as to supply the print sheet from the sheet tray that has been selected. | This Nonprovisional application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) on Patent Application No. 2003/384178 filed in Japan on Nov. 13, 2003, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an image forming device, a print job transmission device, a data management device, a program, a storage medium and a method for supplying a print sheet, whereby a sheet is selected from sheets stored in a plurality sheet trays and thus selected sheet is printed. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Currently, an image forming device provided with a plurality of sheet trays is widely used as an image forming device such as a multi-functional device having a printing function and a copying function. When receiving a print job from a print job transmission device such as a personal computer on which a printer driver has been installed, the image forming device selects a sheet tray and print an image on a sheet specified by the print job. In such an image forming device, when the sheet specified by the print job is not stored in the device, a substitutional sheet is fed in accordance with a priority that has been set in advance, thereby printing an image. Note that, Japanese Publication for Unexamined Publication No. 328740/2001 (Tokukai 2001-328740)(published on Nov. 27, 2001) recites a technique in which: a sheet is selected in accordance with a priority, that has been set in advance, when a print job is set to allow any sheet to be fed regardless of a sheet type. However, the aforementioned conventional art raises the following problem: Even in case where a plurality of users respectively desire priorities different from each other, a sheet is selected in accordance with a single priority that has been set with respect to a printer, so that an image may be printed on a sheet that is not desired by a user. Further, the aforementioned conventional art raises the following problem: for example, in order to prevent the foregoing problem, it is necessary that users sharing the image forming device reach an agreement in terms of a priority set in the image forming device, so that the users have to take troubles in reaching the agreement. Also, the aforementioned conventional art raises the following problem: for example, even in case where a single user desires a different priority according to a print condition such as an application program to be used and color to be specified at the time of printing, a sheet is selected in accordance with a single priority that has been set in advance, so that an image may be printed on a sheet that is not desired by the user. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention was made from the foregoing view point, and an object of the present invention is to provide an image forming device, a print job transmission device, a data management device, a program, a storage medium and a method for supplying a print sheet, whereby an image is printed on a sheet desired by a user even when a different priority is desired according to a print condition. In order to achieve the foregoing object, an image forming device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; a control section for generating a tray selection signal in accordance with a print job inputted to the transmission/reception section, said print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing; and a sheet feeding tray section, having a plurality of sheet trays storing sheets therein, which supplies a sheet from one of the sheet trays that has been selected in accordance with the tray selection signal transmitted from the control section, wherein the control section includes: an operation control section for extracting the print condition from the print job and for obtaining an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition; and a tray selection section for generating the tray selection signal for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table transmitted from the operation control section. When the image forming device receives the print job via the transmission/reception section, the image forming device selects a sheet in accordance with the priority based on the print condition specified in the print job. According to the arrangement, it is possible to set the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user. Thus, it is possible to surely select an appropriate sheet. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the image forming device according to the present invention includes: a sheet feeding section, having a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein, which supplies a print sheet from one of the sheet trays; an operation control section for selecting an order table, based on a print condition, from a plurality of order tables each of which indicates a sheet priority corresponding to the print condition; and a tray selection section for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table selected by the operation control section, so as to supply the print sheet from thus selected sheet tray. The image forming device selects a sheet in accordance with the priority based on the print condition. According to the arrangement, it is possible to set the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user. Thus, it is possible to surely select an appropriate sheet. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering a registration table, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition concerning the image forming device, to a second storage section of the image forming device before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job, from the registration table in accordance with the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute. According to the arrangement, the print job transmission device registers the registration table for obtaining the priority into the second storage section of the image forming device in advance, so that it is possible to cause the image forming device to surely obtain the order table. Further, it is possible to select a sheet in accordance with the print condition by combining the print job transmission device with the image forming device. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, to a first storage section of a data management device whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute, from the first storage section of the data management device, in accordance with the setting information and the print condition included in the print job. According to the arrangement, the print job transmission device registers the registration table for obtaining the priority into the first storage section of the data management device in advance, so that it is possible to cause the image forming device to access the data management device and to surely obtain the order table. Further, it is possible to select a sheet in accordance with the print condition by combining the job transmission device with the image forming device and the data management device. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a command section for adding the print condition having at least any one of (i) device information concerning a main body of the print job transmission device, (ii) user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job by using the main body of the print job transmission device, (iii) application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the main body of the print job transmission device, and (iv) color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job, to the print job so that the print information is extractable, so as to cause the image forming device, which has been commanded to execute the print job, to select a sheet type in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition included in the print job. According to the arrangement, it is possible to appropriately select a different sheet type in accordance with at least any one of (i) the device by which the image forming device has been commanded to execute the print job, (ii) the user who has given the command, (iii) the application by which image data has been generated, and (iv) the color specifying information. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the data management device according to the present invention includes a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network, whose connection to an image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information. In case where an inquiry for specifying the print condition is made by the image forming device, the data management device refers to the setting information stored in the first storage section, and obtains the priority concerning the print condition, thereby sending the setting information by return to the image forming device. Thus, it is possible to cause the image forming device to select a sheet type corresponding to the priority and to print an image on the selected sheet. Further, it is possible to cause the data management device to collectively manage the setting information concerning a plurality of image forming devices. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the method according to the present invention for supplying a print sheet from a sheet tray selected from a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein is a method which includes the steps of: obtaining an order table indicative of a priority based on a desired print condition from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, that is stored in a storage section; and selecting a sheet tray from the plurality of sheet trays in accordance with the order table so as to supply the print sheet from the sheet tray that has been selected. According to the method, it is possible to select a print sheet in accordance with the desired priority corresponding to the print condition and to print an image on the selected print sheet. For a fuller understanding of the nature and advantages of the invention, reference should be made to the ensuing detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an embodiment of an image forming device according to the present invention. FIG. 2 schematically shows a connection condition of a print system including the image forming device. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing an embodiment of a print job transmission device according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing an embodiment of a data management device according to the present invention. FIG. 5 shows a part of an example of a setting table stored in the data management device. FIG. 6 shows other part of the setting table stored in the data management device. FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing an example of a procedure in the image forming device. FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing an example of a procedure in the data management device. FIG. 9 shows an example of a prohibition table stored in the data management device. FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing an example of a procedure in the print job transmission device. FIG. 11 is a flowchart showing other example of the procedure in the print job transmission device according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS The following description will explain an embodiment of the present invention with reference to FIG. 1 to FIG. 11. As shown in FIG. 2, a print system (image forming system) 1 of the present embodiment includes: printers (image forming devices) 2A and 2B; hosts (print job transmission devices) 3A, 3B, 3C, and 3D; and a server (data management device) 4. These devices are connected to each other via a network N as LAN (Local Area Network). Each of the printers 2A and 2B records an image based on image data of a print job received via the network N onto a sheet (print sheet, print paper). The hosts 3A to 3D are computers connected to the network N. A plurality of application softwares are installed on each of them. A user of each of the hosts 3A to 3D makes each of the printers 2A and 2B print an image based on image data generated by using an application software. The server 4 is a device for managing a print setting of each of the printers 2A and 2B. The server 4 will be detailed later. Each of the printers 2A and 2B is provided with a plurality of sheet feeding trays, and records an image based on a desired print job onto a sheet supplied from a sheet tray, selected from a sheet feeding tray section, which has a specified sheet, in accordance with an instruction given by a user using any one of the hosts 3A to 3D. Here, the printers 2A and 2B have similar functions, so that they are collectively referred to as a printer 2 except for a case of particularly distinguishing them from each other. Further, also the hosts 3A to 3D have similar functions, so that they are collectively referred to as a host 3 except for a case of particularly distinguishing them from each other. When there is no sheet specified by the inputted print job or the sheets specified by the inputted print job run out, the printer 2 of the print system 1 prints an image onto a substitutional sheet selected in accordance with a priority that has been set in the print system 1 in advance. Here, it is possible to set a different priority of the printer 2 according to various print conditions such as an application by which the job has been generated. Data concerning the priority may be registered to any device of the print system 1. In the present embodiment, data concerning the printers 2A and 2B are registered from the host 3 to the printers 2A and 2B, and thus registered data are obtained by the server 4. Further, when a print job including data concerning a print condition is inputted to the printer 2 from the host 3, the printer 2 access the server 4 and obtains data concerning a priority, so as to select a sheet in accordance with the priority, thereby printing an image. In case where a print sheet is specified in the print condition, the specified print sheet is most prioritized. The respective devices of the print system 1 are detailed as follows. First, the printer 2 is detailed with reference to FIG. 1. The printer 2 schematically includes a printer controller (control board) 5, a sheet feeding tray section 6, a printer engine (image forming section) 7, a sheet discharging tray 8, a tray detection section 9, and a display operation section 12. The printer controller 5 is a control board provided on the printer 2. The printer controller 5 will be described later. The sheet feeding tray section 6 is a sheet storage section having trays (sheet trays) 6-1 to 6-n each of which stores sheets. Here, n is an integer of not less than 2. The sheet feeding tray section 6 selects any one of the trays 6-1 to 6-n in accordance with an inputted tray selection signal, and supplies a sheet from thus selected tray to the printer engine 7. Note that, the printers 2A and 2B are different from each other in that: the printer 2A includes four trays (n=4) in the sheet feeding tray section 6, but the printer 2B includes two trays (n=2) in the sheet feeding tray section 6. The printer engine 7 prints an image onto a sheet supplied from the sheet feeding tray 6 in accordance with print data. The sheet on which the image has been printed is transported to the sheet discharging tray 8. The sheet discharging tray 8 is a tray on which a sheet having an image is stacked. The tray detection section 9 is a detector which detects (i) whether or not there are sheets in the trays 6-1 to 6-n of the sheet feeding tray section 6 and (ii) sizes of the sheets stored in the trays 6-1 to 6-n. The display operation section 12 functions as a display section and an operation section of the printer 2. The display operation section 12 of the present embodiment is a touch panel. Here, the printer controller 5 is described. More specifically, the printer controller 5 includes a transmission/reception section 10, a-control section 11, and a storage section (second storage section) 13. The transmission/reception section 10 is an interface device through which the printer 2 transmits and receives data. The transmission/reception section 10 is constituted of a connector and a buffer (not shown). The control section 11 controls the printer 2. The control section 11 includes a tray selection section 14 and an operation control section 15. Note that, the control section 11 of the present embodiment is constituted of a software such as ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit), but an arrangement thereof is not limited to this. The control section 11 may be realized by (i) a program stored in a memory and (ii) a processor. The tray selection section 14 selects a sheet tray, from which a sheet is supplied to the printer engine 7, from the sheet trays 6-1 to 6-n. The tray selection section 14 generates a tray selection signal used in the sheet feeding tray section 6. In more detail, when the tray selection section 14 receives an order table from the operation control section 15, the tray selection section 14 transmits a detection instruction signal to the tray detection section 9. The tray detection section 9 detects whether or not there are sheets in the trays 6-1 to 6-n of the sheet feeding tray section 6 in response to the detection instruction signal of the tray detection section 9, and transmits thus obtained detection result to the tray selection section 14 as a detection signal. The tray selection section 14 generates a tray selection signal for selecting a tray, which is most prioritized and has sheets therein, in accordance with the order table and the detection signal transmitted from the tray detection section 9. Here, the detection signal transmitted from the tray detection section 9 is a signal for detecting that the sheets stored in the tray run out. Thus, the tray selection section 14 asks the tray detection section 9 for a detection signal at each time an image is printed on a single sheet, thereby obtaining the detection signal. The operation control section 15 controls a printing operation in the printer 2. When the operation control section 15 receives the print job via the transmission/reception section 10, the operation control section 15 separates a print condition and image data for printing, both of which are included in the print job, from each other, and the operation control section 15 extracts the print condition and the image data respectively. For example, in case where a part corresponding to the print condition of the print job is a header, the header is extracted as the print condition, and a part other than the header is obtained as the image data. The operation control section 15 converts the image data into print data which causes the printer engine 7 to print an image, and transmits the print data to the printer engine 7, thereby printing an image. Further, the operation control section 15 accesses the server 4 via the transmission/reception section 10 so as to give an inquiry to the server 4 by using the extracted print condition. This inquiry is received by a response section 44 of a control section 41 of the server 4 that is shown in FIG. 4. The response section 44 extracts an order table, indicative of a priority based on a print condition corresponding to the inquiry, from setting information 46 stored in a storage section 42 (first storage section), and sends thus extracted order table by return to the printer 2. The setting information 46 is obtained as follows: the server 4 accesses the printers 2A and 2B and obtains a sheet type priority corresponding to each print condition that has been stored in the storage section 13 of the printer 2 as a registration table 17, and the sheet type priority is stored in the storage section 42 as the setting information 46. The setting information 46 includes a plurality of order tables each of which has a sheet priority that has been set for each of print conditions of the printers 2A and 2B in advance. When the operation control section 15 of the printer 2 receives the order table from the server 4, the operation control section 15 converts the sheet type order table into data concerning a tray by using a tray-sheet relation 16 stored in the storage section 13. The operation control section 15 transmits thus converted order table to the tray selection section 14. Note that, the “sheet type” is distinction for indicating that the sheet is a normal paper, or a recycled paper, or a thin paper, or a photograph paper, for example. Further, in case where the print condition extracted from the print job includes the sheet type information used in the printing, the operation control section 15 sets the sheet type to be most prioritized in the order table. In FIG. 1 again, the storage section 13 is a data storage device of the printer 2. The storage section 13 stores the tray-sheet relation 16 and the registration table 17. Here, the tray-sheet relation 16 indicates a relationship between (i) the trays 6-1 to 6-n and (ii) types of sheets stored in the trays 6-1 to 6-n in the sheet feeding tray 6 of the printer 2. The tray-sheet relation 16 specifically shows, for example, that: normal papers are stored in the tray 6-1, and recycled papers are stored in the tray 6-2, and thin papers are stored in the tray 6-3, and photograph papers are stored in the tray 6-4. Note that, the present invention is not limited to an arrangement in which a single sheet tray stores a single type of sheets. Of course, the single type sheets may be stored in a plurality of sheet trays. For example, it may be so arranged that the trays 6-1 and 6-2 respectively store normal papers. By using the tray-sheet relation 16, it is possible to select an appropriate tray in accordance with the sheet type priority. Further, the registration table 17 indicates the sheet type priority for each print condition with respect to only the printer 2. The registration table 17 includes a plurality of order tables, each indicative of a sheet type priority, that are set so as to correspond to each print condition of the printer 2. The registration table 17 is registered from the host 3 to the storage section 13. The registration of the registration table 17 will be described later. Next, the host 3 is described with reference to FIG. 3. The host 3 schematically includes a transmission/reception section 20, an OS (operating system) 21, a printer driver (print control section) 22, an application 23, a storage section 24 (third storage section), and an operation section 25. The transmission/reception section 20 is an interface device for transmitting and receiving data of the host 3. The transmission/ reception section 20 is constituted of a connector and a buffer (not shown). The OS21 is a function block for carrying out an entire process of the host 3, and is realized by causing a CPU (Central Processing Unit) (not shown) to read and execute a program stored in a storage device (not shown). The OS21 includes a processing section 26 and a property 27. The processing section 26 carries out an entire operation of the host 3. The property 27 is a property obtaining section for obtaining information by accessing a storage section (not shown). The property 27 obtains setting data used by the processing section 26 and the like of the OS21. In order to facilitate the description, also the obtained setting data is referred to as the property 27. The property 27 includes a host name (device information) 28 and a user name (user information) 29. The host name is a name for unambiguously specifying a host connected to the network. In the present embodiment, “host 3A” corresponds to the host name for example. The user name 29 is a name for unambiguously specifying a user currently using the host 3 for example. For example, a user name inputted from the operation section 25 when the user logs in the host 3 is stored as the user name 29 in the property 27 of the OS 21. The printer driver 22 is a print control section based on a function block provided in the host 3 so as to control operations concerning the printing, and is realized by causing a CPU (not shown) to read a program stored in a storage device (not shown). The printer driver 22 includes a registration section 30, an command section 31, and a property 32. Note that, the property 32 is a property obtaining section for obtaining information by accessing a storage section (not shown), and obtains setting data used by the printer driver 22 and the like. In order to facilitate the description, also the obtained setting data is referred to as the property 32. The registration section 30 of the present embodiment registers the registration table 17, indicative of the sheet type priority based on the print condition, to the storage section 13 of the printer 2 before commanding the printer 2 to execute the print job, so as to cause the printer 2 to select a print sheet in accordance with the priority corresponding to the print condition. In more detail, the registration section 30 displays a registration table setting image in the display section (not shown) in accordance with an instruction given by the user to the operation section 25 for example. The image shows conditions obtained by combining selectable print conditions so that one of the sheet type priorities can be selected and set. When an instruction given by the user using the operation section 25 is detected and the registration table is set, the registration section 30 accesses the printer 2 so as to register the registration table 17 to the storage section 13 of the printer 2. Further, the registration table setting image may include an item, indicative of a combination of the sheet type and the print condition, which functions as prohibition information for prohibiting selection of the sheet type corresponding to the print condition. When the prohibition information is set in this manner, the registration section 30 causes the prohibition information to be included in the registration table 17. Note that, when the server 4 collects registration tables 17 of the printers 2 so as to generate the setting information 46, the prohibition information is used as a prohibition table 46b and other information is used as a setting table 46a. When a combination of the sheet type and the print condition that prohibit the selection is set, it is possible to easily carry out the user management even in case where many users use the hosts 3. The command section 31 transmits the print job via the transmission/reception section 20 after adding the print condition to the print job so that the print condition can be extracted in the printer 2. In order to cause the printer 2 to select a print sheet in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition, the print job to be transmitted is made to include at least any one of the host name 28, the user name 29, color information 33, sheet information 34, and an application name 37. The print condition is included in a header part of the inputted print job. Further, data transmitted from the processing section 35 of the application 23 is converted into image data usable in the printer 2, and thus converted image data is included in the print job. The property 32 includes the color information (color specifying information) 33 and the sheet information 34. The color information 33 is set in printing an image via the printer driver 22, and specifies whether to carry out monochrome printing or to carry out color printing. The sheet information 34 is information for specifying a sheet type in the printing. In case where the sheet feeding tray section 6 of the printer 2 stores no sheet specified by the sheet information 34, other sheet is used in the printer 2 in accordance with a predetermined priority. The application 23 is a function block indicative of an application program used by the user, and is realized by causing a CPU (not shown) to read and execute a program stored in a storage device (not shown). In the host 3 of the present embodiment, the storage device stores “Write”, “Presentation”, “Photo”, “Text”, (not shown) and the like in a readable manner as an example of the application program. Here, out of them, an application, actually executed, whose print job has been generated by the printer driver 22, is referred to as an application 23. The application 23 includes the processing section 23 and the property 36. The processing section 35 causes the application 23 to carry out data processing and the like. When a printing instruction given by the user is detected by the operation section 25, the processing section 35 transmits desired data 38, stored in the storage section 24, whose image should be printed, to the command section 31. The property 36 is a property obtaining section which accesses a storage section (not shown) and obtains information concerning the application 23. In order to facilitate the description, also the obtained setting data is referred to as the property 36. The property 36 includes an application name (application information) 37. The storage section 24 is a storage device of the host 3. The storage section 24 stores data 38 used by the processing section 35 of the application 23 for example. The operation section 25 is an operation section which functions as a user interface of the host 3. Next, the server 4 is described with reference to FIG. 4. The server 4 schematically includes a transmission/reception section 40, a control section 41, a storage section 42, and an operation section 43. The transmission/reception section 40 is an interface device for transmitting and receiving data of the server 4. The transmission/reception section 40 is constituted of a connector and a buffer (not shown). The control section 41 of the server 4 is a function block for carrying out an entire process of the server 4, and is realized by causing a CPU (not shown) to read and execute a program stored in a storage device (not shown). The storage section 42 is a storage device of the server 4. The storage section 42 stores setting information 46 including a setting table 46a and a prohibition table 46b. The server 4 of the present embodiment has the setting table 42a and the prohibition table 46b each of which is obtained by changing a priority corresponding to each of print conditions obtained from the printers 2A and 2B into tables. The operation section 43 is an operation section which functions as a user interface of the server 4. Further, the control section 41 includes a response section 44 and a registration section 45. The response section 44 responds to an inquiry from the operation control section 15 of the printer 2. The operation control section 15 of the printer 2 uses the print condition, extracted from the print job, so as to make an inquiry concerning a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition. When the response section 44 receives the inquiry, the response section 44 accesses the storage section 42 and obtains the setting information 46. The response section 44 retrieves the priority in the print condition corresponding to the inquiry, and sends thus obtained priority by return to the printer 2 as an order table. The registration section 45 is a section by which the sheet type priority for each print condition is registered to the storage section 42. The registration section 45 has a function for detecting the printers 2A and 2B connected via the network N. When the operation section 43 detects a registration instruction given by the user, the registration section 45 sequentially accesses the printers 2A and 2B via the transmission/reception section 40, and sequentially obtains the registration tables 17 registered to the storage sections 13 of the printers 2A and 2B. The registration section 45 causes the storage section 42 to store thus obtained data as the setting information 46 constituted of the setting table 46a and the prohibition table 46b. In the registration table 17, prohibition information concerning a combination of a sheet type and a print condition that prohibits selection is used as the prohibition table 46b. Other data is used as the setting table 46a. Here, each of FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 shows a part of an example of the setting information 46 stored in the storage section 42. As shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6, the setting table 46a of the setting information 46 of the present embodiment includes not only an item concerning a sending end printer but also a plurality items such as a user name (user information), a host name (device information), an application name (application information), color specifying information, and the like. The user name is a name of a user who has commanded the printer 2 to execute the print job. The host name is a name for specifying a host by which the printer 2 has been commended to execute the print job. The application name is a name for specifying an application by which the print job has been generated. The color specifying information is information for specifying whether to carry out color printing or to carry out monochrome printing in commanding the printer 2 to execute the print job. FIG. 5 shows an example of a setting table 46a concerning a host 3A and a user X. When not only the sending end printer name but also the user name, the application name, the color specifying information, and the like are specified, it is possible to extract an order table concerning the priority in accordance with the foregoing information. For example, in case where a user X is specified as the user name, and the host 3A is specified as the host name, and “Write” is specified as the application name, and “color” is specified as the color specifying information, in the print job transmitted from the host 3A to the printer 2A, the priority is such that: a primarily prioritized paper is a normal paper, and a secondarily prioritized paper is a recycled paper, and a thirdly prioritized paper is a thin paper, and no paper is specified as a fourthly prioritized paper. FIG. 6 shows an example of a setting table 46a concerning a host 3B and the user X. For example, in case where the user X is specified as the user name, and a host 3B is specified as the host name, and “Write” is specified as the application name, “color” is specified as the color specifying information, in the print job transmitted from the host 3B to the printer 2A, the priority is such that: a primarily prioritized paper is a normal paper, and a secondarily prioritized paper is a recycled paper, and no sheet is specified as a thirdly prioritized paper and a fourthly prioritized paper. Further, the storage section 42 of the server 4 stores also the prohibition table 46b. The prohibition table 46b causes a sheet type not to be selected in case where the sheet type corresponds to a predetermined print condition regardless of the order table. FIG. 9 shows an example of the prohibition table 46b. The prohibition table 46b of the present embodiment includes items such as a host, an application, and color/monochrome. The item “host” shown in FIG. 9 means that: in case of specifying a priority, it is impossible to cause the host 3C to select a thin paper and a photograph paper and it is impossible to cause the host 3D to select a photograph paper. The item “application” means that: in case of setting a priority, it is impossible to cause any host to select a photograph sheet in printing an image by means of a “Text” application. The item “color/monochrome” means that: in case of setting a priority, it is impossible to select a photograph paper in setting the monochrome printing no matter what combination of a host and an application may be used. Note that, an item showing no description means that there is no prohibition. According to the prohibition table 46b, it is possible to easily carry out management by appropriately determining a prohibition item even in case of managing print conditions of many users. The following description explains a case of printing an image by using the devices of the print system 1 described above. In the print system 1 of the present embodiment, a priority corresponding to a print condition is registered in advance before commanding the printer 2 to execute the print job. In more detail, registration tables are registered from the host 3 to the printers 2A and 2B. The registration procedure is described as follows with reference to FIG. 10. In S210, the operation section 25 of the host 3 detects a registration instruction given by the user. In S211, the host 3 causes the registration section 30 to display a registration table setting image in a display section (not shown) or to perform a similar operation so as to detect the user instruction by means of the operation section 25, and temporarily stores the setting concerning the items of the registration table. In S212, the registration section 30 collectively transmits thus set items to the printer 2 as the registration table, and causes the storage section 13 to store the items as a registration table 17. As described above, in the host 3, the printer driver 22 performs the foregoing procedure in the setting at the time of using the printers 2A and 2B for example, so that the registration table 17 is registered to each of the printers 2A and 2B. Note that, data registered as the registration table includes a user name as the print condition, so that the setting is carried out for each user. However, the present invention is not limited to the arrangement. For example, the setting can be shared by all the users. Further, for example, a plurality of user names included in a predetermined group are simultaneously specified, so that it is possible to carry out the setting for each group. Next, data movement from the printer 2 to the server 4 is described as follows with reference to FIG. 8. FIG. 8 is a flowchart showing operations performed on the side of the server 4. In S201, the registration section 45 of the server 4 determines whether an automatic setting mode for sequentially accessing respective printers so as to obtain setting information with respect to the data movement to the server 4 has been set or not. In the present embodiment, it is determined that the print system 1 is not in the automatic setting mode in case where the setting information 46 has already been stored in the storage section 42 of the server 4. It is determined that the print system 1 is in the automatic setting mode in case where the setting information 46 has not been stored in the storage section 42 yet. In S201, when the print system 1 is not in the automatic setting mode, the step proceeds to S207, and a priority corresponding to each print condition is manually obtained by accessing the printer 2 as required. In this case, when a printer 2 to be accessed is selected by the operation section 43, the registration section 45 accesses the printer 2, and compares a date on which the registration table 17 of the storage section 13 of the printer 2 was updated with a date on which the setting information 46 of the storage section 42 was updated, and displays thus obtained comparison result in a display section (not shown). When the operation section 43 detects an instruction given by the user to obtain a registration table in accordance with the comparison result, the registration section 45 accesses the printer 2 and obtains the registration table 17, and updates the setting information of the storage section 42. When it is not necessary to update the setting information 46 in S207, the process is ended. While, in case where it is determined that the print system 1 is in the automatic setting mode in S201, the step proceeds to S202, and the registration section 45 detects the printers 2A and 2B connected to the network N. In S203, the number of all the printers that have been detected is substituted for a counter value L, and a counter value (printer value) K is set to be 0. In accordance with the printer value, the detected printers 2A and 2B are unambiguously specified. In the print system 1 arranged as shown in FIG. 2 for example, the printer 2A is indicated by K=0, and the printer 2B is indicated by K=1, and the counter value L is indicated by L=2. In S204, it is determined whether the counter value K is less than the counter value L or not, the process is ended in case where the counter value K is not less than the counter value L. In case where the counter value K is less than the counter value L, the step proceeds to S205, and the registration section 45 accesses the K-th printer, and obtains the registration table 17 stored in the storage section 13 of the printer 2. In S206, the counter value K is set to be K+1, and the step returns to S204. By performing the foregoing process, it is possible to store the setting information 46 concerning the printer 2 in the storage section 42 of the server 4 which functions as a data management device. Thereafter, in case where the server 4 receives an inquiry concerning data from the printer 2, the response section 44 of the server 4 responds with reference to data of the storage section 42 as described above. Next, the following description explains operations of the printer 2 at the time of printing with reference to a flowchart of FIG. 7. The printer 2 of the present embodiment selects a most appropriate sheet in accordance with a priority after detecting whether each of the trays 6-1 to 6-n of the sheet feeding tray section 6 has a sheet or not for each page whose image is to be printed. In more detail, the printer 2 is arranged so that the transmission/reception section 10 receives a print job transmitted from the host 3 in S101. The print job includes a print condition as a header and image data as data whose image should be printed. In S102, the operation control section 15 of the printer 2 extracts the print condition, which functions as a header, from the print job. The operation control section 15 obtains a host device name (host name) from thus extracted print condition (S103), and obtains a name of an application by which image data has been generated (S104), and obtains color specifying information (color) (S 105). Next, in S106, the operation control section 15 uses the host device name, the application name, and the color specifying information that have been obtained, so as to obtain an order table corresponding to the print condition. In the present embodiment, the order table is obtained by making inquiry to the server 4. In more detail, the operation control section 15 transmits the inquiry, whose data content is the extracted print condition, from the transmission/reception section 10 of the printer 2 via the network N to the server 4. In the server 4 which has received the inquiry by the transmission/reception section 40, the response section 44 of the control section 41 analyses the inquiry and reads the setting information 46 of the storage section 42. The response section 44 extracts an order table, which is a priority included in the print condition, from the setting table 46a of the setting information 46, in accordance with the print condition included in the inquiry. Further, in case where an item corresponding to the print condition is included in the prohibition table 46b of the setting information 46, the item is extracted and is added to the order table. The response section 44 transmits the order table from the transmission/reception section 10 via the network N to the printer 2. In the printer 2, the transmission/reception section 10 receives the order table from the server 4, and transmits the order table to the operation control section 15. The operation control section 15 converts thus obtained order table into data concerning the trays 6-1 to 6-n by using the tray-sheet relation 16, and transmits the data to the tray selection section 14. In S107, the tray selection section 14 extracts the number of usable sheet types from the obtained order table, and substitutes the value for a counter value J. Further, a counter value (order value) I for counting the number of sheet types is set to be 0. In S108, the tray selection section 14 extracts a type of a most prioritized sheet from the order table. In S109, the tray selection section 14 determines whether the sheet type of the print condition corresponds to a specific sheet or not. In case where the sheet type does not correspond to a specific sheet, it is determined that this is in a so-called automatic specifying condition, and the step proceeds to S111. While, in case where the sheet type is specified in S109, the step proceeds to S110, and sets the specified sheet type to be most prioritized in the order table. Further, in case where the sheet type is not included in the order table, the counter value J is changed to J+1. After the step S110, the step proceeds to S111. Here, “the specified sheet type is set to be most prioritized” means the following procedure. That is, for example, in case where three sheets are respectively set to be primarily, secondarily, and thirdly prioritized, when a type of the secondarily prioritized sheet is specified in the print condition, the secondarily prioritized sheet is changed to a primarily prioritized sheet and the foregoing primarily prioritized sheet is changed to a secondarily prioritized sheet. In this manner, the specified sheet is changed to the primarily prioritized sheet and each of sheets which have been more prioritized than the specified sheet is made less prioritized by a single rank. In S111, the operation control section 15 determines whether or not there is data whose image has not been printed out of the print data, that is, the operation control section 15 determines whether or not there is data whose image for a next page should be printed. In case where there is the data whose image should be printed, the operation control section 15 outputs the print data corresponding to the single page to the printer engine 7, and notifies the tray selection section 14 that there is the print data, and the step proceeds to S112. In case where there is no data whose image should be printed in S111, the process is ended. In S112, the tray selection section 14 determines whether I<J is satisfied or not concerning the counter values I and J. In case where this condition is not satisfied, this means that all the specified sheets run out. In this case, the step proceeds to S113, and the counter value I is set to be I=0, and the print system 1 waits for the user to add sheets to the printer 2. When the sheets are added, the step returns from S113 to S112. While, in S114 in case where I<J is satisfied in S112, the tray selection section 14 determines whether a tray corresponding to the counter value I which functions as an order value has any sheets or not. A relationship between the counter value I and the tray is as follows: for example, I=0 corresponds to the tray 6-1, and I=n−1 corresponds to the tray 6-n. The tray selection section 14 carries out the determination by checking a signal transmitted from the tray detection section 9. In case where there are corresponding sheets in a tray of the sheet feeding tray section 6, the step proceeds to S116 so as to carry out the printing, and then the step returns to S111. While, in case where there are no corresponding sheet in S114, the step proceeds to S116 so as to change the counter value I which functions as an order value to I+1, and then the step returns to S111. According to the foregoing procedure, when the printer 2 receives the print job whose print condition has been set, the printer 2 selects a sheet type in accordance with a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, and prints an image thereon. As described above, the present invention relates to (i) an image forming device, provided with a plurality of sheet trays, which can print an image on a desired sheet by selecting one of the sheet trays, (ii) a host device which can communicate with the image forming device, (iii) a data management device, and (iv) a program for realizing the devices. According to the present invention, a sheet type priority for each print condition is set, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by the user. While, a conventional arrangement selects a sheet regardless of the print condition, so that an image may be recorded on a sheet which is not desired by the user. Note that, the printer 2 described in the foregoing embodiment may be a multi-functional device having a copy function and a facsimile function. Further, the foregoing description explained the arrangement in which the host 3 and the server 4 are separately provided, but the present invention is not limited to this arrangement. One of the hosts 3 may function also as the server 4, or the server 4 may function also as one of the hosts 3, or the printer 2 may function also as either the host 3 or the server 4. Note that, the foregoing description explained the arrangement in which the registration section 30 of the host 3 displays the registration table setting image at the time of registration from the host 3 to the printer 2, but the present invention is not limited to this arrangement. For example, it may be so arranged that: the control section 11 of the printer 2 has a registration reception section (not shown), and the registration reception section causes the host 3 to display the registration table setting image in response to access from the host 3. The registration reception section may be a Web server. Further, for example, it is possible to input the registration table directly to the printer 2 by using not the host 3 but the display operation section 12 of the printer 2. Further, the foregoing embodiment explained the arrangement in which the printer 2 makes an inquiry to the server 4 in accordance with the received print job, but the present invention is not limited to the arrangement. It may be so arranged that: the operation control section of the printer 2 accesses the storage section 13, and extracts an order table from the registration table 17 of the storage section 13. Further, the foregoing embodiment explained the arrangement in which the host 3 registers data to the printer 2, but the data registration with respect to the printer 2 is not limited to the arrangement. It may be so arranged that: the printer 2 accesses the host 3 or a data management device such as the server 4 and obtains the registration table, and stores the registration table as the registration table 17 of the storage section 13. Further, the foregoing embodiment explained the arrangement in which the registration section 30 of the host 3 temporarily accesses the printer 2 and registers the registration table, but the present invention is not limited to the arrangement. It may be so arranged that the registration section 30 of the host 3 directly accesses the server 4 and registers the registration table. The procedure in which the host 3 directly accesses the server 4 in this manner is described as follows with reference to FIG. 11. In S220, the operation section 25 of the host 3 detects a registration instruction given by the user. In S221, the registration 30 of the host 3 detects the printers 2A and 2B connected to the network N. In S222, the number of all the detected printers is substituted for the counter value L, and the counter value (printer value) K is set to be 0. In S223, whether the counter value K is less than the counter value L or not is determined. In S224 in case where the counter value K is less than the counter value L in S223, the operation section 25 detects items set by the user concerning a printer corresponding to the printer value K, and the registration section 30 retains contents of the items, and the step proceeds to S225. In S225, the counter value K is changed to K+1, and the step returns to S223. In case where the counter value K is not less than the counter value L in S223, the step proceeds to S226, and the registration section 30 registers data of the respective printers to the server 4. By performing the foregoing procedure, it is possible to directly register the setting information 46 from the host 3 to the server 4. Further, in a manner adverse to the foregoing procedure, it may be so arranged that: the server 4 directly accesses the host 3 and obtains data, and registers thus obtained data to the storage section 42 of the server 4. Further, the host name, the user name, the application name, and the color specifying information, that were described in the foregoing embodiment as the print conditions are merely examples. The print conditions are not limited to them. As the print condition, print image quality information, print target data grayscale number information, or the like may be included. Further, in case where a user is determined for each host for example, either the host name or the user name is included in the print condition. Further, the number of the printers 2 and the hosts 3 in the print system 1 are not limited to the arrangement of the foregoing embodiment. There is no limit in the number of printers 2 and hosts 3. Further, in the foregoing embodiment, the operation control section 15 extracts the print condition from the print job inputted to the transmission/reception section 10 via the network N. However, in case where the printer 2 functions as a copying machine and the printer 2 receives and carries out the print job that has been generated in the printer 2, the operation control section 15 may extract a print condition from the print job which includes data concerning the print condition. Further, in case where the printer 2 functions as a copying machine and includes an operation section by which the user specifies the print condition, the operation control section 15 may receive the print condition from the operation section. In this case, color specifying information and the like are used as the print condition. Further, the foregoing embodiment described such an arrangement that: the operation control section 15 receives the setting information 46 indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition stored in the storage section 42 of the server 4 or receives the order table indicative of a priority based on the print condition from the registration table 17 of the storage section 16. However, any arrangement is possible as long as a plurality of order tables each predefining a priority of sheets to be used exist in any section and the operation control section 15 selects an order table corresponding to the print condition from these order tables. The aforementioned specific embodiments or examples merely clarify the technical contents of the present invention, and the present invention is not limited to them, and may be varied in many ways within a scope of the following claims. Embodiments obtained by combining technical means disclosed in different embodiments as required are included in the technical scope of the invention. As described above, the image forming device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; a control section for generating a tray selection signal in accordance with a print job inputted to the transmission/reception section, and the print job includes a print condition indicative of a condition for printing; and a sheet feeding tray section, having a plurality of sheet trays storing sheets therein, which supplies a sheet from one of the sheet trays that has been selected in accordance with the tray selection signal transmitted from the control section, wherein the control section includes: an operation control section for extracting the print condition from the print job and for accessing a data management device, whose connection to the operation control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and for obtaining an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition stored in a first storage section of the data management device; and a tray selection section for generating the tray selection signal for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table transmitted from the operation control section. When the image forming device receives the print job via the transmission/reception section, the control section generates the tray selection signal, and the image forming device supplies a print sheet from a sheet tray that has been selected from the sheet feeding tray section in accordance with the tray selection signal. In more detail, the image forming device has the following characteristics. That is, the control section of the image forming device includes the operation control section for extracting the print condition included in the print job and for obtaining the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition from the data management device connected to the operation control section via a network. Here, the print condition is a condition for printing, and examples of the print condition include: device information indicative of a print job transmission device that has transmitted the print job; user information indicative of a user who has used the print job transmission device; application information indicative of an application which allowed data whose image should be printed in the print job to be generated; color specifying information for specifying color printing or monochrome printing; and sheet information for specifying a type of a sheet used in printing. The print condition is not limited to a specific condition. In the data management device connected to the image forming device, the priority corresponding to the print condition is stored in the first storage section in advance as the setting information. The data management device extracts the priority corresponding to the desired print condition included in the print job in response to the access from the image forming device, and sends the priority by return to the image forming device. Further, the control section of the image forming device includes the tray selection section for receiving the priority that has been sent by return from the operation control section as the order table and for generating the tray selection signal in accordance with the order table. Thus, when the image forming device receives the print job via the transmission/reception section, the image forming device selects a sheet in accordance with the priority based on the print condition specified in the print job. According to the arrangement, it is possible to set the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user. Thus, it is possible to surely select an appropriate sheet. Note that, it can be said that: the image forming device includes a plurality of sheet trays, and selects a sheet in accordance with a sheet type specified in each of print jobs respectively received from a plurality of print job transmission devices, wherein the image forming device includes: print condition obtaining means for obtaining a print condition other than the sheet type specified in the print job; setting means for setting a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition; and selection means for selecting a sheet in accordance with the priority set by the setting means when sheets that have been specified run out or when any sheet may be selected regardless of the sheet type. The image forming device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; a control section for generating a tray selection signal in accordance with a print job inputted to the transmission/reception section, and the print job includes a print condition indicative of a condition for printing; and a sheet feeding tray section, having a plurality of sheet trays storing sheets therein, which supplies a sheet from one of the sheet trays that has been selected in accordance with the tray selection signal transmitted from the control section, wherein the image forming device further includes a second storage section for storing a registration table as the setting information indicative of the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, and the registration table is setting information for specifying a main body of the image forming device, and the control section includes: the operation control section for extracting the print condition from the print job and accesses the second storage section so as to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from the registration table of the second storage section; and a tray selection section for generating the tray selection signal for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table transmitted from the operation control section. When the image forming device receives the print job via the transmission/reception section, the control section generates the tray selection signal in accordance with the print job, and supplies a print sheet from a sheet tray selected from the sheet feeding tray section in accordance with the tray selection signal. In more detail, the image forming device has the following characteristics. That is, the control section of the image forming device includes the operation control section for extracting the print condition included in the print job and for obtaining the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition from the registration table stored in the second storage section. Here, the print condition is a condition for printing, and examples of the print condition include: device information indicative of a print job transmission device that has transmitted the print job; user information indicative of a user who has used the print job transmission device; application information indicative of an application which allowed data whose image should be printed in the print job to be generated; color specifying information for specifying color printing or monochrome printing; and sheet information for specifying a type of a sheet used in printing. The print condition is not limited to a specific condition. Further,.a sheet which is different in terms of either a material or a thickness is regarded as a “different sheet”, and a sheet having the same material and the same thickness is regarded as a “same sheet”. Further, the image forming device includes the second storage section which stores the registration table for specifying the image forming device as the setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition. Further, the control section of the image forming device includes the tray selection section for receiving the priority that has been sent by return from the operation control section as the order table and for generating the tray selection signal in accordance with the order table. Thus, when the image forming device receives the print job via the transmission/reception section, the image forming device selects a sheet in accordance with the print condition specified in the print job. According to the arrangement, it is possible to set the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user. Thus, it is possible to surely select an appropriate sheet. Further, according to the arrangement, it is not necessary to access the data management device connected via a network for example, so that it is possible to more quickly select an appropriate sheet tray and to print an image on a sheet supplied from thus selected sheet tray. Further, the image forming device may be arranged so that: in case where the print condition includes sheet information for specifying a sheet type, the operation control section prioritizes the sheet type most in the order table. The image forming device according to the present invention is arranged so that: the operation control section accesses a data management device, whose connection to the operation control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and obtains an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition stored in a first storage section of the data management device, and registers the registration table to the second storage section. According to the arrangement, the operation control section accesses the data management device and registers the registration table to the second storage section in advance, so that it is possible to surely realize the image forming device. Further, the operation control section accesses the other device and registers the registration table, so that it is not necessary to provide a setting panel on the image forming device. Note that, in specifying the data management device to be accessed, the operation control section may perform the detection via the network, or the data management device may detect an instruction given by the user. Further, it can be said that: the image forming device includes sheet type priority information obtaining means for obtaining sheet type priority information corresponding to the print condition from a predetermined data management device which is capable of communicating with the image forming device. The image forming device according to the present invention is arranged so that: the print condition includes at least either device information concerning a print job transmission device, whose connection to the main body of the image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, or user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job with the print job transmission device. According to the arrangement, the print condition includes either the device information or the user information, so that it is possible to supply sheets in accordance with an appropriate priority so as to correspond to a print job transmission device that has transmitted the print job or a user who has used the device. That is, it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by each user. The image forming device according to the present invention is arranged so that: the print condition includes application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the print job transmission device, whose connection to the main body of the image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, said print job transmission device having transmitted the print job to the transmission/reception section. According to the arrangement, the print condition includes the application information, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user so as to correspond to each application. For example, in case of using an application for processing image data that has been taken by a digital camera, a photograph paper is used as the print sheet, and in case of using an application for generating text data, a recycled paper is used as the print sheet. The image forming device according to the present invention is arranged so that: the print condition includes color specifying information in printing an image in accordance with the print job. According to the arrangement, the print condition includes the color specifying information, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user so as to correspond to each color specifying information. Here, the color specifying information is information for specifying color printing or monochrome printing. For example, in case of printing an image based on color image data, a photograph paper is used as a print sheet, and in case of printing an image based on monochrome text data, a recycled paper is used as a print sheet. The image forming device according to the present invention is arranged so that: the setting information includes a prohibition table concerning such a combination of a print condition and a sheet type that selection of the combination is prohibited, and the operation control section obtains the order table and the prohibition table from the setting information, and the tray selection section generates the tray selection signal in accordance with the order table and the prohibition table that have been transmitted from the operation control section while excluding a condition indicated by the prohibition table. According to the arrangement, it is possible to prevent a condition indicated in the prohibition table from being selected, so that it is possible to prevent an image from being recorded on a sheet that is not desired by a user. Further, this arrangement facilitates management so as to correspond to each user and each printer. Note that, it can be said that: the image forming device includes means for limiting a sheet type which can be selected in accordance with the print condition. The print condition transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering a registration table, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition concerning the image forming device, to a second storage section of the image forming device before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job, from the registration table in accordance with the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute. The print control section of the print job transmission device transmits the print job to the image forming device whose connection to the print job transmission device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, thereby printing an image on a sheet. Here, in case where the print job transmitted by the print job transmission device includes a predetermined print condition, the image forming device obtains a priority, corresponding to the print condition extracted from the print job, from the second storage section, and selects a sheet in accordance with the priority, so as to print an image on the selected sheet. According to the arrangement, the print job transmission device registers the registration table for obtaining the priority into the second storage section of the image forming device in advance, so that it is possible to cause the image forming device to surely obtain the order table. Further, it is possible to select a sheet in accordance with the print condition by combining the print job transmission device with the image forming device. The print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, to a first storage section of a data management device whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute, from the first storage section of the data management device, in accordance with the setting information and the print condition included in the print job. The print control section of the print job transmission device transmits the print job to the image forming device whose connection to the print condition transmission device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, so as to cause the image forming device to print an image on a sheet. Here, in case where the print job transmitted by the print job transmission device includes a predetermined print condition, the image forming device obtains a priority, corresponding to the print condition extracted from the print job, from the first storage section whose connection to the print job transmission device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and selects a sheet in accordance with the priority, so as to print an image on the selected sheet. According to the arrangement, the print job transmission device registers the registration table for obtaining the priority into the first storage section of the data management device in advance, so that it is possible to cause the image forming device to access the data management device and to surely obtain the order table. Further, it is possible to select a sheet in accordance with the print condition by combining the job transmission device with the image forming device and the data management device. The print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a command section for adding the print condition having at least any one of (i) device information concerning a main body of the print job transmission device, (ii) user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job by using the main body of the print job transmission device, (iii) application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the main body of the print job transmission device, and (iv) color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job, to the print job so that the print information is extractable, so as to cause the image forming device, which has been commanded to execute the print job, to select a sheet type in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition included in the print job. The print control section of the print job transmission device transmits the print job to the image forming device whose connection to the print job transmission device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and causes the image forming device to print an image on a sheet. Here, the print job transmission device causes at least one of the device information, the user information, the application information, and the color specifying information, to be included in the print condition transmitted by the print job transmission device. Thus, it is possible to appropriately select a different sheet type so as to correspond to at least one of (i) a device by which the image forming device has been commanded to execute the print job, (ii) a user who has given the command, (iii) an application by which image data of the print job has been generated, and (iv) color specifying information. The data management device according to the present invention includes a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network, whose connection to an image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information, wherein the control section includes a registration section for accessing the image forming device and obtaining a registration table, indicative of the setting information concerning the image forming device, from a second storage section of the image forming device, so as to register the registration table to the first storage section. The data management device accesses the image forming device, and obtains the registration table indicative of the setting information concerning the image forming device, and registers the setting information into the first storage section. Thus, it is possible to store the setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, in the first storage section. Thus, in case where an inquiry for specifying the print condition is made by the image forming device, the setting information stored in the first storage section is referred to, and a priority concerning the print condition is obtained, thereby sending the print condition by return to the image forming device. Thus, it is possible to cause the image forming device to select a sheet type based on the priority and to print an image on the selected sheet. Further, when the data management device accesses each image forming device connected to the network and obtains the registration table, it is possible to cause the data management device to collectively manage information. The data management device according to the present invention includes a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network, whose connection to an image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information, wherein the control section includes a registration section for accessing a print job transmission device which commands the image forming device to execute the print job and for obtaining the setting information from a third storage section of the print job transmission device, so as to register the setting information to the first storage section. The data management device accesses the print job transmission device, and obtains the setting information, and registers the setting information to the first storage section. Thus, it is possible to store the setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, in the first storage section. Thus, in case where an inquiry for specifying the print condition is made by the image forming device, the setting information stored in the first storage section is referred to, and a priority concerning the print condition is obtained, thereby sending the print condition by return to the image forming device. Thus, it is possible to cause the image forming device to select a sheet type based on the priority and to print an image on the selected sheet. Further, it is possible to cause the data management device to collectively manage information. The data management device according to the present invention includes a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network, whose connection to an image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information, wherein the control section includes a response section for obtaining an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition, from the setting information of the first storage section, in response to an inquiry, made by the image forming device, which specifies the print condition, so as to send the order table by return to the image forming device. In case where an inquiry for specifying the print condition is made by the image forming device, the data management device refers to the setting information stored in the first storage section, and obtains a priority concerning the print condition, thereby sending the print condition by return to the image forming device. Thus, it is possible to cause the image forming device to select a sheet type based on the priority and to print an image on the selected sheet. Further, it is possible to cause the data management device to collectively manage information. Note that, it can be said that: the data management device is capable of communicating with an image forming device which includes a plurality of sheet trays, and selects a sheet in accordance with a sheet type specified in each of print jobs respectively received from a plurality of print job transmission devices, so as to form an image, wherein the data management device includes: setting means for setting sheet type priority information corresponding to the print condition of the image forming device; and means for transmitting the sheet type priority information corresponding to the print condition to the image forming device. The program according to the present invention causes a computer to function as a print job transmission device provided with any one of the foregoing print control sections. When the program is carried out in a computer having a storage section, it is possible to realize the foregoing print job transmission device. The program according to the present invention causes a computer to function as a data management device provided with any one of the foregoing control sections. When the program is carried out in a computer having a storage section, it is possible to realize the foregoing data management device. Further, it can be said that: the program is a data management program which is capable of communicating with an image forming device which includes a plurality of sheet trays, and selects a sheet in accordance with a sheet type specified in each of print jobs respectively received from a plurality of print job transmission devices, so as to form an image, wherein the data management program includes: a setting procedure for setting sheet type priority information corresponding to the print condition of the image forming device; and a procedure for transmitting the sheet type priority information corresponding to the print condition to the image forming device. The storage medium according to the present invention is a computer-readable storage medium which stores any one of the foregoing programs. When the program of the storage medium is read by a computer having a storage section and is carried out, it is possible to realize the print job transmission device or the data management device. The method according to the present invention for supplying a print sheet from a sheet tray selected from a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein, said method comprising the steps of: obtaining an order table indicative of a priority based on a desired print condition from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, that is stored in a storage section; and selecting a sheet tray from the plurality of sheet trays in accordance with the order table so as to supply the print sheet from the sheet tray that has been selected. The image forming device which carries out the foregoing method selects a single sheet tray in accordance with the order table indicative of a priority based on the print condition, and supplies a print sheet from thus selected sheet tray. Further, it may be so arranged that: whether any sheet is stacked on the sheet tray or not is determined every time an image is printed on a sheet, and a single sheet tray is selected in accordance with the order table. According to the arrangement, it is possible to select a print sheet in accordance with the desired priority corresponding to the print condition and to print an image on the selected sheet. Note that, the storage section arranged in the foregoing manner may be a storage section (second storage section) of the image forming device, or may be a storage section (first storage section) of the data management device connected to the image forming device via a network, or may be a storage section (third storage section) of the print job transmission device. Further, the step of obtaining the order table from the setting information stored in the storage section may be carried out by the image forming device, or may be carried out by the foregoing data management device or the print job transmission device. For example, it may be so arranged that: the print job transmission device extracts the desired order table by using the print condition that has been set concerning the print job, and causes the order table to be included in the print job, and transmits the print job to the image forming device. The image forming device obtains the order table from the print job, and carries out the foregoing method. Further, the image forming device which carries out the foregoing method is not limited to a printer which receives the print job via a network and prints an image, but the image forming device may be a device which functions as a copying machine. By using the aforementioned prohibition table, the image forming device according to the present invention facilitates print management for each print job transmission device and for each user also in a print system, having a plurality of print job transmission devices, which are accessed by a large number of users. The invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same way may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Currently, an image forming device provided with a plurality of sheet trays is widely used as an image forming device such as a multi-functional device having a printing function and a copying function. When receiving a print job from a print job transmission device such as a personal computer on which a printer driver has been installed, the image forming device selects a sheet tray and print an image on a sheet specified by the print job. In such an image forming device, when the sheet specified by the print job is not stored in the device, a substitutional sheet is fed in accordance with a priority that has been set in advance, thereby printing an image. Note that, Japanese Publication for Unexamined Publication No. 328740/2001 (Tokukai 2001-328740)(published on Nov. 27, 2001) recites a technique in which: a sheet is selected in accordance with a priority, that has been set in advance, when a print job is set to allow any sheet to be fed regardless of a sheet type. However, the aforementioned conventional art raises the following problem: Even in case where a plurality of users respectively desire priorities different from each other, a sheet is selected in accordance with a single priority that has been set with respect to a printer, so that an image may be printed on a sheet that is not desired by a user. Further, the aforementioned conventional art raises the following problem: for example, in order to prevent the foregoing problem, it is necessary that users sharing the image forming device reach an agreement in terms of a priority set in the image forming device, so that the users have to take troubles in reaching the agreement. Also, the aforementioned conventional art raises the following problem: for example, even in case where a single user desires a different priority according to a print condition such as an application program to be used and color to be specified at the time of printing, a sheet is selected in accordance with a single priority that has been set in advance, so that an image may be printed on a sheet that is not desired by the user. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention was made from the foregoing view point, and an object of the present invention is to provide an image forming device, a print job transmission device, a data management device, a program, a storage medium and a method for supplying a print sheet, whereby an image is printed on a sheet desired by a user even when a different priority is desired according to a print condition. In order to achieve the foregoing object, an image forming device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; a control section for generating a tray selection signal in accordance with a print job inputted to the transmission/reception section, said print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing; and a sheet feeding tray section, having a plurality of sheet trays storing sheets therein, which supplies a sheet from one of the sheet trays that has been selected in accordance with the tray selection signal transmitted from the control section, wherein the control section includes: an operation control section for extracting the print condition from the print job and for obtaining an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition that has been extracted, from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition; and a tray selection section for generating the tray selection signal for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table transmitted from the operation control section. When the image forming device receives the print job via the transmission/reception section, the image forming device selects a sheet in accordance with the priority based on the print condition specified in the print job. According to the arrangement, it is possible to set the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user. Thus, it is possible to surely select an appropriate sheet. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the image forming device according to the present invention includes: a sheet feeding section, having a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein, which supplies a print sheet from one of the sheet trays; an operation control section for selecting an order table, based on a print condition, from a plurality of order tables each of which indicates a sheet priority corresponding to the print condition; and a tray selection section for selecting one of the sheet trays, in accordance with the order table selected by the operation control section, so as to supply the print sheet from thus selected sheet tray. The image forming device selects a sheet in accordance with the priority based on the print condition. According to the arrangement, it is possible to set the sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, so that it is possible to record an image on a sheet desired by a user. Thus, it is possible to surely select an appropriate sheet. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering a registration table, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition concerning the image forming device, to a second storage section of the image forming device before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job, from the registration table in accordance with the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute. According to the arrangement, the print job transmission device registers the registration table for obtaining the priority into the second storage section of the image forming device in advance, so that it is possible to cause the image forming device to surely obtain the order table. Further, it is possible to select a sheet in accordance with the print condition by combining the print job transmission device with the image forming device. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a registration section for registering setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to the print condition, to a first storage section of a data management device whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, before commanding the image forming device to execute the print job, so as to cause the image forming device to obtain an order table, indicative of a priority based on the print condition included in the print job which the image forming device has been commanded to execute, from the first storage section of the data management device, in accordance with the setting information and the print condition included in the print job. According to the arrangement, the print job transmission device registers the registration table for obtaining the priority into the first storage section of the data management device in advance, so that it is possible to cause the image forming device to access the data management device and to surely obtain the order table. Further, it is possible to select a sheet in accordance with the print condition by combining the job transmission device with the image forming device and the data management device. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the print job transmission device according to the present invention includes: a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network; and a print control section for commanding an image forming device, whose connection to the print control section via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, to execute a print job including a print condition indicative of a condition for printing, wherein the print control section includes a command section for adding the print condition having at least any one of (i) device information concerning a main body of the print job transmission device, (ii) user information concerning a user who has given a command instruction to execute the print job by using the main body of the print job transmission device, (iii) application information concerning an application by which image data included in the print job is generated in the main body of the print job transmission device, and (iv) color specifying information in printing an image on the basis of the print job, to the print job so that the print information is extractable, so as to cause the image forming device, which has been commanded to execute the print job, to select a sheet type in accordance with a priority corresponding to the print condition included in the print job. According to the arrangement, it is possible to appropriately select a different sheet type in accordance with at least any one of (i) the device by which the image forming device has been commanded to execute the print job, (ii) the user who has given the command, (iii) the application by which image data has been generated, and (iv) the color specifying information. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the data management device according to the present invention includes a transmission/reception section which functions as an interface to a network, whose connection to an image forming device via the network is allowed by the transmission/reception section, and the data management device includes: a first storage section for storing setting information indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, indicative of a condition for printing, which is included in a print job which the image forming device is commanded to execute; and a control section for managing the setting information. In case where an inquiry for specifying the print condition is made by the image forming device, the data management device refers to the setting information stored in the first storage section, and obtains the priority concerning the print condition, thereby sending the setting information by return to the image forming device. Thus, it is possible to cause the image forming device to select a sheet type corresponding to the priority and to print an image on the selected sheet. Further, it is possible to cause the data management device to collectively manage the setting information concerning a plurality of image forming devices. In order to achieve the foregoing object, the method according to the present invention for supplying a print sheet from a sheet tray selected from a plurality of sheet trays for storing print sheets therein is a method which includes the steps of: obtaining an order table indicative of a priority based on a desired print condition from setting information, indicative of a sheet type priority corresponding to a print condition, that is stored in a storage section; and selecting a sheet tray from the plurality of sheet trays in accordance with the order table so as to supply the print sheet from the sheet tray that has been selected. According to the method, it is possible to select a print sheet in accordance with the desired priority corresponding to the print condition and to print an image on the selected print sheet. For a fuller understanding of the nature and advantages of the invention, reference should be made to the ensuing detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20041112 | 20101214 | 20050519 | 66401.0 | 3 | SINGH, SATWANT K | IMAGE FORMING DEVICE, PRINT JOB TRANSMISSION DEVICE, DATA MANAGEMENT DEVICE, PROGRAM, STORAGE MEDIUM AND METHOD FOR SUPPLYING PRINT SHEET | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,347 | ACCEPTED | Fuel filter with keys | A filter element removably located in a housing having a central valve structure. The element has an end cap with a valve actuating portion. The valve actuating portion includes a cylindrical portion and an annular base projecting radially inward from the cylindrical portion. The valve actuating portion includes a plurality of thin, flat keys spaced around the annular base and projecting radially inward from the cylindrical portion and axially outward from the base. The keys engage the valve structure in the housing when the element is installed, and open up a flow passage through the housing. | 1. A filter element having a ring of filter media defining a central cavity and circumscribing a central axis, said ring of filter media having a first end and a second end; first and second end caps fixed to said first and second ends, respectively, of said filter media, the second end cap having an annular end cap portion sealingly bonded to the second end of said filter media, wherein the second end cap has a valve-actuating portion, including an axially-extending cylindrical portion connected to the annular end cap portion and an annular base connected to the cylindrical portion and extending radially inward from said cylindrical portion to define a first central opening which can receive a pipe, a sealing device bounding the first central opening; and a plurality of radially-elongated keys having an axially inner edge fixed to and supported by the second end cap and projecting in an axially outward direction to a distal, axially outer edge spaced axially outward from said annular base. 2. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said annular end cap portion defines a second central opening co-axial with and radially larger than said first opening, and said keys extend radially-inward of the second central opening. 3. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said annular end cap portion, cylindrical portion, base and said keys are unitary, in one piece. 4. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the keys extend radially inward to an inner free edge in outwardly bounding relation to the first central opening. 5. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the keys are located in surrounding relation to the first central opening. 6. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the keys are each thin and flat. 7. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the keys are located internal to the cylindrical portion. 8. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the cylindrical portion circumscribes the inner diameter of said annular end cap portion 9. A filter element having a ring of filter media defining a central cavity and circumscribing a central axis, said ring of filter media having a first end and a second end; first and second annular end caps sealingly bonded to said first and second ends, respectively, of said filter media, the second end cap having a valve-actuating portion, including an axially-extending cylindrical portion connected to and extending inwardly from the second end cap and an annular base connected to the cylindrical portion and extending radially inward from an inner end of said cylindrical portion to define a first central opening which can receive a pipe, a sealing device bounding the first central opening; and a plurality of radially-elongated keys having an axially inner edge fixed to and supported by the second end cap and projecting in an axially outward direction to a distal, axially outer edge spaced axially outward from said annular base. 10. The filter element as in claim 9, wherein the cylindrical portion is connected to and extends inwardly into the element from the inner diameter of the annular second end cap. 11. The filter element as in claim 9, wherein the keys are located internal to the cylindrical portion. 12. The filter element as in claim 9, wherein said annular end cap portion, cylindrical portion, base and said keys are unitary, in one piece. 13. The filter element as in claim 9, wherein the keys extend radially inward to an inner free edge in outwardly bounding relation to the first central opening. 14. The filter element as in claim 13, wherein said second annular end cap defines a second central opening co-axial with and radially larger than said first central opening, and said keys extend radially-inward of the second central opening. 15. The filter element as in claim 9, wherein the keys are each thin and flat. 16. The filter element as in claim 9, wherein the cylindrical portion circumscribes the inner diameter of said annular end cap portion | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/824,916, filed Apr. 15, 2004; which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/129,350 filed on May 2, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,797,168; which is a national phase application under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US00/31329 filed on Nov. 15, 2000 and which designated the United States, and which claims priority to U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 60/168,941 filed on Dec. 3, 1999 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/452,857 filed on Dec. 3, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,042, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to fluid filters, and more particularly to fuel filters for vehicles. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many types of fuel filters (also referred to as “separators”) are known in the prior art. A popular type of fuel filter has a housing that encloses a replaceable ring-shaped filter element. The filter element ensures that impurities are removed from fuel before it is delivered to system components such as fuel injection pumps and fuel injectors. Mating portions of the housing form an interior enclosure for the element, and the housing portions may be separated for replacement of a spent filter element. Periodic replacement of the filter element is required so that the filter element will not become so loaded with impurities that fuel flow is restricted. Cost and ease of manufacture have been important considerations with such elements. However, problems may arise when such filter elements are replaced. One problem is that filter elements with different sizes and/or filtration capabilities often have identical mounting configurations and can fit on the same filter head. However, use of the wrong filter can cause poor engine performance and allow undesirable amounts of contaminants to pass through the fuel system. Another problem is that individuals may remove a spent filter element and simply re-attach the housing portions without a fresh element. While the engine may operate (at least for a short period of time), this can be detrimental to the engine. A still further problem is that disturbance of the spent element during replacement may cause collected impurities to fall off the element. In some designs, these impurities may pass into the outlet of the filter housing and reach the components downstream in the fuel system. To reduce and at least partially eliminate these problems, the filter assembly shown in Patent Specification U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,923, owned by the Assignee of the present application, was developed. This filter includes a unique replaceable filter element that is attached to a removable cover. The housing has an internal standpipe with an opening at the top end. When the element is removed from the housing, the fuel level in the housing falls below the opening in the standpipe. As a result, the impurity-laden fuel left in the housing is less likely to reach the outlet. Likewise, when a new element is installed in the housing, only fuel that has been purified by passing through the media of the element is enabled to reach the opening and pass out of the housing. While this filter design has many advantages, if the filter element is not removed carefully, impurity-laden fuel in the housing or from the outer surface of the element may fall into the opening in the standpipe. If this happens, some impurities may still reach the downstream components of the fuel system. In addition, the cover is discarded with each spent element. This is undesirable from a conservation and solid waste standpoint. It is generally desirable to minimize the amount of material discarded, particularly if a discarded element must be treated as hazardous waste. The cover also represents a portion of the cost of the replacement element. As a result this design adds cost to the replacement element. Further, the element may be separated from the cover, and the cover re-attached to the housing without a fresh element also being installed. As such, it still does not fully address the problems associated with operating an engine without a filter element installed. A further improved filter is shown in Patent Specification U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,065, also owned by the assignee of the present application. In this filter, the filter element is received around a standpipe extending centrally in the housing. A spring-biased valve element internal to the standpipe is normally closed, and can be engaged and moved to an open position by a projection on the element when the element is properly installed in the housing. This filter provides the advantages of the '923 patent, as well as prevents impurity-laden fuel from passing through the standpipe when the element is changed. The assembly also prevents operation of the engine without an appropriate element in place. The filter shown in the '065 patent has received wide-spread acceptance in the marketplace. Nevertheless, it is believed that there exists a need for a still further filter which has the advantages of the '065 patent, but where the valve structure is located exterior to the standpipe. Such a valve structure can be easier to manufacture and assemble, thereby reducing the cost of the assembly. It is also believed there is a demand for a filter where the opening into the standpipe is located toward the lower end of the filter. This can prevent or at least reduce the chance of pulling air into the system, as the opening is kept below the level of the fuel. As such, it is believed that there exists a need for a further improved fuel filter which overcomes at least some of the above-described drawbacks. According to one aspect of the present invention there is provided a filter subassembly comprising a filter element including a ring of filter media circumscribing a central axis. The ring has a first end and a second end. First and second end caps are fixed to the first and second ends, respectively, of the filter media. The second end cap has an annular end cap portion sealingly bonded to the second end of the filter media and a valve-actuating portion. The valve-actuating portion includes an axially extending cylindrical portion connected to the annular end cap portion and circumscribing the inner diameter of the annular end cap portion. An annular base is connected to the cylindrical portion and extends radially inward from the cylindrical portion to define a first central opening which can receive a pipe. At least one key is provided with the valve actuating portion having an engaging portion radially inward spaced from the cylindrical portion and axially spaced away from said annular base. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION A new and unique fuel filter is thereby provided that prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. The filter is simple and low-cost to manufacture and assemble, and prevents air from entering the system. According to the present invention, a pipe extends centrally within the housing, and a valve structure is provided externally to the pipe. In one embodiment, the pipe is a standpipe fluidly connected to the outlet port; while in another embodiment the pipe is an inlet pipe to a fuel pump in the housing. In either embodiment, the pipe includes a central fluid passage and an opening into the passage toward the lower end of the pipe. A radially-outward facing groove or channel is provided circumferentially around the pipe, near the opening. The valve structure for the filter includes a valve device and a latch device, with the valve device including a sleeve closely surrounding the pipe. The valve device further includes an annular, radially-outward projecting base surrounding the sleeve. A series of radially-outward projecting tabs are spaced around the periphery of the base. The valve device can be easily manufactured unitarily in one piece from inexpensive material, such as plastic. The latch device for the valve structure includes a series of deformable fingers in an annular array closely surrounding the pipe. The distal ends of the fingers are normally aligned with and engage the groove in the pipe to prevent the latch device from moving axially along the pipe. The latch device, in the locked position, supports the valve device in a position such that the valve sleeve blocks flow through the opening in the pipe. The latch device further includes an annular sleeve radially outwardly-spaced from the fingers. One end of the sleeve, located away from the valve device, is connected to the fingers, while the other end of the sleeve, located adjacent the valve device, defines an annular engagement surface. The latch device likewise can be easily manufactured in one piece from inexpensive material, such as plastic. According to the first embodiment, the housing is designed for a “top-loaded” element, and includes a removable lid. In this embodiment, the latch device is located between the valve device and the lower end of the housing, with the annular engagement surface of the latch device facing upwardly in the housing and against the base of the valve device. In the second embodiment, the housing is designed for a “bottom loaded” element, and the latch device is located between the valve device and the pump, with the annular engagement surface of the latch device facing downwardly in the housing, and against the base of the valve device. In either embodiment, a compression spring surrounds the pipe and urges the latch device toward the valve device. The filter element for the fuel filter includes a ring of filter media circumscribing a central axis and having upper and lower end caps. Each end cap has an annular portion bonded to the filter media. The lower end cap has an axially-extending cylindrical portion connected to and bounding the inner diameter of the annular end cap portion, and an annular base projecting radially-inward from the cylindrical portion. The annular base closely surrounds the sleeve of the valve device in the first embodiment, and the inlet pipe in the second embodiment. A key device is located internally of the cylindrical portion of the lower end cap. The key device includes an annular base dimensioned to fit within the cylindrical portion, and a plurality of thin, flat keys projecting axially away from the annular base. The keys project axially-outward (i.e., downward) from the media ring in the first embodiment (the “top-loaded design”); and axially-inward (i.e., upward) into the media ring in the second embodiment (the “bottom-loaded” design). The keys preferably include a step defining an axially longer and radially thinner portion, and an axially shorter and radially wider portion. The key device, including the base and keys, is also preferably formed unitarily, in one piece, from inexpensive material, such as plastic. In the first embodiment, a first O-ring is provided in an axially-outward facing groove in the base of the key device to seal against the annular base of the lower end cap; while a second O-ring seal is provided in a radially-inward facing groove in the base to seal against the valve sleeve. The key device is located between the lower end cap of the filter element and the valve device when the filter element is installed within the housing. In the first embodiment, when the filter element is inserted from the upper end of the housing, the lo keys of the key device are received downwardly between the tabs on the valve device. The longer portions of the keys engage the upward-facing engagement surface on the latch device and cause the latch device to bend, which in turn causes the fingers to move radially outward from their locking engagement with the groove in the standpipe. At the same time, the shorter portions of the keys engage the base of the valve device and cause the valve device to move downwardly along the standpipe, against the latch device, and out of blocking relation with the opening in the standpipe. When the element is properly positioned in the housing, the opening to the standpipe is completely open to allow fuel flow through the fuel filter. In the second embodiment, when the element is bottom-loaded, the keys of the key device are similarly received between the tabs on the valve device, with the longer portions of the keys engaging the downward-facing engagement surface on the latch device. This similarly causes the latch device to bend, and the fingers to move radially outward from their locking engagement with the groove in the pipe. The shorter portions of the keys at the same time engage the lower surface of the base of the valve device and cause the valve device to move upwardly along the pipe (against the latch device), uncovering the flow opening in the pipe. When the element is properly positioned in the housing, the opening to the inlet pipe is completely open to allow flow through the filter assembly. The dimensions, number and location of the keys on the key device and the tabs on the valve device can be selected to allow only a specific filter element to be used with a particular housing. An incorrect geometry number or arrangement of keys and/or tabs will prevent a filter element from being properly located in the housing. The keys and tabs are relatively easy to fabricate, using simple molding operations. Once a filter element with a proper selection of keys is installed in the housing, fluid can be provided into the housing and pass through the filter media ring to be filtered. When the element is to be replaced, the spring assists in removing the element from the housing, and returns the valve device to a position blocking the opening in the pipe. This prevents unfiltered fuel and contaminants from passing through the pipe and downstream in the system. The location of the opening in the lower end of the pipe is below the typical level of fuel in the housing, which prevents air from passing downstream through the system. The key device, valve device and latch device are easily assembled over the standpipe and inlet pipe during assembly of the filter housing. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention provides many of the benefits of the prior art filters such as preventing an improper element from being installed within the housing, and preventing operation of the filter without and element in place. In addition, the filter is simple and low cost to manufacture and assemble, and prevents air from entering the system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional elevated perspective view of a first embodiment of the fuel filter constructed according to the principles of the present invention; FIG. 2 is an enlarged cross-sectional elevated perspective view of a portion of the fuel filter shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an exploded view of certain components of the fuel filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the fuel filter of FIG. 1, illustrating the open and closed positions of the valve structure; FIG. 5 is an perspective view of the lower end cap of the filter element for the filter assembly; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter element; FIG. 7 is a bottom view of the lower end cap for the filter element; FIG. 8 is an elevated perspective view of the valve device for the fuel filter; FIG. 9 is an elevated perspective view of the latch device for the fuel filter; FIG. 10 is a top view of the latch device; FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional side view of the latch device; FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of the fuel filter; FIG. 13 is an elevated perspective view of the pump assembly and valve structure for the fuel filter of FIG. 12; FIG. 14 is a view similar to FIG. 13, but with an exploded view of the valve structure; FIG. 15 is an elevated perspective view of the lower end cap for the fuel filter FIG. 12; and FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter element of the second embodiment. FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter element similar to FIG. 6, but showing a separate key device; FIG. 18 is an elevated perspective view of the key device for the filter element of FIG. 17; FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter element similar to FIG. 16, but showing a separate key device; and FIG. 20 is an elevated perspective view of the key device for the filter element of FIG. 19. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings, and initially to FIGS. 1-4, a first embodiment of a fuel filter constructed according to the principles of the present invention is indicated generally at 20. The fuel filter 20 is particularly suited for filtering water and other particulates and contaminants from fuel (e.g., diesel fuel), but is generally appropriate for separating any low density fluid from a higher density fluid. The filter 20 of the first embodiment includes a housing 22 with a lid 24 mounted to one end of the housing, and an annular body 26 with a collection bowl 30 mounted to the other end of the housing. The housing 22, lid 24 and annular body 26 define an interior cavity 32 for a removable filter element 34. Housing 22 can include appropriate mounting flanges or brackets 36 or other means to allow the housing to be mounted to an appropriate location in the fluid system. Housing 22, lid 24, annular body 26 and collection bowl are formed from materials appropriate for the particular application, as should be known to those skilled in the art. Annular body 26 includes an inlet port 38 and an outlet port 39, which direct fuel into and out of the filter. Fuel directed through inlet port 38 is directed through passage 41 and into collection bowl 30. Valve ball 42 prevents back-flow through the passage 41. The fuel initially passes through a funnel member 43, and then against a deflector turbine 44, which separates water in the fuel. The water collects in the bottom of the collection bowl and can be periodically removed from the housing through drain 46. A water sensor 48 can also be provided in the collection bowl. The fuel then flows upwardly around the funnel 43, around the passages forming ports 38 and 39, and around the exterior of filter element 34. The fuel then flows radially inward through the filter element, and into an opening 49 in a central cylindrical standpipe 50. Opening 49 is located toward the lower end of the housing, preferably below the typical level of fuel in the housing to prevent air passing downstream in the system. Standpipe 50 is connected at its lower end to the annular body 26, such that the fuel flows through an interior passage 52 in the standpipe 50 and out through the outlet port 39. Standpipe 50 can be easily connected to annular body 26 such as with cooperating threads as at 53. Contaminants and particles collecting on the exterior surface of the filter element fall down into the collection bowl 30, from which they can be periodically removed through drain 46. When the element 34 is to be replaced, a clamp 56 fixing the lid 24 to housing. 22 is removed. Standpipe 50 extends centrally through the housing to the open end and provides an easy attachment device for clamp 56 to retain the lid in fluid-tight relation with the housing. In any case, when the clamp 56 is removed, the lid 24 can then be removed, and the element 34 accessed, removed from the housing, and replaced with a fresh element. Further discussion of the assembly described above can be found in Patent Specification U.S. Pat. No. 3,931,011, owned by the assignee of the present invention. It should be appreciated that the assembly illustrated in FIGS. 1-4 is only exemplary in nature, and other types of filter housings and associate components could be used with the present invention. In any case, a valve structure, indicated generally at 60, is provided toward the lower end of the housing. The valve structure 60 surrounds the central standpipe 50, and controls the flow of fluid through opening 49. An outwardly-facing locking groove 62 is provided proximate to, and below the opening 49. A second groove below opening 49 carries an O-ring 63. Referring now to FIGS. 3 and 8-11, the valve structure 60 includes a valve device, indicated generally at 64, and a latch device, indicated generally at 68. The valve device 64 includes an annular sleeve 70, which is dimensioned to closely fit around the standpipe 50. The upper end surface 71 (FIG. 8) of the sleeve 70 can have a chamfer or taper to facilitate the movement of the sleeve along the standpipe. A relatively thin and flat annular base 72 is provided at the lower end of sleeve 70, and projects radially outward therefrom. A series of radially-projecting supports 74 extend between the base 72 and sleeve 70 to provide support for the base. Four such supports are illustrated, however, this can vary depending upon the application, and some applications may not even require such supports. A plurality of radially-outward projecting tabs, as at 76, extend outwardly in a common plane from the annular base of the sleeve. Twelve of such tabs are illustrated, although supports 74 take the place and function of the tabs at their particular locations, such that essentially sixteen of such keys are shown. The tabs 76 are illustrated as being equally-spaced around the periphery of the base, and define a series of slots, as at 78. Tabs 76 and slots 78 have essentially rectangular configurations, however the geometry, as well as the number and location of the tabs and slots, can vary depending upon the particular application, as will be described below. Preferably, the valve device, including the sleeve 70, annular base 72, and tabs 76, is formed unitarily in one piece from inexpensive material (e.g., plastic). The latch device 68 includes a plurality of fingers, as at 80, in an evenly-spaced, annular arrangement, surrounding the standpipe 50. Fingers 80 each have radially-inward projecting distal ends as at 82, which bound a cylindrical projection (see e.g., FIG. 10) slightly smaller than the standpipe, such that the fingers are each forced slightly outwardly when the latch device is received around the standpipe (see e.g., the right side of FIG. 4). The fingers 80 are connected at their lower ends to the lower end of an annular sleeve 84, and extend radially-inward from the sleeve, then axially-upward, and finally radially inward at the distal ends 82. The geometry of the fingers 80 makes them somewhat resiliently deflectable in the radial direction, although they have good axial rigidity. The number, dimension and location of fingers 80 can also vary depending upon the particular application, as will be described below, although it is preferred that at least three equally-spaced fingers are provided. Eight equally-spaced fingers, as illustrated, is even more preferred. Sleeve 84 is radially-outwardly spaced from the fingers, and extends upwardly from the connection with the fingers to an upper annular engagement surface 86. A spring stop is defined by an annular surface 87 at the lower end of the sleeve 84. The latch device, including fingers 80 and sleeve 84, is also preferably formed unitarily in one piece from inexpensive material (e.g., plastic). As illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, the latch device 68 is located between the valve device 64 and the annular body 26 at the lower end of the filter housing. The latch device is oriented such that the engagement surface 86 faces upwardly and in contact with the lower surface of the base of the valve device. The valve device 64 and latch device 68 can be easily slipped over the lower end of standpipe 50 before the standpipe is fixed to (screwed into) the annular body 26. A compression spring 90 is provided around the standpipe 50, and extends between the spring stop 87 (FIG. 11) on sleeve 84, and the upper surface 91 of the annular body 26, which defines an opposing spring stop. The spring 90 urges the latch device 68 upwardly toward the valve device 64, and hence urges the valve device 64 upwardly such that the sleeve 70 of the valve device normally is in blocking relation to the opening 49. In this closed position (see the left side of FIG. 4), the distal ends 82 of fingers 80 are received in the groove 62 in the standpipe, to lock the latch device with respect to the standpipe, i.e., to prevent the latch device from moving axially along the standpipe. This also prevents the valve device 64 from moving, at least axially downward, and thereby keeps the opening 49 fluidly closed by the sleeve 70. The axially upper and radially inner edge of the distal ends 82 of the fingers can have a slight chamfer or curve (see FIG. 9) to facilitate the finger moving into the groove 62. Referring now to FIGS. 3-7, the filter element 34 includes a ring shaped media 92 circumscribing a central axis “A”, and having a central cavity 93. The element is bounded at one end by a first or upper end cap 94 and at the other end by a second or lower end cap 96. Ring-shaped media 92 can be any media appropriate for the particular application, including cotton, paper, cellulose, glass fiber, etc., and can be in any particular structure that is appropriate, such as single layer, multi-layer, pleated, non-pleated, etc. The end caps 93 and 94 have a generally round, flat shape and are fixed in a fluid-tight manner to the ends of the media such as by an adhesive or other appropriate bonding compound. Upper end cap 94 has an annular configuration, with a central opening 98 (FIG. 3) dimensioned to closely receive the standpipe 50. Upper end cap 94 is preferably formed unitarily from an appropriate material, such as an inexpensive plastic. Lower end cap 96 likewise has an annular configuration, with an annular portion 100 fixed to the lower end of the media and defining a central opening 101. The lower end cap 96 also has a valve-actuating portion, indicated generally at 102. The valve-actuating portion 102 includes a cylindrical portion 104 bounding the central opening 101 and extending axially inward into the central cavity 93 to a distal inner end. A flat annular base 108 extends radially inward from the distal inner end of the cylindrical portion, and defines a central opening 110. Central opening 110 in base 108 is co-axial with, but radially smaller than, central opening 101 in annular portion 100. Central opening 110 has a dimension so that it is closely received about sleeve 70 of valve device 64 (see FIG. 4). A flexible lip 112 (FIGS. 4, 6) can be provided around opening 110 to provide a fluid-tight seal with the sleeve. A plurality of keys, as at 116, are provided internally of the valve-actuating portion 102. Keys 116 are illustrated as thin and flat strips, with opposing planar side surfaces facing essentially perpendicular to the central axis of the element. The keys are also illustrated as being equally-spaced in a spoke-like arrangement around the interior of the valve-actuating portion. Each key has one edge attached directly to the cylindrical portion 104 and another edge attached directly to the annular base 108, although the keys could be attached to just one of these elements. One free edge of each key extends outward, away from the annular base 108, while another free edge extends radially inward from the cylindrical portion toward the central axis. The free edges of the keys preferably terminate axially prior to the annular portion 100, and radially outward from the central opening 110 (but, of course, radially inward of central opening 101). Each key can have a “step”, that is, an axially longer and radially thinner portion as at 118, and an axially shorter and radially wider portion as at 119 (see FIG. 6). The reason for such a step will be explained below. Alternatively, each key could be simply straight, and extend radially inward from the cylindrical portion 104 and axially outward from the base 108 the same amount over the length and width of the keys. While sixteen of such keys 116 are illustrated, the number, location and dimension of the keys can vary depending upon the particular application. It is possible in some applications that only a single key may be necessary, but it is preferred that at least three keys be provided, and more preferably that a significant number of keys (such as sixteen) be provided, to accomplish the features of the present invention. The lower end cap 96, including the annular portion 100 and valve actuating portion 102 (including keys 116) is also preferably formed unitarily from an appropriate material, such as an inexpensive plastic. Keys 116 are relatively simple to manufacture integral with the valve actuating portion, such as by using common molding techniques. The valve device 84 and latch device 86 are likewise easy to form using common molding techniques. The keys 116 on the end cap 96 of the filter element, and the tabs 76 and slots 78 on the latch device 64 are arranged such that when the filter element is inserted into the housing 22, at least a portion of the keys can fit through the slots 78. As shown in FIG. 4, the axially longer and radially thinner portions 118 of the keys fit through the slots in the latch device and engage the annular engagement surface 86 of the sleeve on the underlying valve device. The supports 74 around the base 72 of the valve device assist in orienting the keys with the slots. As the element is inserted into the housing, the lower free edges of the keys press down against the sleeve 84 of the latch device, and cause the latch device to bend outwardly and pull the fingers 80 radially outward from the standpipe. As the fingers are pulled outward, the distal ends 82 of the fingers are pulled outward from groove 62, thus releasing the latch device and allowing the latch device to slide axially downward along the standpipe. Again, it is possible that only a single key extending through the slots in the latch device may suffice to unlock the latch device, although that this may cause cocking of the element and/or the latch device, and so at least three equally-spaced keys are preferred. In any case, simultaneously with the fingers being released by the engagement of the keys against the sleeve, the radially wider and axially shorter portions 119 of the keys engage the upper surface of the annular base 72 of the valve device and push the valve device axially downward along the standpipe. The keys are dimensioned to push the valve device downward sufficient to fully uncover opening 49 (see the right-hand side of FIG. 4). After the element is installed, fluid can pass through opening 49 in the standpipe, and thus pass to outlet port 39. Since the opening 49 is located toward the lower end of the housing, typically below the level of fuel in the housing, this reduces the chance of pulling air in the system when the opening 49 is uncovered. It should be appreciated that only one or two of the key(s) 116 may have a radially wider and axially shorter portion as at 119 to engage the upper surface of the base 72 of the valve device, however it is possible that this may also cause cocking of the valve device and/or element, and so it is preferred that the keys have at least three of such portions to engage the valve device. Alternatively, if the keys are straight, the keys could merely extend through the slots 78 and engage the sleeve of the latch device 68 to unlock the latch device from the standpipe, while the base 108 of the end cap 96 could engage other structure, such as supports 74 on the valve device 64, to cause the valve device to move downwardly. It should also be apparent that there are many combinations of keys, slots and tabs that will perform the results of the present invention. It is merely necessary that the keys each have some configuration that fits between the slots to engage the latch device 68 and the valve device 64. The sealing lip 112 around the base 108 of the end cap seals to the sleeve 70 of the valve device before the opening 49 is uncovered, thereby preventing unfiltered fuel and contaminants from entering opening 49 along the exterior of valve sleeve 70. Likewise, O-ring 63 provides a fluid-tight seal between standpipe 50 and sleeve 70 during the sliding movement of the sleeve along the standpipe to prevent unfiltered fuel and contaminants from reaching opening 49 along the interior of valve sleeve 70. A groove 128 can be provided in the exterior surface of standpipe 50 to receive the distal ends 82 of fingers 80 when the valve device is in its open position. Groove 128 can have an upper chamfered or tapered edge to facilitate the movement of the distal ends 82 of fingers 80 into and out of the groove. Since the valve device is normally in an open position, this prevents the fingers from taking a set over time, and assures that the fingers will properly engage the locking groove 62 when the valve device is moved to its closed position. The downward movement of the element can be limited by an annular shoulder 129 (FIG. 1) on the upper end of standpipe 50 which engages the upper end cap 94 to prevent the element from pushing the valve element too far down along the standpipe. As indicated above, the dimensions, number and location of the tabs and slots in the latch device, and the number and location of the keys on the end cap, determine the correct fit of the filter element in the housing. The dimensions, number and location of the keys, tabs and slots can be chosen such that only particular filter elements are only insertable in certain housings. This allows control over the type of element useable with a housing and prevents the filter from being used without a filter element. When it is desired to remove the filter element and replace the filter element with a fresh element, the lid 24 of the housing is removed, and the element is simply pulled out of the upper end of the housing. As the element is removed, the spring 90 assists in moving the element upwardly, as well as moving the latch device and valve device upwardly such that the valve device again closes the opening 49. The spring 90 also provides a bending moment on the latch device to force the fingers back into groove 62 to lock the latch device along the standpipe. The opening 49 is closed by valve sleeve 70 before the annular base 108 of the end cap unseals from the valve sleeve, which prevents unclean fuel and contaminants from entering the opening. The close contact between sleeve 70 and standpipe 50 also provides point contact to prevent fluid leakage into opening 49. A shoulder 120 on standpipe 50 limits the upward movement of the valve sleeve. According to a second embodiment of the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 12-16, the fuel filter, indicated generally at 130, can include a pair of mateable housing portions 132, 133, which define an interior cavity 134. The housing portions 132, 133 are threadably connected, and an O-seal 135 can be provided between the housing portions to ensure a fluid-tight seal. An inlet 136 and an outlet 137 are provided in the upper housing portion 132, and the upper housing portion includes an opening 138 for receipt of a pump assembly. Lower housing portion 133 serves as a collection bowl, and includes a drain 139. A water sensor (not shown) can also be provided in the lower housing portion, as in the first embodiment. A filter element 140 is mounted within the housing portions and comprises a ring-shaped media circumscribing a central cavity 141. Filter element 140, similar to filter element 92 in the first embodiment, can be any filter media appropriate for the particular application, and includes an upper or first annular end cap 142 and a lower or second annular end cap 143. The end caps 142, 143 are bonded to the media in an appropriate manner. The filter element 140 is supported on a series of flanges or ribs 144 integral with the lower housing portion. A pump assembly, indicated generally at 148, is also mounted between the housing portions, and includes an electric pump 150 with integrated drive motor, and an upper cap or cover 152 having an electrical connection 154 for the motor. Pump 150 can be any conventional type of pump appropriate for the particular application. One such pump is available from AIRTEX PRODUCTS of Fairfield, Ill., with a flow rate of 110 Liters/Minute at 60 psi. Cover 152 is removeably attached to pump 150 with a series of spring fingers 156. An O-ring 157 is provided between the pump 150 and the upper housing portion 132 to provide a fluid-tight seal. A cylindrical inlet or return pipe 158 with a central flow passage 159 extends downwardly from the pump, and has an opening 160 along the length of the pump near the inlet lower end to provide a passage for fuel to the pump. The pump assembly 148 is received through opening 138 in upper housing portion 132, and is received in the cavity 141 of the filter element. Cover 152 is threadably and removeably attached to upper housing portion 132. An O-ring 155 can be provided between the cover 152 and upper housing portion 132 to provide a fluid-tight seal. The filter 130 can include additional features, such as a pressure regulator 161, thermal valve 162 and heater 164 to control the flow and quality of the fuel entering and exiting the filter. These components are conventional in nature and will not be described herein for sake of brevity. The components are controllable through an exterior connection (not shown). In any case, fuel through inlet 136 passes around heater 164 and into filter element cavity 134. The fuel then passes radially inward through the filter element 142 and into the central cavity 141 of the element. Particulates and contaminants collect on the exterior surface of the filter element and fall down into the lower housing portion, and can be periodically removed through drain 139. The pump draws the fuel upwardly through the housing, where the fuel is then directed outwardly through the pressure regulator 161 to outlet 137. When the filter element needs to be replaced, the lower housing portion 133 is removed, and the filter element can then be accessed, removed from the lower housing portion, and replaced with a fresh filter element. Similarly, when it is necessary to access the pump 150 for inspection and/or repair, cover 152 can be removed from the upper housing portion and the pump pulled out of the cavity 134. A valve structure, indicated generally at 166, surrounds the inlet pipe from the pump assembly, and controls the flow of fuel through opening 160. An outwardly-facing locking groove 167 is provided proximate to, and above opening 160. A second groove above opening 160 carries an O-ring 168. A larger groove 169 is provided toward the lower end of the inlet pipe 158 (between the opening 160 and the end of the pipe), which carries a larger O-ring 171. The valve structure includes the valve device 64 (FIG. 8) and latch device 68 (FIG. 9) as described above with respect to the first embodiment. The sleeve 70 of the valve device is dimensioned to be received closely around the inlet pipe 158 of the pump assembly, while the fingers 80 on the latch device closely surround the inlet pipe, and are biased somewhat inwardly so that they engage groove 167. The latch device and valve device are held on inlet pipe 158 by the relatively large O-ring 172 at the lower end of the pipe. The orientation of the valve device and latch device relative to each other remains the same as in the first embodiment, with the engagement surface 86 of the latch device facing the annular base 72 of the valve device, however the valve device and latch device are reversed (flipped over), as compared to the first embodiment, such that the valve device is located closer to the lower end of the housing than the latch device. A compression spring 172 surrounds the inlet pipe 158 and extends between the spring stop 87 on the latch device 68, and the lower surface 173 of the pump 150, which defines an opposite spring stop. As in the first embodiment, the upper end cap 142 of the filter element has an annular configuration with a central opening 174 dimensioned to closely receive pump 150. A flexible lip 175 can be provided around opening 174 (as in the first embodiment) to provide a fluid-tight seal with pump 150. As shown best in FIGS. 15 and 16, the lower end cap 143 likewise has an annular configuration, with an annular portion 176 fixed to the end of the media, and a valve actuating portion, indicated generally at 177. The valve-actuating portion 177 bounds a central opening 178 defined by annular portion 176, and includes a cylindrical portion 180 extending axially inward into the central cavity 141 of the filter element to a distal end. The cylindrical portion 180 bounds the inner diameter of the media ring 140. A slightly smaller cylindrical portion 181 extends outwardly from the filter element and is closed by a flat, radially-extending end wall 182. The smaller cylindrical portion 181 extends downwardly from an annular base 183 provided radially inward of the annular portion 176. Cylindrical portion 181 and end wall 182 define a cup-shaped cavity 184, having an opening 185, indicated generally at 185, which receives the inlet pipe 158 of pump 150. O-ring 170 provides a fluid-tight seal between the inlet pipe 158 and the inside surface of cylindrical portion 181 (see, e.g., FIG. 12). O-ring 171 also provides vibration damping of the inlet pipe 158 within cylindrical portion 181. One or more barbs 186 are provided on the exterior surface of the cylindrical portion 181, and project radially outward. Barbs 186 cooperate with fingers 190 extending axially upward from the lower end of the lower housing portion 132 to temporarily retain the filter element in the housing. The fingers 190 grasp the barbs 186 and hold the filter element in the lower housing portion, but allow the filter element to be uncoupled from the lower housing portion merely by pulling the filter element away from the lower housing portion. A plurality of keys, as at 194, are provided internally of the valve-actuating portion 177 of the lower end cap 143. Keys 194 are illustrated as thin and flat strips, with opposing side surfaces, similar to the keys 116 in the first embodiment, and are equally-spaced in a spoke-like arrangement around the interior of the valve-actuating portion. Each key has one edge attached directly to the cylindrical portion 180 and another edge attached directly to the annular base 183, although again, the keys could be attached to only one of these components. Each key extends axially upward, away from the annular base 183, and radially inward from the cylindrical portion toward the central axis. Certain of the keys, such as at 195, can extend radially-inward and axially downward a greater extent to provide rigidity for the valve-actuating portion 177 as well as facilitate locating the keys of the filter element in the slots in the latch device. As in the first embodiment, each key can have a “step”, that is, an axially longer and radially thinner portion as at 198, and an axially shorter and radially wider portion as at 199. Again, each key can also be simply straight, and extend radially inward from the cylindrical portion 181 and axially outward from the base 183 the same amount over the length and width of the keys. The lower end cap, including the annular portion 176 and valve actuating portion 177 (with keys 194), is preferably formed unitarily in one piece (e.g., molded from plastic). The keys 194 of the lower end cap 143 of the filter element, and the tabs 76 and slots 78 on the latch device 64 are arranged such that when the filter element is inserted into the housing, at least a portion of the keys can fit through the slots 78. The axially longer and radially thinner portions 198 of the keys fit through the slots 78 in the latch device and engage the engagement surface 86 of the sleeve 84 on the valve device. Similar to the first embodiment, as the element is inserted upwardly into the housing, the keys press against the sleeve 84, and cause the latch device to bend and pull the fingers 80 radially outward from the inlet pipe. As the fingers are pulled outward, the distal ends 82 of the fingers are pulled outward from locking groove 167, thus releasing the latch device and allowing the latch device to slide axially upward along the inlet pipe. Simultaneously with the fingers 80 being released, the radially wider and axially shorter portions 199 of the keys engage the lower surface of the base 72 of the valve device to also push the valve device axially upward along the inlet pipe, thus uncovering the opening 160. Fuel can thereby flow through opening 160 and then to outlet port 137. The keys 194 provide flow paths for the fuel to flow from the radially-inner surface of element to the opening 160 in the inlet pipe. A groove 200 (FIG. 14) can be provided upwardly of the locking groove 167 to receive the distal ends of the fingers when the valve device is in its open position, such that the fingers do not take set over time. Groove 200 can have a chamfer or taper on its downward edge to facilitate the movement of the fingers out of the groove into its closed position. As in the first embodiment, the dimensions, number and location of the tabs and slots in the latch device, and the dimensions, number and location of the keys 194 on the end cap, determine the correct fit of the filter element in the housing. The dimensions, number and location of the keys, tabs and slots, can be chosen such that particular filter elements are only insertable in certain housings. This allows control over the type of element useable with a housing. When it is desired to remove the filter element and replace the filter element with a fresh element, the lower housing portion 133 is removed, and the element is simply pulled out from the lower end of the housing. As the element is removed, the spring 171 urges the latch device and valve device downwardly in the housing, such that the distal ends 82 of fingers 80 eventually engage groove 167, and lock the latch device along the inlet pipe. The valve device 64 is also moved axially downward into blocking relation with opening 160 along pipe 158. It is noted that the valve structure will likewise move to a closed position when the pump assembly is removed from the housing (but when the element is not changed). The keyed portion of the lower end cap 96 of FIG. 6 can alternatively be provided as a separate device, as indicated generally at 210 in FIGS. 17 and 18. The key device 210 includes an annular base 212 dimensioned to fit within the cylindrical portion 104 of the lower end cap and against base 110, and a plurality of thin, flat keys as at 216 projecting axially away from the annular base 212 and radially-inward toward the central axis of the filter element. Keys 216 are similar to keys 116, and comprise thin and flat strips, equally-spaced in a spoke-like arrangement. Each key has one edge attached directly to the cylindrical base 212. One free edge of each key extends outward, away from the base 212, while another free edge extends radially inward toward the central axis of the filter element. As with keys 116, each key can have a “step”, that is, an axially longer and radially thinner portion as at 218, and an axially shorter and radially wider portion as at 219. Again, the number, location and dimension of the keys can vary depending upon the particular application. An O-ring seal 222 is provided in a groove facing axially-outward from the upper flat surface of base 212, and provides a fluid-tight seal against annular base 108 of the lower end cap. A second O-ring seal 224 is provided in a groove facing radially inward from the annular base to seal against the valve sleeve. The remainder of the lower end cap 96 is the same as described above, and includes annular portion 100 fixed to the lower end of the media 92, and cylindrical portion 104 bounding the central opening 101 and extending axially inward into the central cavity 93 to a distal inner end. Annular base 108 extends radially inward from the distal inner end of the cylindrical portion, to define central opening 110. Since O-ring seals 222 and 224 provide a seal between the valve sleeve and the lower end cap, the flexible lip 112 (FIG. 6) as described above is not necessary, although the lip 112 can be used alternatively to O-ring seals 222, 224, if necessary or desirable. The key device 210 is also preferably formed unitarily from an appropriate material, such as an inexpensive plastic. Keys 216 are relatively simple to manufacture integral with the valve actuating portion, such as by using common molding techniques. When the filter element with key device 210 is inserted into the housing 22, at least a portion of the keys can fit through the slots 78 in the valve device, in the same manner as described above with respect to keys 116. The axially longer and radially thinner portions 219 of the keys 216 fit through the slots in the latch device and engage the annular engagement surface 86 of the sleeve on the underlying valve device. As the element is inserted into the housing, the keys press down against the sleeve 84, and cause the latch device to bend outwardly and pull the fingers 80 radially outward from the standpipe. As the fingers are pulled outward, the distal ends 82 of the fingers are pulled outward from groove 62, thus releasing the latch device and allowing the latch device to slide axially downward along the standpipe. Simultaneously with the fingers being released by the engagement of the keys against the sleeve, the radially wider and axially shorter portions 218 of the keys engage the upper surface of the annular base 72 of the valve device and push the valve device axially downward along the standpipe, in the same manner as described above with respect to FIG. 6. The keyed portion of the lower end cap 143 of the filter element of FIG. 16 can similarly be provided as a separate device, as illustrated generally at 230 in FIGS. 19 and 20. The key device 230 has a similar, one-piece structure as the key device 210 of FIG. 18, with an annular base 235 dimensioned to fit within the cylindrical portion 180 of the lower end cap and against base 183, and a plurality of thin, flat keys as at 236 projecting axially away from the annular base 235 and radially inward toward the central axis of the filter element. The keys 236 can have axially longer and radially thinner portions as at 240, and axially shorter and radially wider portions as at 242. The only significant difference between key device 230 of FIG. 19 and key device 210 of FIG. 18 is that key device 230 does not need additional O-0-ring seals to separate the dirty side of the element from the clean side, as the lower end cap is closed by cylindrical portion 181 and end wall 182. The remainder of the lower end cap 143 is preferably the same as described above with respect to FIG. 16. As described above with respect to FIG. 16, the keys 194 of the key device, and the tabs 76 and slots 78 on the latch device 64 are arranged such that when the filter element is inserted into the housing, at least a portion of the keys can fit through the slots 78. The axially longer and radially thinner portions 240 of the keys fit through the slots 78 in the latch device and engage the engagement surface 86 of the sleeve 84 on the valve device. Similar to the second embodiment, as the element is inserted upwardly into the housing, the keys press against the sleeve 84, and cause the latch device to bend and pull the fingers 80 radially outward from the inlet pipe. As the fingers are pulled outward, the distal ends 82 of the fingers are pulled outward from locking groove 167, thus releasing the latch device and allowing the latch device to slide axially upward along the inlet pipe. Simultaneously with the fingers 80 being released, the radially wider and axially shorter portions 242 of the keys engage the lower surface of the base 72 of the valve device to also push the valve device axially upward along the inlet pipe, thus uncovering the opening 160. As described above, the dimensions, number and location of the tabs and slots in the latch device, and the dimensions, number and location of the keys 236 on the key device, determine the correct fit of the filter element in the housing. The dimensions, number and location of the keys, tabs and slots, can be chosen such that particular filter elements are only insertable in certain housings. Thus, as described above, the fuel filter of the present invention thereby prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter housing, and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element. The valve structure is external to the central pipe, which is relatively cost-effective to manufacture and assemble. In addition, the opening to the fuel passage in the pipe is located toward the bottom end of the housing, typically below the level of fuel, to prevent air from entering the system. The principles, preferred embodiments and modes of operation of the present invention have been described in the foregoing specification. The invention which is intended to be protected herein should not, however, be construed as limited to the particular form described as it is to be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive. Variations and changes may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Many types of fuel filters (also referred to as “separators”) are known in the prior art. A popular type of fuel filter has a housing that encloses a replaceable ring-shaped filter element. The filter element ensures that impurities are removed from fuel before it is delivered to system components such as fuel injection pumps and fuel injectors. Mating portions of the housing form an interior enclosure for the element, and the housing portions may be separated for replacement of a spent filter element. Periodic replacement of the filter element is required so that the filter element will not become so loaded with impurities that fuel flow is restricted. Cost and ease of manufacture have been important considerations with such elements. However, problems may arise when such filter elements are replaced. One problem is that filter elements with different sizes and/or filtration capabilities often have identical mounting configurations and can fit on the same filter head. However, use of the wrong filter can cause poor engine performance and allow undesirable amounts of contaminants to pass through the fuel system. Another problem is that individuals may remove a spent filter element and simply re-attach the housing portions without a fresh element. While the engine may operate (at least for a short period of time), this can be detrimental to the engine. A still further problem is that disturbance of the spent element during replacement may cause collected impurities to fall off the element. In some designs, these impurities may pass into the outlet of the filter housing and reach the components downstream in the fuel system. To reduce and at least partially eliminate these problems, the filter assembly shown in Patent Specification U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,923, owned by the Assignee of the present application, was developed. This filter includes a unique replaceable filter element that is attached to a removable cover. The housing has an internal standpipe with an opening at the top end. When the element is removed from the housing, the fuel level in the housing falls below the opening in the standpipe. As a result, the impurity-laden fuel left in the housing is less likely to reach the outlet. Likewise, when a new element is installed in the housing, only fuel that has been purified by passing through the media of the element is enabled to reach the opening and pass out of the housing. While this filter design has many advantages, if the filter element is not removed carefully, impurity-laden fuel in the housing or from the outer surface of the element may fall into the opening in the standpipe. If this happens, some impurities may still reach the downstream components of the fuel system. In addition, the cover is discarded with each spent element. This is undesirable from a conservation and solid waste standpoint. It is generally desirable to minimize the amount of material discarded, particularly if a discarded element must be treated as hazardous waste. The cover also represents a portion of the cost of the replacement element. As a result this design adds cost to the replacement element. Further, the element may be separated from the cover, and the cover re-attached to the housing without a fresh element also being installed. As such, it still does not fully address the problems associated with operating an engine without a filter element installed. A further improved filter is shown in Patent Specification U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,065, also owned by the assignee of the present application. In this filter, the filter element is received around a standpipe extending centrally in the housing. A spring-biased valve element internal to the standpipe is normally closed, and can be engaged and moved to an open position by a projection on the element when the element is properly installed in the housing. This filter provides the advantages of the '923 patent, as well as prevents impurity-laden fuel from passing through the standpipe when the element is changed. The assembly also prevents operation of the engine without an appropriate element in place. The filter shown in the '065 patent has received wide-spread acceptance in the marketplace. Nevertheless, it is believed that there exists a need for a still further filter which has the advantages of the '065 patent, but where the valve structure is located exterior to the standpipe. Such a valve structure can be easier to manufacture and assemble, thereby reducing the cost of the assembly. It is also believed there is a demand for a filter where the opening into the standpipe is located toward the lower end of the filter. This can prevent or at least reduce the chance of pulling air into the system, as the opening is kept below the level of the fuel. As such, it is believed that there exists a need for a further improved fuel filter which overcomes at least some of the above-described drawbacks. According to one aspect of the present invention there is provided a filter subassembly comprising a filter element including a ring of filter media circumscribing a central axis. The ring has a first end and a second end. First and second end caps are fixed to the first and second ends, respectively, of the filter media. The second end cap has an annular end cap portion sealingly bonded to the second end of the filter media and a valve-actuating portion. The valve-actuating portion includes an axially extending cylindrical portion connected to the annular end cap portion and circumscribing the inner diameter of the annular end cap portion. An annular base is connected to the cylindrical portion and extends radially inward from the cylindrical portion to define a first central opening which can receive a pipe. At least one key is provided with the valve actuating portion having an engaging portion radially inward spaced from the cylindrical portion and axially spaced away from said annular base. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION <EOH>A new and unique fuel filter is thereby provided that prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. The filter is simple and low-cost to manufacture and assemble, and prevents air from entering the system. According to the present invention, a pipe extends centrally within the housing, and a valve structure is provided externally to the pipe. In one embodiment, the pipe is a standpipe fluidly connected to the outlet port; while in another embodiment the pipe is an inlet pipe to a fuel pump in the housing. In either embodiment, the pipe includes a central fluid passage and an opening into the passage toward the lower end of the pipe. A radially-outward facing groove or channel is provided circumferentially around the pipe, near the opening. The valve structure for the filter includes a valve device and a latch device, with the valve device including a sleeve closely surrounding the pipe. The valve device further includes an annular, radially-outward projecting base surrounding the sleeve. A series of radially-outward projecting tabs are spaced around the periphery of the base. The valve device can be easily manufactured unitarily in one piece from inexpensive material, such as plastic. The latch device for the valve structure includes a series of deformable fingers in an annular array closely surrounding the pipe. The distal ends of the fingers are normally aligned with and engage the groove in the pipe to prevent the latch device from moving axially along the pipe. The latch device, in the locked position, supports the valve device in a position such that the valve sleeve blocks flow through the opening in the pipe. The latch device further includes an annular sleeve radially outwardly-spaced from the fingers. One end of the sleeve, located away from the valve device, is connected to the fingers, while the other end of the sleeve, located adjacent the valve device, defines an annular engagement surface. The latch device likewise can be easily manufactured in one piece from inexpensive material, such as plastic. According to the first embodiment, the housing is designed for a “top-loaded” element, and includes a removable lid. In this embodiment, the latch device is located between the valve device and the lower end of the housing, with the annular engagement surface of the latch device facing upwardly in the housing and against the base of the valve device. In the second embodiment, the housing is designed for a “bottom loaded” element, and the latch device is located between the valve device and the pump, with the annular engagement surface of the latch device facing downwardly in the housing, and against the base of the valve device. In either embodiment, a compression spring surrounds the pipe and urges the latch device toward the valve device. The filter element for the fuel filter includes a ring of filter media circumscribing a central axis and having upper and lower end caps. Each end cap has an annular portion bonded to the filter media. The lower end cap has an axially-extending cylindrical portion connected to and bounding the inner diameter of the annular end cap portion, and an annular base projecting radially-inward from the cylindrical portion. The annular base closely surrounds the sleeve of the valve device in the first embodiment, and the inlet pipe in the second embodiment. A key device is located internally of the cylindrical portion of the lower end cap. The key device includes an annular base dimensioned to fit within the cylindrical portion, and a plurality of thin, flat keys projecting axially away from the annular base. The keys project axially-outward (i.e., downward) from the media ring in the first embodiment (the “top-loaded design”); and axially-inward (i.e., upward) into the media ring in the second embodiment (the “bottom-loaded” design). The keys preferably include a step defining an axially longer and radially thinner portion, and an axially shorter and radially wider portion. The key device, including the base and keys, is also preferably formed unitarily, in one piece, from inexpensive material, such as plastic. In the first embodiment, a first O-ring is provided in an axially-outward facing groove in the base of the key device to seal against the annular base of the lower end cap; while a second O-ring seal is provided in a radially-inward facing groove in the base to seal against the valve sleeve. The key device is located between the lower end cap of the filter element and the valve device when the filter element is installed within the housing. In the first embodiment, when the filter element is inserted from the upper end of the housing, the lo keys of the key device are received downwardly between the tabs on the valve device. The longer portions of the keys engage the upward-facing engagement surface on the latch device and cause the latch device to bend, which in turn causes the fingers to move radially outward from their locking engagement with the groove in the standpipe. At the same time, the shorter portions of the keys engage the base of the valve device and cause the valve device to move downwardly along the standpipe, against the latch device, and out of blocking relation with the opening in the standpipe. When the element is properly positioned in the housing, the opening to the standpipe is completely open to allow fuel flow through the fuel filter. In the second embodiment, when the element is bottom-loaded, the keys of the key device are similarly received between the tabs on the valve device, with the longer portions of the keys engaging the downward-facing engagement surface on the latch device. This similarly causes the latch device to bend, and the fingers to move radially outward from their locking engagement with the groove in the pipe. The shorter portions of the keys at the same time engage the lower surface of the base of the valve device and cause the valve device to move upwardly along the pipe (against the latch device), uncovering the flow opening in the pipe. When the element is properly positioned in the housing, the opening to the inlet pipe is completely open to allow flow through the filter assembly. The dimensions, number and location of the keys on the key device and the tabs on the valve device can be selected to allow only a specific filter element to be used with a particular housing. An incorrect geometry number or arrangement of keys and/or tabs will prevent a filter element from being properly located in the housing. The keys and tabs are relatively easy to fabricate, using simple molding operations. Once a filter element with a proper selection of keys is installed in the housing, fluid can be provided into the housing and pass through the filter media ring to be filtered. When the element is to be replaced, the spring assists in removing the element from the housing, and returns the valve device to a position blocking the opening in the pipe. This prevents unfiltered fuel and contaminants from passing through the pipe and downstream in the system. The location of the opening in the lower end of the pipe is below the typical level of fuel in the housing, which prevents air from passing downstream through the system. The key device, valve device and latch device are easily assembled over the standpipe and inlet pipe during assembly of the filter housing. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention provides many of the benefits of the prior art filters such as preventing an improper element from being installed within the housing, and preventing operation of the filter without and element in place. In addition, the filter is simple and low cost to manufacture and assemble, and prevents air from entering the system. | 20041112 | 20060704 | 20050407 | 65892.0 | 3 | SAVAGE, MATTHEW O | FUEL FILTER WITH KEYS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,355 | ACCEPTED | Low profile circuit board connector | A printed circuit board connector has a mounting portion mounted on a first side of a printed circuit board and an elastically biased contact portion extending from the mounting portion. The mounting portion is enlarged for vacuum pick up. The contact portion has a substantially S-shaped cross section and protrudes beyond a second side of the printed circuit board opposite the first side. The connector may be used with a single-sided printed circuit board where the connector provides an electrical coupling from the contact portion beyond the second side of the circuit board to a mounting pad on which the connector is mounted on the first side. The contact portion is elastically deformable from between a first state protruding beyond the second side of the printed circuit board to a second state substantially flush with the second side of the printed circuit board. | 1. A printed circuit board connector system comprising: a printed circuit board having a solder pad disposed on a first side of the printed circuit board and further having a closed aperture, the aperture passing through the printed circuit board from the first side to a second side of the printed circuit board opposite the first side; a connector having a mounting portion adapted to be mounted to the solder pad and a contact portion extending from the mounting portion, the contact portion protruding through the aperture beyond the second side of the printed circuit board; and a component disposed beyond the second side of the printed circuit board in contact with the contact portion. 2. The system of claim 1 wherein the mounting portion is substantially flat. 3. The system of claim 1 wherein the mounting portion is enlarged for vacuum pick up. 4. The system of claim 1 wherein the aperture passes through the solder pad. 5. (canceled) 6. (canceled) 7. The system of claim 1 wherein the contact portion comprises a cross section that is substantially S-shaped. 8. The system of claim 1 wherein the contact portion comprises a coined contact surface. 9. The system of claim 1 wherein the printed circuit board is single-sided and the connector provides an electrical coupling from the electrical component beyond the second side of the circuit board to the solder pad on which the connector is mounted on the first side. 10. The system of claim 1 wherein the printed circuit board is a surface mount board. 11. The system of claim 1 wherein the contact portion is elastically deformable from between a first state protruding beyond the second side of the printed circuit board to a second state substantially flush with the second side of the printed circuit board. 12. The system of claim 1 wherein the contact portion is elastically deformable. 13. A surface mount connector comprising: a mounting portion comprising a vacuum pick-up surface, the mounting portion adapted to be mounted to a surface mount pad on a circuit board, the circuit board having a thickness in a direction perpendicular to the circuit board at the pad; and a contact portion extending through the circuit board from the mounting portion a first distance in the perpendicular direction at least as large as the thickness of the circuit board, the contact portion being elastically deformable at least in the perpendicular direction. 14. The connector of claim 13 wherein the mounting portion has a perimeter defining an envelope that is wider than the contact portion extending through the circuit board. 15. The connector of claim 13 wherein the contact portion comprises a plurality of bends within a second distance measured in the perpendicular direction from the mounting portion, the second distance being less than or equal to the thickness of the circuit board. 16. The connector of claim 13 wherein the vacuum pick-up surface faces away from the contact portion. 17. The connector of claim 13 wherein the connector is adapted to be mounted to a single sided circuit board. 18. The connector of claim 13 further comprising a coined contact surface on the contact portion. 19. A method of connecting to a printed circuit board, the method comprising: soldering a first end of a contact to a surface mount pad on a first side of a printed circuit board; extending a second end of the contact through a closed aperture in the printed circuit board and protruding beyond a second side of the printed circuit board; and connecting a component disposed beyond the second side of the printed circuit board to the circuit board by coupling the component to the second end of the contact. 20. The method of claim 19 further comprising deflecting the second end of the contact when the second end of the contact is coupled to the component. 21. The method of claim 20 wherein deflecting the second end of the contact comprises elastically deflecting the second end of the contact. 22. The method of claim 20 wherein deflecting the second end of the contact comprises deflecting the second end of the contact in a direction substantially perpendicular to the second side of the printed circuit board. 23. The method of claim 20 wherein deflecting the second end of the contact comprises deflecting the second end of the contact in a direction other than substantially perpendicular to the second side of the printed circuit board. 24. The method of claim 20 further comprising limiting the deflection of the second end of the contact by abutting the component with the second side of the printed circuit board. 25. (canceled) 26. The method of claim 19 wherein contacting soldering the first end of the contact to the first side of the printed circuit board comprises placing the contact with a vacuum pick. 27. The method of claim 26 wherein placing the contact with a vacuum Pick comprises lifting the contact by a surface at the first end of the contact that faces away from the second end. 28. The method of claim 19 wherein the first end comprises a flat surface for engaging a vacuum pick-up. 29. The method of claim 19 wherein the second end has a generally S-shaped configuration. | BACKGROUND In the field of electronics, printed circuit boards (PCBs) provide a compact structure for packaging electrical components and circuits. PCBs are commonly used in electronic assemblies, so it is typically the case that electrical signals are conveyed between the PCBs and other components of a larger assembly. To that end, multi-pin connectors provide one mechanism for establishing an electrical coupling to traces on the PCB for the purpose of transmitting signals to and from the PCB. Multi-pin connectors provide an advantage of packaging a relatively large number of signal conduits in a small volume. In other cases, it is also necessary to provide point connectivity to a relatively small number of traces on a PCB. For example, a single contact is sometimes used to connect a PCB to an antenna or to a reference voltage such as ground. In these cases, it is sometimes feasible or necessary to use a single contact that couples the PCB to a separate component in the electronic assembly. A variety of solutions are known for providing point-contact connectivity to a PCB. Leaf springs and coil springs are examples of the types of contacts used for this purpose. In fact, leaf springs and coil springs are also used in multi-pin connectors, which may simply be thought of as a conglomeration of point-contact connections. These individual contacts are often spring biased to help establish sufficient contact force between conducting surfaces and improve electrical connectivity. Unfortunately, coil springs and leaf springs are not always preferable for certain applications. As an example, coil springs are generally characterized by high impedances at RF frequencies making them impractical for use with antennas. Leaf springs offer a viable alternative to coil springs, particularly for use in conveying high frequency signals. Leaf-spring contacts are known in the art and are generally available off the shelf. However, certain disadvantages are present with existing solutions. For instance, many existing leaf spring contacts have a limited spring range, making them impractical for use where an electrical connection needs to be established between the PCB and a component that is positioned a relatively large distance away from the PCB. This situation would seem ideally suited for a coil spring were it not for the impedance limitations discussed above. Furthermore, many leaf spring contacts have a large pick-up surface for lifting and placing the contact on a PCB or into an assembly. This pick-up surface is particularly required where a vacuum pick-up is used to place the contact during assembly. With conventional leaf spring contacts, the enlarged pick-up surface is placed at a distal end of the contact opposite the mounting surface (i.e., where the contact is mounted to the PCB or other component). Thus, the pick-up surface also functions as a connection surface once the contact is placed in the electronic assembly. Some disadvantages to this configuration include that the contact can be quite large and that the connecting surface is flat. A flat surface is not always optimal as a contact surface. In certain instances, it may be desirable to have a coined or shaped contact surface to control the characteristics of the electrical interface. Another disadvantage of existing leaf spring contacts pertains to the elasticity of the contact. Spring biased contacts have a characteristic resiliency and the internal reaction forces caused by deflection of the contact help establish sufficient physical contact and electrical connectivity between electrical components. These reaction forces are an inherent property of the contact that are repeatable as long as the contact substantially retains its original shape. Certain factors that can adversely affect the shape of the contact include creep, fatigue, and plastic deformation. Creep and fatigue are often produced in high temperature, high stress environments and can generally be avoided by proper design and selection of the contact. Plastic deformation tends to change the shape of the contact and often occurs during assembly or use when the contact is deflected beyond the yield point of the base material. In layman's terms, the contact is bent so that it no longer makes sufficient, if any, contact between electrical components. In existing applications, a dedicated stop is generally required to limit deflection and prevent over-compression of a contact. SUMMARY The present invention is directed to a PCB contact adapted to provide electrical connectivity between an electrical component and a PCB. An exemplary embodiment of the PCB contact is a one-piece construction having a mounting portion and a contact portion. The contact may be mounted on a printed circuit board with the mounting portion adapted to be mounted on a first side of the printed circuit board and the elastically biased contact portion extending from the mounting portion and protruding beyond a second side of the printed circuit board opposite the first side. The mounting portion may be generally flattened and enlarged for vacuum pick-up, such as for assembly or mounting to a circuit board. In one embodiment, the mounting portion may be adapted for soldering to a surface mount circuit board. The contact portion extends through or around the circuit board from the mounting portion a distance at least as large as the thickness of the circuit board. The contact portion is elastically deformable and may pass through an aperture or slot in the circuit board or around a side of the circuit board. The elastically biased contact portion may comprise a cross section that is substantially S-shaped. Further, the contact portion may also have a coined contact surface. Since the contact portion protrudes beyond the side of the PCB opposite the mounting portion, the PCB contact may be particularly suited for use on a single sided circuit board. The contact may advantageously provide an electrical coupling from the contact portion beyond the second side of the circuit board to the mounting pad on the first side. An electrical component may be placed in physical contact with the PCB contact and compress the contact portion. The elasticity of the contact portion allows the deflection force to be applied in different directions, including in a direction substantially perpendicular to the second side of the printed circuit board. Also, where the contact portion protrudes beyond the opposite side of the mounting portion, the contact portion may be elastically deformable between a first extended state to a second compressed state substantially flush with the second side of the printed circuit board. As a result, the second side of the printed circuit board thus operates as a stop limiting deflection of the contact to elastic deflection, which helps prevent damage potentially caused by excessive compression of the contact. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a partial perspective view of an installed PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a partial bottom perspective view of a PCB adapted for use with a PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a sectioned partial perspective view of an installed PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a partial perspective view of a PCB mounting configuration for a PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a partial perspective view of a PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a partial perspective view of a PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a partial perspective view of a PCB contact according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 9A and 9B are partial side and partial plan views, respectively, of a PCB contact assembly according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 10A and 10B are partial side and partial plan views, respectively, of a PCB contact assembly according to one embodiment of the present invention; and FIGS. 11A and 11B are partial side and partial plan views, respectively, of a PCB contact assembly according to one embodiment of the present invention; DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention relates to a printed circuit board (PCB) contact adapted to provide electrical connectivity to one or more electrical traces or planes on a PCB. The contact may be installed on a PCB that is itself installed in a larger electronics assembly such as a mobile wireless device, radio device, handheld electronic device, or any other suitable wired or wireless device. FIG. 1 shows one embodiment of a PCB contact 10 suitable for this purpose. The PCB contact 10 is a relatively thin conductive device that has a mounting portion 12 and a contact portion 14 extending from the mounting portion 12. In one embodiment, the contact 10 has a substantially uniform thickness of approximately 0.2 millimeters, though it should be understood that other sizes may be appropriate depending on the details of a particular application and the strength of the contact material. Suitable contact 10 materials may include alloys of copper, brass, beryllium copper, stainless steel, and other conductive contact materials known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the contact is constructed of a phosphor bronze material. The mounting portion 12 is generally flat and enlarged to provide a surface suitable for vacuum pick-up. That is, the mounting portion 12 is sufficiently large to allow a vacuum pick-up to lift and place the PCB contact 10 into an assembly such as on a PCB. A first surface 30 of the mounting portion 12 faces the direction of contact portion 14. A second, opposing surface 32 faces away from the contact portion 14. The contact portion 14 has a generally S-shaped cross section. A first part 18 of the contact portion 16 extends from the mounting portion 12. The first part 18 of the contact section protrudes generally vertically from the mounting portion 12 and transitions into a generally horizontally disposed intermediate part 20 of the contact portion. The intermediate part 20 traverses a path extending from the first part 18 near the edge of the mounting portion 12 and towards the center of the mounting portion 12 where the intermediate part 20 transitions to a second part 22. The second part 22 of the contact portion 14 has a substantially arcuate shape that extends from the intermediate part 20 away from the mounting portion 12 towards an apex at the contact surface 24 and to an end 26 that slopes down towards the mounting portion 12. In general, the contact portion 14 may extend above the mounting portion substantially within an envelope defined by the perimeter of the mounting portion 12. This S-shaped cross section of the contact portion 14 may provide several advantages. On the one hand, the shape of the contact portion 14 spans a relatively large distance relative to the size of the contact 10 thus providing connectivity between a component and a PCB that are spaced apart. In addition, the shape of the contact portion improves the elasticity of the contact portion 14, allowing the contact portion 14 to deflect in the direction of contact force F, which may be in a direction other than strictly perpendicular to mounting portion 12. In other words, the contact surface 24 may deflect in the direction of contact force F without any unnecessary or undesirable lateral sliding deflection. As a result, when a component (not explicitly shown in FIG. 1) is placed in physical contact with the contact surface 24, the contact portion 14 may compress, but the connection between the contact surface 24 and the component potentially remains consistently stable. Furthermore, the compression of contact portion 14 creates an equal but opposite reaction force that tends to maintain contact between the contact surface 24 and the component. Other embodiments of the contact portion 14 are certainly feasible. Design constraints may dictate that the contact portion 14 extend laterally outside the envelope above the mounting portion 12. Similarly, the shape of the contact portion 14 may assume a form other than the S-shape portrayed in the embodiments shown in the Figures. Thus, the embodiment shown in the Figures represents a single compact solution. FIG. 2 shows the contact 10 mounted on a pad 26 located on a first side 36 of a PCB 28. PCB 28 may be a surface mount board or a conventional through-hole board. Pad 26 may be connected to a trace or grounding plane (not shown) in the PCB 28. In FIG. 2, the contact 10 is oriented upside down compared to the orientation shown in FIG. 1. Thus, first surface 30 of mounting portion 12 is positioned in contact with pad 26 while second surface 32 of mounting portion 12 is exposed. With this orientation, second surface 32 may advantageously provide a surface by which a vacuum pick-up may lift and place the contact 10 onto pad 26 of PCB 28. The contact portion 14 of contact 10 is positioned within an aperture 34 in the PCB 28. A clear view of the pad 26 and aperture 34 in PCB 28 are shown in FIG. 3, where the contact 10 is removed for clarity. In the embodiment shown, the aperture 34 has a generally slotted configuration where the length L of the slot is greater than the width W of the slot. In one embodiment, the width W of the slot is about 1 millimeter and the length L of the slot is about 4 millimeters. The slotted aperture 34 provides an open volume in which the contact portion 14 (see FIG. 2) is placed. The shape of the aperture 34 may certainly be altered as needed. For instance, a rectangular or circular shape may also be used. Aperture 34 extends through the PCB to allow the contact portion 14 to protrude beyond the opposite second side 38 (i.e., opposite first side 36 and mounting pad 26) of the PCB 28 as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. FIG. 5 includes a perspective section view illustrating the contact portion 14 positioned within the PCB aperture 34. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, the contact surface 24 is located approximately 0.8 mm above side 38. With this configuration, the contact surface 24 is exposed and accessible from the second side 38 of the PCB 28 while the mounting portion 12 is coupled to the mounting pad 26 on the first side 36 of the PCB. With the contact portion 14 positioned within aperture 34 as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, an electrical component (not shown) may be placed in electrical contact with contact surface 24. Also, the component may be positioned sufficiently close to the PCB so that contact portion 14 compresses into the aperture 34. The risk of over-compression of contact 10 with this configuration is minimized because even where an electrical component and the PCB 28 are pushed (inadvertently or otherwise) into contact with each other, the contact portion 14 may deflect only to the point where contact surface 24 is flush with second side 38. In the embodiment of the PCB contact 10 shown in FIGS. 1, 3, 4, and 5, the contact surface 24 is distributed substantially evenly across the width of the second part 22 of contact portion 14. That is, the contact surface 24 has a substantially linear engagement surface. It may be desirable to include variations of this contact surface 24. For instance, as shown in FIG. 6, contact portion 14 may be formed into a concavo-convex surface such that the engagement area at contact surface 24 is substantially reduced to a point or circular contact surface. In other embodiments, the contact surface 24 may be coined into a particular shape. In this context, a coined surface may be formed into a particular shape using a coining, stamping, pressing, rolling or other manufacturing operation. Those skilled in the art will appreciate the various methods of shaping a contact surface for improved connection characteristics. By way of non-limiting example, two alternative contact surfaces 124 and 224 are shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, respectively. In FIG. 7, the contact surface 124 is located atop an area 40 that is raised relative to the remainder of the second part 22 of contact portion 14. Consequently, the contact surface 124 is reduced to a small area of contact, perhaps even a point contact depending on the nature of the raised area 40. In FIG. 8, a similar raised area 40 is formed under the contact surface 224. However, contact surface 224 is formed into a relatively flat elliptical or circular area. In each case, contact surface 124 and 224 provides a controlled area of connectivity which can aid a designer in predicting signal transfer characteristics. In the embodiments of the PCB contact 10 and PCB 28 heretofore described, the contact 10 is installed within an aperture 34 that is spaced away from an edge of the PCB 28. This configuration is portrayed again in FIGS. 9A and 9B, where aperture 34 and PCB contact 10 are positioned at some undetermined location in the interior of PCB 28. FIG. 9A also shows an electronic component 50, which may be placed in contact with contact portion 14 to establish an electrical connection to mounting portion 12 and to PCB 28. Notably, component 50 and mounting portion 12 are disposed on opposite sides of PCB 28. Mounting portion 12 is mounted on a first side 36 of PCB 28 while electronic component 50 is positioned above second side 38. Also, as is shown in FIG. 9B, aperture 34 is a closed feature, wholly contained within the interior of PCB 28. In contrast, an alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B includes an aperture 134 that is disposed near an edge of the PCB 28 to form an open-sided slot. This particular embodiment may advantageously use less area on the PCB 28. Further, as is shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, an alternative embodiment of PCB contact 100 may be positioned near the edge of a PCB 28 that does not have an aperture. The contact portion 140 may be routed around the edge of a PCB 28 from the mounting portion 120 on one side 36 of the PCB 28 to a component 50 on the opposing side 38 of the PCB 28. This particular embodiment requires added space beyond the perimeter of the PCB 28, but may be advantageously applicable to existing products, thus potentially eliminating redesign, retooling, and scrap. The present invention may be carried out in other specific ways than those herein set forth without departing from the scope and essential characteristics of the invention. For instance, the contact portion 14, 140 may be constructed with fewer or more bends than that illustrated in the Figures. As a non-limiting example, the contact portion 14, 140 may have a single bend and thus have a substantially C-shaped cross-section. Similarly, the bends may be characterized by more or less gradual transitions. Thus, a Z-shaped contact portion is also certainly within the intended scope of the present invention. The present embodiments are, therefore, to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, and all changes coming within the meaning and equivalency range of the appended claims are intended to be embraced therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In the field of electronics, printed circuit boards (PCBs) provide a compact structure for packaging electrical components and circuits. PCBs are commonly used in electronic assemblies, so it is typically the case that electrical signals are conveyed between the PCBs and other components of a larger assembly. To that end, multi-pin connectors provide one mechanism for establishing an electrical coupling to traces on the PCB for the purpose of transmitting signals to and from the PCB. Multi-pin connectors provide an advantage of packaging a relatively large number of signal conduits in a small volume. In other cases, it is also necessary to provide point connectivity to a relatively small number of traces on a PCB. For example, a single contact is sometimes used to connect a PCB to an antenna or to a reference voltage such as ground. In these cases, it is sometimes feasible or necessary to use a single contact that couples the PCB to a separate component in the electronic assembly. A variety of solutions are known for providing point-contact connectivity to a PCB. Leaf springs and coil springs are examples of the types of contacts used for this purpose. In fact, leaf springs and coil springs are also used in multi-pin connectors, which may simply be thought of as a conglomeration of point-contact connections. These individual contacts are often spring biased to help establish sufficient contact force between conducting surfaces and improve electrical connectivity. Unfortunately, coil springs and leaf springs are not always preferable for certain applications. As an example, coil springs are generally characterized by high impedances at RF frequencies making them impractical for use with antennas. Leaf springs offer a viable alternative to coil springs, particularly for use in conveying high frequency signals. Leaf-spring contacts are known in the art and are generally available off the shelf. However, certain disadvantages are present with existing solutions. For instance, many existing leaf spring contacts have a limited spring range, making them impractical for use where an electrical connection needs to be established between the PCB and a component that is positioned a relatively large distance away from the PCB. This situation would seem ideally suited for a coil spring were it not for the impedance limitations discussed above. Furthermore, many leaf spring contacts have a large pick-up surface for lifting and placing the contact on a PCB or into an assembly. This pick-up surface is particularly required where a vacuum pick-up is used to place the contact during assembly. With conventional leaf spring contacts, the enlarged pick-up surface is placed at a distal end of the contact opposite the mounting surface (i.e., where the contact is mounted to the PCB or other component). Thus, the pick-up surface also functions as a connection surface once the contact is placed in the electronic assembly. Some disadvantages to this configuration include that the contact can be quite large and that the connecting surface is flat. A flat surface is not always optimal as a contact surface. In certain instances, it may be desirable to have a coined or shaped contact surface to control the characteristics of the electrical interface. Another disadvantage of existing leaf spring contacts pertains to the elasticity of the contact. Spring biased contacts have a characteristic resiliency and the internal reaction forces caused by deflection of the contact help establish sufficient physical contact and electrical connectivity between electrical components. These reaction forces are an inherent property of the contact that are repeatable as long as the contact substantially retains its original shape. Certain factors that can adversely affect the shape of the contact include creep, fatigue, and plastic deformation. Creep and fatigue are often produced in high temperature, high stress environments and can generally be avoided by proper design and selection of the contact. Plastic deformation tends to change the shape of the contact and often occurs during assembly or use when the contact is deflected beyond the yield point of the base material. In layman's terms, the contact is bent so that it no longer makes sufficient, if any, contact between electrical components. In existing applications, a dedicated stop is generally required to limit deflection and prevent over-compression of a contact. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention is directed to a PCB contact adapted to provide electrical connectivity between an electrical component and a PCB. An exemplary embodiment of the PCB contact is a one-piece construction having a mounting portion and a contact portion. The contact may be mounted on a printed circuit board with the mounting portion adapted to be mounted on a first side of the printed circuit board and the elastically biased contact portion extending from the mounting portion and protruding beyond a second side of the printed circuit board opposite the first side. The mounting portion may be generally flattened and enlarged for vacuum pick-up, such as for assembly or mounting to a circuit board. In one embodiment, the mounting portion may be adapted for soldering to a surface mount circuit board. The contact portion extends through or around the circuit board from the mounting portion a distance at least as large as the thickness of the circuit board. The contact portion is elastically deformable and may pass through an aperture or slot in the circuit board or around a side of the circuit board. The elastically biased contact portion may comprise a cross section that is substantially S-shaped. Further, the contact portion may also have a coined contact surface. Since the contact portion protrudes beyond the side of the PCB opposite the mounting portion, the PCB contact may be particularly suited for use on a single sided circuit board. The contact may advantageously provide an electrical coupling from the contact portion beyond the second side of the circuit board to the mounting pad on the first side. An electrical component may be placed in physical contact with the PCB contact and compress the contact portion. The elasticity of the contact portion allows the deflection force to be applied in different directions, including in a direction substantially perpendicular to the second side of the printed circuit board. Also, where the contact portion protrudes beyond the opposite side of the mounting portion, the contact portion may be elastically deformable between a first extended state to a second compressed state substantially flush with the second side of the printed circuit board. As a result, the second side of the printed circuit board thus operates as a stop limiting deflection of the contact to elastic deflection, which helps prevent damage potentially caused by excessive compression of the contact. | 20041112 | 20080429 | 20060518 | 99649.0 | H01R448 | 0 | LEON MUNOZ, EDWIN A | LOW PROFILE CIRCUIT BOARD CONNECTOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H01R | 2,004 |
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10,988,414 | ACCEPTED | Label-free high-throughput optical technique for detecting biomolecular interactions | Methods and compositions are provided for detecting biomolecular interactions. The use of labels is not required and the methods can be performed in a high-throughput manner. The invention also provides optical devices useful as narrow band filters. | 1-104. (canceled) 105. An apparatus for detecting the presence and concentration of matter in contact with a surface structure optical filter by observation of a shift in the wavelength of filtered electromagnetic waves, the apparatus comprising: a first substrate having a surface relief structure containing at least one dielectric body with physical dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves, such structures repeated in a linear array or two dimensional array covering at least a portion of the surface of the first substrate, said surface relief structures of the substrate being composed of or immersed in a material sufficient to form a guided mode resonance filter; and a sample material deposited on the surface relief structures, thereby producing an observable shift in the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves in proportion to the amount of sample material accumulated. 106. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the spacing of the surface relief structures in the array is substantially the same and less than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves. 107. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the individual dielectric bodies in the surface texture are circularly shaped. 108. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the propagation direction of electromagnetic waves resonantly reflected from the surface structures, or transmitted through the substrate, is not materially altered by the accumulation of sample material on the surface structures. 109. An apparatus for detecting the concentration of matter in a material layer by observation of a shift in the wavelength of filtered electromagnetic waves, the apparatus comprising: a substrate having a surface relief structure containing at least one dielectric body with physical dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves, such structures repeated in a linear array or two dimensional array covering at least a portion of the surface of the substrate; a material coating the surface relief structures of the substrate to form a guided mode resonance filter; and a top material layer which adheres or chemically binds to a sample material thereby producing an observable shift in the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves. 110. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the spacing of the surface relief structures in the array is substantially the same and less than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves. 111. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the surface relief structure is composed of a conductive material suitable for applying an electric field. 112. An apparatus as in claim 109, further comprising a second resonant structure coupled to the first substrate to provide a static reference signal which can be used to determine the difference between a shifted signal due to a deposited material layer and a shifted signal due to varying ambient conditions. 113. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the individual dielectric bodies comprising the surface texture have cylindrical, elliptical, square, rectangular, or hexagonal cross sectional profiles. 114. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the individual dielectric bodies in the surface texture are lines with a width less than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves and a length substantially equivalent to the apparatus dimension, repeated in an array with a spacing less than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves. 115. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the substrate comprises glass or plastic. 116. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the dielectric bodies comprising the surface relief structures are comprised of a material selected from the group consisting of zinc sulfide, titanium oxide, tantalum oxide and silicon nitride. 117. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the sample material comprises an organic substance. 118. An apparatus as in claim 109, wherein the sample material comprises an inorganic substance. 119. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the individual dielectric bodies comprising the surface texture have cylindrical, elliptical, square, rectangular, or hexagonal cross sectional profiles. 120. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein in the individual dielectric bodies comprising the surface texture are lines with a width less than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves and length substantially equivalent to the apparatus dimension, repeated in an array with a spacing less than the wavelength of the filtered electromagnetic waves. 121. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the substrate comprises glass or plastic. 122. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the dielectric bodies comprising the surface relief structures are comprised of a material selected from the group consisting of zinc sulfide, titanium oxide, tantalum oxide and silicon nitride. 123. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the surface relief structure is a conductive material. 124. An apparatus as in claim 105 further comprising a conductive material to allow an electric field to be applied. 125. An apparatus as in claim 105, further comprising a second resonant structure coupled to the first substrate to provide a static reference signal which can be used to determine the difference between a shifted signal due to a deposited material layer and a shifted signal due to varying ambient conditions. 126. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the sample material comprises an organic substance. 127. An apparatus as in claim 105, wherein the sample material comprises an inorganic substance. | PRIORITY This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 60/244,312, filed on Oct. 17, 2000, and U.S. Provisional Application 60/283,314, filed Apr. 12, 2001. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention is in the field of biosensors useful for detecting biological material. 2. Background of the Art Like DNA microarrays that are used to test and sequence DNA for the expression of genes with massive parallelism, protein microarrays are expected to become important tools for measuring protein interactions, determining the products of gene expression, and detecting for the presence of protein analytes in solution. See, A. Lueking, et al., “Protein Microarrays for Gene Expression and Antibody Screening,” Analytical Biochemistry 270, 103-111 (1999). Applications include molecular biology research, pharmaceutical discovery, rational vaccine development, clinical sample screening for disease diagnosis, point-of-care diagnostic systems, and biological weapon detection/identification. See, M. Bourne, Business Opportunity Report, “Biosensors and Chemical Biosensors,” Business Communications Co. Inc., (1999). For several applications, moderate readout system size and cost can be tolerated for a system that can provide thousands of parallel assays with extremely high microarray density using a disposable chip that has very low cost. In addition, for some applications it is important to avoid the use of fluorescent molecule tags for labeling microarray-detected analytes due to the effect that the fluorophor attachment can have on the analyte's tertiary structure. Several methods for building protein microarrays are being used by research groups and companies. Optical readout methods demonstrated for single (or <10-element) biosensors include “direct assays” (such as surface plasmon resonance, grating couplers, difference reflectometry/interferometry, resonant mirrors, and ellipsometry) and “indirect assays” (such as fluorescence spectroscopy, colormetric staining, quantum dots, and upconverting phosphors). See, C. Striebel, et al., “Characterization of biomembranes by spectral ellipsometry, surface plasmon resonance, and interferometry with regard to biosensoro application,” Biosensors & Bioelectronics 9, 139-146 (1994). Of these methods, direct assays that do not require the addition of special reagents to label detected analytes or other post-process chemical amplification are preferred for assay simplicity. See, W. Huber, et al., “Direct optical immunosensing (sensitivity and selectivity),” Sensors and Actuators B6, 122-126 (1992). Direct assays are also useful for detecting small protein molecules or structures that are not readily attached to a label reagent. Of the direct methods, difference reflectometry and ellipsometry offer optical readout instrumentation that is relatively simple to operate and interpret. See, A. Brecht, and G. Gauglitz, “Optical Probes and Transducers,” Biosensors & Bioelectronics 10, 923-936 (1995). Biosensors have been developed to detect a variety of biomolecular complexes including oligonucleotides, antibody-antigen interactions, hormone-receptor interactions, and enzyme-substrate interactions. In general, biosensors consist of two components: a highly specific recognition element and a transducer that converts the molecular recognition event into a quantifiable signal. Signal transduction has been accomplished by many methods, including fluorescence, interferometry, and gravimetry. See, A. Cunningham, “Analytical Biosensors.” Of the optically-based transduction methods, direct methods that do not require labeling of analytes with fluorescent compounds are of interest due to the relative assay simplicity and ability to study the interaction of small molecules that are not readily labeled. Direct optical methods include surface plasmon resonance (SPR), grating couplers, ellipsometry, evanascent wave devices, and reflectometry. Theoretically predicted detection limits of these detection methods have been determined and experimentally confirmed to be feasible down to diagnostically relevant concentration ranges. However, to date, highly parallel microarray approaches have not been applied to these methods. The proposed invention utilizes a change in the refractive index upon a surface to determine when a chemically bound material is present within a specific location. Because both ellipsometry and reflectance spectrometry have been utilized as biosensors using similar phenomena, they will be described briefly so that the current disclosure can be compared. Ellipsometry Ellipsometry takes advantage of the different interaction of TM and TE modes with thin films at reflection and radiation to measure optical properties (refractive index and thickness) of thin films. See, G. J. Pentti, et al., “A biosensor concept based on imaging ellipsometry for visualization of biomolecular interactions,” Analytical Biochemistry 232, 69-72 (1995). Parallel and perpendicular polarized light will exhibit different reflectivity and phase shift on reflection depending on the optical constant of a semitransparent thin film. Changes in thickness below 5 angstroms can be resolved, giving this approach the ability to resolve a protein monolayer. Ellipsometry is most commonly used to measure film thickness of oxides and nitrides for semiconductor processing. While a single wavelength ellipsometer using a He:Ne laser can be used to measure the refractive index and thickness of a single deposited layer, spectroscopic ellipsometers can resolve several layers within an optical stack using a computer algorithm to fit measured data across a wavelength band. While the most basic ellipsometers probe a single spot on a surface, imaging ellipsometers are now offered that can measure optical properties over a small area to create a map of optical properties. Reflectance Interference Spectroscopy Reflectance Interference Spectroscopy (RIS) is an extremely simple method for measuring protein adsorption onto optical surfaces. In RIS, a substrate with a thin transparent film is illuminated with white light. Light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the thin film interferes to generate a Fabry-Perot interference reflectance spectrum in which constructive interference occurs at some wavelengths while destructive interference occurs at others. The reflectance spectrum depends upon the thickness and optical constant of the thin film. Like ellipsometry, RIS is typically used to measure oxide and nitride optical thin film thickness on various substrates. The probe illumination and reflected signal may be applied with a fiber optic probe for large (˜2 mm diameter) spot probing, or through a microscope objective for small (˜100 μm diameter) spot probing. Reflectance spectrum maps are usually generated to monitor thin film thickness uniformity by operating the spectrometer with a scanning x-y stage. A single measurement can be performed in <1 sec. While theoretically able to measure layer thickness changes of several angstroms, ellipsometry measurements of this sensitivity can be difficult to interpret due to the degree of optical system alignment that is required to reproduce measurements. The readout system requires a laser, a polarizer, and a rotating analyzer. Accurate instruments that measure only a single location are expensive. Instrumentation for reflectance spectrometry is inexpensive because the method relies upon a white light source, a grating, and a linear photodiode array, without any moving parts. Reflectance spectrometry is typically performed on optically flat surfaces. A computer model can determine the adsorbed layer optical thickness that best matches the reflected spectrum. Layer thickness measurement resolution is limited by the ability of the model to correctly fit small changes in the reflected spectrum. Without the use of a resonant reflectance structure, the reflected spectrum of a flat surface covers a broad span of wavelengths. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES 1. SEM Photo of an surface relief structure in photoresist showing terraced profile that is designed to reflect a narrow range of wavelengths. 2. Graphic representation of how adsorbed material, such as a protein monolayer, will increase the reflected wavelength of a surface relief structure. 3. FIG. 3 illustrates a microarray biosensor. 4. Response as a function of wavelength of a granting structure with upon which BSA had been deposited at high concentration, measured in air. Before protein deposition, the resonant wavelength of the structure is 380 nm and is not observable with the instrument used for this experiment. 5. Response as a function of wavelength comparing an untreated grating structure with one upon which BSA had been deposited. Both measurements were taken with water on the slide's surface. 6. Response as a function of wavelength of a grating structure with upon which borrelia bacteria had been deposited at high concentration, measured in water. 7. Optical structure used to simulate the effect of protein adsorption on a resonant reflection grating. 8. Reflected intensity as a function of wavelength for a resonant grating structure when various thickness of protein are incorporated onto the upper surface. 9. Linear relationship between reflected wavelength and protein coating thickness for the structure shown in FIG. 7. 10. A cross sectional diagram of a sensor that incorporates an ITO grating. 11. An SEM photograph of a top view of the ITO grating of FIG. 10. 12. A diagram demonstrating that a single electrode can comprise a region that contains many grating periods and that by building several separate grating regions on the same substrate surface, an array of sensor electrodes can be created. 13. An SEM photograph showing the separate grating regions of FIG. 12. 14. A diagram showing a sensor chip upper surface immersed in a liquid sample so that an electrical potential can be applied to the sensor that is capable of attracting or repelling a molecule near the electrode surface. 15. A diagram depicting the attraction of electronegative molecules to a sensor surface when a positive voltage is applied to an electrode. 16. A diagram demonstrating the application of a repelling force to electronegative molecules using a negative electrode voltage. 17. A diagram of a microtiter plate incorporating a biosensor of the invention. 18. A diagram of a biosensor or transmission filter comprising a set of concentric rings 19. A diagram of a biosensor or transmission filter comprising a hexagonal grid of holes or posts that approximates a concentric ring structure. FIG. 20A-B show schematic diagrams of one embodiment optical grating structure used for colormetric resonant reflectance biosensor. nsubstrate represents substrate material. n1 represents a cover layer. n2 represents a two-dimensional grating. nbio represents one or more specific binding substances. t1 represents the thickness of the cover layer. t2 represents the thickness of the grating. tbio represents the thickness of the layer of one or more specific binding substances. FIG. 20A shows a cross-sectional view of a biosensor. FIG. 20B shows a diagram of a biosensor. FIG. 21A-B shows a grating comprising a rectangular grid of squares (FIG. 21A) or holes (FIG. 21B). FIG. 22 shows a schematic drawing of a linear grating structure. FIG. 23 shows a biosensor cross-section profile in which an embossed substrate is coated with a higher refractive index material such as ZnS or SiN. A cover layer of, for example, epoxy or SOG is layered on top of the higher refractive index material and one or more specific binding substances are immobilized on the cover layer. FIG. 24 shows a biosensor cross-section profile utilizing a sinusoidally varying grating profile. FIG. 25 shows three types of surface activation chemistry (Amine, Aldehyde, and Nickel) with corresponding chemical linker molecules that can be used to covalently attach various types of biomolecule receptors to a biosensor. FIG. 26A-C shows methods that can be used to amplify the mass of a binding partner such as detected DNA or detected protein on the surface of a biosensor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention describes a biosensor which utilizes a surface that is engineered to reflect predominantly at a particular wavelength when illuminated with broadband light. Biodetection is achieved when material adsorbed onto the reflector's surface results in a shift in the reflected wavelength. The reflecting surface may contain either a single detection region, or multiple detection regions that form a biosensor microarray. While several one-dimensional engineered surfaces have been shown to exhibit the ability to select a narrow range of reflected or transmitted wavelengths from a broadband excitation source (thin film interference filters and Bragg reflectors), the deposition of additional material onto their upper surface results only in a change in the resonance linewidth, rather than the resonance wavelength. By using two-dimensional and three-dimensional grating structures, the ability to alter the reflected wavelength with the addition of material to the surface is obtained. In this disclosure, the use of two such structures for reflected wavelength modulation by addition of biological material to the upper surface are described. The first structure is a three-dimensional surface-relief volume diffractive grating, and the second structure is a two-dimensional structured surface. Biological material may include DNA, protein, peptides, cells, bacteria, viruses. In one embodiment, a biosensor having a reflective surface which has a sculptured two or three dimensional surface coated with a reflective material which reflects predominantly at a single wavelength when illuminated with broadband light, and which reflects at a new wavelength of light when biological matter is deposited or adsorbed upon the reflective surface. The reflective surface is a surface relief or volume diffractive structure having a two-dimensional grating. The reflected wavelength is predominantly at a single wavelength due to the effect of resonant scattering through a guided mode. Such biosensors are associated with a light source which directs light to the reflective surface and a detector which detects light reflected from the reflective surface. The biosensor is typically used to detect biological matter such as DNA, proteins, peptides, cells, viruses, or bacteria. Preferably, the biosensor reflective surface is coated with an array of distinct locations containing specific binding substances to form a microarray biosensor. The specific binding substance for example may be DNA, RNA, protein or polypeptide. The microarray has the distinct locations defined as microarray spots of 50-500 microns in diameter preferably 150-200 micron in diameter. The relief volume diffraction structures are smaller than the resonant wavelength and are typically less than 1 micron in diameter. A microarray sensor is made of a sheet material having a first and second surface wherein the first surface defines relief volume diffraction structures coated with a reflective material such as silver or gold and an array of distinct locations on the first surface is coated with a specific binding substance such as DNA, RNA, oligonucleotide, protein or polypeptide. In this embodiment there is a shift in wave length of the reflected light when a specific binding substance is bound to its binding partner. In another embodiment the biosensor is made of transparent material having a two or three dimensional sculpture light receiving surface and a light emitting surface which emits light at the light emitting surface primarily at a single wavelength when illuminated on the light receiving surface with broadband light and which emits light at a different wave length when biological matter is deposited on the light receiving surface. In this embodiment the biosensor associated with a light source which directs light to the light receiving surface and a detector which receives light from the light emitting surface. The light transmitting biosensor embodiment has a sculptured two or three dimensional surface designed to transmit predominantly at a single wavelength when illuminated with broadband light, and which transmits at a new wavelength of light when biological matter is deposited on the sculpture. This light transmitting embodiment may be formed into a microsensor array as described above. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The proposed method is similar to reflectance spectrometry, except that rather than a flat optical surface, a grating surface is used to define a very narrow range of reflected wavelength. Because the reflected wavelength is confined to a narrow bandwidth, very small changes in the optical characteristics of the surface manifest themselves in easily observed changes in reflected wavelength spectra. The narrow reflection bandwidth provides a surface adsorption sensitivity advantage compared to reflectance spectrometry on a flat surface. The method can use the same readout instrumentation as reflectance spectrometry on a flat surface, which is less expensive than ellipsometer based detection, and therefore has a system cost/complexity advantage over ellipsometry-based detection. Because detection by the proposed system can be engineered to result in an easily observable change in reflected color (i.e. blue reflection corresponds to no absorption, while green reflection corresponds to a positive signal), it may be possible to further simplify the readout instrumentation by the application of a filter so that only positive results over a determined threshold trigger a detection. A second advantage of the proposed approach is the cost of producing the grating surface. Once a metal master plate has been produced, the grating can be mass-produced very inexpensively by stamping the structure into a plastic material like vinyl. After stamping, the grating surface is made reflective by blanket deposition of a thin metal film such as gold, silver, or aluminum. Compared to MEMS-based biosensors that rely upon photolithography, etching, and wafer bonding procedures, the proposed structure is very inexpensive. It is estimated that the cost of 1 cm2 gratings will be ˜$0.02. Unlike surface plasmon resonance, resonant mirrors, and waveguide biosensors, the proposed method enables many thousands of individual binding reactions to take place simultaneously upon the sensor surface. Readout of the reflected color can be performed serially by focusing a microscope objective onto individual microarray spots and reading the reflected spectrum, or in parallel by projecting the reflected image of the microarray onto a high resolution color CCD camera. Surface-Relief Volume Diffractive Biosensor In one embodiment, a surface-relief volume diffractive structure is used as a microarray biosensor for detecting the adsorption of small quantities of materials onto surfaces. The theory describing the design and fabrication of such structures has been published. See, J. J. Cowen, “Aztec surface-relief volume diffractive structure,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, Vol. 7, No. 8, August, 1990. While the use of these structures for optical display and telecommunication filters is being pursued, this invention pertains to their first use as a biosensor. The surface relief volume diffractive grating structure is a three-dimensional phase-quantized terraced surface relief pattern whose groove pattern resembles a stepped pyramid, as shown in FIG. 1. When the grating is illuminated by a beam of broadband radiation, light will be coherently reflected from the equally spaced terraces at a wavelength given by twice the step spacing times the index of refraction of the surrounding medium. The structure can be replicated by metal mastering and molding into plastic in the same manner as conventional embossed surface relief elements. Light of a given wavelength is resonantly diffracted or reflected from the steps that are a half-wavelength apart, and with a bandwidth that is inversely proportional to the number of steps. The reflected or diffracted color can be controlled by the deposition of a dielectric layer so that a new wavelength is selected, depending on the index of refraction of the coating. The desired stepped-phase structure is first produced in photoresist by coherently exposing a thin photoresist film to three laser beams, as described in previous research. See, J. J. Cowen, “The recording and large scale replication of crossed holographic grating arrays using multiple beam interferometry,” in International Conference on the Application, Theory, and Fabrication of Periodic Structures, Diffraction Gratings, and Moire Phenomena II, J. M. Lerner, ed., Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng., 503, 120-129, 1984; J. J. Cowen, “Holographic honeycomb microlens,” Opt. Eng. 24, 796-802 (1985); J. J. Cowen and W. D. Slafer, “The recording and replication of holographic micropatterns for the ordering of photographic emulsion grains in film systems,” J. Imaging Sci. 31, 100-107, 1987. The nonlinear etching characteristics of photoresist are used to develop the exposed film to create a three dimensional relief pattern. The photoresist structure is then replicated using standard embossing procedures. First, a thin silver film is deposited over the photoresist structure to form a conducting layer upon which a thick film of nickel may be electroplated. The nickel “master” plate is then used to emboss directly into a plastic film, such as vinyl, that has been softened by heating or solvent. The color that is reflected from the terraced step structure is theoretically given as twice the step height times the index of refraction of the overcoating dielectric layer. To use this type of structure as a biosensor, a thin film of adsorbed molecules provides a different refractive index on the surface of the grating than the surrounding medium. Thus, when the molecules incorporate themselves into the diffractive structure, they cause a change in the color that is reflected or diffracted from the grating. Proteins films reportedly have indices of refraction of 1.4 to 1.5, and therefore can provide substantial shift in the reflected or diffracted spectrum, even for a film that is less than 1000 nm thickness. It is expected that thick molecular films can be differentiated from thin molecular films by the extent of wavelength shift as well as the strength of the reflected or diffracted order. Two-Dimensional Structured Surface Biosensor In one embodiment of the invention, a subwavelength structured surface (SWS) is used to create a sharp optical resonant reflection at a particular wavelength that can be tracked with high sensitivity as biological materials, such as specific binding substances or binding partners or both, are attached to a colormetric resonant diffractive grating surface that acts as a surface binding platform. Subwavelength structured surfaces are an unconventional type of diffractive optic that can mimic the effect of thin-film coatings. (Peng & Morris, “Resonant scattering from two-dimensional gratings,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 993, May; Magnusson, & Want, “New principle for optical filters,” Appl. Phys. Lett., 61, No. 9, p. 1022, August, 1992; Peng & Morris, “Experimental demonstration of resonant anomalies in diffraction from two-dimensional gratings,” Optics Letters, Vol. 21, No. 8, p. 549, April, 1996). An SWS structure contains a surface-relief, two-dimensional grating in which the grating period is small compared to the wavelength of incident light so that no diffractive orders other than the reflected and transmitted zeroth orders are allowed to propagate. A SWS surface narrowband filter can comprise a two-dimensional grating sandwiched between a substrate layer and a cover layer that fills the grating grooves. Optionally, a cover layer is not used. When the effective index of refraction of the grating region is greater than the substrate or the cover layer, a waveguide is created. When a filter is designed properly, incident light passes into the waveguide region and propagates as a leaky mode. A grating structure selectively couples light at a narrow band of wavelengths into the waveguide. The light propagates only a very short distance (on the order of 10-100 micrometers), undergoes scattering, and couples with the forward- and backward-propagating zeroth-order light. This highly sensitive coupling condition can produce a resonant grating effect on the reflected radiation spectrum, resulting in a narrow band of reflected or transmitted wavelengths. The depth and period of the two-dimensional grating are less than the wavelength of the resonant grating effect. The reflected or transmitted color of this structure can be modulated by the addition of molecules such as specific binding substances or binding partners or both to the upper surface of the cover layer or the grating surface. The added molecules increase the optical path length of incident radiation through the structure, and thus modify the wavelength at which maximum reflectance or transmittance will occur. A schematic diagram of an example of a SWS structure is shown in FIG. 20. In FIG. 20, nsubstrate represents a substrate material. N1 represents an optional cover layer. N2 represents a two-dimensional grating. Nbio represents one or more specific binding substances. t1 represents the thickness of the cover layer. t2 represents the thickness of the grating. tbio represents the thickness of the layer of one or more specific binding substances. In one embodiment, are n2>n1 (see FIG. 20). Layer thicknesses (i.e. cover layer, one or more specific binding substances, or a two-dimensional grating)) are selected to achieve resonant wavelength sensitivity to additional molecules on the top surface The grating period is selected to achieve resonance at a desired wavelength. In one embodiment, a biosensor, when illuminated with white light, is designed to reflect only a single wavelength. When specific binding substances are attached to the surface of the biosensor, the reflected wavelength (color) is shifted due to the change of the optical path of light that is coupled into the grating. By linking specific binding substances to a biosensor surface, complementary binding partner molecules can be detected without the use of any kind of fluorescent probe or particle label. The detection technique is capable of resolving changes of, for example, ˜0.1 nm thickness of protein binding, and can be performed with the biosensor surface either immersed in fluid or dried. A detection system consists of, for example, a light source that illuminates a small spot of a biosensor at normal incidence through, for example, a fiber optic probe, and a spectrometer that collects the reflected light through, for example, a second fiber optic probe also at normal incidence. Because no physical contact occurs between the excitation/detection system and the biosensor surface, no special coupling prisms are required and the biosensor can be easily adapted to any commonly used assay platform including, for example, microtiter plates and microarray slides. A single spectrometer reading can be performed in several milliseconds, thus it is possible to quickly measure a large number of molecular interactions taking place in parallel upon a biosensor surface, and to monitor reaction kinetics in real time. This technology is useful in applications where large numbers of biomolecular interactions are measured in parallel, particularly when molecular labels would alter or inhibit the functionality of the molecules under study. High-throughput screening of pharmaceutical compound libraries with protein targets, and microarray screening of protein-protein interactions for proteomics are examples of applications that require the sensitivity and throughput afforded by the compositions and methods of the invention. One embodiment of the invention provides a SWS biosensor. A SWS biosensor comprises a two-dimensional grating, a substrate layer that supports the two-dimensional grating, and one or more specific binding substances immobilized on the surface of the two-dimensional grating opposite of the substrate layer. A two-dimensional grating can be comprised of a material, including, for example, zinc sulfide, titanium dioxide, and silicon nitride. A cross-sectional profile of a two-dimensional grating can comprise any periodically repeating function, for example, a “square-wave.” A two-dimensional grating can be comprised of a repeating pattern of shapes selected from the group consisting of squares, circles, ellipses, triangles, trapezoids, sinusoidal waves, ovals, rectangles, and hexagons. A sinusoidal cross-sectional profile is preferable for manufacturing applications that require embossing of a grating shape into a soft material such as plastic. Linear (i.e., rectangular) gratings have resonant characteristics where the illuminating light polarization is oriented perpendicular to the grating period. However, a hexagonal grid of holes has better polarization symmetry than a rectangular grid of holes. Therefore, a colorimetric resonant reflection biosensor of the invention can comprise, for example, a hexagonal array of holes (see FIG. 21B) or a grid of parallel lines (see FIG. 21A). A linear grating has the same pitch (i.e. distance between regions of high and low refractive index), period, layer thicknesses, and material properties as the hexagonal array grating. However, light must be polarized perpendicular to the grating lines in order to be resonantly coupled into the optical structure. Therefore, a polarizing filter oriented with its polarization axis perpendicular to the linear grating must be inserted between the illumination source and the biosensor surface. Because only a small portion of the illuminating light source is correctly polarized, a longer integration time is required to collect an equivalent amount of resonantly reflected light compared to a hexagonal grating. While a linear grating can require either a higher intensity illumination source or a longer measurement integration time compared to a hexagonal grating, the fabrication requirements for the linear structure are simpler. A hexagonal grating pattern is produced by holographic exposure of photoresist to three mutually interfering laser beams. The three beams are precisely aligned in order to produce a grating pattern that is symmetrical in three directions. A linear grating pattern requires alignment of only two laser beams to produce a holographic exposure in photoresist, and thus has a reduced alignment requirement. A linear grating pattern can also be produced by, for example, direct writing of photoresist with an electron beam. Also, several commercially available sources exist for producing linear grating “master” templates for embossing a grating structure into plastic. A schematic diagram of a linear grating structure is shown in FIG. 22 A rectangular grid pattern can be produced in photoresist using an electron beam direct-write exposure system. A single wafer can be illuminated as a linear grating with two sequential exposures with the part rotated 90-degrees between exposures. A two-dimensional grating can also comprise, for example, a “stepped” profile, in which high refractive index regions of a single, fixed height are embedded within a lower refractive index cover layer. The alternating regions of high and low refractive index provide an optical waveguide parallel to the top surface of the biosensor. See FIG. 23. For manufacture, a stepped structure is etched or embossed into a substrate material such as glass or plastic. See FIG. 23. A uniform thin film of higher refractive index material, such as silicon nitride or zinc sulfide is deposited on this structure. The deposited layer will follow the shape contour of the embossed or etched structure in the substrate, so that the deposited material has a surface relief profile that is identical to the original embossed or etched profile. The structure can be completed by the application of an optional cover layer comprised of a material having a lower refractive index than the higher refractive index material and having a substantially flat upper surface. The covering material can be, for example, glass, epoxy, or plastic. This structure allows for low cost biosensor manufacturing, because it can be mass produced. A “master” grating can be produced in glass, plastic, or metal using, for example, a three-beam laser holographic patterning process. A master grating can be repeatedly used to emboss a plastic substrate. The embossed substrate is subsequently coated with a high refractive index material and optionally, a cover layer. While a stepped structure is simple to manufacture, it is also possible to make a resonant biosensor in which the high refractive index material is not stepped, but which varies with lateral position. FIG. 24 shows a profile in which the high refractive index material of the two-dimensional grating, n2, is sinusoidally varying in height. To produce a resonant reflection at a particular wavelength, the period of the sinusoid is identical to the period of an equivalent stepped structure. The resonant operation of the sinusoidally varying structure and its functionality as a biosensor has been verified using GSOLVER (Grating Solver Development Company, Allen, Tex., USA) computer models. Techniques for making two-dimensional gratings are disclosed in J. Opt. Soc. Am No. 8, August 1990, pp. 1529-44. Biosensors of the invention can be made in, for example, a semiconductor microfabrication facility. Biosensors can also be made on a plastic substrate using continuous embossing and optical coating processes. For this type of manufacturing process, a “master” structure is built in a rigid material such as glass or silicon, and is used to generate “mother” structures in an epoxy or plastic using one of several types of replication procedures. The “mother” structure, in turn, is coated with a thin film of conducive material, and used as a mold to electroplate a thick film of nickel. The nickel “daughter” is released from the plastic “mother” structure. Finally, the nickel “daughter” is bonded to a cylindrical drum, which is used to continuously emboss the surface relief structure into a plastic film. A device structure that uses an embossed plastic substrate is shown in FIG. 23. Following embossing, the plastic structure is overcoated with a thin film of high refractive index material, and optionally coated with a planarizing, cover layer polymer, and cut to appropriate size. A substrate for a SWS biosensor can comprise, for example, glass, plastic or epoxy. Optionally, a substrate and a two-dimensional grating can comprise a single unit. That is, a two dimensional grating and substrate are formed from the same material, for example, glass, plastic, or epoxy. The surface of a single unit comprising the two-dimensional grating is coated with a material having a high refractive index, for example, zinc sulfide, titanium dioxide, and silicon nitride. One or more specific binding substances can be immobilized on the surface of the material having a high refractive index or on an optional cover layer. A biosensor of the invention can further comprise a cover layer on the surface of a two-dimensional grating opposite of a substrate layer. Where a cover layer is present, the one or more specific binding substances are immobilized on the surface of the cover layer opposite of the two-dimensional grating. Preferably, a cover layer comprises a material that has a lower refractive index than a material that comprises the two-dimensional grating. A cover layer can be comprised of, for example, glass (including spin-on glass (SOG)), epoxy, or plastic. For example, various polymers that meet the refractive index requirement of a biosensor can be used for a cover layer. SOG can be used due to its favorable refractive index, ease of handling, and readiness of being activated with specific binding substances using the wealth of glass surface activation techniques. When the flatness of the biosensor surface is not an issue for a particular system setup, a grating structure of SiN/glass can directly be used as the sensing surface, the activation of which can be done using the same means as on a glass surface. Resonant reflection can also be obtained without a planarizing cover layer over a two-dimensional grating. For example, a biosensor can contain only a substrate coated with a structured thin film layer of high refractive index material. Without the use of a planarizing cover layer, the surrounding medium (such as air or water) fills the grating. Therefore, specific binding substances are immobilized to the biosensor on the tops, bottoms, and sides of a two-dimensional grating, rather than only on an upper surface. In general, a biosensor of the invention will be illuminated with white light that will contain light of every polarization angle. The orientation of the polarization angle with respect to repeating features in a biosensor grating will determine the resonance wavelength. For example, a “linear grating” biosensor structure consisting of a set of repeating lines and spaces will have two optical polarizations that can generate separate resonant reflections. Light that is polarized perpendicularly to the lines is called “s-polarized,” while light that is polarized parallel to the lines is called “p-polarized.” Both the s and p components of incident light exist simultaneously in an unfiltered illumination beam, and each generates a separate resonant signal. A biosensor structure can generally be designed to optimize the properties of only one polarization (the s-polarization), and the non-optimized polarization is easily removed by a polarizing filter. In order to remove the polarization dependence, so that every polarization angle generates the same resonant reflection spectra, an alternate biosensor structure can be used that consists of a set of concentric rings. In this structure, the difference between the inside diameter and the outside diameter of each ring is equal to one-half of a grating period. Each successive ring has an inside diameter that is one grating period greater than the inside diameter of the previous ring. The concentric ring pattern extends to cover a single sensor location—such as a microarray spot or a microtiter plate well. Each separate microarray spot or microtiter plate well has a separate concentric ring pattern centered within it. See FIG. 18. All polarization directions of such a structure have the same cross-sectional profile. The concentric ring structure must be illuminated precisely on-center to preserve polarization independence. The grating period of a concentric ring structure is less than the wavelength of the resonantly reflected light. In general, the grating period is less than one micron. The grating height is also less than the wavelength of light, and is generally less than one micron. In another embodiment, a hexagonal grid of holes (or a hexagonal grid of posts) closely approximates the concentric circle structure without requiring the illumination beam to be centered upon any particular location of the grid. See FIG. 19. Such a hexagonal grid pattern is automatically generated by the optical interference of three laser beams incident on a surface from three directions at equal angles. In this pattern, the holes (or posts) are centered upon the corners of an array of closely packed hexagons as shown in FIG. 19. Such a hexagonal grid has three polarization directions that “see” the same cross-sectional profile. The hexagonal grid structure, therefore, provides equivalent resonant reflection spectra using light of any polarization angle. Thus, no polarizing filter is required to remove unwanted reflected signal components. The invention provides a resonant reflection structure and transmission filter structures comprising concentric circle gratings and hexagonal grids of holes or posts. For a resonant reflection structure, light output is measured on the same side of the structure as the illuminating light beam. For a transmission filter structure, light output is measured on the opposite side of the structure as the illuminating beam. The reflected and transmitted signals are complementary. That is, if a wavelength is strongly reflected, it is weakly transmitted. Assuming no energy is absorbed in the structure itself, the reflected+transmitted energy at any given wavelength is constant. The resonant reflection structure and transmission filters are designed to give a highly efficient reflection at a specified wavelength. Thus, a reflection filter will “pass” a narrow band of wavelengths, while a transmission filter will “cut” a narrow band of wavelengths from incident light. A resonant reflection structure or a transmission filter structure can comprising a two-dimensional grating arranged in a pattern of concentric circles. A resonant reflection structure or transmission filter structure can also comprise a hexagonal grid of holes or posts. When these structure are illuminated with an illuminating light beam, a reflected radiation spectrum is produced that is independent of an illumination polarization angle of the illuminating light beam. When these structures are illuminated a resonant grating effect is produced on the reflected radiation spectrum, wherein the depth and period of the two-dimensional grating or hexagonal grid of holes or posts are less than the wavelength of the resonant grating effect. These structures reflect a narrow band of light is reflected from the structure when the structure is illuminated with a broadband of light. Resonant reflection structures and transmission filter structures of the invention can be used as biosensors. For example, one or more specific binding substances can be immobilized on the hexagonal grid of holes or posts or on the two-dimensional grating arranged in concentric circles. Specific Binding Substances and Binding Partners One or more specific binding substances are immobilized on the two-dimensional grating or cover layer, if present, by for example, physical adsorption or by chemical binding. A specific binding substance can be, for example, a nucleic acid, polypeptide, antigen, polyclonal antibody, monoclonal antibody, single chain antibody (scFv), F(ab) fragment, F(ab′)2 fragment, Fv fragment, small organic molecule, cell, virus, bacteria, or biological sample. A biological sample can be for example, blood, plasma, serum, gastrointestinal secretions, homogenates of tissues or tumors, synovial fluid, feces, saliva, sputum, cyst fluid, amniotic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, peritoneal fluid, lung lavage fluid, semen, lymphatic fluid, tears, or prostatitc fluid. Preferably, one or more specific binding substances are arranged in a microarray of distinct locations on a biosensor. A microarray of specific binding substances comprises one or more specific binding substances on a surface of a biosensor of the invention such that a surface contains many distinct locations, each with a different specific binding substance or with a different amount of a specific binding substance. For example, an array can comprise 1, 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000, or 100,000 distinct locations. Such a biosensor surface is called a microarray because one or more specific binding substances are typically laid out in a regular grid pattern in x-y coordinates. However, a microarray of the invention can comprise one or more specific binding substance laid out in any type of regular or irregular pattern. For example, distinct locations can define a microarray of spots of one or more specific binding substances. A microarray spot can be about 50 to about 500 microns in diameter. A microarray spot can also be about 150 to about 200 microns in diameter. One or more specific binding substances can be bound to their specific binding partners. A microarray on a biosensor of the invention can be created by placing microdroplets of one or more specific binding substances onto, for example, an x-y grid of locations on a two-dimensional grating or cover layer surface. When the biosensor is exposed to a test sample comprising one or more binding partners, the binding partners will be preferentially attracted to distinct locations on the microarray that comprise specific binding substances that have high affinity for the binding partners. Some of the distinct locations will gather binding partners onto their surface, while other locations will not. A specific binding substance specifically binds to a binding partner that is added to the surface of a biosensor of the invention. A specific binding substance specifically binds to its binding partner, but does not substantially bind other binding partners added to the surface of a biosensor. For example, where the specific binding substance is an antibody and its binding partner is a particular antigen, the antibody specifically binds to the particular antigen, but does not substantially bind other antigens. A binding partner can be, for example, a nucleic acid, polypeptide, antigen, polyclonal antibody, monoclonal antibody, single chain antibody (scFv), F(ab) fragment, F(ab′)2 fragment, Fv fragment, small organic molecule, cell, virus, bacteria, and biological sample. A biological sample can be, for example, blood, plasma, serum, gastrointestinal secretions, homogenates of tissues or tumors, synovial fluid, feces, saliva, sputum, cyst fluid, amniotic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, peritoneal fluid, lung lavage fluid, semen, lymphatic fluid, tears, and prostatitc fluid. One example of a microarray of the invention is a nucleic acid microarray, in which each distinct location within the array contains a different nucleic acid molecule. In this embodiment, the spots within the nucleic acid microarray detect complementary chemical binding with an opposing strand of a nucleic acid in a test sample. While microtiter plates are the most common format used for biochemical assays, microarrays are increasingly seen as a means for maximizing the number of biochemical interactions that can be measured at one time while minimizing the volume of precious reagents. By application of specific binding substances with a microarray spotter onto a biosensor of the invention, specific binding substance densities of 10,000 specific binding substances/in2 can be obtained. By focusing an illumination beam to interrogate a single microarray location, a biosensor can be used as a label-free microarray readout system. Immobilization or One or More Specific Binding Substances Immobilization of one or more binding substances onto a biosensor is performed so that a specific binding substance will not be washed away by rinsing procedures, and so that its binding to binding partners in a test sample is unimpeded by the biosensor surface. Several different types of surface chemistry strategies have been implemented for covalent attachment of specific binding substances to, for example, glass for use in various types of microarrays and biosensors. These same methods can be readily adapted to a biosensor of the invention. Surface preparation of a biosensor so that it contains the correct functional groups for binding one or more specific binding substances is an integral part of the biosensor manufacturing process. One or more specific binding substances can be attached to a biosensor surface by physical adsorption (i.e., without the use of chemical linkers) or by chemical binding (i.e., with the use of chemical linkers). Chemical binding can generate stronger attachment of specific binding substances on a biosensor surface and provide defined orientation and conformation of the surface-bound molecules. Types of chemical binding include, for example, amine activation, aldehyde activation, and nickel activation. These surfaces can be used to attach several different types of chemical linkers to a biosensor surface, as shown in FIG. 25. While an amine surface can be used to attach several types of linker molecules, an aldehyde surface can be used to bind proteins directly, without an additional linker. A nickel surface can be used to bind molecules that have an incorporated histidine (“his”) tag. Detection of “his-tagged” molecules with a nickel-activated surface is well known in the art (Whitesides, Anal. Chem. 68, 490). For the detection of binding partners at concentrations less than about ˜0.1 ng/ml, it is preferable to amplify and transduce binding partners bound to a biosensor into an additional layer on the biosensor surface. The increased mass deposited on the biosensor can be easily detected as a consequence of increased optical path length. By incorporating greater mass onto a biosensor surface, the optical density of binding partners on the surface is also increased, thus rendering a greater resonant wavelength shift than would occur without the added mass. The addition of mass can be accomplished, for example, enzymatically, through a “sandwich” assay, or by direct application of mass to the biosensor surface in the form of appropriately conjugated beads or polymers of various size and composition. This principle has been exploited for other types of optical biosensors to demonstrate sensitivity increases over 1500× beyond sensitivity limits achieved without mass amplification. See, e.g., Jenison, et al., “Interference-based detection of nucleic acid targets on optically coated silicon,” Nature Biotechnology, 19: 62-65, 2001. As an example, FIG. 26A shows that an NH2-activated biosensor surface can have a specific binding substance comprising a single-strand DNA capture probe immobilized on the surface. The capture probe interacts selectively with its complementary target binding partner. The binding partner, in turn, can be designed to include a sequence or tag that will bind a “detector” molecule. As shown in FIG. 26A, a detector molecule can contain, for example, a linker to horseradish peroxidase (HRP) that, when exposed to the correct enzyme, will selectively deposit additional material on the biosensor only where the detector molecule is present. Such a procedure can add, for example, 300 angstroms of detectable biomaterial to the biosensor within a few minutes. A “sandwich” approach can also be used to enhance detection sensitivity. In this approach, a large molecular weight molecule can be used to amplify the presence of a low molecular weight molecule. For example, a binding partner with a molecular weight of, for example, 1 kDa, can be tagged with, for example, SMPT, DMP, NNDC, histidine, or a biotin molecule, as shown in FIG. 26B. Where the tag is biotin, the biotin molecule will binds strongly with streptavidin, which has a molecular weight of 60 kDa. Because the biotin/streptavidin interaction is highly specific, the streptavidin amplifies the signal that would be produced only by the small binding partner by a factor of 60. Detection sensitivity can be further enhanced through the use of chemically derivatized small particles. “Nanoparticles” made of colloidal gold, various plastics, or glass with diameters of about 3-300 nm can be coated with molecular species that will enable them to covalently bind selectively to a binding partner. For example, as shown in FIG. 26C, nanoparticles that are covalently coated with streptavidin can be used to enhance the visibility of biotin-tagged binding partners on the biosensor surface. While a streptavidin molecule itself has a molecular weight of 60 kDa, the derivatized bead can have a molecular weight of, for example, 60 KDa. Binding of a large bead will result in a large change in the optical density upon the biosensor surface, and an easily measurable signal. This method can result in an approximately 1000× enhancement in sensitivity resolution. Description of a Microarray One method for implementing parallel chemical affinity analysis is to place chemical reagents onto a planar solid support, such that the solid support contains many individual locations, each with a different chemical reagent. Such an activated planar solid support is called a “microarray” because the different chemical reagents are typically laid out in a regular grid pattern in x-y coordinates. One possible implementation is a DNA microarray, in which each individual location within the array contains a different sequence of oligonucleotides. In this embodiment, the spots within the DNA microarray detect complementary chemical binding with an opposing strand of DNA in a test sample. In order to detect the presence of the opposing DNA when it binds, the opposing DNA is “tagged” with a fluorophor, so that its presence will be indicated by the light emitted by the fluorophor when the microarray location is excited with a laser. The original DNA that is placed onto the microarray is an Affinity Ligand Reagent (ALR) that has high affinity for its complementary DNA sequence, and low affinity for all other DNA sequences. Protein Microarray While the DNA microarray is used to detect and sequence the DNA components of a test sample, a protein microarray would be used to detect the affinity interaction between proteins that are placed onto the individual microarray locations, and proteins within a test solution. For example, by placing individual protein antibodies onto different locations on a microarray surface, it is possible to detect the corresponding antigens in a test sample when they bind selectively to the protein antibodies. Like the DNA microarrays, the detected protein may be labeled with a fluorophor to enable detection. Alternatively, some other form of molecular or particle tag may be bound to the detected protein to signal its presence on the microarray surface. Many methods have been developed to detect the presence of bound protein analyte without any type of label, including methods that result in detection of modification of mass, refractive index, or surface roughness on the microarray surface. Several methods will be briefly reviewed in the “Competing Technology” section of this disclosure. Resonant Reflection Microarray To build a microarray biosensor, a grating designed to reflect predominantly at a particular wavelength is required. Techniques for making such gratings are disclosed in J. Opt. Soc. Am No. 8, August 1990, pp. 1529-44. This reference is incorporated herein by reference. A microarray sensor would be created by placing microdroplets of high affinity chemical receptor reagents onto an x-y grid of locations on the grating surface. When the chemically active microarray is exposed to an analyte, molecules will be preferentially attracted to microarray locations that have high affinity. Some microarray locations will gather additional material onto their surface, while other locations will not. By measuring the shift in resonant wavelength within each individual microarray grating location, it is possible to determine which locations have attracted additional material. The extent of the shift can be used to determine the amount of bound analyte in the sample and the chemical affinity between the microarray receptor reagents and the analyte. As shown in FIG. 1, each inverted pyramid is approximately 1 micron in diameter, and pyramid structures can be close-packed, a typical microarray spot with a diameter of 150-200 microns can incorporate several hundred structures. FIG. 2 describes how individual microarray locations (with an entire microarray spot incorporating hundreds of pyramids now represented by a single pyramid for one microarray spot) can be optically queried to determine if material is adsorbed onto the surface. When the structure is illuminated with white light, structures without significant bound material will reflect wavelengths determined by the step height of the structure. When higher refractive index material, such as protein monolayers, are incorporated over the reflective metal surface, the reflected wavelength is modified to shift toward longer wavelengths. FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a 9-element microarray biosensor. Many individual grating structures, represented by small green circles, lie within each microarray spot. The microarray spots, represented by the larger circles, will reflect white light in air at a wavelength that is determined by the refractive index of material on their surface. Microarray locations with additional adsorbed material will have reflected wavelengths that are shifted toward longer wavelengths, represented by the larger circles. Methods for Analysis of a Large Number of Protein Interactions in Parallel The biosensors of the invention can be used to study a large number of protein interactions in parallel. For example, in proteomics research, investigators determine the extent to which different groups of proteins interact, and the biosensors of the invention can be used to study the interactions. In the “protein chip” approach of using the biosensors of the invention, a variety of “bait” proteins, for example, antibodies, can be immobilized in an array format onto the biosensors of the invention. The surface is then probed with the sample of interest and only the proteins that bind to the relevant bait proteins remain bound to the chip. Such an approach is essentially a large-scale version of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. As described previously, the biosensor of this invention is designed to detect the adsorption of protein in a sample to a protein “bait” on the chip surface without the use of an enzyme or fluorescent label. Several different types of assays can be performed to detect or measure protein-protein interactions. For example, the protein chip surface can comprise immobilized recombinant proteins, protein domains, or polypeptides. A sample, for example, of cell lysates containing putative interaction partners are applied to the protein chip, followed by washing to remove unbound material. Ideally, the bound proteins are eluted from the chip and identified by mass spectrometry. Optionally, a phage DNA display library can be applied to the chip followed by washing and amplification steps to isolate individual phage particles. The inserts in these phage particles can then be sequenced to determine the identity of the interacting partners. For the above applications, and in particular proteomics applications, the ability to selectively bind material from a sample onto a protein chip (or microarray) surface, followed by the ability to selectively remove bound material from one protein chip spot at a time for further analysis is preferable. The biosensors of the invention are capable of detecting and quantifying the amount of protein from a sample that is bound to a biosensor array location. A modification to the basic sensor structure can further enable the biosensor array to selectively attract or repel bound biological material from individual array locations. As is well known in the art, an electromotive force can be applied to biological molecules such as DNA, proteins, and peptides by subjecting them to an electric field. The basic techniques of gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis operate by application of an electric field across a medium that contains DNA or protein molecules. Because these molecules are electronegative, they are attracted to a positively charged electrode and repelled by a negatively charged electrode. A grating structure of the resonant optical biosensor can be built using an electrically conducting material rather than an electrically insulating material. An electric field can be applied near the biosensor surface. Where a grating operates as both a resonant reflector biosensor and as an electrode, the grating must comprise a material that is both optically transparent near the resonant wavelength, and has low resistivity. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the material is indium tin oxide, InSnxO1-x (ITO). ITO is commonly used to produce transparent electrodes for flat panel optical displays, and is therefore readily available at low cost on large glass sheets. The refractive index of ITO can be adjusted by controlling x, the fraction of Sn that is present in the material. Because the liquid test solution will have mobile ions (and will therefore be an electrical conductor) it is necessary for the ITO electrodes to be coated with an insulating material. For the resonant optical biosensor, a grating layer must be coated with a layer with lower refractive index. Materials such as cured photoresist (n=1.65), cured optical epoxy (n=1.5), and glass (n=1.4-1.5) are strong electrical insulators that also have a refractive index that is lower than ITO (n=2.0-2.65). A cross sectional diagram of a sensor that incorporates an ITO grating is shown in FIG. 10. An SEM photograph of a top view of the ITO grating is shown in FIG. 11. As shown in FIG. 11, a grating can be a continuous sheet of ITO that contains an array of regularly spaced holes. The holes are filled in with an electrically insulating material, such as cured photoresist. The electrically insulating layer overcoats the ITO grating so that the upper surface of the structure is completely covered with electrical insulator, and so that the upper surface is flat. As shown in FIG. 12 and FIG. 13, a single electrode can comprise a region that contains many grating periods. Building several separate grating regions on the same substrate surface creates an array of sensor electrodes. Electrical contact to each sensor electrode is provided using an electrically conducting trace that is built from the same material as the conductor within the sensor electrode (ITO). The conducting trace is connected to a voltage source that can apply an electrical potential to the electrode. To apply an electrical potential to the sensor that is capable of attracting or repelling a molecule near the electrode surface, the sensor chip upper surface can be immersed in a liquid sample as shown in FIG. 14. A “common” electrode can be placed within the sample liquid, and a voltage can be applied between one selected sensor electrode region and the common electrode. In this way, one, several, or all electrodes can be activated or inactivated at a given time. FIG. 15 illustrates the attraction of electronegative molecules to the sensor surface when a positive voltage is applied to the electrode, while FIG. 16 illustrates the application of a repelling force to electronegative molecules using a negative electrode voltage. Microtiter Plate Implementation While a microarray format enables many individual “bait” probes (for example, nucleic acids, proteins, peptides, cells, viruses, or bacteria) to interact simultaneously with a test sample with a very high probe density, it is necessary for all the probes to operate effectively under an identical set of conditions. This is an important limitation for protein microarrays, in which different protein-protein interactions only occur within different solvents, test sample pH, or in the presence of additional chemicals (such as enzymes). For this reason, the majority of protein interaction studies are currently performed within microtiter plate wells, where each individual well acts as a separate reaction vessel. By performing protein interaction studies within microtiter plates, separate chemical reactions can occur within adjacent wells without intermixing reaction fluids. Therefore, chemically distinct test solutions can be applied to individual wells. Standard format microtiter plates are available in 96-well, 384-well, and 1536-well cartridges. The use of standard formats for microtiter plates has enabled manufacturers of high-throughput screening equipment and instrumentation to build equipment that all accept the same size cartridge for robotic handling, fluid dispensing, and assay measurement. One of the embodiments of this invention is a resonant reflection surface that can be incorporated into any standard format microtiter plate. The implementation of this embodiment is identical to a microarray format, except the size of the resonant reflection surface is increased from a standard microscope slide (˜25×75 mm) to the size of a microtiter plate (˜3.25×5 inches). Additionally, the resonant reflection surface is incorporated into the bottom surface of a microtiter plate by assembling the walls of the reaction vessels over the resonant reflection surface, as shown in FIG. 17, so that each reaction “spot” can be exposed to a distinct test sample. A microtiter plate of the invention can be used as biosensor and microarray sensor as described herein. The following are provided for exemplification purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention described in broad terms above. All references cited in this disclosure are incorporated herein by reference. EXAMPLE 1 Five circular diffuse grating holograms were prepared by stamping a metal master plate into vinyl. The circular holograms were cut out and glued to glass slides. The slides were coated with 1000 angstroms of aluminum. In air, the resonant wavelength of the grating is ˜380 nm, and therefore, no reflected color is visible. When the grating is covered with water, a light blue reflection is observed. Reflected wavelength shifts will only be observable and measurable while the grating is covered with a liquid, or if a protein film covers the structure. The purpose of this experiment is to immobilize both proteins and bacteria onto the surface of a grating at high concentration, and to measure the wavelength shift induced. For each material, a 20 ul droplet will be placed onto the active sensor area and allowed to dry in air. At 1 ug/ml protein concentration, a 20 ul droplet spreading out to cover a 1 cm diameter circle will deposit 2×10−8 grams of material. The surface density will be 25.6 ng/mm2. A. HIGH CONCENTRATION PROTEIN IMMOBILIZATION—(slide 4) 2% BSA (bovine serum albumin) in DI, 10 ul droplet (0.8 g BSA in 40 ml DI). Droplet spread out to cover 1 cm diameter circle. The droplet deposits 0.0002 g of BSA, for a density of 2.5e-6 g/mm{circumflex over ( )}2 After protein deposition, Slide 4 appears to have a green resonance in air. B. BACTERIA IMMOBILIZATION—(slide 2) NECK borrelia Lyme Disease bacteria (1.8e8 cfu/ml, 20 ul droplet) After bacteria deposition, Slide 2 still looks grey in air C. LOW CONCENTRATION PROTEIN IMMOBILIZATION—(slide 6) 0.02% BSA in DI, 10 ul droplet (0.8 g BSA in 40 ml DI). Droplet spread out to cover a 1 cm diameter circle. The droplet deposits 0.000002 g of BSA for a density of 2.5e-8 g/mm{circumflex over ( )}2. After protein deposition, Slide 6 still looks grey in air In order to obtain quantitative data on the extent of surface modification resulting from the above treatments, the holograms were measured at Brown University using SpectraScan system from Photonics Research. The reflectance spectra are presented below. Because a green resonance signal was immediately visually observed on the slide upon which high concentration BSA was deposited (Slide 4), it was measured in air. FIG. 4 shows two peaks at 540 nm and 550 nm in green wavelengths where none were present before protein deposition, indicating that the presence of a protein thin film is sufficient to result in a strong shift in resonant wavelength of a surface relief structure. Because no visible resonant wavelength was observed in air for the slide upon which a low concentration of protein was applied (Slide 6), it was measured with distilled water on surface and compared against a slide which had no protein treatment. FIG. 5 shows that the resonant wavelength for the slide with protein applied shifted to the green compared to a water-coated slide that had not been treated. Finally, a water droplet containing Lyme Disease bacteria borrelia burgdorferi was applied to a grating structure and allowed to dry in air (Slide 2). Because no visually observed resonance occurred in air after bacteria deposition, the slide was measured with distilled water on the surface and compared to a water-coated slide with that had undergone no other treatment. As shown in FIG. 6, the application of bacteria results in a resonant frequency shift to longer wavelengths as expected. EXAMPLE 2 To demonstrate the concept that a resonant grating structure can be used as a biosensor by measuring the reflected wavelength shift that is induced when biological material is adsorbed onto its surface, the structure shown in FIG. 7 was modeled by computer. For purposes of demonstration, the substrate chosen was glass (nsubstrate=1.454) coated with a layer of silicon nitride (t3=90 μm, n3=2.02). The grating is two-dimensional pattern of photoresist squares (t2=90 nm, n2=1.625) with a period of 510 nm, and a filling factor of 56.2% (i.e. 56.2% of the surface is covered with photoresist squares while the rest is the area between the squares). The areas between photoresist squares are filled with a lower refractive index material. The same material also covers the squares and provides a uniformly flat upper surface. For this simulation, a glass layer was selected (n1=1.45) that covers the photoresist squares by t2=100 nm. To observe the effect on the reflected wavelength of this structure with the deposition of biological material, variable thicknesses of protein (nbio=1.5) were added above the glass coating layer. The reflected intensity as a function of wavelength was modeled using GSOLVER software (Grating Solver Development Company), which utilizes full 3-dimensional vector code using hybrid. Rigorous Coupled Wave Analysis and Modal analysis. GSOLVER calculates diffracted fields and diffraction efficiencies from plane wave illumination of arbitrarily complex grating structures. The illumination may be from any incidence and any polarization. The results of the computer simulation are shown in FIG. 8 and FIG. 9. As shown in FIG. 10, the resonant structure allows only a single wavelength, near 805 nm, to be reflected from the surface when no protein is present on the surface. Because the peak width at half-maximum is <0.25 nm, resonant wavelength shifts of 1.0 nm will be easily resolved. FIG. 8 also shows that the resonant wavelength shifts to longer wavelengths as more protein is deposited on the surface of the structure. Protein thickness changes of 1 nm are easily observed. FIG. 9 plots the dependence of resonant wavelength on the protein coating thickness. A near linear relationship between protein thickness and resonant wavelength is observed, indicating that this method of measuring protein adsorption can provide quantitative data. EXAMPLE 3 For a proteomics application, a biosensor array can be operated as follows: First, a biosensor array surface is prepared with an array of bait proteins. Next, the biosensor array is exposed to a test sample that contains a mixture of interacting proteins or a phage display library, and then this biosensor surface is rinsed to remove all unbound material. The biosensor chip is optically probed to determine which sites have experienced the greatest degree of binding, and to provide a quantitative measure of bound material. Next, the sensor chip is placed in a “flow cell” that allows a small (<50 microliters) fixed volume of fluid to make contact to the sensor chip surface. One electrode is activated so as to elute bound material from only a selected sensor array location. The bound material becomes diluted within the flow cell liquid. The flow cell liquid is pumped away from the sensor surface and is stored within a microtiter plate, or some other container. The flow cell liquid is replaced with fresh solution, and a new sensor electrode is activated to elute its bound material. The process is repeated until all sensor array regions of interest have been eluted and gathered into separate containers. If the sample liquid contained a mixture of proteins, protein contents within the separate containers can be analyzed using a technique such as electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. If the sample liquid contained a phage display library, the phage clones within the separate containers can be identified through incubation with a host strain bacteria, concentration amplification, and analysis of the relevant library DNA sequence. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention is in the field of biosensors useful for detecting biological material. 2. Background of the Art Like DNA microarrays that are used to test and sequence DNA for the expression of genes with massive parallelism, protein microarrays are expected to become important tools for measuring protein interactions, determining the products of gene expression, and detecting for the presence of protein analytes in solution. See, A. Lueking, et al., “Protein Microarrays for Gene Expression and Antibody Screening,” Analytical Biochemistry 270, 103-111 (1999). Applications include molecular biology research, pharmaceutical discovery, rational vaccine development, clinical sample screening for disease diagnosis, point-of-care diagnostic systems, and biological weapon detection/identification. See, M. Bourne, Business Opportunity Report, “Biosensors and Chemical Biosensors,” Business Communications Co. Inc., (1999). For several applications, moderate readout system size and cost can be tolerated for a system that can provide thousands of parallel assays with extremely high microarray density using a disposable chip that has very low cost. In addition, for some applications it is important to avoid the use of fluorescent molecule tags for labeling microarray-detected analytes due to the effect that the fluorophor attachment can have on the analyte's tertiary structure. Several methods for building protein microarrays are being used by research groups and companies. Optical readout methods demonstrated for single (or <10-element) biosensors include “direct assays” (such as surface plasmon resonance, grating couplers, difference reflectometry/interferometry, resonant mirrors, and ellipsometry) and “indirect assays” (such as fluorescence spectroscopy, colormetric staining, quantum dots, and upconverting phosphors). See, C. Striebel, et al., “Characterization of biomembranes by spectral ellipsometry, surface plasmon resonance, and interferometry with regard to biosensoro application,” Biosensors & Bioelectronics 9, 139-146 (1994). Of these methods, direct assays that do not require the addition of special reagents to label detected analytes or other post-process chemical amplification are preferred for assay simplicity. See, W. Huber, et al., “Direct optical immunosensing (sensitivity and selectivity),” Sensors and Actuators B6, 122-126 (1992). Direct assays are also useful for detecting small protein molecules or structures that are not readily attached to a label reagent. Of the direct methods, difference reflectometry and ellipsometry offer optical readout instrumentation that is relatively simple to operate and interpret. See, A. Brecht, and G. Gauglitz, “Optical Probes and Transducers,” Biosensors & Bioelectronics 10, 923-936 (1995). Biosensors have been developed to detect a variety of biomolecular complexes including oligonucleotides, antibody-antigen interactions, hormone-receptor interactions, and enzyme-substrate interactions. In general, biosensors consist of two components: a highly specific recognition element and a transducer that converts the molecular recognition event into a quantifiable signal. Signal transduction has been accomplished by many methods, including fluorescence, interferometry, and gravimetry. See, A. Cunningham, “ Analytical Biosensors.” Of the optically-based transduction methods, direct methods that do not require labeling of analytes with fluorescent compounds are of interest due to the relative assay simplicity and ability to study the interaction of small molecules that are not readily labeled. Direct optical methods include surface plasmon resonance (SPR), grating couplers, ellipsometry, evanascent wave devices, and reflectometry. Theoretically predicted detection limits of these detection methods have been determined and experimentally confirmed to be feasible down to diagnostically relevant concentration ranges. However, to date, highly parallel microarray approaches have not been applied to these methods. The proposed invention utilizes a change in the refractive index upon a surface to determine when a chemically bound material is present within a specific location. Because both ellipsometry and reflectance spectrometry have been utilized as biosensors using similar phenomena, they will be described briefly so that the current disclosure can be compared. Ellipsometry Ellipsometry takes advantage of the different interaction of TM and TE modes with thin films at reflection and radiation to measure optical properties (refractive index and thickness) of thin films. See, G. J. Pentti, et al., “A biosensor concept based on imaging ellipsometry for visualization of biomolecular interactions,” Analytical Biochemistry 232, 69-72 (1995). Parallel and perpendicular polarized light will exhibit different reflectivity and phase shift on reflection depending on the optical constant of a semitransparent thin film. Changes in thickness below 5 angstroms can be resolved, giving this approach the ability to resolve a protein monolayer. Ellipsometry is most commonly used to measure film thickness of oxides and nitrides for semiconductor processing. While a single wavelength ellipsometer using a He:Ne laser can be used to measure the refractive index and thickness of a single deposited layer, spectroscopic ellipsometers can resolve several layers within an optical stack using a computer algorithm to fit measured data across a wavelength band. While the most basic ellipsometers probe a single spot on a surface, imaging ellipsometers are now offered that can measure optical properties over a small area to create a map of optical properties. Reflectance Interference Spectroscopy Reflectance Interference Spectroscopy (RIS) is an extremely simple method for measuring protein adsorption onto optical surfaces. In RIS, a substrate with a thin transparent film is illuminated with white light. Light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the thin film interferes to generate a Fabry-Perot interference reflectance spectrum in which constructive interference occurs at some wavelengths while destructive interference occurs at others. The reflectance spectrum depends upon the thickness and optical constant of the thin film. Like ellipsometry, RIS is typically used to measure oxide and nitride optical thin film thickness on various substrates. The probe illumination and reflected signal may be applied with a fiber optic probe for large (˜2 mm diameter) spot probing, or through a microscope objective for small (˜100 μm diameter) spot probing. Reflectance spectrum maps are usually generated to monitor thin film thickness uniformity by operating the spectrometer with a scanning x-y stage. A single measurement can be performed in <1 sec. While theoretically able to measure layer thickness changes of several angstroms, ellipsometry measurements of this sensitivity can be difficult to interpret due to the degree of optical system alignment that is required to reproduce measurements. The readout system requires a laser, a polarizer, and a rotating analyzer. Accurate instruments that measure only a single location are expensive. Instrumentation for reflectance spectrometry is inexpensive because the method relies upon a white light source, a grating, and a linear photodiode array, without any moving parts. Reflectance spectrometry is typically performed on optically flat surfaces. A computer model can determine the adsorbed layer optical thickness that best matches the reflected spectrum. Layer thickness measurement resolution is limited by the ability of the model to correctly fit small changes in the reflected spectrum. Without the use of a resonant reflectance structure, the reflected spectrum of a flat surface covers a broad span of wavelengths. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention describes a biosensor which utilizes a surface that is engineered to reflect predominantly at a particular wavelength when illuminated with broadband light. Biodetection is achieved when material adsorbed onto the reflector's surface results in a shift in the reflected wavelength. The reflecting surface may contain either a single detection region, or multiple detection regions that form a biosensor microarray. While several one-dimensional engineered surfaces have been shown to exhibit the ability to select a narrow range of reflected or transmitted wavelengths from a broadband excitation source (thin film interference filters and Bragg reflectors), the deposition of additional material onto their upper surface results only in a change in the resonance linewidth, rather than the resonance wavelength. By using two-dimensional and three-dimensional grating structures, the ability to alter the reflected wavelength with the addition of material to the surface is obtained. In this disclosure, the use of two such structures for reflected wavelength modulation by addition of biological material to the upper surface are described. The first structure is a three-dimensional surface-relief volume diffractive grating, and the second structure is a two-dimensional structured surface. Biological material may include DNA, protein, peptides, cells, bacteria, viruses. In one embodiment, a biosensor having a reflective surface which has a sculptured two or three dimensional surface coated with a reflective material which reflects predominantly at a single wavelength when illuminated with broadband light, and which reflects at a new wavelength of light when biological matter is deposited or adsorbed upon the reflective surface. The reflective surface is a surface relief or volume diffractive structure having a two-dimensional grating. The reflected wavelength is predominantly at a single wavelength due to the effect of resonant scattering through a guided mode. Such biosensors are associated with a light source which directs light to the reflective surface and a detector which detects light reflected from the reflective surface. The biosensor is typically used to detect biological matter such as DNA, proteins, peptides, cells, viruses, or bacteria. Preferably, the biosensor reflective surface is coated with an array of distinct locations containing specific binding substances to form a microarray biosensor. The specific binding substance for example may be DNA, RNA, protein or polypeptide. The microarray has the distinct locations defined as microarray spots of 50-500 microns in diameter preferably 150-200 micron in diameter. The relief volume diffraction structures are smaller than the resonant wavelength and are typically less than 1 micron in diameter. A microarray sensor is made of a sheet material having a first and second surface wherein the first surface defines relief volume diffraction structures coated with a reflective material such as silver or gold and an array of distinct locations on the first surface is coated with a specific binding substance such as DNA, RNA, oligonucleotide, protein or polypeptide. In this embodiment there is a shift in wave length of the reflected light when a specific binding substance is bound to its binding partner. In another embodiment the biosensor is made of transparent material having a two or three dimensional sculpture light receiving surface and a light emitting surface which emits light at the light emitting surface primarily at a single wavelength when illuminated on the light receiving surface with broadband light and which emits light at a different wave length when biological matter is deposited on the light receiving surface. In this embodiment the biosensor associated with a light source which directs light to the light receiving surface and a detector which receives light from the light emitting surface. The light transmitting biosensor embodiment has a sculptured two or three dimensional surface designed to transmit predominantly at a single wavelength when illuminated with broadband light, and which transmits at a new wavelength of light when biological matter is deposited on the sculpture. This light transmitting embodiment may be formed into a microsensor array as described above. | 20041112 | 20080909 | 20051013 | 77526.0 | 1 | YANG, NELSON C | LABEL-FREE HIGH-THROUGHPUT OPTICAL TECHNIQUE FOR DETECTING BIOMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,433 | ACCEPTED | Method of improving airline luggage inspection | Method of making airline luggage inspection secure while accommodating the needs of the traveler comprises making a special lock available to airline travelers, the special lock having a combination lock portion and a master key lock, the master key lock portion receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type. The special lock is designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage and has indicia conveying to luggage purchasers that the special lock is “approved” by a luggage screening authority and conveying to the luggage screening authority that the special lock can be opened using the master key. The method includes providing the luggage screening authority directly or indirectly with exclusive access to the master key. The manufacturers and/or providers of the master key and special lock retain copies of the master key. | 1. A method of improving airline luggage inspection by a luggage screening authority, comprising: making available to consumers a special lock, the special lock having a combination lock portion and having a master key lock portion, the master key lock portion for receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type, the special lock designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage, and an indicia associated with the special lock that matches an indicia previously provided to the luggage screening authority which special lock and associated indicia the luggage screening authority has agreed to process in accordance with a special procedure, marketing the special lock to the consumers in a manner that conveys to the consumers that the special lock will be subjected by the luggage screening authority to the special procedure, and the luggage screening authority acting pursuant to a prior agreement to look for the indicia while screening luggage and, upon finding said indicia on an individual piece of luggage, to use the master key previously provided to the luggage screening authority to, if necessary, open the individual piece of luggage and not try to break the individual piece of luggage. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the master key lock portion includes a key hole on a bottom of the special lock that receives the master key. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein a step of making available to consumers a special lock involves mass producing the special lock and selling the special lock to the consumers. 4. A method of improving airline luggage inspection by a luggage screening authority comprising: making available to consumers a special lock, the special lock having a first lock portion and having a master key lock portion, the master key lock portion for receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type, the special lock designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage, and an indicia associated with the special lock that matches an indicia previously provided to the luggage screening authority which special lock and associated indicia the luggage screening authority has agreed to process in accordance with a special procedure, marketing the special lock to the consumers in a manner that conveys to the consumers that the special lock will be subjected by the luggage screening authority to the special procedure, and the luggage screening authority acting pursuant to a prior agreement to look for the indicia while screening luggage and, upon finding said indicia on an individual piece of luggage, to use the master key previously provided to the luggage screening authority to, if necessary, open the individual piece of luggage and not try to break the individual piece of luggage. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the indicia is located directly on the special lock. 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the indicia is located directly on the special lock. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein a step of making available to consumers a special lock involves mass producing the special lock and selling the special lock to the consumers. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of making available to consumers an indicia associated with the special lock involves making available a special lock and/or an indicia that has a distinctive shape, texture, color and/or weight. 9. The method of claim 4, wherein the step of making available to consumers an indicia associated with the special lock involves making available a special lock and/or an indicia that has a distinctive shape, texture, color and/or weight. | PRIORITY INFORMATION This patent application claims priority from and is a continuation-in-part patent application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/706,500 previously filed by Applicant and Inventor David Tropp on Nov. 12, 2003 and which is presently pending and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This patent application also claims priority of and is a continuation-in-part patent application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/756,531 previously filed by Applicant and Inventor David Tropp on Jan. 12, 2004 and which is presently pending and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The field of this invention is methods of improving airline luggage inspection, and more particularly, methods of making such inspection less intrusive and more secure. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AND DISCUSSION OF THE PRIOR ART Due to the threat of terrorism, in the weeks prior to Jan. 1, 2003, the Transportation Security Administration (“TSA”), a division of the United States Department of Homeland Security, announced that with respect to luggage at United States airports if a TSA baggage screener was unable to open a traveler's bag for inspection because the bag was locked, the screener would have to break the locks on the traveler's bag. Hence, passengers should leave their bags unlocked, according to the TSA. Beginning Jan. 1, 2003 the TSA's federal workers started screening luggage at U.S. airports and when it deemed it necessary it started clipping locks on this luggage in order to open and inspect the luggage. Since by definition airport luggage screening occurs outside the presence of the passengers whose luggage is being inspected, it is impossible or at least impractical for airport luggage screening personnel to make use of combinations to open combination locks on airport luggage. Nonetheless, passengers may desire to use combination locks to avoid worrying about loss of a key or finding the key. Although arguably necessary for security, the method of screening luggage that includes opening the passenger's luggage in a manner that leaves the luggage “unlockable” after the inspection process, for example by clipping the heretofore workable lock, suffers from several drawbacks. First, the passenger's belongings have been damaged either because the lock has been clipped or because the luggage has been opened forcibly or both. This causes monetary damage it also causes aggravation. Second, a new security hazard is generated since the passenger gets back a piece of luggage with a broken or removed lock. This means that during the remainder of the passenger's trip his or her luggage is not secure and can be tampered with. The remainder of the trip may even include further domestic flights. Furthermore, if travelers consistently have their locks broken, travelers will see no value in using locks when traveling, thereby exposing their unlocked luggage to a constant risk of tampering. One should not assume that security risks exist only among passengers. Terrorists have tried in the past and may try in the future to compromise the workers at the airports who inspect luggage. Accordingly, the no longer secure piece of luggage is subject to the risk that a terrorist or other dangerous person who is within the area of the airport luggage screening personnel—because he is a worker or because he penetrated the secure area—can insert a bomb or other hazardous material into the luggage by easily opening it since it not only does not have a lock anymore but its outward appearance, i.e. a damaged lock, may advertise that it has been tampered with and be easily opened. Furthermore, the sale of padlocks plummeted after the TSA began the practice of clipping locks. Another thing that happened was that the number of claims for theft and damage allegedly caused by the government and/or airline personnel to passengers' luggage increased significantly since Jan. 1, 2003. Another problem is that passengers are concerned about theft of the contents of their bags without the protection of locks (after their locks have been rendered useless by the luggage screening authorities). Travelers understand and support the federal government's initiatives to thwart terrorism. This support of security regulations and procedures on the part of travelers is critical to their implementation and success. However, travelers, just getting accustomed to the new security laws, may have legitimate concerns about baggage inspections. It is crucial that the government or appropriate authorities act to diminish travelers' concerns in this regard. In addition, working as a TSA luggage screener is a highly demanding and stressful job. Therefore, anything that reduces the physical strain would be highly appreciated by the screeners. It should be born in mind that the number of airline travelers who pass through airports in the United States in a given year is close to half a billion. Thus, these concerns affect a great many individuals. Accordingly, there is a compelling and immediate need for a method of inspecting luggage at airports that does not create a security risk and that is not damaging or aggravating to the passengers. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION The present invention presents a method of making airline luggage inspection secure while accommodating the needs of the traveler includes a first step of making a special lock available to airline travelers, the special lock having a combination lock portion and a master key lock, the master key lock portion for receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type. The special lock is designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage and has an indicia thereon conveying to luggage purchasers that the special lock is “approved” by a luggage screening authority and conveying to the luggage screening authority that the special lock can be opened using the master key. Then providing the luggage screening authority with exclusive access to the master key. The manufacturers and/or providers of the master key and special lock retain copies of the master key. In accordance with the method of the present invention, therefore, the luggage screening authority need not clip or otherwise break open locks to inspect luggage, nor do they have to break into the luggage in some other manner. The workers need only be told that master keys are available to open locks that have the indicia on them. IMPORTANT OBJECTS AND ADVANTAGES The following important objects and advantages of the present invention are: (1) to provide a method of screening luggage at airports that avoids forcible opening of the luggage; (2) to provide a method of screening luggage at airports that employs special locks that remain viable after being subjected to airport luggage screening and inspection; (3) to provide a method of non-intrusively searching passenger's luggage at airports; (4) to provide a method of screening luggage that uses a master key exclusively maintained by the luggage screening authority; (5) to provide a method of improving luggage screening at airports that avoids the need for clipping the locks on passenger luggage; (6) to provide a method of screening luggage at airports that eliminates a potential security threat of tampering with broken-into luggage or luggage whose locks have been broken; (7) to provide a method of luggage screening that reduces the costs of the luggage screening authority; (8) to provide a method of luggage screening that eliminates the need for lock clippers; (9) to provide a luggage screening method that reduces injuries to luggage screeners that may arise from clipping locks; (10) to provide an improved method of luggage screening at airports that requires essentially no new training; (11) to provide a method of airport luggage screening that reduces the liability to the luggage screening authority; (12) to provide an improved method of luggage screening that would not interfere with current policy of the luggage screening authority in that luggage locks could still be clipped if they did not display the indicia conveying that were “TSA approved” or authorized; (13) to provide a luggage screening method that decreases the labor of luggage screeners in that opening the special lock of the method of the present invention requires less manual labor than breaking locks; (14) to provide a method of luggage screening that provides a public relations benefit to the TSA or luggage screening authority in that travelers will appreciate the TSA or luggage screening authority's concern for their personal property, an important benefit for new agency; (15) to provide a method of airport luggage screening that allows the luggage screening authority to get its work done more efficiently; (16) to provide a method of airport luggage screening that allows a thorough search of the passenger's luggage while at the same time providing a less intrusive and more comfortable search to the passenger; (17) to provide a method of screening luggage at airports that eliminates the danger of tampering with luggage that has been broken into subsequent to the screening process; and (18) to provide a method that eliminates the need to break into the luggage at a point other than its lock. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front plan view of one embodiment of the special lock used in the method of the present invention in open position modified to show a key hole for a master key on the bottom. FIG. 2 is a front plan view of a second embodiment of the special lock used in the method of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a front plan view of a second embodiment of the special lock used in the method of the present invention modified to show a key hole for a master key on the bottom. FIG. 4 shows the special lock depicted in FIG. 1 in closed position. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The method of the present invention includes the step of making a special lock available to airline travelers, the special lock having a combination lock portion and having a master key lock, the master key lock portion for receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type, the special lock designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage. The special lock also has indicia associated with the special lock. In a preferred embodiment the indicia is on the special lock but the present invention contemplates that the indicia may be near by on the luggage but not on the lock or other ways of association (on a tag near the lock, etc.). As a result of marketing the special lock to consumers or to airline travelers, the indicia conveys to luggage purchasers that the special lock is a lock that the luggage screening authority has agreed not to break. The indicia also conveys to the luggage screening authority that the special lock is a lock that the luggage screening authority has agreed not to break. This is because the luggage screening authority has previously (previous to its screeners looking for the indicia) been provided with the indicia or a special lock having the indicia and has previously agreed to follow a special procedure for processing and screening luggage having the special lock and associated indicia—that is, to look for the indicia while screening luggage and, upon finding said indicia on an individual piece of luggage, to use the master key previously provided to the luggage screening authority to, if necessary, open the individual piece of luggage having the special lock and not try to break the individual piece of luggage. The indicia can state, for example, that the special lock is “approved”, “accepted” or “authorized” by the luggage screening authority. The term “indicia” is a broad term and can also include the special lock itself (or the special lock having associated therewith) a distinctive (and in a preferred embodiment a suitably conspicuous) physical characteristic such shape, texture, weight and/or other characteristic, such as color, that makes it instantly recognizable by individuals working for the luggage screening authority who are specifically for that characteristic. Alternatively, a distinctive chemical or electronic characteristic can be used—in short any distinctive characteristic that can be instantly recognized by persons looking for it. The phrase “any special lock of this type” is intended to include special locks having a multiplicity of sub-types such as different sizes, different manufacturing designs or styles, etc. Besides making the special lock more valuable to prospective luggage purchasers or lock purchasers, such indicia also tells the luggage screening authority that the special lock can be opened by the luggage screening authority using the master key and that the special lock is among those locks that the luggage screening authority agrees not to break in order to inspect the luggage. The phrase “approved”, “accepted” or “authorized” is a broad phrase intended to include other words or terms that signify that the luggage screening authority agrees that locks having such indicia will not be broken into. The method of the present invention also includes the step of providing the luggage screening authority, directly or indirectly, with access to the master key. This step includes providing such access with the help of or in conjunction with another business entity, i.e. a third party. The access is to be exclusive except that one or more of the following entities may retain copies of the master key: the manufacturer of the special lock, since it may need to retool the special lock, the provider to the passengers of the special lock, which may or may not be the same as the manufacturers, the manufacturer and/or the provider of the master key to the luggage screening authority. It is anticipated that the manufacturer of the special lock will also provide the master key but other possibilities are also contemplated by the present invention. The step of providing access may be accomplished by delivering one or more master keys to the luggage screening authority or by delivering one or master keys to a company or organization whose responsibility it is to cause said one or more master keys to be delivered to the luggage screening authority. Access to the master key by the luggage screening authority includes having access to any appropriate number of such master keys by its workers or by any appropriate division of part of said luggage screening authority. The preferred embodiment of the method of the present invention thus can be summarized as follows: A method of improving airline luggage inspection by a luggage screening authority, comprising making available to consumers a special lock, the special lock having a combination lock portion and having a master key lock portion, the master key lock portion for receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type, the special lock designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage, and making available to consumers an indicia associated with the special lock that matches an indicia previously provided to the luggage screening authority which the luggage screening authority has agreed to process in accordance with a special procedure, marketing the special lock to the consumers in a manner that conveys to the consumers that the special lock will be subjected by the luggage screening authority to the special procedure, and the luggage screening authority acting pursuant to a prior agreement to look for the indicia while screening luggage and, upon finding said indicia on an individual piece of luggage, to use the master key previously provided to the luggage screening authority to, if necessary, open the individual piece of luggage and not try to break the individual piece of luggage. Although the present invention is a method of improving the inspection of airline luggage, the method of the present invention makes use of an apparatus. This apparatus is a special lock. The special lock is illustrated by reference to the accompanying drawings. Consequently, the special lock used in the method of the present invention has been assigned reference numeral 10 Other elements have been assigned the reference numerals referred to below. Combination locks have certain advantages over locks with keys. For one thing, there is no need to fear loss of the key. Hence, it is advantageous to have combination locks on luggage used to fly with since flights tend to cause stress and stress can lead to loss of the key. Second, even if one has the key it takes time to retrieve it. If the luggage has to be opened suddenly then retrieval of the key is an inconvenience. Although combination locks require memorization of access to the coded combination, this is usually considered better than a key lock on balance to many passengers. Hence, there is a need for a method of improving luggage screening at airports that makes of a special lock that includes a unique combination but that is nonetheless convenient and secure for the passengers and for the airport luggage screening personnel. As seen from FIGS. 1-4, special lock 10 includes a combination lock portion 20 having a unique combination and a master key lock. The master key lock portion is opened by a master key that is inserted in key hole 30. Typically, although not necessarily, the key hole would be inconspicuously placed on the bottom of the special lock 10. The combination lock portion can be any kind of combination lock portion suitable for use with a piece of luggage at an airport. The combination can be a front dial that is turned or several dials that are turned to set the combination. Presently, the Transportation Security Administration, a division of the United States Department of Homeland Security has the task of screening travelers' luggage at airports. However, the term “luggage screening authority” is intended broadly to encompass both the Transportation Security Administration and any governmental entity or non-governmental organization whose task includes screening the luggage of travelers at airports in the United States or a non-governmental organization. Alternatively, the luggage screening authority can be a governmental entity or non-governmental organization whose task includes screening the luggage of travelers at airports in Canada or another country. Furthermore, the luggage screening authority is also intended to broadly include individual workers who screen luggage at airports and other personnel of the TSA or of some other entity or organization whose task it is to screen such luggage. Thus, the master key allows the authorized agency's workers to have the ability to open any of the luggage that the workers inspect in a manner without clipping the lock. The indicia notifies the luggage screening authority which pieces of luggage has locks that lock the master key opens and it notifying purchasers of the special lock of an added value of the special lock. Market research exists to support the fact that customers will spend significantly more on luggage if they know that it comes with a lock that the luggage screening authorities such as the TSA recognize as being openable by their master key and without forcibly opening the luggage. As seen in FIG. 2, the indicia 50 can take the form of a phrase “approved by the TSA” or any similar phrase or it can be anything else that conveys the approval, authority, acceptance etc. by the TSA or other relevant luggage screening authority. It should be understood that although one example of the indicia appears in FIG. 2 only, the other embodiments of the special lock used in the method of the present invention would also have the indicia. It should be noted that with the use of the special lock by the traveler, the traveler still selects a combination for the combination lock portion of the special lock 10 and the traveler has that combination for the combination lock portion part of the special lock. Accordingly, the traveler still has a useful secure lock after passing airport security. In addition, the luggage screening authority still maintains an effective and quick way of accessing airport luggage for inspection whenever it deems doing so necessary. It should be noted that the terms “master key” and “master key lock portion” are broad terms intended to also include electronic or other sensor mechanisms for opening up the master key lock portion in special lock 10. Thus, the method of the present invention contemplates using in certain embodiments a special lock 10 that makes use of an electronic sensor instead of a traditional physical key even though such a traditional physical key is what is typically understood by the term “master key”. In such a case the locking mechanism inside special lock 10 would not be a traditional master key lock mechanism but rather would be a locking mechanism that is opened by an electronic sensor. The present invention also contemplates that in certain embodiments other lock mechanisms besides a traditional combination lock can be used as one of the locks in special lock 10. Hence, in an alternative embodiment, the method would employ a first lock portion instead of a combination lock portion in special lock 10. The first lock portion can be any kind of locking mechanism useful for and easily accessible by the passenger. To Applicant's knowledge the luggage screening authority in the United States, namely the Transportation Security Administration, has no special requirements about the special lock for agreeing to accept the special lock in connection with the method of the present invention. In accordance with the method of the present invention, the TSA does of course have to be able to recognize the presence of and have the means to open the special lock. It is to be understood that while the method of this invention have been described and illustrated in detail, the above-described embodiments are simply illustrative of the principles of the invention. It is to be understood also that various other modifications and changes may be devised by those skilled in the art which will embody the principles of the invention and fall within the spirit and scope thereof. It is not desired to limit the invention to the exact construction and operation shown and described. The spirit and scope of this invention are limited only by the spirit and scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AND DISCUSSION OF THE PRIOR ART <EOH>Due to the threat of terrorism, in the weeks prior to Jan. 1, 2003, the Transportation Security Administration (“TSA”), a division of the United States Department of Homeland Security, announced that with respect to luggage at United States airports if a TSA baggage screener was unable to open a traveler's bag for inspection because the bag was locked, the screener would have to break the locks on the traveler's bag. Hence, passengers should leave their bags unlocked, according to the TSA. Beginning Jan. 1, 2003 the TSA's federal workers started screening luggage at U.S. airports and when it deemed it necessary it started clipping locks on this luggage in order to open and inspect the luggage. Since by definition airport luggage screening occurs outside the presence of the passengers whose luggage is being inspected, it is impossible or at least impractical for airport luggage screening personnel to make use of combinations to open combination locks on airport luggage. Nonetheless, passengers may desire to use combination locks to avoid worrying about loss of a key or finding the key. Although arguably necessary for security, the method of screening luggage that includes opening the passenger's luggage in a manner that leaves the luggage “unlockable” after the inspection process, for example by clipping the heretofore workable lock, suffers from several drawbacks. First, the passenger's belongings have been damaged either because the lock has been clipped or because the luggage has been opened forcibly or both. This causes monetary damage it also causes aggravation. Second, a new security hazard is generated since the passenger gets back a piece of luggage with a broken or removed lock. This means that during the remainder of the passenger's trip his or her luggage is not secure and can be tampered with. The remainder of the trip may even include further domestic flights. Furthermore, if travelers consistently have their locks broken, travelers will see no value in using locks when traveling, thereby exposing their unlocked luggage to a constant risk of tampering. One should not assume that security risks exist only among passengers. Terrorists have tried in the past and may try in the future to compromise the workers at the airports who inspect luggage. Accordingly, the no longer secure piece of luggage is subject to the risk that a terrorist or other dangerous person who is within the area of the airport luggage screening personnel—because he is a worker or because he penetrated the secure area—can insert a bomb or other hazardous material into the luggage by easily opening it since it not only does not have a lock anymore but its outward appearance, i.e. a damaged lock, may advertise that it has been tampered with and be easily opened. Furthermore, the sale of padlocks plummeted after the TSA began the practice of clipping locks. Another thing that happened was that the number of claims for theft and damage allegedly caused by the government and/or airline personnel to passengers' luggage increased significantly since Jan. 1, 2003. Another problem is that passengers are concerned about theft of the contents of their bags without the protection of locks (after their locks have been rendered useless by the luggage screening authorities). Travelers understand and support the federal government's initiatives to thwart terrorism. This support of security regulations and procedures on the part of travelers is critical to their implementation and success. However, travelers, just getting accustomed to the new security laws, may have legitimate concerns about baggage inspections. It is crucial that the government or appropriate authorities act to diminish travelers' concerns in this regard. In addition, working as a TSA luggage screener is a highly demanding and stressful job. Therefore, anything that reduces the physical strain would be highly appreciated by the screeners. It should be born in mind that the number of airline travelers who pass through airports in the United States in a given year is close to half a billion. Thus, these concerns affect a great many individuals. Accordingly, there is a compelling and immediate need for a method of inspecting luggage at airports that does not create a security risk and that is not damaging or aggravating to the passengers. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION <EOH>The present invention presents a method of making airline luggage inspection secure while accommodating the needs of the traveler includes a first step of making a special lock available to airline travelers, the special lock having a combination lock portion and a master key lock, the master key lock portion for receiving a master key that can open the master key lock portion of any special lock of this type. The special lock is designed to be applied to an individual piece of airline luggage and has an indicia thereon conveying to luggage purchasers that the special lock is “approved” by a luggage screening authority and conveying to the luggage screening authority that the special lock can be opened using the master key. Then providing the luggage screening authority with exclusive access to the master key. The manufacturers and/or providers of the master key and special lock retain copies of the master key. In accordance with the method of the present invention, therefore, the luggage screening authority need not clip or otherwise break open locks to inspect luggage, nor do they have to break into the luggage in some other manner. The workers need only be told that master keys are available to open locks that have the indicia on them. | 20041112 | 20060502 | 20050804 | 66771.0 | 3 | LABAZE, EDWYN | METHOD OF IMPROVING AIRLINE LUGGAGE INSPECTION | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,578 | ACCEPTED | Electric strike assembly | An electric strike includes a housing and a two-position mode selector for selecting a mode of the electric strike. Specifically, the two-position mode selector is operable from outside the housing, and the two-position mode selector is configured to allow the electric strike to selectively operate in a first mode, such as a fail-secure mode, or a second mode, such as a fail-safe mode. | 1-11. (canceled) 12. An electric strike for a door, comprising: a housing; and means for selecting a mode of the electric strike, wherein the means for selecting is operable from outside the housing, and the means for selecting is configured to allow the electric strike to selectively operate in one of a first mode and a second mode. 13. The electric strike of claim 12, wherein the first mode is a fail-secure mode, and the second mode is a fail-safe mode. 14. The electric strike of claim 12, wherein the means for selecting is configured to allow the electric strike to operate in the first mode when the means for selecting is in a first selector position, and the means for selecting is configured to allow the electric strike to operate in the second mode when the means for selecting is in a second selector position. 15. The electric strike of claim 14, wherein the means for selecting is configured to rotate about 180° when the means for selecting moves from the first selector position to the second selector position. 16. The electric strike of claim 14, wherein the means for selecting comprises a two-position mode selector. 17. The electric strike of claim 14, further comprising a holder slidably arranged in the housing, wherein the means for selecting is configured to selectively move the holder from a first holder position to a second holder position when the means for selecting moves from the first selector position to the second selector position. 18. The electric strike of claim 17, further comprising: a keeper pivotally arranged in the housing; a blocking element slidably arranged in the holder, wherein the blocking element is configured to selectively prevent a rotation of the keeper and allow the rotation of the keeper; and an actuator configured to selectively move the blocking element, wherein when the holder is in the first holder position, the blocking member allows the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is energized and prevents the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is not energized, wherein when the holder is in the second holder position, the blocking member prevents the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is energized and allows the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is not energized. 19. An electric strike for a door, comprising means for allowing the electric strike to selectively operate in one of a first mode and a second mode, wherein the means for allowing is operable from outside a housing of the electric strike. 20. The electric strike of claim 19, wherein the first mode is a fail-secure mode, and the second mode is a fail-safe mode. 21. The electric strike of claim 19, wherein the means for allowing is configured to allow the electric strike to operate in the first mode when the means for allowing is in a first selector position, and the means for allowing is configured to allow the electric strike to operate in the second mode when the means for allowing is in a second selector position. 22. The electric strike of claim 21, wherein the means for allowing is configured to rotate about 180° when the means for allowing moves from the first selector position to the second selector position. 23. The electric strike of claim 21, wherein the means for allowing comprises a two-position mode selector. 24. The electric strike of claim 21, further comprising the housing and a holder slidably arranged in the housing, wherein the means for allowing is configured to selectively move the holder from a first holder position to a second holder position when the means for allowing moves from the first selector position to the second selector position. 25. The electric strike of claim 24, further comprising: a keeper pivotally arranged in the housing; a blocking element slidably arranged in the holder, wherein the blocking element is configured to selectively prevent a rotation of the keeper and allow the rotation of the keeper; and an actuator configured to selectively move the blocking element, wherein when the holder is in the first holder position, the blocking member allows the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is energized and prevents the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is not energized, wherein when the holder is in the second holder position, the blocking member prevents the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is energized and allows the rotation of the keeper when the actuator is not energized. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to door locking mechanisms, more particularly to electric door locking mechanisms commonly known as electric strikes. Electric strikes, also known as electric door openers, electric releases and electric release strikes, are used to control access to buildings or areas. An actuation means (e.g. an electrically driven motor or solenoid) is used to either block or release a rotatable keeper to either prevent or allow release of a door's latch bolt, to lock the door or allow it to be opened. Typically, electric strikes have two modes, namely a “fail-secure” mode (where the door is locked with the power removed, i.e. the actuation means must be triggered to allow the door to be opened), and a “fail-safe” mode (where the door is unlocked with the power removed, i.e. the actuation means must be triggered to prevent the door from being opened). Some strikes on the market have only one-mode capability, i.e. they are either fail-secure or fail-safe, while others are dual mode, i.e. the installer can select which mode is desired at the time of installation. 2. Description of the Prior Art One known dual-mode electric strike, for example, available as GEM model GK-300 and ROFO 2400 series models, has a solenoid mounted on a holder, which is movable within the strike housing. A blocking element is directly attached to the plunger of the solenoid, to block movement of the keeper when the strike is in its locked position. A first screw, reachable from outside the housing, cooperates with a slot in the housing, to define the path along which the holder is movable. When the first screw is tightened, it fastens the holder to the housing, i.e. the holder cannot move. First and second holes are arranged on the housing, to alternately align with a second screw, also reachable from outside the housing, so that at each end position along the holder path of movement, one of a threaded third or fourth hole, both arranged on the holder, is aligned with either the first hole or the second hole, and the second screw can be inserted into the appropriate first or second hole and screwed into the visible third or fourth hole. The installer can configure the GEM strike in either the fail-safe or fail-secure mode by selecting which holes are used. However, doing so is a tedious and tricky process, requiring proper alignment of holes, careful removal and replacement of one screw, and careful loosening (without removal) of another screw. There is a need for an electric strike which is more readily switchable between fail-secure and fail-safe modes, and which preferably offers other advantages over prior art strikes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the preceding, it is an object of the invention to provide an improved electric strike, which among other features, provides rapid and easy selection between fail-safe and fail-secure modes. In the invention, a keeper is pivotably arranged in a housing. When prevented from pivoting from its home position, the keeper blocks movement of a latch bolt extending from a door, so that the door is locked. When the keeper is allowed to pivot, the latch bolt can push the keeper aside, so that the door can be opened. To prevent the keeper from pivoting, the keeper has at least one abutment, which a blocking surface or surfaces of a blocking element either contacts (door locked) or does not contact (door unlocked) when the keeper tries to pivot. The blocking element is movable by an actuation means, for example a solenoid, between a first (unenergized) position and a second (energized) position. The blocking element and blocking element actuation means are mounted in a holder, which in turn is slidably mounted in a housing, for movement between one of two holder positions, namely a fail-secure position and a fail-safe position. In the fail-secure position, the blocking surfaces are opposite the keeper's abutments in the unenergized position, and in the fail-safe position the blocking surfaces are opposite the keeper's abutments only when the actuator is energized. A two-position mode selector, set at the time of installation, establishes which of the two holder positions is used, i.e. whether the strike is installed in fail-safe or fail-secure mode. In the preferred embodiment, the mode selector is an eccentric, rotatable between two positions 180 degrees apart, accessible from outside the housing. The strike preferably also has a latch bolt monitor arm pivotally mounted in the housing. When the latch bolt is in place in the strike, i.e. when the door is closed, the latch bolt depresses a plate which rotates the latch bolt monitor arm, bringing a cam into contact with the switch button of a microswitch, thereby indicating whether the door is open or closed. The strike preferably also has a keeper microswitch arranged in the housing and cooperating with an indicator cutout arranged on the keeper to indicate when the keeper is either in its home position, or its rotated position, indicating opening of the door. The keeper microswitch is actuated when the keeper is in one position, and not actuated in the other keeper position, by a surface of the keeper depressing or not depressing the switch button of the keeper microswitch. The strike assembly includes a lip bracket attached to the housing, to allow on-site dimensional adjustment. The lip bracket preferably has profiled surfaces cooperating with similarly profiled surfaces on the housing, to provide stepwise adjustment of the relative position of the lip bracket to the housing together with positive locking of the lip bracket to the housing when the lip bracket is secured to the housing. In the preferred embodiment, a particular saw-tooth engagement is used, as will be described in detail below. As an anti-intrusion feature in the preferred embodiment, to prevent someone from inserting something to attempt to dislodge the blocking element and thereby open the door, the keeper is profiled so as to provide little or no clearance between it and the housing, and furthermore a lip is provided in the housing to catch anything inserted and the keeper is shaped to direct anything inserted to the area of that lip. Further features of the invention will be described or will become apparent in the course of the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order that the invention may be more clearly understood, the preferred embodiment thereof will now be described in detail, as an example, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective rear view of a strike according to the preferred embodiment; FIG. 2 is a partly assembled view corresponding to FIG. 1, where the blocking element, solenoid and holder have been assembled; FIG. 3 is a further assembled view corresponding to FIGS. 1 and 2, where the blocking element, solenoid, holder and keeper have been assembled into the housing; FIG. 4 is a view corresponding to FIG. 3, but also showing a lip bracket and a face plate; FIG. 5 is a view corresponding to FIG. 4, showing the housing assembly assembled with the lip bracket; FIG. 6 is a view corresponding to FIG. 5, showing the completed assembly; FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view similar to FIG. 1, but viewing the front of the preferred embodiment; FIG. 8 is a view corresponding to FIG. 7, further assembled; FIG. 9 is a view corresponding to FIG. 8, fully assembled; FIG. 10 is a sectioned top view showing the saw-tooth engagement between the housing and lip bracket; FIG. 11 is a view showing the holder, solenoid, blocking element, mode selector and mode selector biasing spring; FIG. 12 is a perspective view corresponding to FIG. 11, from a different angle; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of just the holder; FIG. 14 is a perspective view corresponding to FIG. 13, from a different angle; FIG. 15 is a perspective view of the blocking element; FIG. 16 is a perspective view of a fail-secure vs. fail-safe mode selector; FIG. 17 is an elevation view of the FIG. 16 mode selector; FIG. 18 is a perspective view of an alterative mode selector; FIG. 19 is an elevation view of the alterative mode selector; FIG. 20 is a perspective view of a latch monitor arm; FIG. 21 is a sectional end view showing the latch monitor arm cam when the latch monitor arm is rotated outwardly; FIG. 22 is a sectional end view showing the latch monitor arm cam when the latch monitor arm is depressed, triggering the latch monitor microswitch; FIGS. 23A-23E show a sequence of latch monitor operation as the door is closed, from the FIG. 23A position where the latch bolt is approaching the strike, to the FIG. 23E position where the latch bolt is fully extended and retained by the keeper; FIG. 24 is a sectioned front view of the strike, in fail-safe mode, with the solenoid unenergized and the blocking element therefore in a position to allow the keeper to rotate; FIG. 25 is a view corresponding to FIG. 24, with the solenoid energized and the blocking element therefore in a position to prevent the keeper from rotating; FIG. 26 is a sectioned front view of the strike, in fail-secure mode, with the solenoid energized and the blocking element therefore in a position to allow the keeper to rotate; FIG. 27 is a view corresponding to FIG. 26, with the solenoid unenergized and the blocking element therefore in a position to prevent the keeper from rotating; FIG. 28 is a sectioned end view, showing various components previously described and in particular an anti-intrusion profile; FIG. 29 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment, illustrating a push-type solenoid instead of a pull-type solenoid; FIGS. 30A and 30B are side and rear views respectively, showing an alternative mode selector using a two-position lever, shown in fail-safe mode; FIGS. 31A and 31B are side and rear views respectively, corresponding to FIGS. 30A and 30B, shown in fail-secure mode; FIGS. 32A and 32B are side and rear views respectively, showing another alternative mode selector using a two-position slide or button, shown in fail-safe mode; and FIGS. 33A and 34B are side and rear views respectively, corresponding to FIGS. 32A and 32B, shown in fail-secure mode. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIGS. 1-6 show a progressive build of the strike as seen from the rear; FIGS. 7-9 are similar, but from the front. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, a keeper 1 is pivotably arranged in a housing 2, and is pivotable between a rotated position where the latch bolt 3 of a door 4 can be removed from the strike to open the door, and a home position (best seen in FIG. 23A) where the keeper, if prevented from moving, blocks removal of the latch bolt and thus keeps the door locked. When the keeper is allowed to pivot, the latch bolt can push the keeper aside, so that the door can be opened. The keeper pivots on two trunnions 6 at opposite ends thereof, which fit into slots 8 in the housing (see FIG. 7) and which are trapped there by surfaces 10 on a lip bracket 12 (see FIG. 4). The keeper is biased towards its home position by a suitable biasing means such as a corrosion-resistant torsion spring 14. For the door to be locked, i.e. for the keeper to be prevented from pivoting, the keeper has at least one and preferably several abutments 16, which blocking surfaces 18 of a blocking element 20 either oppose (door locked) or do not oppose (door unlocked) when the keeper tries to pivot. In the preferred embodiment, there are two blocking surfaces 18, but obviously there could be only one, or there could be more than two, subject to obvious space constraints. The blocking element is movable by an actuation means, for example a solenoid 22, between a first (unenergized) position and a second (energized) position. In the preferred embodiment, the solenoid is a “pull” type solenoid, although a “push” type can be used instead, as described later below and as illustrated in FIG. 29. The solenoid has electric feeding wires (not shown) routed inside the housing and to external terminals 26. Preferably but not necessarily, the solenoid is dual wound and has four wires, to provide flexibility through an option to connect for either 12 or 24 volts DC or AC. For illustration purposes, the solenoid is shown without its typical insulating cover. The blocking element 20 and solenoid 22 are mounted in a holder 30. The solenoid pulls a plunger 32, against the biasing force of a spring 34, which preferably is made of stainless steel for corrosion resistance. The plunger has a disc portion 36 on the distal end thereof, and a relief area 38 which fits into a slot 40 in a plate at the end of the blocking element. This ties the blocking element to the movement of the plunger, so that when the solenoid is actuated, the blocking element is pulled towards the solenoid, thus moving the blocking surfaces 18 either into or out of engagement with the abutments 16 of the keeper, depending on which mode was selected at the time of installation. In the fail-secure mode actuation of the solenoid moves the blocking surfaces out of engagement (i.e. they normally do block in a power-off mode, so the door is locked), whereas in the fail-safe mode actuation of the solenoid moves the blocking surfaces into engagement (i.e. they normally do not block in a power-off mode, so the door is unlocked). The blocking element is guided at one end by the solenoid plunger 32, and at the other end on the rear side by a tab 42 in a slot 43 under a guide rail 44, and on the front side by a projection 46, which extends under a guide 47 on the holder. The holder 30, in which the blocking element 20 and solenoid 22 are mounted, in turn is slidably mounted in the housing 2, for movement between one of two holder positions, namely a fail-secure position and a fail-safe position. The holder is held in place front to back by being trapped between the housing and a rear plate 48, and has alignment protrusions 49 which cooperate with alignment slots 50 arranged in the rear plate and in the housing. The rear plate is secured to the housing by screws 52 through holes 53 in the rear plate into holes 54 in the housing. In the fail-secure position, the blocking surfaces 18 are opposite the keeper's abutments 16 in the unenergized position, and in the fail-safe position the blocking surfaces are opposite the keeper's abutments only when the actuator is energized. A two-position mode selector, for example an eccentric 60, establishes which of the two holder positions is used, i.e. whether the strike is installed in fail-safe or fail-secure mode. The mode is set by the installer at the time of installation. In the preferred embodiment, the mode selector 60 is rotatable via a slotted head 61 between two positions 180 degrees apart, projecting through a hole 68 in the housing and therefore accessible from outside the housing. The preferred mode selector has an eccentric disc portion 63, and a pin 62 extending centrally therefrom. Rotating the head 180 degrees, using a screwdriver or even a small coin, results in the eccentric disc portion 63 and pin 62 being in one of two spaced-apart positions. Since the disc portion 63 fits into a slot 64 in the back of the holder 30, its displacement by rotation of the selector results in the holder sliding in the housing from one position to another, i.e. from a fail-secure position, to a fail-safe position. The pin 62 fits into a slot 65 in the holder 30, and serves to keep the mode selector in whichever position is selected, by virtue of the spring 72 acting on the pin to keep it biased towards the appropriate end of the slot 65. Preferably the dimensions are arranged so that any load from the holder is borne by the disc portion 63 rather than by the pin 62. The preferred embodiment of the mode selector requires installation from inside the housing. In an alternative embodiment, shown in FIGS. 18 and 19, the mode selector 60′ has a pin 62 offset from the head, and a cylindrical portion 69. This selector can be inserted through the hole 68 from outside the housing, but requires internal installation of a clip (not shown) in a groove 70 in the cylindrical portion, to prevent it from subsequently falling out. In this alternative embodiment, the pin 62 itself takes any load from the holder. The two-position mode selector is a key feature of the invention, in that it provides a very simple means for the installer to switch between modes, simply by rotating the selector. Once the selector is in the desired position, it of course is highly desirable that it should remain there. Accordingly, in the preferred embodiment, a biasing means is provided so that the selector is biased to remain in whichever one of its two positions is selected. In the preferred embodiment, that biasing means is a spring 72 which is arranged to push the pin towards either end position (in this case by pushing at roughly 90 degrees to a diameter line drawn between the two end points), as seen best in FIGS. 11 and 12. (In FIG. 12, the spring is shown in the position it would be in if the pin 62 was present, though without the pin it in fact would be sprung across the slot, since it pushes the pin away from the position the spring is shown in.) The spring 72 is a torsion spring in the preferred embodiment, mounted on a post 74, but clearly it could be any other suitable arrangement, including for example a leaf spring positioned to act in the same direction. Referring now to FIGS. 7, 8 and 20-22, the housing further has a groove 80 in its front face for pivotably holding a latch monitor arm 82. The latch monitor arm is generally elongate, having a first end with an extension 83 having a door latch bolt plate 84 at its distal end. At the opposite end of the arm is a microswitch cam 85. When a door latch bolt is present in the strike, it will press the plate inwardly, and hence rotate the latch monitor arm, so that the microswitch cam then triggers a microswitch 86, as, seen in FIGS. 21 and 22 in particular. A cover 87 protects the microswitch. The latch monitor arm 82 is biased outwardly by a latch arm biasing means, for example a torsion spring 88 (see FIG. 7). FIGS. 23A-23E show a sequence of latch monitor operation as the door 4 is closed, from the FIG. 23A position where the latch bolt 3 is approaching the strike, to the FIG. 23E position where the latch bolt is fully extended and retained by the keeper. In FIG. 23A, the door latch bolt is still outside the strike and the keeper, and the latch bolt plate 84 is in its raised position. In FIG. 23B, the door latch bolt has contacted the keeper and has begun to retract into the door. FIG. 23C shows full retraction of the door latch bolt into the door, and FIG. 23D shows the door latch bolt just past the keeper and starting to extend again, contacting the latch bolt plate. In FIG. 23E, the door latch bolt has pressed the latch bolt plate to its depressed position, causing the cam 85 to activate the microswitch 86, thus allowing remote monitoring of the door status. Some of the details in these drawings do not correspond to the preferred embodiment, being from an earlier prototype, but the principle is the same. A face plate 90 is secured to the lip bracket 12 by screws (not shown) through holes 93 in the face plate and into holes 94 in the lip bracket, and is used to secure the strike to the door jamb, using screws through mounting holes 95. Face plate configuration can be varied as desired, to suit various new or existing door jamb configurations. The lip bracket preferably has profiled surfaces 96, cooperating with similarly profiled surfaces 97 on the housing, to provide stepwise adjustment coupled with positive locking of the lip bracket to the housing. The lip bracket is secured to the housing at the desired depth setting by screws (not shown) through slots 110 in the lip bracket into holes 111 in the housing. The profiles preferably are as shown in FIG. 10, i.e. complementary saw-tooth surfaces, with the mating surfaces being perpendicular or nearly so in the direction to oppose outward displacement of the housing (as indicated by the arrow) relative to the lip bracket (i.e. in the direction of pull for opening the door). The lip bracket may have several size variations to accommodate either {fraction (1/2)} inch or {fraction (5/8)} inch keepers (or of course any other size which might be adopted). To positively detect the keeper position in the strike, the keeper 1 advantageously has an indicator cutout 98 arranged to cooperate with a keeper microswitch 99, so that the keeper microswitch is actuated when the keeper is fully retracted, and off at any other position of the keeper. The cutout results in the microswitch not being activated when the keeper is in its home position, but rotation of the keeper brings the ramp out of the cutout into contact with the microswitch, to trigger it. This provides an indication of door opening, for statistical or other purposes. FIGS. 24 and 25 show the strike in its fail-safe mode, i.e. the keeper being unblocked when the solenoid is unenergized. FIG. 24 shows the solenoid unenergized, and FIG. 25 shows it energized. It can be seen that in the former position the blocking surfaces 18 are not aligned with the keeper abutments 16 (door free), whereas in the latter position they are (door locked). FIGS. 26 and 27 are similar, but showing the fail-secure mode, with the solenoid energized in FIG. 26 and the door unlocked, and the solenoid unenergized and the door locked in FIG. 27. Referring now to FIG. 28, as an anti-intrusion feature in the preferred embodiment, to prevent someone from inserting something thin and flexible to attempt to dislodge the blocking element and thereby open the door, the keeper is profiled so as to provide little or no clearance between it and the housing, and furthermore a catch 100 is provided in the housing to block anything inserted and the keeper has a lip 102 shaped to direct anything inserted to the area of that catch. It will be appreciated that the above description relates to the preferred embodiment by way of example only. Many variations on the invention will be obvious to those knowledgeable in the field, and such obvious variations are within the scope of the invention as described and claimed, whether or not expressly described. For example, in addition to possible variations specifically mentioned above, FIG. 29 shows a push-type solenoid 22′ instead of the pull-type of the preferred embodiment. The blocking element is guided by a blocking element guide pin 106, and a spring 108 on the guide pin biases the blocking element towards the solenoid. It should also be appreciated that the two-position mode selector could be configured differently, although the eccentric arrangement is preferred. For example, there could be a small pivotable two-position lever with a pin projecting from it, with the same two end positions as in the preferred embodiment, and a spring arrangement to bias the lever to either of the two positions. Or, there could be a small sliding bar with a pin projecting from it, again with the same two end positions and spring biasing. Or, instead of spring biasing into the end positions, there could be notches or ball-spring detents or the like which the movable selector elements would engage. Some further such examples are illustrated in FIGS. 30A-33B, the key being that each mechanism results in the pin 62 moving from one end position to another, thus moving the holder 30 from one mode position to another, the pin or mode selector preferably being biased by any suitable means to then stay in the selected position. In FIGS. 30A-31B, the mode selector 60′ is a small lever, pivotable between two positions, with a pin 62 extending into the housing and engaging the holder 30 as in the preferred embodiment. In FIGS. 32A-33B, the mode selector 60″ is a small button, slidable between two positions, again with a pin 62 engaging the holder 30. Some additional features or advantages are as follows: a. The strike lends itself equally well to left or right hand jamb installation. b. Since the pivotal keeper is trunnion mounted, a separate hinge shaft is not required. c. The keeper position is laterally adjustable for physical installation variables, using the lateral adjustment possibility of the housing relative to the lip bracket. d. The strike has a compact design. The total thickness is typically 1{fraction (3/16)}″ for a ⅝″ keeper (¾″ maximum latch projection), and 1{fraction (1/16)}″ for a ½″ keeper (⅝″ maximum latch projection). The choice of materials is not part of the invention per se. However, the keeper is preferably ferrous metal injection molded, investment cast or bar extruded, and provided with a suitable coating to provide a corrosion-resistant keeper. The holder is advantageously metal injection molded or investment cast and suitably surface treated for corrosion resistance. The housing is preferably investment cast or die cast and/or powder metal formed, and suitably plated to provide a corrosion-resistant housing. The blocking element is preferably made of stainless steel to provide a non-magnetic material, and is advantageously surface treated, e.g. plated, for minimum co-efficient of friction. The latch monitor arm is advantageously die cast or investment cast. The lip bracket is preferably die cast and/or investment cast. Advantageously, an aesthetically pleasing surface finish is provided. The face plate is constructed of stainless steel or other materials of sufficient strength to achieve an aesthetically pleasing surface finishing which can withstand the required abuse during use. The strike is suitable for buildings requiring egress/ingress control such as commercial buildings, hospitals, warehouses, and educational facilities, as non-limiting examples. The latch and keeper monitor means are used for traffic intelligence, when the strike is connected to a building security system, for instance. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to door locking mechanisms, more particularly to electric door locking mechanisms commonly known as electric strikes. Electric strikes, also known as electric door openers, electric releases and electric release strikes, are used to control access to buildings or areas. An actuation means (e.g. an electrically driven motor or solenoid) is used to either block or release a rotatable keeper to either prevent or allow release of a door's latch bolt, to lock the door or allow it to be opened. Typically, electric strikes have two modes, namely a “fail-secure” mode (where the door is locked with the power removed, i.e. the actuation means must be triggered to allow the door to be opened), and a “fail-safe” mode (where the door is unlocked with the power removed, i.e. the actuation means must be triggered to prevent the door from being opened). Some strikes on the market have only one-mode capability, i.e. they are either fail-secure or fail-safe, while others are dual mode, i.e. the installer can select which mode is desired at the time of installation. 2. Description of the Prior Art One known dual-mode electric strike, for example, available as GEM model GK-300 and ROFO 2400 series models, has a solenoid mounted on a holder, which is movable within the strike housing. A blocking element is directly attached to the plunger of the solenoid, to block movement of the keeper when the strike is in its locked position. A first screw, reachable from outside the housing, cooperates with a slot in the housing, to define the path along which the holder is movable. When the first screw is tightened, it fastens the holder to the housing, i.e. the holder cannot move. First and second holes are arranged on the housing, to alternately align with a second screw, also reachable from outside the housing, so that at each end position along the holder path of movement, one of a threaded third or fourth hole, both arranged on the holder, is aligned with either the first hole or the second hole, and the second screw can be inserted into the appropriate first or second hole and screwed into the visible third or fourth hole. The installer can configure the GEM strike in either the fail-safe or fail-secure mode by selecting which holes are used. However, doing so is a tedious and tricky process, requiring proper alignment of holes, careful removal and replacement of one screw, and careful loosening (without removal) of another screw. There is a need for an electric strike which is more readily switchable between fail-secure and fail-safe modes, and which preferably offers other advantages over prior art strikes. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the preceding, it is an object of the invention to provide an improved electric strike, which among other features, provides rapid and easy selection between fail-safe and fail-secure modes. In the invention, a keeper is pivotably arranged in a housing. When prevented from pivoting from its home position, the keeper blocks movement of a latch bolt extending from a door, so that the door is locked. When the keeper is allowed to pivot, the latch bolt can push the keeper aside, so that the door can be opened. To prevent the keeper from pivoting, the keeper has at least one abutment, which a blocking surface or surfaces of a blocking element either contacts (door locked) or does not contact (door unlocked) when the keeper tries to pivot. The blocking element is movable by an actuation means, for example a solenoid, between a first (unenergized) position and a second (energized) position. The blocking element and blocking element actuation means are mounted in a holder, which in turn is slidably mounted in a housing, for movement between one of two holder positions, namely a fail-secure position and a fail-safe position. In the fail-secure position, the blocking surfaces are opposite the keeper's abutments in the unenergized position, and in the fail-safe position the blocking surfaces are opposite the keeper's abutments only when the actuator is energized. A two-position mode selector, set at the time of installation, establishes which of the two holder positions is used, i.e. whether the strike is installed in fail-safe or fail-secure mode. In the preferred embodiment, the mode selector is an eccentric, rotatable between two positions 180 degrees apart, accessible from outside the housing. The strike preferably also has a latch bolt monitor arm pivotally mounted in the housing. When the latch bolt is in place in the strike, i.e. when the door is closed, the latch bolt depresses a plate which rotates the latch bolt monitor arm, bringing a cam into contact with the switch button of a microswitch, thereby indicating whether the door is open or closed. The strike preferably also has a keeper microswitch arranged in the housing and cooperating with an indicator cutout arranged on the keeper to indicate when the keeper is either in its home position, or its rotated position, indicating opening of the door. The keeper microswitch is actuated when the keeper is in one position, and not actuated in the other keeper position, by a surface of the keeper depressing or not depressing the switch button of the keeper microswitch. The strike assembly includes a lip bracket attached to the housing, to allow on-site dimensional adjustment. The lip bracket preferably has profiled surfaces cooperating with similarly profiled surfaces on the housing, to provide stepwise adjustment of the relative position of the lip bracket to the housing together with positive locking of the lip bracket to the housing when the lip bracket is secured to the housing. In the preferred embodiment, a particular saw-tooth engagement is used, as will be described in detail below. As an anti-intrusion feature in the preferred embodiment, to prevent someone from inserting something to attempt to dislodge the blocking element and thereby open the door, the keeper is profiled so as to provide little or no clearance between it and the housing, and furthermore a lip is provided in the housing to catch anything inserted and the keeper is shaped to direct anything inserted to the area of that lip. Further features of the invention will be described or will become apparent in the course of the following detailed description. | 20041116 | 20061205 | 20050512 | 64615.0 | 3 | LUGO, CARLOS | ELECTRIC STRIKE ASSEMBLY | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,793 | ACCEPTED | Handoff of communication sessions between cellular and desktop telephones | A method for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone includes anchoring a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network; receiving an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network; placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session. | 1. A method for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone, comprising: anchoring a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network; receiving an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network; placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the indication is generated by the cellular telephone in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the indication is generated by the desktop telephone in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a deskphone pickup key on the desktop telephone. 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising: starting a timer in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session; and coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a resume key on the desktop telephone. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising dropping the cellular telephone from the communication session in response to the indication. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving a second indication to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone; placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the second indication; placing a telephone call to the cellular telephone in response to the second indication; and coupling the cellular telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session using the telephone call. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein anchoring the communication session comprises: associating a telephone number with the desktop telephone and a first communication port; receiving a first telephone call initiated by the remote device and directed to the telephone number; offering the first telephone call to the desktop telephone and to the first communication port; associating the first communication port with the cellular telephone; obtaining a second communication port from a plurality of available communication ports in response to the offer; placing a second telephone call to the cellular telephone using the second communication port; and bridging the first communication port and the second communication port to establish a communication link between the remote device and the cellular telephone. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein anchoring the communication session comprises: receiving a first telephone call initiated by the cellular telephone; placing a second telephone call to the remote device; and bridging the first telephone call and the second telephone call to establish a communication link between the cellular telephone and the remote device. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the first telephone call is a stealth telephone call and anchoring the communication session further comprises: receiving a user name and a password from the cellular telephone; providing secondary dial tone to the cellular telephone in response to authenticating the user name and the password; and receiving a telephone number from the cellular telephone for placing the second telephone call. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein anchoring the communication session occurs in response to receiving a command to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session comprises: identifying a gateway associated with the communication session; and transmitting media directly to the remote device through the gateway. 12. A system for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone, comprising: a mobility application operable to anchor a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network, to receive an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone, and to place the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and the desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network and operable to couple to the remote device to resume the communication session. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the indication is generated by the cellular telephone in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session. 14. The system of claim 12, wherein the indication is generated by the desktop telephone in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a deskphone pickup key on the desktop telephone. 15. The system of claim 12, wherein: the mobility application is further operable to start a timer in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session; and the desktop telephone is further operable to couple to the remote device to resume the communication session in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a resume key on the desktop telephone. 16. The system of claim 12, wherein the mobility application is further operable to drop the cellular telephone from the communication session in response to the indication. 17. The system of claim 12, wherein the mobility application is further operable to receive a second indication to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone, to place the remote device in a holding state in response to the second indication, to place a telephone call to the cellular telephone in response to the second indication, and to couple the cellular telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session using the telephone call. 18. The system of claim 12, wherein anchoring the communication session comprises: associating a telephone number with the desktop telephone and a first communication port; receiving a first telephone call initiated by the remote device and directed to the telephone number; offering the first telephone call to the desktop telephone and to the first communication port; associating the first communication port with the cellular telephone; obtaining a second communication port from a plurality of available communication ports in response to the offer; placing a second telephone call to the cellular telephone using the second communication port; and bridging the first communication port and the second communication port to establish a communication link between the remote device and the cellular telephone. 19. The system of claim 12, wherein anchoring the communication session comprises: receiving a first telephone call initiated by the cellular telephone; placing a second telephone call to the remote device; and bridging the first telephone call and the second telephone call to establish a communication link between the cellular telephone and the remote device. 20. The system of claim 19, wherein the first telephone call is a stealth telephone call and anchoring the communication session further comprises: receiving a user name and a password from the cellular telephone; providing secondary dial tone to the cellular telephone in response to authenticating the user name and the password; and receiving a telephone number from the cellular telephone for placing the second telephone call. 21. The system of claim 12, wherein anchoring the communication session occurs in response to receiving a command to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone. 22. The system of claim 12, wherein coupling to the remote device to resume the communication session comprises: identifying a gateway associated with the communication session; and transmitting media directly to the remote device through the gateway. 23. Logic for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone, the logic encoded in media and operable when executed to: anchor a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network; receive an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network; place the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and couple the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session. 24. The logic of claim 23, wherein the indication is generated by the cellular telephone in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session. 25. The logic of claim 23, wherein the indication is generated by the desktop telephone in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a deskphone pickup key on the desktop telephone. 26. The logic of claim 23, further operable when executed to: start a timer in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session; and couple the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a resume key on the desktop telephone. 27. The logic of claim 23, further operable when executed to drop the cellular telephone from the communication session in response to the indication. 28. The logic of claim 23, further operable when executed to: receive a second indication to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone; place the remote device in a holding state in response to the second indication; place a telephone call to the cellular telephone in response to the second indication; and couple the cellular telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session using the telephone call. 29. The logic of claim 23, wherein anchoring the communication session comprises: associating a telephone number with the desktop telephone and a first communication port; receiving a first telephone call initiated by the remote device and directed to the telephone number; offering the first telephone call to the desktop telephone and to the first communication port; associating the first communication port with the cellular telephone; obtaining a second communication port from a plurality of available communication ports in response to the offer; placing a second telephone call to the cellular telephone using the second communication port; and bridging the first communication port and the second communication port to establish a communication link between the remote device and the cellular telephone. 30. The logic of claim 23, wherein anchoring the communication session comprises: receiving a first telephone call initiated by the cellular telephone; placing a second telephone call to the remote device; and bridging the first telephone call and the second telephone call to establish a communication link between the cellular telephone and the remote device. 31. The logic of claim 30, wherein the first telephone call is a stealth telephone call and anchoring the communication session further comprises: receiving a user name and a password from the cellular telephone; providing secondary dial tone to the cellular telephone in response to authenticating the user name and the password; and receiving a telephone number from the cellular telephone for placing the second telephone call. 32. The logic of claim 23, wherein anchoring the communication session occurs in response to receiving a command to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone. 33. The logic of claim 23, wherein coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session comprises: identifying a gateway associated with the communication session; and transmitting media directly to the remote device through the gateway. 34. A system for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone, comprising: means for anchoring a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network; means for receiving an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network; means for placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and means for coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session. 35. The system of claim 34, wherein the indication is generated by the cellular telephone in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session. 36. The system of claim 34, wherein the indication is generated by the desktop telephone in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a deskphone pickup key on the desktop telephone. 37. The system of claim 34, further comprising: means for starting a timer in response to a user of the cellular telephone hanging up on the communication session; and means for coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session in response to a user of the desktop telephone pressing a resume key on the desktop telephone. 38. The system of claim 34, further comprising means for dropping the cellular telephone from the communication session in response to the indication. 39. The system of claim 34, further comprising: means for receiving a second indication to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone; means for placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the second indication; means for placing a telephone call to the cellular telephone in response to the second indication; and means for coupling the cellular telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session using the telephone call. 40. The system of claim 34, wherein the means for anchoring the communication session comprises: means for associating a telephone number with the desktop telephone and a first communication port; means for receiving a first telephone call initiated by the remote device and directed to the telephone number; means for offering the first telephone call to the desktop telephone and to the first communication port; means for associating the first communication port with the cellular telephone; means for obtaining a second communication port from a plurality of available communication ports in response to the offer; means for placing a second telephone call to the cellular telephone using the second communication port; and means for bridging the first communication port and the second communication port to establish a communication link between the remote device and the cellular telephone. 41. The system of claim 34, wherein the means for anchoring the communication session comprises: means for receiving a first telephone call initiated by the cellular telephone; means for placing a second telephone call to the remote device; and means for bridging the first telephone call and the second telephone call to establish a communication link between the cellular telephone and the remote device. 42. The system of claim 41, wherein the first telephone call is a stealth telephone call and the means for anchoring the communication session further comprises: means for receiving a user name and a password from the cellular telephone; means for providing secondary dial tone to the cellular telephone in response to authenticating the user name and the password; and means for receiving a telephone number from the cellular telephone for placing the second telephone call. 43. The system of claim 34, wherein anchoring the communication session occurs in response to receiving a command to handoff the communication session from the desktop telephone to the cellular telephone. 44. The system of claim 34, wherein the means for coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session comprises: means for identifying a gateway associated with the communication session; and means for transmitting media directly to the remote device through the gateway. | TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to cellular and desktop telephones, and, more particularly, to handoff of communication sessions between cellular and desktop telephones. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Homes and businesses have traditionally utilized communications systems including desktop telephones directly wired to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Recently, however, technological advances have resulted in the proliferation of alternative communications systems. For example, various wireless systems such as cellular networks have been developed. In addition, data networks such as the Internet have been deployed. The proliferation of these and other alternative communications systems has created incompatibilities that have not been fully resolved. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, techniques for handoff of communications sessions between cellular and desktop telephones are provided. According to some embodiments, these techniques enable a user to establish and maintain a communication session that may be handed between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone. In particular, these techniques can enable a communication session to be handed from a cellular telephone to a desktop telephone and/or from a desktop telephone to a cellular telephone. According to a particular embodiment, a method for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone includes anchoring a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network; receiving an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network; placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session. Embodiments of the invention provide various technical advantages. For example, these techniques may allow a user of a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone to be reached using a single telephone number. According to some embodiments, these techniques may allow a user to continue a communication session passed between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone. Furthermore, these techniques may enable single number reachability and handoff between cellular and desktop telephones without the use of a separate conference bridge. Cost may be reduced. Furthermore, security may be enhanced by preventing unauthorized access to a communication session during handoff. Other technical advantages of the present invention will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, descriptions, and claims. Moreover, while specific advantages have been enumerated above, various embodiments may include all, some, or none of the enumerated advantages. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention and its advantages, reference is now made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a communication system having elements that support single number reachability and handoff between cellular and desktop telephones; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating functional components of a mobility application from the communication system; FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating functional components of a cellular telephone from the communication system; FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating functional components of a desktop telephone from the communication system; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a method for single number reachability; FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a method for anchoring a communication session in an enterprise network; FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating a method for effecting handoff from a cellular telephone to a desktop telephone; and FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating a method for effecting handoff from a desktop telephone to a cellular telephone. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a communication system, indicated generally at 10, that includes a cellular telephone 12 and a desktop telephone 14. Cellular telephone 12 may couple to remote devices through cellular network 16 using one or more base stations 18, and desktop telephone 14 may couple to remote devices through enterprise network 20. Public switched telephone network (PSTN) 22 may interconnect cellular network 16 and enterprise network 20. Enterprise network 20 includes a call manager 24, a mobility application 26, and a gateway 28. The elements of system 10 can operate to permit a single telephone number to be used to initiate a communication session with both cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Furthermore, an active communication session associated with cellular telephone 12 may be handed to desktop telephone 14, and an active communication session associated with desktop telephone 14 may be handed to cellular telephone 12. Cellular telephone 12 represents a mobile communications device, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, capable of communicating with remote devices through cellular network 16. For example, cellular telephone 12 may communicate through cellular network 16 using base station 18. Cellular telephone 12 may support any one or more mobile communications technologies, such as global systems for mobile communications (GSM), time division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), and any other appropriate communications protocols. Furthermore, according to particular embodiments, cellular telephone 12 may also support packet-based communication protocols such as Internet Protocol (IP) and wireless standards such as 802.11 to provide for wireless telephony services. In addition, cellular telephone 12 may support advanced features associated with handoff of a communications session to or from desktop telephone 14. Desktop telephone 14 represents a communications device, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, capable of communicating with remote devices through enterprise network 20 and effecting handoff with cellular telephone 12. Desktop telephone 14 may communicate through enterprise network 20 using any appropriate wireline or wireless protocol. Furthermore, desktop telephone 14 may interact with call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 when appropriate to effect handoff of a communication session with cellular telephone 12. Cellular network 16 represents communications equipment, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, for providing wireless telephony services using cellular protocols and technology. Various cellular protocols and technologies may be used by cellular network 16, including but not limited to global system for mobile communications (GSM), time division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), and any other appropriate analog or digital cellular protocol or technology. Cellular network 16 may include any number of base stations 18, as well as base station controllers, mobile switching centers, and other appropriate communications equipment for use in communicating with cellular telephone 12 and PSTN 22. Thus, as illustrated, cellular network 16 may couple to base station 18 to receive and transmit wireless signals to and from cellular telephone 12. Enterprise network 20 represents communications equipment, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, for interconnecting elements coupled to enterprise network 20. Thus, enterprise network 20 may represent a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), and/or any other appropriate form of network. Furthermore, elements within enterprise network 20 may utilize circuit-switched and/or packet-based communication protocols to provide for wireline telephony services. For example, elements within enterprise network 20 may utilize IP. In addition, elements within enterprise network 20 may utilize wireless standards such as the 802.11 family of wireless standards to provide for wireless telephony services. Note that the 802.11 family of wireless standards includes, among others, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g. Enterprise network 20 may also utilize interactive voice response (IVR). Enterprise network 20 may include any number of call managers 24, mobility applications 26, gateways 28, and other appropriate communications equipment for use in communicating with desktop telephone 14 and PSTN 22. Thus, as illustrated, enterprise network 20 may couple to desktop telephone 14 to receive and transmit signals and to effect handoff of a communication session between desktop telephone 14 and cellular telephone 12. PSTN 22 represents communications equipment, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, through which cellular network 16 and enterprise network 20 may communicate. PSTN 22 may include switches, wireline and wireless communication devices, and any other appropriate equipment for interconnecting cellular network 16 and enterprise network 20. PSTN 22 may include portions of public and private networks providing network transport services between various geographic areas and networks. In the embodiment illustrated, enterprise network 20 includes call manager 24, mobility application 26, and gateway 28. Call manager 24 represents communications equipment, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, for providing telephony services over enterprise network 20. For example, call manager 24 may support voice over IP (VoIP) communications using any of various protocols such as signaling connection control point (SCCP) protocol, session initiation protocol (SIP), media gateway control protocol (MGCP), H.323, and/or any other appropriate protocol for VoIP. Furthermore, call manager 24 may act as an IP private branch exchange (PBX) and support PBX functions, such as hold, park, transfer, redirect, and/or other high level and low level call management features. Mobility application 26 represents any suitable collection of hardware, software, and controlling logic to support single number reachability and handoff between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. For example, mobility application 26 may, when appropriate, utilize PBX features to effect handoff of a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Gateway 28 represents communications equipment, including hardware and any appropriate controlling logic, for interconnecting enterprise network 20 with PSTN 22. Gateway 28 may be used to convert communications between different communication protocols. For example, gateway 28 may convert communications received from cellular network 16 in SS7 protocol to any of various other protocols that may be used by enterprise network 20, such as protocols associated with an integrated services digital network (ISDN) standard in the case of circuit-switched trunking and H.323, SIP, or other appropriate protocols in the case of IP-based trunking. In operation, cellular telephone 12 may initiate and receive telephone calls through cellular network 16, and desktop telephone 14 may initiate and receive telephone calls through enterprise network 20 to establish communication sessions with remote devices. Note that, as used herein, a remote device refers to any communications device capable of establishing communication sessions with cellular telephone 12 or desktop telephone 14, such as devices located in cellular network 16, enterprise network 20, PSTN 22, or other linked networks. Furthermore, as used herein, a communication session refers to the transfer of voice, video, data, and/or other information between two or more communication devices. For example, according to particular embodiments a communication session may involve a call between two communication devices or a conference call involving two or more communication devices. Various advanced features may be supported by elements of system 10. For example, a single number reachability feature may allow calls that come into enterprise network 20 to be simultaneously offered to both cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Also, handoff of a communication session may be supported. For example, deskphone pickup may allow a user to hang up on a communication session involving cellular telephone 12 and retrieve the communication session using desktop telephone 14. Conversely, cellphone pickup may allow a user to hang up on a communication session involving desktop telephone 14 and retrieve the communication session using cellular telephone 12. Another advanced feature is enterprise dial tone. Enterprise dial tone involves routing calls placed from cellular telephone 12 through enterprise network 20. According to particular embodiments, enterprise dial tone anchors a communication session in enterprise network 20 so that other advanced features such as deskphone pickup may be supported. Yet another advanced feature allows a user to remotely enable and disable the single number reachability feature. Remote control over single number reachability may prevent a person from being bothered by business calls at inappropriate times. Still another advanced feature is the provision of a single voicemail box. According to particular embodiments, an indication of pending voicemail messages may be provided to cellular telephone 12. Note that while specific advanced features have been enumerated, various embodiments may include one or more of these and other advanced features. To provide for single number reachability, a single telephone or directory number may be associated with both cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. By dialing the telephone number, a remote device may initiate a communication session with cellular telephone 12 or desktop telephone 14, depending on which device a user answers. For example, when a remote device dials the telephone number, cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 both may ring or otherwise indicate an attempt by the remote device to establish a communication session. Thus, an incoming call may be offered both to desktop telephone 14 and cellular telephone 12. If a user answers cellular telephone 12, the communication session will be established between the remote device and cellular telephone 12. If the user instead answers desktop telephone 14, the communication session will be established between the remote device and desktop telephone 14.′ Mobility application 26 may assist in providing a single number reachability solution. For example, when an incoming call arrives for the shared directory number at call manager 24, the call may be offered to both desktop telephone 14 and mobility application 26. Mobility application 26, after being offered the call, may place a second call to cellular telephone 12 through gateway 28, PSTN 22, cellular network 16, and base station 18. A user may establish a communication session either by answering the incoming call using desktop telephone 14 or by answering the second call using cellular telephone 12. If the user answers the incoming call using desktop telephone 14, the second call placed by mobility application 26 may be terminated. If the user answers the call using cellular telephone 12, the incoming call leg from call manager 24 to desktop telephone 14 may be terminated. Anchoring a communication session in enterprise network 20 may provide for advanced features such as handoff between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Anchoring a communication session in enterprise network 20 represents routing signaling through enterprise network 20 to provide for control of the communication session. Incoming calls answered at desktop telephone 14 and outgoing calls from desktop telephone 14 inherently involve signaling that passes through enterprise network 20. However, when signaling and data flow between cellular telephone 12 and a remote device, enterprise network 20 may not inherently be included in a signaling path. For example, a remote device not be located in enterprise network 20 may be able to communicate with cellular telephone 12 without sending signals through enterprise network 20. In this case, anchoring the communication session in enterprise network 20 may be particularly useful since enterprise network 20 might otherwise be excluded from the signaling path. If enterprise network 20 is excluded from the signaling path, mobility application 26 and call manager 24 cannot provide single number reachability and support handoff of communication sessions. Various methods may be used to anchor a communication session in enterprise network 20. For example, as discussed above, a telephone number of cellular telephone 12 may be associated with call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 so that calls to the telephone number route through enterprise network 20. After receiving a telephone call intended for cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14, call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 may include itself in a signaling path associated with the resulting communication session. The two-stage dialing process discussed above may be used to anchor a communication session initiated by a remote device with mobility application 26. Note that when the remote device exists outside enterprise network 20, for example on cellular network 16, hairpinning media through gateway 28 may be appropriate. That is, media communicated to gateway 28 from the remote device may be routed to cellular telephone 12 without requiring the media to pass through enterprise network 20. Similarly, media communicated to gateway 22 from cellular telephone 12 may be routed to the remote device without requiring the media to pass through enterprise network 20. Calls placed by cellular telephone 12 may also be anchored in enterprise network 20. A two-stage dialing process similar to the one discussed above may be used to anchor an outgoing call. Cellular telephone 12 may couple to mobility application 26 during the first stage. For example, cellular telephone 12 may dial a telephone number associated with mobility application 26. After coupling to mobility application 26, secondary or enterprise dial tone may be provided to cellular telephone 12. Before secondary dial tone is provided, a user of cellular telephone 12 may be required to enter a user name and password for security purposes. After authentication, the user may dial a second telephone number and a second call may be placed from mobility application 26 to a remote device. Alternatively or in addition, the two-stage dialing processes may be transparent to a user of cellular telephone 12. For example, cellular telephone 12 may place a “stealth” call to mobility application 26 before coupling to the remote device through mobility application 26. The first stage may be labeled “stealth” out of convenience because cellular telephone 12 may place the call without notifying the user of cellular telephone 12 and may suppress notification events such as ringing. In either case, the first telephone call and the second telephone may be internally bridged by mobility application 26. Note that during communication sessions involving cellular telephone 12, an appropriate indication may be displayed at desktop telephone 14, such as “remote in use.” The indication may be displayed at desktop telephone 14 in response to a communication from mobility application 26 that cellular telephone 12 is being used. Anchoring a call in enterprise network 20 may allow mobility application 26 to effect handoff of a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. For example, a communication session may be handed from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14. In general, various elements of system 10, such as mobility application 26, may utilize PBX features such as hold, park, transfer, redirect, and other high level and low level PBX functions to provide for handoff of a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. According to a particular embodiment, after a user of cellular telephone 12 hangs up on a communication session, mobility application 26 places a leg of the communication session associated with the remote device in a holding state, for example using a hold function, and starts a timer. To place the communication session in the holding state, mobility application 26 may communicate a command to call manager 24. During the time the remote device is in the holding state, music on hold may be suppressed. If a user of desktop telephone 14 presses a resume key on desktop telephone 14, picks up a handset of desktop telephone 14, or performs some other appropriate action before expiration of the timer, desktop telephone 14 may communicate a signal to call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 announcing the resumption of the communication session. A new call leg may be established between desktop telephone 14 and call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 before the communication session with the remote device may be resumed. If the timer expires before the resume key is pressed, mobility application 26 and/or call manager 24 may terminate the communication session. Alternatively, the user may press the resume key on desktop telephone 14 or take other appropriate action without first hanging up the communication session using cellular telephone 12. For example, desktop telephone 14 may communicate a signal to call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 in response to the pressing of the resume key, and the communication session may be placed in a holding state until the communication session can be redirected to desktop telephone 14. After the reestablishment of the communication session with the remote device using desktop telephone 14, the call leg associated with cellular telephone 12 may be dropped. A communication session may also be handed from desktop telephone 14 to cellular telephone 12. Desktop telephone 14 or a remote device may initiate a communication session involving desktop telephone 14. In either case, the user of desktop telephone 14 may press a cellphone pickup key on desktop telephone 14 or take some other appropriate action, and, in response, desktop telephone 14 may communicate a signal to mobility application 26. Mobility application 26 may then place a new call to cellular telephone 12. Event notification such as ringing may be suppressed so that the communication session may not be disturbed. When the user answers the call on cellular telephone 12, mobility application 26 may place desktop telephone 14 on hold or drop desktop telephone 14 from the communication session and resume the communication session using cellular telephone 12. Gateway 28 may hairpin the media communicated between cellular telephone 12 and the remote device if the remote device is located outside enterprise network 20. Note that according to particular embodiments any one or more of the features provided by system 10 may be remotely enabled and disabled. For example, using cellular telephone 12 the single number reachability feature may be enabled or disabled. As discussed above, remote control over single number reachability may prevent a person from being bothered by business calls at inappropriate times. Furthermore, activating single number reachability from a remote location may be useful to make a person more accessible. Cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 may share a single voicemail system. For example, according to particular embodiments a voicemail system may be executed by mobility application 26 or some other element of system 10. A user may access stored voicemail by coupling to the appropriate element of system 10 using cellular telephone 12 and/or desktop telephone 14. According to particular embodiments, media communicated by one endpoint may pass through mobility application 26 before the media is forwarded to the other endpoint. For example, mobility application 26 may internally bridge media streams. Alternatively or in addition, media may communicated between endpoints without the media passing through mobility application 26. For example, mobility application 26 may send information to each endpoint to direct the endpoints to communicate media to each other rather than to mobility application 26. The information may include identifiers of the other endpoint such as IP addresses, telephone numbers, SIP identifiers, and/or any other appropriate identifiers of endpoints. Alternatively or in addition, other information may be communicated, such as port numbers. Furthermore, identifiers and other information related to gateways, call management devices, and/or other appropriate network nodes may be communicated to any appropriate network elements to allow direct communication between endpoints. Thus, for example, gateway 28 and desktop telephone 14 may communicate media directly to one another without the media passing through mobility application 26. Thus, a single telephone number may be associated with both cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 to provide for single number reachability. Furthermore, a communication session may be handed off between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 without requiring the use of a conference bridge. In addition, other advanced features may be provided by system 10. Note that communication system 10 represents one embodiment of a system that supports single number reachability and handoff between cellular and desktop telephones. Various alternative embodiments are possible. For example, while in the illustrated embodiment enterprise network 20 couples to cellular network 16 through PSTN 22 using gateway 28, various other embodiments may include enterprise network 20 coupling to cellular network 16 in other ways. For example, enterprise network 20 may couple to cellular network 16 using a service provider that supports VoIP. Thus, in alternative embodiments, cellular network 16 and gateway 28 may not be included in communication system 10. Furthermore, while the described example includes two specific types of telephones, various numbers and types of telephones may be utilized in accordance with various embodiments. For example, one or more cellular telephones 12, desktop telephones 14, home telephones, wireless computing devices, and/or other wireless or wireline communications devices may be used. Thus, single number reachability may provided using various numbers and types of telephones and other communication devices through various networks, including packet and switched networks. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating functional components of mobility application 26. In the embodiment illustrated, mobility application 26 includes a processor 40, a network interface 42, and a memory 44. These functional components can operate to support single number reachability and handoff between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Processor 40 controls the operation and administration of elements within mobility application 26. For example, processor 40 operates to process information received from network interface 42 and memory 44. Processor 40 includes any hardware and/or logic elements operable to control and process information. For example, processor 40 may be a programmable logic device, a microcontroller, and/or any other suitable processing device. Network interface 42 communicates information to and receives information from devices coupled to enterprise network 20. For example, network interface 42 may communicate with gateway 28, call manager 24, and desktop telephone 14. Furthermore, network interface 42 may receive information from and transmit information to remote devices as well as cellular telephone 12. Thus, network interface 42 includes any suitable hardware or controlling logic used to communicate information to or from elements coupled to mobility application 26. According to particular embodiments, network interface 42 includes multiple computer telephone integration (CTI) ports. At least one of the CTI ports may couple to call manager 24 and be associated with a directory number shared by cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Other CTI ports may form a pool of CTI ports available for making outgoing calls from mobility application 26 to cellular telephone 12. Thus, individual CTI ports in the pool may be temporarily assigned to communication sessions. Note that two or more CTI ports may be internally bridged when appropriate. Memory 44 stores, either permanently or temporarily, data and other information for processing by processor 40 and communication using network interface 42. Memory 44 includes any one or a combination of volatile or nonvolatile local or remote devices suitable for storing information. For example, memory 44 may include random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM), magnetic storage devices, optical storage devices, or any other suitable information storage device or a combination of these devices. As illustrated, memory 44 may include one or more memory modules, such as code 46. Code 46 includes software, executable files, and/or appropriate logic modules capable when executed to control the operation of mobility application 26. For example, code 46 may include executable files capable of supporting single number reachability and handoff between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Furthermore, code 46 may include instructions to enable mobility application 26 to anchor a communication session in enterprise network 20 and couple remote devices to cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 as appropriate. In operation, network interface 42 may receive incoming and outgoing calls. For example, network interface 42 may receive an incoming call initiated by a remote device. In response to receiving the incoming call, processor 40 may place a second call to cellular telephone 12 using network interface 42. For example, a CTI port associated with a telephone number shared by cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 may receive an incoming call passed to network interface 42 from call manager 24. Processor 40 may select a temporary CTI port from a pool of CTI ports in response to receiving the incoming call and then offer the incoming call to cellular telephone 12 using the temporary CTI port. If cellular telephone 12 answers the second call, processor 40 may internally bridge the two CTI ports. If instead desktop telephone 14 answers the incoming call, processor 40 may drop the second call. Alternatively or in addition, network interface 42 may receive an outgoing call initiated by cellular telephone 12. In response to receiving the outgoing call, processor 40 may place a second call to a remote device using network interface 42. Again, two CTI ports may be utilized for the two calls and internally bridged. According to particular embodiments, network interface 42 may receive an indication to effect handoff of a communication between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. For example, network interface 42 may receive an indication generated by a user pressing a button on desktop telephone 14 indicating a desire of the user to handoff a communication session from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14 or from desktop telephone 14 to cellular telephone 12. Alternatively or in addition, network interface 42 may receive an off-hook notification generated by a user of cellular telephone 12 terminating a communication session. In response to receiving an indication to effect handoff or at any other time, processor 40 may take appropriate action to handoff a communications session. For example, for handoff of the communication session to desktop telephone 14, processor 40 may place a leg of the call associated with the remote device on hold, couple the held call leg to desktop telephone 14, and drop a leg of the call associated with cellular telephone 12. Thereafter, a user may resume the communication session using desktop telephone 14. For handoff of the communication session to cellular telephone 12 or at any other time, processor 40 may place a leg of the call associated with the remote device on hold, place a new call from a temporary CTI port to cellular telephone 12, couple the held call leg to the new call leg, and drop a leg of the call associated with desktop telephone 14. Thereafter, a user may resume the communication session using cellular telephone 12. Furthermore, when a user answers cellular telephone 12, processor 40 may transmit a communication through network interface 42 to gateway 28 to hairpin media in gateway 28 to cause media to flow between the remote device and cellular phone 12 through gateway 28 without traveling, for example, through call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26. For example, processor 40 may identify a port used by a gateway associated with the remote device and identify the port to gateway 28. Processor 40 may also identify a second port used by gateway 28 and identify the second port to the gateway associated with the remote device. Thereafter, the gateway associated with the remote device and gateway 28 may communicate media directly to one another. For direct communication of media between endpoints, memory 44 may store identifiers and other information of endpoints and other network nodes. For example, memory 44 may store IP addresses, telephone numbers, SIP identifiers, port numbers, and any other appropriate information. According to particular embodiments, information for allowing direct communication may be received during setup of a communication session by network interface 42. This information may be communicated by network interface 42 to endpoints and other network nodes when appropriate. For example, information associated with gateway 28 may be communicated to desktop telephone 14 to allow media to flow directly between desktop telephone and cellular telephone 12 using gateway 28. Thus, by communicating information, mobility application 26 may allow endpoints to communicate media directly to one another without sending the media through mobility application 26. Furthermore, signaling may still be communicated to mobility application 26 through network interface 42 while media is communicated between endpoints without passing through network interface 42. Note that mobility application 26 may utilize any appropriate protocol to communicate with other elements of system 10. For example, mobility application 26 may utilize Java telephony application programming interface (JTAPI) to interact with call manager 24. While this example includes specific functional components for mobility application 26, mobility application 26 may include any collection and arrangement of components, including some or all of the enumerated functional components, for providing single number reachability and handoff between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Moreover, mobility application 26 contemplates implementing each of the functional components using any suitable combination and arrangement of hardware and/or logic, and implementing any of the functionalities using a computer program stored on a computer readable medium. Furthermore, mobility application 26 may be implemented as a stand-alone device, or aspects of mobility application 26 may be distributed among various devices within enterprise network 20. For example, some or all aspects of mobility application 26 may be incorporated into call manager 24. FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating functional components of cellular telephone 12. In the embodiment illustrated, cellular telephone 12 includes a user interface 60, a controller 62, a cellular interface 64, and a memory 66. In general, cellular telephone 12 may establish communication sessions with remote devices through interaction with cellular network 16 and mobility application 26. Furthermore, cellular telephone 12 may suppress event notifications associated with single number reachability and handoff with desktop telephone 14. User interface 60 allows a user of cellular telephone 12 to input information into cellular telephone 12 and receive information outputted by cellular telephone 12. For example, user interface 60 may receive audio information from a user of cellular telephone 12. User interface 60 may also allow the user to dial telephone numbers and select from various features made available by cellular telephone 12. In addition, audio information may be outputted by user interface 60 to the user. Thus, user interface 60 may include a microphone, speaker, keypad, and/or other appropriate devices for inputting and outputting information. Controller 62 controls the operation and administration of the elements within cellular telephone 12. For example, controller 62 operates to process information and/or commands received from user interface 60, cellular interface 64, and memory 66. Controller 62 includes any hardware and/or logic elements operable to control and process information. For example, controller 62 may be a microcontroller, processor, programmable logic device, and/or any other suitable processing device. Cellular interface 64 communicates information to and receives information from cellular network 16. For example, cellular interface 64 may communicate and receive audio information and signaling data associated with telephone calls placed through cellular network 16. Thus, cellular interface 64 includes any suitable hardware or controlling logic used to communicate information to or from elements coupled to cellular telephone 12. Memory 66 stores, either permanently or temporarily, data or other information for processing by controller 62 and communication using user interface 60 and/or cellular interface 64. Memory 66 includes any one or a combination of volatile or nonvolatile devices suitable for storing information. For example, memory 66 may include RAM, ROM, magnetic storage devices, optical storage devices, or any other suitable information storage device or a combination of these devices. As illustrated, memory 66 may include one or more memory modules, such as code 68. Code 68 includes software, executable files, and/or appropriate logic modules capable when executed to control the operation of cellular telephone 12. For example, code 68 may include executable files capable of suppressing event notifications associated with single number reachability methods and handoff of a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. In operation, controller 62 may operate to communicate voice data received through user interface 60 as well as signaling data through base station 18 using cellular interface 64. For example, cellular interface 64 may communicate information to mobility application 26 for forwarding to a remote device. Controller 62 may also operate to communicate voice data received through cellular interface 64 to a user of cellular telephone 12 using user interface 60. For example, user interface 60 may generate sounds corresponding to data received from a remote device. A user of cellular telephone 12 may couple to a remote device by dialing a telephone number associated with mobility application 26, receiving secondary dial tone, and then dialing a telephone number associated with the remote device using user interface 60. Alternatively or in addition, the user may only dial a telephone number associated with the remote device using user interface 60. According to particular embodiments, controller 62 places a stealth call to mobility application 26 to anchor any resulting communication session in enterprise network 20. For example, after a user of cellular telephone 12 dials a telephone number associated with a remote device using user interface 60, controller 62 may record the dialed telephone number in memory 66, place a stealth telephone call to mobility application 26, and provide the stored telephone number to mobility application 26 for dialing. Cellular telephone 12 may support various enhanced features. For example, according to particular embodiments, controller 62 suppresses event notifications associated with various processes. For example, during two-stage dialing discussed above, mobility application 26 may place cellular telephone 12 on hold while mobility application 26 dials the telephone number associated with the remote device. Controller 62 may prevent a user of cellular telephone 12 from hearing, for example, music on hold, secondary dial tone, and secondary dialing associated with mobility application 26 placing the second call. Also, during handoff with desktop telephone 14, controller 62 may suppress similar event notifications generated by mobility application 26. While this example includes specific functional components for cellular telephone 12, cellular telephone 12 may include any collection and arrangement of components, including some or all of the enumerated functional components, for communicating with remote devices using cellular network 16. Thus, cellular telephone 12 may be a standard cellular telephone. However, according to particular embodiments, cellular telephone 12 may support enhanced features such as suppressing event notifications. Moreover, cellular telephone 12 contemplates implementing each of the functional components using any suitable combination and arrangement of hardware and/or logic. Thus, in alternative embodiments, cellular telephone 12 may be a personal digital assistant (PDA), laptop computer, or other device operable to establish communications with cellular network 16. Note that in alternative embodiments, cellular telephone 12 may include an enterprise interface for coupling to an access point of enterprise network 20 for wireless connectivity. The enterprise interface would be able to communicate with the access point using any appropriate wireless protocol, such as the 802.11 family of protocols. Using steps analogous to those discussed herein, a single number reachability solution may be able to direct a call to cellular telephone 12 using such an access point and an enterprise interface. Furthermore, again using steps analogous to those discussed herein, handoff of a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 may also be supported by utilizing such an access point and an enterprise interface. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating functional components of desktop telephone 14. In the embodiment illustrated, desktop telephone 14 includes a user interface 80, a controller 82, a network interface 84, and a memory 86. In general, desktop telephone 14 may establish communication sessions with remote devices through interaction with enterprise network 20 and mobility application 26. Furthermore, desktop telephone 14 may transmit indications to mobility application 26 to handoff communication sessions between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Desktop telephone 14 may also suppress event notifications associated with handoff. User interface 80 allows a user of desktop telephone 14 to input information into desktop telephone 14 and receive information outputted by desktop telephone 14. For example, user interface 80 may receive audio information from a user of desktop telephone 14. User interface 80 may also allow the user to dial telephone numbers and select from various features made available by desktop telephone 14. In addition, audio information may be outputted by user interface 80 to the user. Thus, user interface 80 may include a microphone, speaker, keypad, and/or other appropriate devices for inputting and outputting information. According to particular embodiments, user interface 80 includes a resume key associated with handoff from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14, a deskphone pickup key associated with handoff from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14, and a cellphone pickup key associated with handoff from desktop telephone 14 to cellular telephone 12. Note that the resume key and the deskphone pickup key may be the same key. Controller 82 controls the operation and administration of the elements within desktop telephone 14. For example, controller 82 operates to process information and/or commands received from user interface 80, network interface 84, and memory 86. Controller 82 includes any hardware and/or logic elements operable to control and process information. For example, controller 82 may be a microcontroller, processor, programmable logic device, and/or any other suitable processing device. Network interface 84 communicates information to and receives information from enterprise network 20. For example, network interface 84 may communicate and receive audio information and signaling data associated with telephone calls placed through enterprise network 20. Thus, network interface 84 includes any suitable hardware or controlling logic used to communicate information to or from elements coupled to desktop telephone 14. Memory 86 stores, either permanently or temporarily, data or other information for processing by controller 82 and communication using user interface 80 and/or network interface 84. Memory 86 includes any one or a combination of volatile or nonvolatile devices suitable for storing information. For example, memory 86 may include RAM, ROM, magnetic storage devices, optical storage devices, or any other suitable information storage device or a combination of these devices. As illustrated, memory 86 may include one or more memory modules, such as code 88. Code 88 includes software, executable files, and/or appropriate logic modules capable when executed to control the operation of desktop telephone 14. For example, code 88 may include executable files capable of generating messages for communication to mobility application 26 that a user of desktop telephone 14 desires to handoff a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. In operation, controller 82 may operate to communicate voice data received through user interface 80 as well as signaling data through enterprise network 20 using network interface 84. For example, network interface 84 may communicate information to call manager 24 for forwarding to a remote device and/or information to mobility application 26 regarding handoff. Controller 82 may also operate to communicate voice data received through network interface 84 to a user of desktop telephone 14 using user interface 80. For example, user interface 80 may generate sounds corresponding to data received from a remote device. Controller 82 may also generate messages indicating desires of a user of desktop telephone 14 to handoff communication sessions between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. For example, when a user presses the resume key, controller 82 may notify mobility application 26 that the user desires to use desktop telephone 14 to communicate with the remote device. Alternatively or in addition, when a user presses the cellphone pickup key, controller 82 may notify mobility application 26 that the user desires to use cellular telephone 12 to communicate with the remote device. By communicating with mobility application 26, controller 82 may trigger mobility application 26 to take steps to facilitate handoff of a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. According to particular embodiments, controller 82 suppresses event notifications associated with various processes. For example, during handoff of a communication session to cellular telephone 12, mobility application 26 may place desktop telephone 14 on hold while mobility application 26 dials the telephone number associated with cellular telephone 12. Controller 82 may prevent a user of desktop telephone 14 from hearing, for example, music on hold, secondary dial tone, and secondary dialing associated with mobility application 26 placing the second call. According to particular embodiments, network interface 84 may receive information communicated by mobility application 26 to allow desktop telephone 14 to communicate media directly to cellular telephone 12 while still communicating signaling to mobility application 26. For example, network interface 84 may receive identifiers and/or other information associated with cellular telephone 12 and/or gateway 28. Controller 82 may utilize the information to direct media through gateway 28 to cellular telephone 12 without sending the media through mobility application 26. While this example includes specific functional components for desktop telephone 14, desktop telephone 14 may include any collection and arrangement of components, including some or all of the enumerated functional components, for communicating with remote devices using enterprise network 20, indicating a desire of a user of desktop telephone 14 to handoff a communication session between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14, and suppressing event notifications. Moreover, desktop telephone 14 contemplates implementing each of the functional components using any suitable combination and arrangement of hardware and/or logic. Thus, in alternative embodiments, desktop telephone 14 may be a PDA, laptop computer, or other device operable to establish communications with enterprise network 20. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a method 100 for providing single number reachability to a user of cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Mobility application 26 registers a directory number as a shared-line CTI port with call manager 24 at step 102. After receiving an incoming call on the shared-line CTI port at step 104, call manager 24 offers the call to cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 at step 106. To offer the call to cellular telephone 12, mobility application 26 receives the offer on the shared-line CTI port and makes a new call from a second CTI port to cellular telephone 12 via gateway 28. As discussed above, the second CTI port may be picked from a pool of temporary CTI ports used for making outgoing calls. If the user answers cellular telephone 12 at step 108, mobility application 26 anchors the communication session in enterprise network 20 at step 110, hairpins the media through gateway 28 at step 112, and directs call manager 24 to stop offering the call to desktop telephone 14 at step 114. If the user does not answer cellular telephone 12 at step 108 but instead answers desktop telephone 14 at step 116, mobility application 26 stops offering the call to cellular telephone 12 at step 118. If the user neither answers cellular telephone 12 or desktop telephone 14, call manager 24 and/or mobility application 26 stop offering the call to cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 at step 120 and activate voicemail at step 122. If a user of the remote device leaves a voicemail message, mobility application 26 may indicate to cellular telephone 12 and call manager 24 may indicate to desktop telephone 14 that a voicemail message is available. According to particular embodiments, a single voicemail account may be shared by cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Furthermore, the single voicemail account may be accessed from either cellular telephone 12 or desktop telephone 14. Thus, method 100 represents a simplified series of steps to provide for single number reachability using cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. A user of cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14 may couple to a remote device using either cellular telephone 12 or desktop telephone 14 and a single telephone number. FIG. 6 illustrates a method 140 for establishing a communication session. An outgoing call is initiated at step 142. If the outgoing call originates from cellular telephone 12 at step 144, cellular telephone 12 couples to mobility application 26 at step 148. Then, mobility application 26 couples to the remote device at step 150. This two-stage dialing process may be manually controlled by a user of cellular telephone 12. Alternatively or in addition, the two-stage dialing process may involve a stealth call and suppression of event notifications. In either case, cellular telephone 12 may anchor the resulting communication session in enterprise network 20. If the outgoing call does not originate from cellular telephone 12 at step 144, desktop telephone 14 couples to the remote device at step 146. For example, desktop telephone 14 may utilize call manager 24 to couple to the remote device. In either case, mobility application 26 may communicate information to the endpoints so that signaling is communicated through mobility application 26 while media is communicated directly between endpoints using gateway 28. Thus, method 140 represents establishing a communication session using either cellular telephone 12 or desktop telephone 14. FIG. 7 illustrates a method 160 for effecting handoff of a communication session from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14. Cellular telephone 12 establishes a communication session with a remote device at step 162. As discussed above, the communication session may be established by cellular telephone 12 placing an outgoing call and anchoring the call in enterprise network 20. Alternatively, an incoming call may be routed through enterprise network 20 using a single number reachability technique. In both scenarios, mobility application 26 may control signaling between cellular telephone 12 and the remote device, and media may be hairpinned in gateway 28. Mobility application 26 determines whether a hang up is detected at step 164. For example, mobility application 26 may determine whether a signal is received from cellular telephone indicating a hang up event. If hang up is not detected, mobility application 26 determines whether deskphone pickup is detected at step 166. For example, deskphone pickup may be detected when a user of desktop telephone 14 presses a deskphone pickup key or otherwise indicates a desire to hand off a communication session from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14. When deskphone pickup is detected, mobility application 26 places the communication session on hold at step 168. Mobility application 26 couples desktop telephone 14 to the held communication session at step 170. If deskphone pickup is not detected at step 166, method 160 returns to step 164. If hang up is detected at step 164, mobility application 26 starts a timer at step 172 and places the communication session on hold at step 174. The timer causes mobility application 26 to wait and determine whether deskphone pickup is detected at step 176. If deskphone pickup is detected at step 176, mobility application 26 couples desktop telephone 14 to the held communication session at step 170. If deskphone pickup is not detected at step 176, mobility application 26 determines whether the timer has expired at step 178. If the timer expired, method 160 returns to step 176. If, on the other hand, the timer has expired, mobility application 26 terminates the communication session at step 180. Thus, method 160 represents one embodiment of a method for handing off a communication session from cellular telephone 12 to desktop telephone 14. In particular, method 160 illustrates actions that may be taken by mobility application 26 to effect handoff. FIG. 8 illustrates a method 200 of effecting handoff of a communication session from desktop telephone 14 to cellular telephone 12. Desktop telephone 14 establishes a communication session at step 202. As discussed above, the communication session may be established by desktop telephone 14 placing an outgoing call through enterprise network 20. Alternatively, an incoming call may be routed through enterprise network 20 to desktop telephone 14. Mobility application 26 determines whether cellphone pickup is detected at step 204. For example, cellphone pickup may be detected when a user of desktop telephone 14 presses the cellphone pickup key or otherwise indicates a desire to handoff a communication session from desktop telephone 14 to cellular telephone 12. When cellphone pickup is detected, mobility application 26 anchors the communication session in enterprise network 20 at step 206. As discussed above, anchoring the communication session in enterprise network 20 may involve requiring that signaling pass through or be controlled by an element of enterprise network 20 such as mobility application 26. Mobility application 26 couples to cellular telephone 12 at step 208. For example, mobility application 26 may dial a telephone number associated with cellular telephone 12. At step 210, mobility application 26 places the communication session on hold. Mobility application 26 hairpins the media associated with a communication session at gateway 28 at step 212. By hairpinning the media, mobility application 26 may cause media to be communicated between the remote device and cellular telephone 12 through gateway 28 without requiring the media to proceed through enterprise network 20 to mobility application 26. A user resumes communications with the remote device using cellular telephone 12 at step 214. Thus, method 200 represents a method for effecting handoff of a communication session from desktop telephone 14 to cellular telephone 12. The preceding flowcharts illustrate particular methods for providing single number reachability and handoff between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. However, these flowcharts illustrate only exemplary methods of operation, and communication system 10 contemplates devices using any suitable techniques, elements, and applications for performing these applications. Thus, many of the steps in the flowcharts may take place simultaneously and/or in different orders than as shown. In addition, the devices may use methods with additional steps or fewer steps, so long as the methods remain appropriate. Moreover, other devices of system may perform similar techniques to support single number reachability and handoff of communication sessions between cellular telephone 12 and desktop telephone 14. Although the present invention has been described in several embodiments, a myriad of changes and modifications may be suggested to one skilled in the art, and it is intended that the present invention encompass such changes and modifications as fall within the present appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Homes and businesses have traditionally utilized communications systems including desktop telephones directly wired to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Recently, however, technological advances have resulted in the proliferation of alternative communications systems. For example, various wireless systems such as cellular networks have been developed. In addition, data networks such as the Internet have been deployed. The proliferation of these and other alternative communications systems has created incompatibilities that have not been fully resolved. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the present invention, techniques for handoff of communications sessions between cellular and desktop telephones are provided. According to some embodiments, these techniques enable a user to establish and maintain a communication session that may be handed between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone. In particular, these techniques can enable a communication session to be handed from a cellular telephone to a desktop telephone and/or from a desktop telephone to a cellular telephone. According to a particular embodiment, a method for effecting handoff of a communication session between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone includes anchoring a communication session involving a remote device and a cellular telephone in an enterprise network such that signaling for the communication session passes through an element of the enterprise network; receiving an indication to handoff the communication session from the cellular telephone to a desktop telephone coupled to the enterprise network; placing the remote device in a holding state in response to the indication; and coupling the desktop telephone to the remote device to resume the communication session. Embodiments of the invention provide various technical advantages. For example, these techniques may allow a user of a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone to be reached using a single telephone number. According to some embodiments, these techniques may allow a user to continue a communication session passed between a cellular telephone and a desktop telephone. Furthermore, these techniques may enable single number reachability and handoff between cellular and desktop telephones without the use of a separate conference bridge. Cost may be reduced. Furthermore, security may be enhanced by preventing unauthorized access to a communication session during handoff. Other technical advantages of the present invention will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, descriptions, and claims. Moreover, while specific advantages have been enumerated above, various embodiments may include all, some, or none of the enumerated advantages. | 20041115 | 20151020 | 20060518 | 97582.0 | H04Q720 | 1 | ZEWARI, SAYED T | Handoff of communication sessions between cellular and desktop telephones | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04Q | 2,004 |
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10,988,892 | ACCEPTED | Welding wire package | A package for containing and dispensing wire from a coil of welding wire. The package having an outer layer with a bottom and an outer side wall having an upper edge defining a box opening for removing the wire from the package. The package further including an inner core positioned within the inner cylindrical opening of the wire coil wherein the inner core has a base supported by the package bottom and an oppositely facing core top. The core base being generally maintained relatively to the package bottom to prevent the core from “walking-up” the wire coil and the core top being allowed to tilt as the wire exits the package. | 1. A package for containing and dispensing wire from a coil of welding wire, the coil having a coil axis parallel to a package axis, a coil top transverse to the coil axis and an opposite coil bottom, the wire coil further including radially inner and outer surfaces parallel to the coil axis, the inner surface defining an inner cylindrical opening coaxial with the coil axis, said package comprising an outer layer having a bottom and at least one outer side wall having a upper edge defining a box opening for removing the wire from said package, said package further including an inner core positioned within the inner cylindrical opening of the wire coil, said inner core having a core base supported by said bottom and an oppositely facing core top, said package further including a structure at least near said bottom of said package controlling lateral movement of said corer during the unwinding of the wire while allowing said core top to be tilted by the wire as the wire exits said package. 2. The package according to claim 1, wherein said outer layer is a drum. 3. The package according to claim 1, wherein said outer layer is a square box wherein said at least one outer side wall is four side walls. 4. The package according to claim 3, further including an inner layer between the radially outer surface of the wire coil and said four side walls. 5. The package according to claim 4, further including corner supports between said inner layer and said outer layer. 6. The package according to claim 5, further including a planar octagonal base sheet between said bottom of said outer layer and the coil bottom. 7. The package according to claim 6, further including an annular braking ring positioned on top of the coil top for controlling the unwinding of the wire coil. 8. The package according to claim 1, wherein said structure includes at least one upward extending protrusion fixed relative to said bottom. 9. The package according to claim 8, wherein said least on upward extending protrusion is at least three retainers extending about said package axis. 10. The package according to claim 9, wherein each said retainer is formed from said bottom. 11. The package according to claim 9, wherein each said retainer includes an upward section and an angled section extending from said upward section toward said bottom, said retainers being positioned relative to said bottom such that said angled section faces radially outwardly and is engageable with said inner core to prevent said lateral movement. 12. The package according to claim 11, further including a planar base sheet between said bottom of said outer layer and the coil bottom, said retainers extending from said base sheet. 13. The package according to claim 11, wherein said retainers engage an inner surface of said core. 14. The package according to claim 12, wherein said base sheet has a peripheral edge, at least a portion of said edge being engageable with said at least one of said outer layer and an inner layer. 15. The package according to claim 14, wherein said inner layer includes an octagonal liner extending about the radial outer surface of the coil and said base sheet being sized to fit within said liner, said peripheral edge including eight edge portions. 16. The package according to claim 8, wherein said at least one upward protrusion is shaped to frictionally receive an inner surface of said core. 17. The package according to claim 16, wherein said at least one upward protrusion is formed from a base sheet between said bottom and said coil. 18. The package according to claim 16, wherein said at least one upward protrusion includes an upwardly extending sleeve fixed relative to said bottom of said outer layer. 19. The package according to claim 18, wherein said sleeve includes a base having at least one radially outwardly extending flap, said at least one flap extending between the coil bottom and said bottom of said outer layer to maintain said sleeve relative to said bottom of said outer layer. 20. The package according to claim 18, wherein said sleeve has a polygonal cross-sectional configuration transverse to said package axis with a plurality of upwardly extending edges, said inner surface of said core engaging said plurality of edges. 21. The package according to claim 20, wherein said sleeve includes a base having at least one radially outwardly extending flap, said at least one flap extending between the coil bottom and said bottom of said outer layer to maintain said sleeve relative to said bottom of said outer layer. 22. The package according to claim 20, wherein said polygonal configuration has a square cross-sectional configuration with four upwardly extending edges. 23. The package according to claim 20, further including a hold-down bar to prevent the coil from springing upwardly during the transportation of said package and a hold-down strap engageable with said hold-down bar to urge said bar downwardly, said upwardly extending sleeve including a top sleeve opening and said strap extending through said sleeve opening. 24. The package according to claim 22, wherein said sleeve includes a base having at least one radially outwardly extending flap, said at least one flap extending between the coil bottom and said bottom of said outer layer to maintain said sleeve relative to said bottom of said outer layer. 25. The package according to claim 8, wherein said at least one upward protrusion is a plurality of protrusions spaced from said package axis to engage said inner surface of said core. 26. The package according to claim 25, wherein said plurality of protrusions is at least three protrusions each having an arcuate radially outward edge. 27. The package according to claim 26, wherein said at least three protrusions extend from a base sheet that is positioned between the core bottom and said bottom of said package. 28. The package according to claim 27, wherein said at least three protrusions are separate elements attached to said base. 29. The package according to claim 28, wherein said at least three protrusions are made from a compressable material. 30. The package according to claim 8, further including a hold-down bar to prevent the coil from springing upwardly during the transportation of said package and a hold-down strap engageable with said hold-down bar to urge said bar downwardly, said at least one upward extending protrusion including a passage to allow said hold-down strap to extend through said core. 31. The package according to claim 30, wherein said at least one upward extending protrusion includes a top and said passage is an opening in said top. 32. The package according to claim 30, wherein said at least one upward extending protrusion is at least three upward extending protrusions spaced from said package axis and said passage being the spacing between said at least three protrusions. 33. The package according to claim 32, wherein said at least three protrusions extend upwardly from a base sheet positioned between the coil bottom and said package bottom, said passage further including an opening in said base sheet. 34. The package according to claim 1, further including a planar base sheet between said package bottom and the coil bottom, said structure extending from said base sheet. 35. The package according to claim 34, wherein said structure is formed from said base sheet. 36. The package according to claim 34, wherein said base sheet is made from a foldable material and said structure is cut from said base sheet and includes folds relative to said base sheet such that said structure extends upwardly from said base sheet and remains a part of said base sheet. 37. The package according to claim 36, wherein said base sheet is a first base sheet and said package further includes a second base sheet between said first base sheet and said bottom. 38. The package according to claim 36, wherein said structure is a plurality of upwardly extending structures. 39. The package according to claim 1, further including a hold-down bar to prevent the coil from springing upwardly during the transportation of said package and a hold-down strap engageable with said hold-down bar to urge said bar downwardly, said structure including a member engageable with said core for receiving said hold-down strap once said strap is removed from said hold-down bar and said hold-down strap urging said core downwardly. 40. The package according to claim 39, wherein said hold-down strap is an elastic strap. 41. The package according to claim 39, wherein said member includes a transverse includes an elongate bar interengageble with said inner core such that said strap engages said elongated bar when released from said hold-down bar. 42. The package according to claim 41, wherein said hold-down strap is an elastic strap. 43. The package according to claim 41, wherein said elongate bar includes opposite ends and said ends extending through holes in opposite sides of said core. 44. The package according to claim 43, wherein said ends includes hooks for said interengagement with said core. 45. The package according to claim 1, further including a hold-down bar to prevent the coil from springing upwardly during the transportation of said package and a first hold-down strap engageable with said hold-down bar to urge said bar downwardly, said structure including a member engageable with said core for receiving a second hold-down strap which urges said core downwardly. 46. The package according to claim 45, wherein said member includes an elongate bar interengageble with said inner core. 47. The package according to claim 46, wherein said elongate bar includes opposite ends and said ends having hooks for said interengagement with said core. 48. A package for containing and dispensing wire from a coil of welding wire, the coil having a coil axis parallel to a package axis, a coil top transverse to the coil axis and an opposite coil bottom, the wire coil further including radially inner and outer surfaces parallel to the coil axis, the inner surface defining an inner cylindrical opening coaxial with the coil axis, said package comprising an outer layer having a bottom and at least one outer side wall having a upper edge defining a box opening for removing the wire from said package, said package further including an inner core positioned within the inner cylindrical opening of the wire coil, said inner core having a core base supported by said bottom and an oppositely facing core top, said core base being generally fixed relatively to said bottom and said core top being tiltable by the wire as the wire exits said package. 49. A core retainer for a package for containing and dispensing wire from a coil of welding wire, the coil having a coil axis parallel to a package axis, a coil top transverse to the coil axis and an opposite coil bottom, the wire coil further including radially inner and outer surfaces parallel to the coil axis, the inner surface defining an inner cylindrical opening coaxial with the coil axis, the package having an outer layer with a bottom and at least one outer side wall having a upper edge defining a box opening for removing the wire from the package, an inner core positioned within the inner cylindrical opening of the wire coil having a core base and an oppositely facing core top, said core retainer comprising a base and at least one upward protrusion extending from said base that is shaped to receive the core base and generally maintain the core base relatively to the bottom of the package while allowing said core top to tilt as the wire exits said package. | The present invention relates to welding wire packaging and more particularly to a welding wire package with an improved central core configuration which maintains its position relative to the base of the package. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE Welding wire-used in high production operations, such as robotic welding stations, is provided in a large package having over 200 pounds of wire. The package is often a drum or a box where a large volume of welding wire is looped in the package around a central core or a central clearance bore. During transportation a hold-down mechanism can be used to prevent the wire coil from shifting and to prevent the central core from shifting. To control the transportation and payout of the wire, it is standard practice to provide an upper retainer ring which can be utilized as a part of the hold-down mechanism to prevent wire shifting. One such package is shown in Cooper U.S. Pat. No. 5,819,934 which is incorporated by reference herein as background material showing the same. Another such packaging is shown in Kawasaki U.S. Pat. No. 4,869,367 which is also incorporated by reference herein for showing welding wire packages. Cipriani U.S. Pat. No. 6,481,575 shows a welding wire package which is also incorporated by reference for showing the same. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION In the welding industry, tremendous numbers of robotic welding stations are operable to draw welding wire from a package as a continuous supply of wire to perform successive welding operations. The advent of this mass use of electric welding wire has created a need for large packages for containing and dispensing large quantities of welding wire. A common package is a drum where looped welding wire is deposited in the drum as a wire stack, or body, of wire having a top surface with an outer cylindrical surface against the drum and an inner cylindrical surface defining a central bore that is coaxial to a central package axis. The central bore is often occupied by a cardboard cylindrical core, as shown in Cooper U.S. Pat. No. 5,819,934, extending about a core axis that is coaxial to the package axis. It is common practice for the drum to have an upper retainer ring that is used in transportation to stabilize the body of welding wire as it settles. This ring, as is shown in Cooper U.S. Pat. No. 5,819,934, remains on the top of the welding wire to push downward by its weight so the wire can be pulled from the body of wire between the core and the ring. In addition, a hold-down mechanism can be utilized to increase the downward force. The welding wire in the package is in coils or convolutions wrapped about the package axis and the coil has a top and a bottom. The coil further includes radial inner and outer surfaces extending between the top and the bottom of the coil. As the welding wire is removed from the package, the wire is removed from the top coils or convolutions of wire wherein the top of the wire coil moves downwardly into the package. As a result, the top of the wire coil descends within the package and the outer and inner surfaces of the coil become shorter and shorter. In order to work in connection with the wire feeder of the welder, the welding wire must be dispensed in a non-twisted, non-distorted and non-canted condition which produces a more uniform weld without human attention. It is well known that wire has a tendency to seek a predetermined natural condition which can adversely affect the welding process. Accordingly, the wire must be sufficiently controlled by the interaction between the welding wire package and the wire feeder. To help in this respect, the manufacturers of welding wire produce a wire having natural cast, wherein, if a segment of the wire was laid on the floor, the natural shape of the wire would be essentially a straight line; however, in order to package large quantities of the wire, the wire is coiled into the package which can produce a significant amount of wire distortion and tangling as the wire is dispensed from the package. As a result, it is important to control the payout of the wire from the package in order to reduce twisting, tangling or canting of the welding wire. This condition is worsened with larger welding wire packages which are favored in automated or semi-automated welding. The payout portion of the welding wire package helps control the outflow of the welding wire from the package without introducing additional distortions in the welding wire to ensure the desired continuous smooth flow of welding wire. Both tangling or breaking of the welding wire can cause significant down time while the damaged wire is removed and the wire is re-fed into the wire feeder. In this respect, when the welding wire is payed out of the welding wire package, it is important that the memory or natural cast of the wire be controlled so that the wire does not tangle. The welding wire package comprises a coil of wire having many layers of wire convolutions laid from the bottom to the top of the package. These convolutions include an inner diameter and an outer diameter wherein the inner diameter is substantially smaller than the width or outer diameter of the welding wire package. The convolutions together form the radial inner and outer surface discussed above. The memory or natural cast of the wire causes a constant force in the convolutions of wire which is directed outwardly such that the diameter of the convolutions is under the influence of force to widen. The walls of the wire welding package prevent such widening. However, when the welding wire payout of the package, the walls of the package lose their influence on the wire and the wire is forced toward its natural cast. This causes the portion of the wire which is being withdrawn from the package to loosen and tend to spring back into the package thereby interfering and possibly becoming tangled with other convolutions of wire. In addition to the natural cast, the wire can have a certain amount of twist which causes the convolutions of welding wire in the coil to spring upwardly. Payout devices or retainer rings have been utilized to control the spring back and upward springing of the wire along with controlling the payout of the wire. This is accomplished by positioning the payout or retainer ring on the top of the coil and forcing it downwardly against the natural springing effect of the welding wire. The downward force is either the result of the weight of the retainer ring or a separate force producing member such as an elastic band connected between the retainer ring and the bottom of the package. Further, the optimal downward force during the shipment of the package is different than the optimal downward force for the payout of the welding wire. Accordingly, while elastic bands or other straps are utilized to maintain the position of the payout or retainer ring during shipping, the weight of the retainer ring can be used to maintain the position of the payout relative to the wire coils during the payout or the wire. In addition to the braking ring or retainer ring, which helps control the flow of wire from the package, welding wire packages can further include an inner core to help prevent the outgoing wire from looping across the central axis of the package. In this respect, the central core can be positioned in the wire package within the cylindrical inner region defined by the inner surface of the wire coil. The core is coaxial to a core axis in line with the central package axis. The inner core and the outer packaging together form a generally annular coil compartment wherein the wire can only move upwardly, not transversely of the package axis. In general terms, the central core produces an inner barrier for the wire coil to help direct the outgoing wire upwardly and out the top opening of the wire package such that one convolution of wire does not interfere with other convolution of wire. The welding wire is further controlled by external wire management systems that can include a payout hat that is placed over the top opening of the package and which includes a central opening for the welding wire to pass through. This, alone with other forces and conditions, causes the exiting wire to move toward the central axis of the package as it travels toward this central opening. Further, while the wire is being removed, convolutions of wire are being removed wherein the outgoing wire is constantly moving around the central axis of the package. As a result of the inward movement, the wire tends to engage the inner core is it travels upwardly in the package and as a result of the constant movement about the central axis, this point of engagement with the central core constantly moves around the central core. This produces inward forces on the central core that constantly move about the central core. Further, as the wire moving toward the top opening, it also produces an upward force. As can be appreciated, when the package is full of wire and the wire coil is nearly the same height of the central core, there is little or no space between the coil and the majority of the central core. This arrangement substantial prevents lateral and/or upward movement of the core relative to the central axis. As a result, the core is relatively stable with a full package. However, as the wire is removed from the package, the coil becomes shorter thereby exposing a greater portion of the top of the core. The lack of support by the inner surface of the coil near the top of the core allows core to move around the package axis at an angle to the package axis. More particularly, lack of support near the top cause the core to tilt about the package axis such the core axis near the top of the core becomes spaced radially outwardly from the package axis while the core axis near the bottom of the core is maintained closer to the package axis, but one side of the core bottom lifts from the bottom of the package. As the top of the wire coil nears the bottom of the package, this condition worsens such that the core axis near the top of the core moves further radially outwardly and the bottom of the core becomes looses even more of its engagement with the bottom such that it becomes unstable until the bottom of the core begins to “walk” up the inner surface of the core. Continued “walking” of the core will eventually cause the bottom of the core to reach the top of the coil. Once the bottom of the coil reaches the top of the coil it is free to move radially outwardly until it interferes with the flow of the outgoing wire and causes a tangle in the outgoing wire. As can be appreciated, a wire tangle will result in the welding operation being shut down until the tangle is removed. If the wire package is nearly empty, the nearly empty wire package may be replaced by a new wire package thereby wasting a significant amount of welding wire. In order to overcome the shortcomings in cylindrical cores described above, conical central cores have been used to reduce the tendency of the core to tilt and lift as the wire is removed from the package. While the conical core may reduce the tilting and lifting actions of the core, it reduces the effectiveness of the core to help control the removal of the wire from the package. In this respect, a cylindrical core better directs the welding wire to the outlet of the package. Further, the tilting action of the core can have beneficial effects on the outgoing wire if it is controlled and if the bottom of the core is prevented from “walking” up the coil. STATEMENT OF INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, a welding wire package for containing and dispensing wire from a wire coil is provided which includes an inner core positioned within the inner cylindrical opening of the wire coil such that the core has a core base that is maintained laterally relative to the bottom of the package to prevent the core from “walking” up the wire coil and disrupting the outflow of the welding wire. In this respect, provided is a welding wire package having a bottom portion that provides a mounting structure to secure the base of the core relative to the bottom of the package while allowing only controlled movement of the top portion of core around the package axis as the wire is removed from the package. An object of the present invention is the provision of a welding wire package which includes a core that generally maintains its position within the package during the unwinding of the wire in the package. Another object of the present invention is the provision of a welding wire package which allows the wire to be wound from any known method into a wire package while still allowing the use of a stable inner core that helps guide the wire as it is removed from the welding package without disrupting the flow of the wire from the package. A further object of the present invention is the provision of a welding wire package which includes a stable inner core that helps guide the wire as it is removed from the welding package without disrupting the flow of the wire from the package and which can be easily removed and discarded after the welding wire is consumed. Yet a further object of the present invention is the provision of a welding wire package which includes a stable inner core that helps guide the wire as it is removed from the welding package without disrupting the flow of the wire from the package and which can be used in connection with hold-down mechanisms used for the transportation of the welding wire package. Even yet another object of the present invention is the provision of a welding wire package which includes an inner core that will not “walk” up the wire coil as the wire is removed from the welding package. Even yet a further object of the present invention is the provision of a welding wire package which includes components that are economical to produce, easy to use and discard after use. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS The foregoing objects, and more, will in part be obvious and in part be pointed out more fully hereinafter in conjunction with a written description of preferred embodiments of the present invention illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a side sectional view of a prior art welding wire package which includes an inner core resting on the bottom of the package; FIG. 2 is a side sectional view of the prior art welding wire package shown in FIG. 1 wherein the core has “walked-up” the coil; FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of another prior art welding wire package which includes a conical inner core resting on the bottom of the package; FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of a welding wire package according to the present invention wherein an inner core is being inserted into the package which contains a coil of wire; FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view of the package shown in FIG. 4 wherein the core is a retained condition; FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken generally along line 6-6 of FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view taken generally along line 7-7 of FIG. 6; FIG. 8 is an enlarged top plan view of a stabilizer with pre-cut retainers which is shown in the package shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 9 is perspective view of the stabilizer shown in FIG. 8 with the retainers folded into a receiving position; FIG. 10 is a side sectional view of another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a sectional view of the package shown in FIG. 10 taken along lines 11-11 in FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is an enlarged perspective view of another stabilizer which is shown in FIG. 11; FIG. 13 is a side sectional view of yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a sectional view taken along line 14-14 in FIG. 13; FIG. 15 is an enlarged perspective view of yet another stabilizer as is shown in FIG. 13; FIG. 16 is a side sectional view of yet a further embodiment of the present invention shown in a transport condition; FIG. 17 is a side sectional view of the package shown in FIG. 16 in an unwinding condition; and, FIG. 18 is a partially sectioned perspective view of a further stabilizer shown in the package shown in FIG. 16. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now in greater detail to the drawing wherein the showings are for the purpose of illustrating preferred embodiments of the invention only, and not for the purpose of limiting the invention, FIGS. 1-3 show prior art welding wire packages which include an inner core that merely rests on the base of the package. In this respect, FIGS. 1-2 show a prior art package P1 and FIG. 3 shows a prior art package P2. Package P1 has a cylindrical side wall CW1 and a round base B1. Package P1 further includes an inner core IC1 which is cylindrical and has a base ICB1 that rests on a base sheet BS1 on bottom B1. In FIG. 1, package P1 is full of a welding wire W packaged as a wire coil C and a core axis CA1 of inner core IC1 in line with a package axis or center PC1. Coil C has a coil top CT, a coil bottom CB, a coil inner surface CIS and a coil outer surface COS wherein coil inner surface CIS defines an inner cylindrical space ICS coaxial with package axis PC1. Coil bottom CB is resting on base sheet BS1 and coil outer surface COS is supported by side wall CW1. The welding wire coil has many layers of wire convolutions laid from the bottom to the top of the package. These convolutions are placed in the package by a machine that extends into the package and rotationally positions or places wire on the coil top. As can be appreciated, the wire placement begins at the bottom of the package and works its way to the top of the package. The inner core is therefore positioned in the package after the wire is deposited in the package. The convolutions include an inner diameter and an outer diameter wherein the inner diameter is substantially smaller than the width or outer diameter of the welding wire package. The convolutions together form coil inner surface CIS and coil outer surface COS. As the welding wire is removed from package P1, the wire convolutions can wrap around the inner core one after another as is shown in FIG. 2. As can be appreciated, core IC1 helps direct the wire out of the package by preventing the wire from crossing over package center PC1 such that one convolution can contact another convolution and cause a tangling. As the wire is removed more and more of core IC1 becomes exposed to the outgoing wire and becomes unsupported. As coil top CT moves down toward bottom B1, core IC1 can become unstable and core base ICB1 can begin to lift away from base sheet BS1. Once the core becomes unstable, it can “walk up” coil inner surface CIS and interfere with the outflow of the welding wire. In this respect, the lack of support by the inner surface CIS above coil top CT allows the core to move more freely in the package. More particularly, this core movement relative to the outer packaging, which will hereinafter be referred to “rotational tilting,” is when the core moves such that core axis CA1 essentially moves around package axis PCr. However, portions of the core axis near the top of the core move around package axis PC1 at radial distance that is different than portions of the core near the bottom of the core. This produces a tilted motion, or rotational tilting, wherein the core is at an angle A from the package axis. For example, as is shown in FIG. 2, core IC1 is tilted such that core axis CA1 near the core top is spaced from package axis PC1 a first radial distance RD1 and the core axis is spaced a second radial distance RD2 from the package axis near the core bottom wherein the core axis rotation angle is A to the package axis. As can be appreciated, angle A can change, and does change, based on the amount of wire in the package. In this respect, the more wire that is removed from the package worsens the rotational tilting wherein angle A increases. As can be appreciated, since the core bottom is flat, a portion of the core bottom lifts from base sheet BS during the rotational tilting thereby reducing core stability. As coil top CT approaches base sheet BS, the rotation tilting causes the base corner BC to contact coil inner surface CIS and the bottom of the core begins to “walk up” the inner surface of the core. Continued. “walking” of the core will eventually cause core base ICB1 to reach coil top CT. Once core base ICB1 reaches core top CT it is also free to move radially outwardly and if it does, it will interfere with the flow of the outgoing wire and result in a wire tangle. As can also be appreciated, a wire tangle will result in the welding operation being shut-down until the tangle is removed. If the wire package is nearly empty, the nearly empty wire package may be replaced by a new wire package thereby wasting a significant amount of welding wire. FIG. 3 shows a conical core which has been developed to try and minimize rotational tilting. In this respect, shown is a welding wire package P2 having a cylindrical side wall CW2 and a round base B2. Package P2 further includes an inner core IC2 which is conical and has a base ICB2 that rests on a base sheet BS2 on bottom B2. Package P2 is shown to be full of welding wire W packaged as wire coil C as described above. Core IC2 also has a core axis CA2 which is in line with a package axis or center PC2. The conical configuration of core IC2 produces a spacing between the coil and the core that varies from the top of the core to the bottom of the core. As a result, the core has a different influence on the outgoing wire as the core top descends within the package. While this configuration can reduce rotational tipping, it does not eliminate this movement and further, the benefits of the core's influence on the outgoing wire is substantially lost. FIGS. 4-9 illustrate a welding wire package 10 wherein a wire W is stored in and payed out of package 10 having a bottom 12, a top 14, side walls 15a, 15b, 15c and 15d having an inner surfaces 16a, 16b, 16c and 16d. Package 10 can further include corner supports 18 and even an inner liner known in the art, which is not shown. The inner liner can include, but is not limited to, octagonal inner liners known in the art. Further, package 10 can be a drum style package having a cylindrical configuration or other packaging configurations known in the art. Package 10 further includes an inner core 17 generally concentric with surface 16. As is known and as is described above, package 10 is loaded with wire W at the wire manufacturing facility by looping the wire into the package. This looping process winds the convolutions of wire into a coil C of wire having a body wrapped about a coil or package axis 30. Coil C has a coil top CT, a coil bottom CB, a coil inner surface CIS and a coil outer surface COS wherein coil inner surface CIS defines an inner cylindrical space ICS coaxial with package axis 30. Package 10 can have a base sheet 32 wherein coil bottom CB rests on base sheet 32 and coil outer surface COS is supported by inner surfaces 16a, 16b, 16c, and 16d of side wall 15a, 15b, 15c, and 15d, respectively. While not shown, package 10 can also include an inner packaging layer which separates COS from the side walls. Further, coil bottom CB can rest directly on bottom 12 and/or additional layers can be utilized which will be discussed in greater detail below. The wire is looped in a manner such that it has a cast to facilitate payout of the wire with a minimum of tangles and/or twists in the wire. This produces an upward springing effect which must be controlled during both the transport of packaging 10 and during the unwinding of the welding wire which will also be discussed in greater detail below. Once the wire has been looped in package 10, inner core 17 can be positioned in the packaging. More particularly, inner core 17 has a bottom edge 40, a top edge 42, an outer surface 44 and an inner surface 46. As is shown, core 17 can be cylindrical with an outer sectional diameter 48 and an inner sectional diameter 50. However, core 17 could have other cross-sectional configurations including, but not limited to, polygonal cross-sectional configurations. Further, core 17 can be manufactured using any technique and/or material known in the art. Core 17 is positioned by lowering the core into the cylindrical opening defined by core inner surface CIS. As can be appreciated, outer diameter 48 must be approximately equal or less than an inner diameter 60 of inner surface CIS so that the core can be lowered into position. As core 17 is lowered into position in the package, it is received by a core stabilizer 70 and generally maintained in a retained condition 71 by the stabilizer, which will be discussed in greater detail below. As can be appreciated, stabilizer 70 can be a separate component, an extension of base sheet 32 or an extension of bottom 12 without detracting from the invention of this application. As shown, stabilizer 70 is a separate component of package 10 and includes a base 72 and four retainers 74 that are spaced about axis 30. While four retainers are shown, there can be more or less than four retainers without detracting from the invention of this application. Stabilizer 70 can further include a central opening 76 for a hold-down mechanism that will be discussed in greater detail below. Retainers 74 each include a vertical member 76 and a cross member 78, both of which can be cut from base 72. In this respect, vertical member 76 and cross member 78 can be a unified component extending from base 72 at a base edge 80. Cross member 78 is rectangular and includes side edges 90 and 92 that are parallel to one another and extend between base edge and a mid-fold 94 which joins members 76 and 78 and which allow the members to pivot relative to one another. Vertical member 76 extends between mid fold 94 and a tab edge 96. More particularly, member 76 includes side edges 100 and 102 that are non-parallel and which extend away from one another from mid-fold 94 toward tab edge 96 to form retainer seats 104 and 106. Member 76 further includes a tab 108 between seats 104 and 106 that extends beyond seats 104 and 106 and is defined by tab edge 96 and tab sides 110 and 112 wherein tab 108 has a tab width 114 between tab sides 110 and 112 and a tab length 116 between seats 104/106 and tab edge 96. Retainers 74 further include locking slots 120 and 122 shaped to receive a portion of tab 108 to maintain tabs 74 in an upwardly extending position such that vertical member 76 is generally perpendicular to base 72 and cross member 78 extends at an angle between mid-fold 94 and base 72 wherein mid-fold 94 is spaced furthest from base 72. As is shown in FIG. 8, retainers can be cut from base 72 such that the retainers are a portion of the base. For retainers cut from base 72, they are first partially separated from base 72 by rotating the retainer about edge 80. Then, the retainers are folded about mid-fold 94, which can include a score, and tab 108 is then positioned in slots 120 and 122 until seats 104 and 106 engage base 72. While retainers are shown to be cut from base 72, it should be appreciated that they can also be a separate component attached to base 72 without detracting from the invention of this application. The inter-engagement between tab 108 and slots 120 and 122 along with the engagement by seats 104 and 106 retain tab 74 in an operating position as is shown in FIG. 9. Stabilizer 70 is fixed relative to the coil C so that it can control the movement of core 17 which will be discussed in greater detail below. More particularly, the weight of wire W and/or other package components can be used to fix the stabilizer relative to the coil. As is shown, base 72 of stabilizer 70 has outer edges 124-131 and is sized such that these edges engage the inner surfaces 16 of walls 15 and corner supports 18. Base 72 further includes upper surface 132 and lower surface 134 wherein coil bottom CB is on surface 132 such that the weight of wire W is resting on base 72 and further prevents movement of the stabilizer relative to the coil. As core 17 is lowered into the central opening of the coil, it is directed toward tabs 74 such that bottom edge 40 engages cross members 78 and/or is closely adjacent to bases 80 of the retainers. Once in position, the retainers are substantially within an inner portion 140 of core 17 which advantageously separates the retainers from the wire coil to prevent interference with the unwinding of the wire from the package. Essentially, retainers engage bottom edge 40 and/or inner surface 46 of core 17 to control the movement of the core. By including a plurality of retainers about the base of the core, the base is substantially prevented from moving transversely relative to the package axis in all directions transverse to axis 30, which helps prevent the bottom edge of the core from engaging inner surface CIS of the wire coil, thereby preventing unwanted “walking” of the core up the wire coil. Further, since the core is not permanently attached to the base of the package, it can be easily removed and discarded, which can help minimize the cost of discarding the used packaging, especially if unlike materials are used for the outer packaging and the core. Again, as is stated above, core 17 can be made from any known materials in the art, which can include materials that are not similar to the materials used for the outer packaging of package 10. Even if common materials are used, removal of the core can help make the discarded packaging materials easier to compact without the need for mechanical compacting equipment. In operation, core 17 functions similar to prior art cores, wherein outer surface 44 helps direct wire W upwardly as the wire is unwound from the wire coil. However, stabilizer 70 allows only controlled rotational tilting of the core while the wire is unwound or payed out. As stated above, some rotational tilting can be advantageous in the control of the wire as it is unwound from the packaging. However, when the rotational tilting becomes violent or uncontrolled, it can interfere with the smooth removal of wire and/or can cause the core to “walk-up” the coil and eventually cause a wire tangle. Even though retainers can allow some movement of the bases of the core relative to bottom 12, including some lifting of bottom edge 40 of core 17, it is substantially controlled movement and the bottom edge is prevented from contacting the inner surface of the coil. In the following discussions concerning other embodiments of the present inventions, like components will be referenced by the same reference numbers as discussed above. Referring to FIGS. 10-12, package 150 is shown, which includes a coil stabilizer 160 and the same outer configuration as discussed above. Again, while this package design and the following designs are being described in connection with square box packages, the invention of this application is not limited to square box packages and has broader applications. Stabilizer 160 includes a base 162 and an upward protrusion 164 extending from base 162. Upward protrusion 164 includes four vertically extending side walls 170, 172, 174 and 176 and a top 178. While a square cross-sectionally configured protrusion is shown, it should be noted that other protrusions, including other polygonal configurations, could be used without detracting from the invention of this application. Protrusion 164 further includes a corner edge 180 between walls 170 and 172, a corner edge 182 between walls 172 and 174, a corner edge 184 between walls 174 and 176 and a corner edge 186 between walls 176 and 170. As core 17 is lowered into the central opening of the coil, it is directed toward protrusion 164 such that the protrusion enters inner portion 140 and corners 180, 182, 184 and 186 engage inner surface 46 of core 17. The bottom edge 40 rests on base 162. Once in position, the protrusion is within inner portion 140, which again advantageously separates the stabilizer from the wire core to prevent interference with the unwinding of the wire from the package. Essentially, the frictional engagement between corners 180, 182, 184 and 186 and inner surface 46 maintain the position of the core during the payout of the wire. As with the retainers described above, the protrusion controls the movement of the core thereby preventing the core from moving transversely relative to the package axis in all directions transverse to package axis 30, which helps prevent the bottom edge of the core from engaging the wire coil thereby preventing unwanted “walking” of the core up the wire coil. While stabilizer 160 can be an extension of base sheet 32 (not shown), it can also be a separate component and can include flaps 190, 192, 194 and 196 extending from walls 180, 182, 184 and 186, respectively, which are positioned between the bottom of the coil and bottom 12 with or without the base sheet. Package 150 can further include an additional base sheet 32 and/or an additional stabilizer sheet 198 positioned between sheet 32 and flaps 190, 192, 194 and 196. As stated above, the weight of wire W and/or other package components can be used to fix the stabilizer relative to the coil. As is shown, sheet 198 has outer edges 200-207 and is sized such that these edges engage the inner surfaces 16 of walls 15 and corner supports 18. Top 178 can include a hold-down opening 208 for a hold-down mechanism (not shown) that can be used with package 150 to prevent wire shifting during the transportation of package 150. Referring to FIGS. 13-15, package 210 is shown, which includes a stabilizer 212. More particularly, stabilizer 212 includes retainers or upward protrusions 220 that are spaced about package axis 30 and which extend from a base 222. As with the other embodiments, protrusions 200 can be connected to a separate base or can be an extension of bottom 12 and/or base sheet 32 (not shown) without detracting from the invention of this application. Retainers 220, in this embodiment, are separate components attached to base 222 that are made from a compressible foam. However, while foam is preferred, retainers 220 can be made from other materials known in the art including, but not limited to, cardboard. Retainers have a radial outer edge 230, a radial inner edge 232 and sides 234 and 236. Outer edge 230 is arcuate having a curvature corresponding to inner surface 46 of core 17. While not required, by including an arcuate outer edge, retainers 220 have increased surface contact with inner surface 46 of the core thereby increasing the ability of the retainers to maintain the desired control of the core even with a minimal height. As can be appreciated, the costs to both produce and discard a component can often be reduced by minimizing the size of the component. As core 17 is lowered into the central opening of the coil, it is directed toward retainers 220 such that the retainers enter inner portion 140 and outer surfaces 230, engage inner surface 46 of core 17. The bottom edge 40 of core 17 rests on base 222. Once in position, the retainers are within inner portion 140 which again advantageously separates the stabilizer from the wire core to prevent interference with the unwinding of the wire from the package. As with the retainers described above, the protrusion controls the movement of the core thereby preventing the core from moving transversely relative to package axis 30 in all directions transverse to the package axis which helps prevent the bottom edge of the core from engaging the wire coil thereby preventing unwanted “walking” of the core up the wire coil. Again, the weight of wire W and/or other package components can be used to fix the stabilizer relative to the coil. As is shown, base 222 has outer edges 240-247 and is sized such that these edges engage the inner surfaces 16 of walls 15 and corner supports 18. Base 222 further includes upper surface 248 and lower surface 249 wherein coil bottom CB rests on surface 248 such that the weight of wire W is resting on base 222 and further prevents movement of the stabilizer relative to the coil. With reference to FIGS. 16-18, a package 250 is shown having a stabilizer 260. As with the embodiments described above, package 250 can include a hold-down mechanism 270 having a hold-down bar 272, a force producing member 274 and a top bar 276. As is stated above, the hold-down mechanism prevents the shifting and/or upward springing of the wire in the wire coil during transport. This is accomplished by producing a downward force on top surface CT of coil C. More particularly, hold-down bar 272 is maintained relative to bottom 12 of the package. Bar 272 can be any known hold-down bar including, but not limited to, a straight elongated bar (not shown), a curved bar or a hook (not shown). Depending on the type of bar utilized, the bar is secured relative to the bottom of the package. In the case of curved hold-down bar 272, the bar can be positioned between a base sheet 277 bottom 12 of package 250 wherein base sheet 32 has an opening 279 sized to receive bar 272. The weight of coil C prevents upward movement of the bar. However, hold-down bar 272 can also be fastened to walls 15 and/or bottom 12. Force member 274 is attached between hold-down bar 272 and top bar 276 such that member 274 produces a downward force in top bar 276. Member 274 can be any know force producing member including, but not limited to, an elastic band and/or a spring. Core stabilizer 260 utilizes hold-down mechanism 270 to maintain an inner core 278 relative to bottom 12. In this respect, stabilizer 260 includes a bar 280 having first and second ends 282 and 284, respectively. End 282 includes a hook 286 and end 284 includes a hook 288 which are shaped to engage an inner core 278. More particularly, core 278 includes a first set of openings 300 and 302 and a diametrically opposite two openings 304 and 306. Openings 300 and 304 are elongated to allow hooks 286 and 288, respectively to pass there through. Openings 302 and 306 are spaced from openings 300 and 304, respectively, to create a cross member 310 and 312, respectively, which are engaged by hooks 286 and 288. Further, openings 304 and 306 allow ends 282 and 284 to at least partially pass there through, respectively, such that downward force by bar 280 is directed to cross members 310 and 312. In operation, bar 280 can be placed through elastic band hold-down strap 274 such that bar 280 is shipped ready for operation. In another embodiment, bar 280 can be positioned after the hold-down mechanism has been released. If bar 280 is shipped with package 250, once the package is in position for use, top bar 276 can be released from its engagement with coil top CT and a top 320 of elastic band 274 such that band top 320 moves downwardly within the package until it engages bar 280. Once in engagement with bar 280, band 274 produces a downward force on core 278 to prevent the core from “walking-up” the inner surface of the wire coil. However, as can be appreciated, a separate downward force producing element could be used to urge bar 280 downwardly, and thus core 278, downwardly. By utilizing a separate element, an ideal downward force on the bar can be more easily achieved. As can also be appreciated, while this embodiment does not rigidly prevent later or transverse motion of the core, it prevents the core from “walking-up” the wire coil. Further, the downward force on the core also has a stabilizing effect on the core since it is not free to move within the wire coil. As with the embodiments discussed above, sheet 277 can be configured to help prevent motion of stabilizer 260 relative to coil C in addition to the weight of the coil. In this respect, base 277 has outer edges 290-297 and is sized such that these edges engage the inner surfaces 16 of walls 15 and corner supports 18. Base 277 further includes upper surface 298 and lower surface 299 wherein coil bottom CB rests on surface 298 such that the weight of wire W is resting on base 277 and further prevents movement of the stabilizer relative to the coil. The embodiments of this application, described above, can also include a retainer or braking ring (not shown) to help control the unwinding of the wire from the wire coil. The hold-down mechanism can utilize the retainer ring to produce an even downward force on coil top CT. As is known in the art, the packages can further include a ring protection member (not shown) which extends between top bar 276 and the retainer. Further, the embodiments can include a protrusion(s) that at least partially extend(s) outwardly of the respective core without detracting from the invention of this application. As is stated above, while only a few package configurations are shown, the invention of this application can be used with a wide range of welding wire packages and package accessories known in the art. The accessories include, but are not limited to, package liners between the side wall(s) and outer surface walls 15, vapor barriers, different corner supports, hold-down mechanisms and a wide range of retainer rings. While considerable emphasis has been placed on the preferred embodiments of the invention illustrated and described herein, it will be appreciated that other embodiments and/or equivalents thereof can be made and that many changes can be made in the preferred embodiments without departing from the principals of the invention. Accordingly, it is to be distinctly understood that the foregoing descriptive matter is to be interpreted merely as illustrative of the invention and not as a limitation. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>In the welding industry, tremendous numbers of robotic welding stations are operable to draw welding wire from a package as a continuous supply of wire to perform successive welding operations. The advent of this mass use of electric welding wire has created a need for large packages for containing and dispensing large quantities of welding wire. A common package is a drum where looped welding wire is deposited in the drum as a wire stack, or body, of wire having a top surface with an outer cylindrical surface against the drum and an inner cylindrical surface defining a central bore that is coaxial to a central package axis. The central bore is often occupied by a cardboard cylindrical core, as shown in Cooper U.S. Pat. No. 5,819,934, extending about a core axis that is coaxial to the package axis. It is common practice for the drum to have an upper retainer ring that is used in transportation to stabilize the body of welding wire as it settles. This ring, as is shown in Cooper U.S. Pat. No. 5,819,934, remains on the top of the welding wire to push downward by its weight so the wire can be pulled from the body of wire between the core and the ring. In addition, a hold-down mechanism can be utilized to increase the downward force. The welding wire in the package is in coils or convolutions wrapped about the package axis and the coil has a top and a bottom. The coil further includes radial inner and outer surfaces extending between the top and the bottom of the coil. As the welding wire is removed from the package, the wire is removed from the top coils or convolutions of wire wherein the top of the wire coil moves downwardly into the package. As a result, the top of the wire coil descends within the package and the outer and inner surfaces of the coil become shorter and shorter. In order to work in connection with the wire feeder of the welder, the welding wire must be dispensed in a non-twisted, non-distorted and non-canted condition which produces a more uniform weld without human attention. It is well known that wire has a tendency to seek a predetermined natural condition which can adversely affect the welding process. Accordingly, the wire must be sufficiently controlled by the interaction between the welding wire package and the wire feeder. To help in this respect, the manufacturers of welding wire produce a wire having natural cast, wherein, if a segment of the wire was laid on the floor, the natural shape of the wire would be essentially a straight line; however, in order to package large quantities of the wire, the wire is coiled into the package which can produce a significant amount of wire distortion and tangling as the wire is dispensed from the package. As a result, it is important to control the payout of the wire from the package in order to reduce twisting, tangling or canting of the welding wire. This condition is worsened with larger welding wire packages which are favored in automated or semi-automated welding. The payout portion of the welding wire package helps control the outflow of the welding wire from the package without introducing additional distortions in the welding wire to ensure the desired continuous smooth flow of welding wire. Both tangling or breaking of the welding wire can cause significant down time while the damaged wire is removed and the wire is re-fed into the wire feeder. In this respect, when the welding wire is payed out of the welding wire package, it is important that the memory or natural cast of the wire be controlled so that the wire does not tangle. The welding wire package comprises a coil of wire having many layers of wire convolutions laid from the bottom to the top of the package. These convolutions include an inner diameter and an outer diameter wherein the inner diameter is substantially smaller than the width or outer diameter of the welding wire package. The convolutions together form the radial inner and outer surface discussed above. The memory or natural cast of the wire causes a constant force in the convolutions of wire which is directed outwardly such that the diameter of the convolutions is under the influence of force to widen. The walls of the wire welding package prevent such widening. However, when the welding wire payout of the package, the walls of the package lose their influence on the wire and the wire is forced toward its natural cast. This causes the portion of the wire which is being withdrawn from the package to loosen and tend to spring back into the package thereby interfering and possibly becoming tangled with other convolutions of wire. In addition to the natural cast, the wire can have a certain amount of twist which causes the convolutions of welding wire in the coil to spring upwardly. Payout devices or retainer rings have been utilized to control the spring back and upward springing of the wire along with controlling the payout of the wire. This is accomplished by positioning the payout or retainer ring on the top of the coil and forcing it downwardly against the natural springing effect of the welding wire. The downward force is either the result of the weight of the retainer ring or a separate force producing member such as an elastic band connected between the retainer ring and the bottom of the package. Further, the optimal downward force during the shipment of the package is different than the optimal downward force for the payout of the welding wire. Accordingly, while elastic bands or other straps are utilized to maintain the position of the payout or retainer ring during shipping, the weight of the retainer ring can be used to maintain the position of the payout relative to the wire coils during the payout or the wire. In addition to the braking ring or retainer ring, which helps control the flow of wire from the package, welding wire packages can further include an inner core to help prevent the outgoing wire from looping across the central axis of the package. In this respect, the central core can be positioned in the wire package within the cylindrical inner region defined by the inner surface of the wire coil. The core is coaxial to a core axis in line with the central package axis. The inner core and the outer packaging together form a generally annular coil compartment wherein the wire can only move upwardly, not transversely of the package axis. In general terms, the central core produces an inner barrier for the wire coil to help direct the outgoing wire upwardly and out the top opening of the wire package such that one convolution of wire does not interfere with other convolution of wire. The welding wire is further controlled by external wire management systems that can include a payout hat that is placed over the top opening of the package and which includes a central opening for the welding wire to pass through. This, alone with other forces and conditions, causes the exiting wire to move toward the central axis of the package as it travels toward this central opening. Further, while the wire is being removed, convolutions of wire are being removed wherein the outgoing wire is constantly moving around the central axis of the package. As a result of the inward movement, the wire tends to engage the inner core is it travels upwardly in the package and as a result of the constant movement about the central axis, this point of engagement with the central core constantly moves around the central core. This produces inward forces on the central core that constantly move about the central core. Further, as the wire moving toward the top opening, it also produces an upward force. As can be appreciated, when the package is full of wire and the wire coil is nearly the same height of the central core, there is little or no space between the coil and the majority of the central core. This arrangement substantial prevents lateral and/or upward movement of the core relative to the central axis. As a result, the core is relatively stable with a full package. However, as the wire is removed from the package, the coil becomes shorter thereby exposing a greater portion of the top of the core. The lack of support by the inner surface of the coil near the top of the core allows core to move around the package axis at an angle to the package axis. More particularly, lack of support near the top cause the core to tilt about the package axis such the core axis near the top of the core becomes spaced radially outwardly from the package axis while the core axis near the bottom of the core is maintained closer to the package axis, but one side of the core bottom lifts from the bottom of the package. As the top of the wire coil nears the bottom of the package, this condition worsens such that the core axis near the top of the core moves further radially outwardly and the bottom of the core becomes looses even more of its engagement with the bottom such that it becomes unstable until the bottom of the core begins to “walk” up the inner surface of the core. Continued “walking” of the core will eventually cause the bottom of the core to reach the top of the coil. Once the bottom of the coil reaches the top of the coil it is free to move radially outwardly until it interferes with the flow of the outgoing wire and causes a tangle in the outgoing wire. As can be appreciated, a wire tangle will result in the welding operation being shut down until the tangle is removed. If the wire package is nearly empty, the nearly empty wire package may be replaced by a new wire package thereby wasting a significant amount of welding wire. In order to overcome the shortcomings in cylindrical cores described above, conical central cores have been used to reduce the tendency of the core to tilt and lift as the wire is removed from the package. While the conical core may reduce the tilting and lifting actions of the core, it reduces the effectiveness of the core to help control the removal of the wire from the package. In this respect, a cylindrical core better directs the welding wire to the outlet of the package. Further, the tilting action of the core can have beneficial effects on the outgoing wire if it is controlled and if the bottom of the core is prevented from “walking” up the coil. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>The foregoing objects, and more, will in part be obvious and in part be pointed out more fully hereinafter in conjunction with a written description of preferred embodiments of the present invention illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a side sectional view of a prior art welding wire package which includes an inner core resting on the bottom of the package; FIG. 2 is a side sectional view of the prior art welding wire package shown in FIG. 1 wherein the core has “walked-up” the coil; FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of another prior art welding wire package which includes a conical inner core resting on the bottom of the package; FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of a welding wire package according to the present invention wherein an inner core is being inserted into the package which contains a coil of wire; FIG. 5 is an enlarged sectional view of the package shown in FIG. 4 wherein the core is a retained condition; FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken generally along line 6 - 6 of FIG. 5 ; FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view taken generally along line 7 - 7 of FIG. 6 ; FIG. 8 is an enlarged top plan view of a stabilizer with pre-cut retainers which is shown in the package shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 9 is perspective view of the stabilizer shown in FIG. 8 with the retainers folded into a receiving position; FIG. 10 is a side sectional view of another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a sectional view of the package shown in FIG. 10 taken along lines 11 - 11 in FIG. 10 ; FIG. 12 is an enlarged perspective view of another stabilizer which is shown in FIG. 11 ; FIG. 13 is a side sectional view of yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a sectional view taken along line 14 - 14 in FIG. 13 ; FIG. 15 is an enlarged perspective view of yet another stabilizer as is shown in FIG. 13 ; FIG. 16 is a side sectional view of yet a further embodiment of the present invention shown in a transport condition; FIG. 17 is a side sectional view of the package shown in FIG. 16 in an unwinding condition; and, FIG. 18 is a partially sectioned perspective view of a further stabilizer shown in the package shown in FIG. 16 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041115 | 20080527 | 20060518 | 94941.0 | B65D8567 | 2 | REYNOLDS, STEVEN ALAN | WELDING WIRE PACKAGE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,004 |
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10,988,903 | ACCEPTED | Shoe press belt having a grooved surface | A belt for use in a long nip press having an arcuate pressure shoe. The belt has at least one layer having a polymer resin coating on at least one surface thereof. The resin coating has a plurality of grooves arranged therein and wherein a number of the grooves has a length less than a length of the arcuate pressure shoe to reduce ingoing nip spray. | 1. A belt for use in a shoe press comprising: a base fabric; a resin coating layer formed on said base fabric and substantially co-extensive therewith; and a plurality of discontinuous grooves formed in said resin coating layer. 2. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are formed substantially in the machine direction. 3. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are formed substantially in the cross-machine direction. 4. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are formed at an angle relative to the machine direction. 5. The belt according to claim 2, wherein the machine direction length of said grooves is less than the machine direction length of a shoe portion of said long nip press. 6. The belt according to claim 3, wherein the cross-machine direction length of said groove is less than the cross-machine direction length of a shoe portion of said long nip press. 7. The belt according to claim 6, wherein the machine direction length of said groove is less than the machine direction length of a shoe portion of said long nip press. 8. The belt according to claim 1, wherein said grooves include a first portion which has a width which is greater than a second portion of said groove. 9. The belt according to claim 1, wherein said grooves include a first portion which has a depth that is greater than a second portion of said groove. 10. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are off-set from one another in the machine direction by a uniform distance. 11. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are off-set from one another in the machine direction by a non-uniform distance. 12. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are staggered from one another in a repeating pattern. 13. The belt according to claim 1, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are staggered from one another in a non-repeating pattern. 14. A belt for use in a shoe press comprising: a base fabric; a resin coating layer formed on said base fabric and substantially co-extensive therewith; and a plurality of grooves formed in said resin coating layer, wherein said grooves are formed of a composite of two or more groove features selected from the group consisting of groove shape, width, depth, continuity, and angular orientation, wherein the composite of two or more groove features reduces nip spray. 15. The belt according to claim 14, wherein said grooves are continuous and include a first portion which is straight and a second portion which is sinusoidal, both of which extend substantially in the machine direction. 16. The belt according to claim 14, wherein said grooves are continuous and include a first portion having a width which is greater than a width of a second portion. 17. The belt according to claim 14, wherein said grooves are continuous and include a first portion having a depth which is greater than a depth of a second portion. 18. A method of minimizing the nip spray in a shoe press belt comprising the steps of: providing a base section for a press belt; depositing a polymeric resin on the base section; and forming a plurality of grooves in said polymeric resin, wherein said grooves are formed of a composite of two or more groove features selected from the group consisting of groove shape, width, depth, continuity, and angular orientation, and wherein the composite of two or more groove features reduces nip spray. 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein said grooves are formed continuous and include a first portion which is straight and a second portion which is sinusoidal, both of which extend substantially in the machine direction. 20. The method to claim 18, wherein said grooves formed continuous and include a first portion having a width which is greater than a width of a second portion. 21. The method according to claim 18, wherein said grooves are formed continuous and include a first portion having a depth which is greater than a depth of a second portion. 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the grooves are formed discontinuous and are separated by a land formed in the polymeric resin. 23. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed substantially in the machine direction. 24. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed substantially in the cross-machine direction. 25. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed at an angle relative to the machine direction. 26. The method according to claim 23, wherein the machine direction length of said grooves is less than the machine direction length of a shoe portion of said long nip press. 27. The method according to claim 24, wherein the cross-machine direction length of said groove is less than the cross-machine direction length of a shoe portion of said long nip press. 28. The method according to claim 27, wherein the machine direction length of said groove is less than the machine direction length of a shoe portion of said long nip press. 29. The method according to claim 22, wherein said grooves include a first portion which has a width which is greater than a second portion of said groove. 30. The method according to claim 22, wherein said grooves include a first portion which has a depth that is greater than a second portion of said groove. 31. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed parallel to one another and are off-set from one another in the machine direction by a uniform distance. 32. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed parallel to one another and are off-set from one another in the machine direction by a non-uniform distance. 33. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed parallel to one another and are staggered from one another in a repeating pattern. 34. The method according to claim 22, wherein the grooves are formed parallel to one another and are staggered from one another in a non-repeating pattern. 35. A belt for use in a shoe press comprising: a base fabric; a resin coating layer formed on said base fabric and substantially co-extensive therewith; and a plurality of continuous cross-machine direction grooves formed in said resin coating layer. 36. The belt according to claim 35, wherein said grooves include a first portion which has a width which is greater than a second portion of said groove. 37. The belt according to claim 35, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are off-set from one another in the machine direction by a uniform distance. 38. The belt according to claim 35, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are off-set from one another in the machine direction by a non-uniform distance. 39. The belt according to claim 35, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are staggered from one another in a repeating pattern. 40. The belt according to claim 35, wherein the grooves are parallel to one another and are staggered from one another in a non-repeating pattern. 41. The belt according to claim 35, which also includes a plurality of discontinuous machine direction grooves formed in the base fabric resin coating layer. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is based upon and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/523,135 filed Nov. 18, 2003 entitled “SHOE PRESS BELT HAVING A GROOVED SURFACE”, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to mechanisms for extracting water from a web of material, and, more particularly, from a fibrous web being processed into a paper product on a papermaking machine. 2. Description of the Related Art During the papermaking process, a fibrous web of cellulosic fibers is formed on a forming wire by depositing a fibrous slurry thereon in the forming section of a paper machine. A large amount of water is drained from the slurry in the forming section, after which the newly formed web is conducted to a press section. The press section includes a series of press nips, in which the fibrous web is subjected to compressive forces applied to remove water therefrom. The web finally is conducted to a drying section which includes heated dryer drums around which the web is directed. The heated dryer drums reduce the water content of the web to a desirable level through evaporation to yield a paper product. Rising energy costs have made it increasingly desirable to remove as much water as possible from the web prior to its entering the dryer section. As the dryer drums are often heated from within by steam, costs associated with steam production can be substantial, especially when a large amount of water needs to be removed from the web. Traditionally, press sections have included a series of nips formed by pairs of adjacent cylindrical press rolls. In recent years, the use of long press nips of the shoe type has been found to be more advantageous than the use of nips formed by pairs of adjacent press rolls. This is because the web takes longer to pass through a long press nip than through one formed by press rolls. The longer the time a web can be subjected to pressure in the nip, the more water can be removed there, and, consequently, the less water will remain behind in the web for removal through evaporation in the dryer section. The present invention relates to long nip presses of the shoe type. In this variety of long nip press, the nip is formed between a cylindrical press roll and an arcuate pressure shoe. The latter has a cylindrically concave surface having a radius of curvature close to that of the cylindrical press roll. When the roll and shoe are brought into close physical proximity to one another, a nip which can be five to ten times longer in the machine direction than one formed between two press rolls is formed. Since the long nip is five to ten times longer than that in a conventional two-roll press, the so-called dwell time of the fibrous web in the long nip is correspondingly longer under the same level of pressure per square inch in pressing force used in a two-roll press. The result of this long nip technology has been a dramatic increase in dewatering of the fibrous web in the long nip when compared to conventional nips on paper machines. A long nip press of the shoe type requires a special belt, such as that shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537. This belt is designed to protect the press fabric supporting, carrying and dewatering the fibrous web from the accelerated wear that would result from direct, sliding contact over the stationary pressure shoe. Such a belt must be provided with a smooth, impervious surface that rides, or slides, over the stationary shoe on a lubricating film of oil. The belt moves through the nip at roughly the same speed as the press fabric, thereby subjecting the press fabric to minimal amounts of rubbing against the surface of the belt. Belts of the variety shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537 are made by impregnating a woven base fabric, which takes the form of an endless loop, with a synthetic polymeric resin. Preferably, the resin forms a coating of some predetermined thickness on at least the inner surface of the belt, so that the yarns from which the base fabric is woven may be protected from direct contact with the arcuate pressure shoe component of the long nip press. It is specifically this coating which must have a smooth, impervious surface to slide readily over the lubricated shoe and to prevent any of the lubricating oil from penetrating the structure of the belt to contaminate the press fabric, or fabrics, and fibrous web. The base fabric of the belt shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537 may be woven from monofilament yarns in a single- or multi-layer weave, and woven so as to be sufficiently open to allow the impregnating material to totally impregnate the weave. This eliminates the possibility of any voids forming in the final belt. Such voids may allow the lubrication used between the belt and shoe to pass through the belt and contaminate the press fabric or fabrics and fibrous web. The base fabric may be flat-woven, and subsequently seamed into endless form, or woven endless in tubular form. When the impregnating material is cured to a solid condition, it is primarily bound to the base fabric by a mechanical interlock, wherein the cured impregnating material surrounds the yarns of the base fabric. In addition, there may be some chemical bonding or adhesion between the cured impregnating material and the material of the yarns of the base fabric. Long nip press belts, such as that shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537, depending on the size requirements of the long nip presses on which they are installed, have lengths from roughly 13 to 35 feet (approximately 4 to 11 meters), measured longitudinally around their endless-loop forms, and widths from roughly 100 to 450 inches (approximately 250 to 1125 centimeters), measured transversely across those forms. It will be appreciated that the manufacture of such belts is complicated by the requirement that the base fabric be endless prior to its impregnation with a synthetic polymeric resin. It is often desirable to provide the belt with a resin coating of some predetermined thickness on its outer surface as well as on its inner surface. By coating both sides of the belt, its woven base fabric will be closer to, if not coincident with, the neutral axis of bending of the belt. In such a circumstance, the internal stresses which arise when the belt is flexed on passing around a roll or the like on a paper machine will be less likely to cause the coating to delaminate from either side of the belt. Moreover, when the outer surface of the belt has a resin coating of some predetermined thickness, it permits grooves, blind-drilled holes or other cavities or voids to be formed on that surface without exposing any part of the woven base fabric. These features provide for the temporary storage of water pressed from the web in the press nip. In fact, for some long nip press configurations the presence of some void volume, provided by grooves, blind-drilled holes or the like, on the outer surface of the belt is a necessity. Long nip press belt having a plurality of grooves are known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,731 to Dutt shows such a long nip press belt, which has a base fabric which includes, in at least one of the machine and cross-machine directions, a spun yarn of staple fibers. When the base fabric is coated with a polymeric resin material, individual staple fibers extend from the spun yarns outward into the surrounding coating material. Subsequently, machine-direction grooves are cut into the coating on the outer surface of the belt. The so-called land areas separating the grooves from one another are anchored to the belt by these staple fibers, which make them less susceptible to delamination. Another example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,428,874 to McGahern et al. shows a resin-impregnated endless belt for a long nip press of the shoe type that has a base structure impregnated by a polymeric resin material which renders the belt impermeable to fluids, such as oil, water and air. The polymeric resin material forms layers on the inner and outer sides of the base structure. The inner layer is smooth, but the outer layer has primary grooves for the temporary storage of water pressed from a paper web. The primary grooves are separated by land areas which have secondary grooves extending there across to relieve stresses which give rise to flex fatigue and stress cracking. Accordingly, shoe press belts which are constructed with a grooved surface offer many advantages over belts without grooves, e.g. improved water removal, improved sheet profile, improved felt conditioning and felt lifetime. But in a number of applications, particularly on a slower speed paper machine, the advantages of using a grooved belt are less clear. Specifically, in applications where the press exhibits an ingoing nip spray (especially in the case of an inverted press) it may be more advantageous to use blind drilled circular holes on the surface of the belt rather than the above-described grooved belts. That is, ingoing nip spray is caused when the press fabric enters the pressure nip. Water is pressed out of the web by the press roll and into the press fabric and subsequently into the grooves. Because the grooves are continuous through the length of the belt, water is sprayed at the ingoing and outgoing nip ends. Ingoing nip spray leads to a loss of void volume in the press fabric, resulting in reduced web dewatering. The present invention provides a solution to this problem by providing a shoe press belt with a grooved surface wherein the length of a number of a grooves may not be continuous and may be less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe of the long nip press. The area of the press nip associated with the highest nip pressure (and highest water removal) is prior to the nip exit. As the groove exits the nip, the groove opening may not be present at the nip entrance or the nip entrance may be blocked because the length of the groove is less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe and thus less than the length of the pressure nip. Since the nip entrance is blocked (not vented to the atmosphere) ingoing nip spray is reduced or eliminated, and hydraulic pressure within the press fabric is increased resulting in effective water removal from the web as the groove segment in the belt surface exits the nip. Accordingly, the discontinuous grooves of the present invention reduce or eliminate ingoing nip spray and increase the efficiency of dewatering. The grooves of the above-mentioned present belt may extend in a direction substantially parallel to the machine direction (MD). Alternatively, the grooves of the present belt may be oriented in the cross-machine direction (CD) of the belt surface, and may be continuous or discontinuous. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention is a belt which may be used with a long nip shoe press. The belt comprises at least one layer, e.g. a base structure, which may be in the form of an endless loop. The long nip press may have an arcuate pressure shoe. A polymeric resin material impregnates or coats at least one surface of a layer of the belt and forms an outer layer or coating thereon. The outer layer may have a plurality of grooves oriented generally in the machine direction (MD), a number of grooves having a length less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe. In other embodiments, the present belt includes a plurality of continuous or discontinuous grooves oriented substantially in the cross-machine direction (CD). The present invention will now be described in more complete detail with reference being made to the figures wherein like reference numerals denote like elements and parts, which are identified below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side cross-sectional view of a long nip press; FIG. 2 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 1 which illustrates the groove entering a nip; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 1 which illustrates the groove enclosed by the nip; FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view FIG. 1 which illustrates the groove exiting the nip; FIG. 6 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a diagram which illustrates the water volume of the ingoing and outgoing nip spay as a function of machine speed and press load of a belt having continuous grooves; FIG. 9 is a diagram which illustrates the speed at which the ingoing nip spray disappears as a function of load for the press belt having continuous grooves; FIG. 10 is a diagram which illustrates the water volume of the ingoing and outgoing nip spay as a function of machine speed and load for a belt of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11a is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a top view of a belt having a plurality of grooves which are arranged in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 is a top view of a belt in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 16 is a cross-section of a groove in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 17 is a cross-section of a groove in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a cross-section of a groove in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 a cross-section of a groove in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 is a cross-section of a groove in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 21 is a cross-section of a groove in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 is a cross-section of a shoe nip press and belt in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT A long nip press for dewatering a fibrous web being processed into a paper product on a paper machine is shown in a side cross-sectional view in FIG. 1. Press nip 10 is defined by smooth cylindrical press roll 12 and arcuate pressure shoe 14. Arcuate pressure shoe 14 has about the same radius of curvature as cylindrical press roll 12. The distance between cylindrical press roll 12 and arcuate pressure shoe 14 may be adjusted by hydraulic means or the like operatively attached to arcuate pressure shoe 14 to control the loading of the nip 10. Smooth cylindrical press roll 12 may be a controlled crown roll matched to arcuate pressure shoe 14 to obtain a level cross-machine nip pressure profile. Long nip press belt 16 extends in a closed loop through nip 10, separating cylindrical press roll 12 from arcuate pressure shoe 14. Press fabric 18 and fibrous web 20 being processed into a paper sheet pass together through nip 10 as indicated by the arrows in FIG. 1. Fibrous web 20 is supported by press fabric 18 and comes into direct contact with smooth cylindrical press roll 12 in nip 10. Alternatively, fibrous web 20 may pass through nip 10 sandwiched between two press fabrics 18 (second press fabric not shown). Long nip press belt 16, also moving through press nip 10 as indicated by the arrows, that is, clockwise as depicted in FIG. 1, protects press fabric 18 from direct sliding contact against arcuate pressure shoe 14, and may slide over the arcuate pressure shoe on a lubricating film of oil. Long nip press belt 16, accordingly, may be impermeable to oil, so that press fabric 18 and fibrous web 20 will not be contaminated thereby. FIG. 2 is a top view of a belt 16 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Belt 16 has outer surface 24. Outer surface 24 is provided with a plurality of grooves 26 extending in the machine direction around the belt 16 for the temporary storage of water pressed from fibrous web 20 in press nip 10. Grooves 26 will be discussed in more detail below. FIGS. 3-5 show the dewatering mechanism in shoe press nip 10 in three phases, in which one of the grooves 26 enters and exits press nip 10. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the belt 16 as groove 26 enters nip 10. As shown in the progression of FIGS. 3-5, groove 26 enters nip 10 at nip entrance 36 and exits nip 10 at nip exit 38. FIG. 3 also shows a cross-section of belt 16. Belt 16 may include at least one base layer 28. However, belt 16 may contain additional layers in addition a polymer resin coating 34. Layer 28 may be woven from transverse, or cross-machine direction yarns 30 (viewed from the side in FIG. 3), and longitudinal or machine-direction yarns 32. Layer 28 may be woven, the transverse yarns 30 being warp yarns weaving over, under and between longitudinal yarns 32, the weft yarns are in a single weave. It should be understood, however, that layer 28 may be flat woven, and subsequently joined into endless form with a seam. It should be further understood that layer 28 may be woven in a duplex weave, or in any other weave which may be used in the production of paper machine clothing belts. Layer 28 may alternatively be a nonwoven structure in the form of an assembly of transverse and longitudinal yarns, which may be bonded together at their mutual crossing points to form a fabric. Further, layer 28 may be a knitted or braided fabric, or a spiral-link belt of the type shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,567,077 to Gauthier, the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. Layer 28 may also be extruded from a polymeric resin material in the form of a sheet or membrane, which may subsequently be provided with apertures. Alternatively still, at least one layer 28 may comprise nonwoven mesh fabrics, such as those shown in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 4,427,734 to Johnson, the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. Further, layer 28 may be produced by spirally winding a strip of woven, nonwoven, knitted, braided, extruded or nonwoven mesh material according to the methods shown in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 5,360,656 to Rexfelt et al., the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. Layer 28 may accordingly comprise a spirally wound strip, wherein each spiral turn is joined to the next by a continuous seam making the base structure 28 endless in a longitudinal direction. A press belt having a base structure of this type is disclosed in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,792,323 and 5,837,080, the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. A resin, such as a polymer resin, 34 is coated, impregnated or otherwise disposed on at least one surface of belt 16. Polymer resin 34 may be coated or otherwise disposed on outer surface 24 of belt 16, that is, the surface which contacts press fabric 18 when belt 16 is in use on a long nip press. In addition, a polymer resin layer 23 may be coated or otherwise disposed on inner surface 22 of belt 16, that is, the surface which slides over the arcuate pressure shoe 14 when belt 16 is in use on a long nip press. The polymeric resin layer 23 may impregnate layer 28, and render belt 16 impermeable to oil, water, and the like. Polymeric resin coating 34 and 23 may be polyurethane, and may be a 100% solids composition thereof. The use of a 100% solids resin system, which by definition lacks a solvent material, avoids the formation of bubbles in the polymeric resin during the curing process through which it proceeds following its application onto layer 28. Inner surface 22 and/or outer surface 24 may also be ground and buffed after the polymeric resin has been cured to provide the polymeric resin coating with a smooth, uniform surface. After the polymeric resin has been cured, grooves 26 may be cut into outer surface 24 of belt 16. Alternatively, grooves 26 may be pressed into outer surface 24 by a pressing-type device before the polymeric resin has been cured, or may be molded into outer surface 24 (such as when belt 16 is manufactured using a molding process). As is to be appreciated, other possible way to form grooves 26 would readily be apparent to one skilled in the art. Further, in at least one embodiment of the present invention, grooves 26 are not continuous. That is the grooves 26 are separated by a land area 42 which is the ungrooved area between adjacent (and for that matter successive) grooves. The grooves 26 may be formed in either the machine direction of the belt or the cross-machine direction of the belt. In one preferred embodiment with grooves formed in the machine direction, shown in FIGS. 3-5, the grooves 26 are formed in the machine direction of the belt and have a length 40 such length may have a value which is less than the length of the shoe 14 (of FIG. 1), such as approximately, one-third, one-half, two-thirds, etc. of the length of the shoe. As an example, if the length of a typical arcuate pressure shoe is approximately 250 mm, the length 40 of groove 26 may be approximately 125 mm. Similarly, in FIG. 11 there is shown the embodiment where the grooves 26 are formed in the cross-machine direction. The shape, dimensions, spacing, and orientation of grooves 26 may vary in accordance with the long nip press application and/or the desired ingoing nip spray relief and efficiency of the dewatering process. As mentioned above and shown in FIG. 3, groove 26 enters nip 10 at nip entrance 36 and exits nip 10 at nip exit 38. Nip entrance 36 is characterized as a low pressure zone. As fibrous web 20 enters nip 10, the pressure applied from roll 12 and shoe 14 forces water contained in web 20 to flow into press fabric 18 which is in contact with belt 16. Groove 26 then accepts the water from press fabric 18. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of the belt 16 as groove 26 is enclosed by nip 10. Groove 26 now enters a hydrostatic zone where the water from the web 20 and the press fabric 18 are under pressure. Groove 26 accepts water until its void volume is completely filled. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view of the belt 16 as groove 26 exits nip 10. Nip exit 38 is characterized as a high pressure zone. The highest pressure and thus highest water removal is near nip exit 38. Because groove 26 is not continuous and is less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe 14, the groove does not extend to the nip entrance or in other words the nip entrance 36 is blocked, and water that is removed from web 20 and forced through press fabric 18 into belt 16 builds up hydrodynamic pressure as discussed above with regard to FIG. 4. This build up of hydrodynamic pressure forces the water to exit groove 26 when it exits nip 10 at nip exit 38. Accordingly, high pressure drives water flow from web 20 and press fabric 18 to now exposed groove 26. FIGS. 2, 6, and 7, 7a and 7b illustrate several arrangements of grooves. As shown in FIG. 2, grooves 26 may be arranged in a equal number of rows wherein a line intersecting the ends of each groove in a row is substantially perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. However, the number of grooves in a row and distances between adjacent rows in the longitudinal direction on belt 16 may vary in accordance with the long nip press application, and/or the desired ingoing nip spray relief and efficiency of the dewatering process. As mentioned above, grooves 26 may not be continuous in length in the longitudinal direction and may be less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe 14. Grooves 26 are separated from one another by land areas 42, as shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 6 is a top view of a belt 16′ in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. In this example, MD grooves 26 are formed in staggered rows having a uniform offset. The offset is shown as an angle α. Angle α may be, for example, 25-30°. FIG. 7 is a top view of a belt 16″ in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. Here, MD grooves 26 are formed in staggered rows in a non-repeating transverse pattern. Other embodiments may also include a repeating pattern of staggered rows. FIG. 7a depicts yet another groove pattern in the machine direction where a plurality of grooves are formed in repeatable clusters or patterns 100. As shown in FIG. 7a, the clusters 100 of discontinuous grooves 26 comprise, for example, ten grooves extending substantially in but at an angle to the machine direction. Such grooves can be cut by what is known as “gang cutters” typically cut in a spiral fashion. The belt includes as many groove clusters 100 as desired for proper dewatering characteristics of the belt. Although the clusters are shown at an angle to the machine direction other orientations are considered within the scope of the present invention including in the cross-machine direction. Further, although the clusters 100 are all shown with the same orientation, the present invention is not limited thereby, rather it may include clusters formed in a variety of orientations on the same belt. FIG. 7b shows still a further embodiment of the present invention having overlapping grooves 26 formed in a belt. The overlapping grooves 26 result in the discontinuous grooves encircling the entirety of the belt in a repeat pattern. Again, the grooves 26 shown in FIG. 7b are shown angled to the machine direction, but may be formed in any orientation including in the cross-machine direction. By having some grooves at varying distance along the length of the belt, the incidence of marking caused by a portion of the belt without any grooves is reduced. In an embodiment of the present invention, the length of groove 26 in the machine direction may be any length up to approximately the shoe length. For example, the groove 26 may have a length of approximately 50 mm and the distance between grooves 26 in the longitudinal direction may be approximately 25 mm. Further, grooves 26 and land areas 42 may be arranged in any pattern that minimizes potential for hydraulic disruption or marking of the paper sheet. Grooves 26 and land areas 42 are depicted in FIGS. 2, 6 and 7 as being of equivalent width, although this need not be the case. Nevertheless, land areas 42 may be thought of as narrow pillars of cured polymeric resin aligned in the machine direction on outer surface 24 of the belt. MD grooves 26 have been described in the preceding discussion as being oriented in the machine, or longitudinal, direction. The grooves 26 may be provided by cutting discontinuous grooves which spiral on outer surface 24. In such a situation, the orientation of the grooves 26 may deviate from the machine, or longitudinal, direction by a small angle. In addition, grooves 26 may be provided by cutting two or more adjacent discontinuous grooves which spiral on outer surface 24 in opposite directions, that is, one describing a right-handed spiral and the other describing a left-handed spiral. The cutters may be intermittently removed from the belt surface forming a short horizontal strip of land area in the cross-direction (CD strip). The CD strip may be randomized over the surface of the belt depending on the length of the belt, the length of the groove and the length of the land area. In one advantageous embodiment of the present invention, grooves 26 may have a depth of approximately 1.4 mm, and a width in the range from 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm. Each groove 26 may be separated from the next by a distance (land width) in the transverse direction in a range from 1.0 mm to 2.5 mm. However, the precise number, depth, width, and shape of grooves 26 as well as the width of land areas 42 may vary depending on the desired application. Accordingly, there is a wide range of groove-to land area ratio. Although the grooves have been described as running in a longitudinal or machine direction, the present invention is not so limited. That is, the grooves could be arranged in any other direction, such as in a transverse or CD direction, or in a direction which is at an angle θ (such as 0<θ<90°) relative to the machine direction. In such situation, the “length” of the grooves 26 may be shorter than the width of the shoe as, for example, shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. As shown in FIG. 11, grooves 26 may be arranged in a number of columns wherein each groove is formed in substantially the transverse or CD direction. However, the number of grooves in a column and distances between adjacent columns in the CD or transverse direction on belt 17 may vary in accordance with the application and/or the desired ingoing nip spray relief and efficiency of the dewatering process. Such grooves 26 may be considered as being non-continuous in length in the transverse direction and may have a width (MD component) less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe 14. Alternatively, the CD grooves may be continuous as shown in FIG. 11a, where the grooves 26 extend substantially the entire cross-machine width of the belt 17. In yet another alternative embodiment, grooves 26 may be formed in a staggered pattern, such as in belt 17′ shown in FIG. 12. A shoe nip press belt having CD or transverse direction grooves has the advantageous effect of acting like the impeller or gear for a positive displacement pump. As the groove 26 enters the shoe, water is forced out of the web 20 and into the grooves 26 of the belt 17. Because the grooves 26 are formed in the resin 34, which is not water permeable, the water does not flow out of the grooves 26. As the pressure between the press roll 12 and the shoe increases, the grooves 26 are filed with water from the fibrous web 20. The movement of the belt 17 then carries the water forced into the grooves 26 away from the fibrous web 20. Because the width (the MD component) of the grooves 26 is smaller than the length of the shoe, the water that enters the grooves cannot flow out and is kept in the grooves due in part to the high pressure applied by the press roll 12. Such an embodiment may prove very useful in low-speed applications where traditionally a plain or ungrooved belt is used. However, the present invention is not so limited, and may in fact be used at a variety of speeds. Additionally the present belt may have other patterns of non-continuous grooves. As an example, and with reference to FIG. 13, the present belt may have a number of first grooves (such as groove 44) and/or a number of second grooves (such as groove 46). Each of such grooves may have an overall length and width which is less than that of the arcuate pressure shoe 14. Where the belt 16 (FIG. 2) is compared to a belt having standard-type continuous grooves, and where, the grooves of both belts have depths of 1.4 mm and widths of 0.8 mm, and the width of the land area (distance between adjacent grooves) is 2.1 mm, the ingoing nip spray and the outgoing nip spray can be measured and plotted against the machine speed and nip pressure exerted. As can be seen in FIG. 8, with the standard continuous groove belts, there is ingoing nip spray at a machine speed of more than 300 m/min. In addition, as the speed increased the ingoing nip spray also increased and thereafter decreased as shown. Also, as the press load increased the ingoing nip spray increased. Accordingly, there is an operative range at which it is undesirable to operate a standard grooved shoe press belt. FIG. 9 shows the speed of operation at which the ingoing nip spray is essentially eliminated as the belt enters the shoe nip press. The graph compares the speed at varying press loads in the shoe press belt with continuous grooves. It can be observed that as the press load increased, the speed necessary for the eliminating the ingoing nip spray increased. For example, at 600 kN/m press load the speed necessary for ingoing nip spray disappearance is approximately 650 m/min compared to approximately 810 m/min for ingoing nip spray elimination at a press load of 1200 kN/m. As shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, the ingoing nip spray may be present in a long shoe press with a belt with standard-type continuous MD grooves that runs at speeds greater than about 650 m/min or less than 810 m/min when operating in the range of press loads between 600 kN/m and 1200 kN/m. The ingoing nip spray reduces the efficiency of web dewatering and is therefore an undesirable characteristic of known grooved belts. In contrast, as indicated in FIG. 10, the belts of the present invention have no or substantially no ingoing nip spray at press loads of 600 kN/m-1000 kN/min between speeds of 250 m/min-1000 m/min. Accordingly, belts with discontinuous grooves reduce ingoing nip spray and thus can increase web dewatering efficiency. Although the present belt has been described as having discontinuous grooves, the present invention is not so limited. That is, the present belt may include non-standard type continuous grooves. As an example, and with reference to FIG. 14, a belt 47 may have a number of continuous grooves 49 each having a straight portion 48 followed by a zigzag portion 50 followed by another straight portion 48 and so forth. The length of the grooves in the straight and/or zigzag portions may each be less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe 14. As another example, and with reference to FIG. 15, a belt 51 may have one or more grooves 52 each having a number of first portions 54 having a first width and a number of second portions 56 having a second width which is smaller than the first width. The length of second or restrictive portion 56 may be less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe 14. Furthermore, as previously indicated, the shapes of the grooves utilized in the present belt may have a number of different cross-sectional shapes. Examples of several of such cross-sectional shapes are shown in FIGS. 16-21. As is to be appreciated, the shapes of the grooves of the present belt are not limited to these shapes. A further advantageous embodiment of the present invention is shown in FIG. 22. In FIG. 22, the groove 26 is formed to a variable depth having a deeper groove section 60, and a shallower groove section 62. The change in depth acts substantially as the end of the groove in the non-continuous grooves discussed above. That is, the shallow portions 62 of the groove 26 prevents water from easily flowing out of deeper section of the groove 60, thereby significantly reducing the tendency of the water to flow in the direction opposite machine direction and therewith minimizing the nip spray. The groove 26 in the present embodiment is continuous, however in one advantageous embodiment, the deeper groove portion 60 of the groove 26 has a length less than the length of the pressing zone of the shoe. This can be seen in comparison to the pressure curve 64 shown in FIG. 22 with the depth of the groove 26. At the entrance to the press roll 12, there is a low pressure area 36 which corresponds to a shallow section 62 of groove 26. Thereafter, the pressure rapidly rises and the depth of the groove 26 is increased in this area. The highest pressure occurs at a point shortly before the end of the deep section 60 of the groove 26. Notice that in the area of shallow portions 62, the pressure falls off dramatically. Thus, in the deepest sections of the groove 26, where the highest pressure is experienced, the greatest amount of water is removed from the fibrous web 20. For clarity, FIG. 22 does not show a press fabric (18 of FIG. 1) on which the fibrous web 20 is carried, however, one of skill in the art will readily appreciate that such a fabric would typically be located between web 20 and the shoe press belt 16. Modifications to the above would be obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art, but would not bring the invention so modified beyond the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to mechanisms for extracting water from a web of material, and, more particularly, from a fibrous web being processed into a paper product on a papermaking machine. 2. Description of the Related Art During the papermaking process, a fibrous web of cellulosic fibers is formed on a forming wire by depositing a fibrous slurry thereon in the forming section of a paper machine. A large amount of water is drained from the slurry in the forming section, after which the newly formed web is conducted to a press section. The press section includes a series of press nips, in which the fibrous web is subjected to compressive forces applied to remove water therefrom. The web finally is conducted to a drying section which includes heated dryer drums around which the web is directed. The heated dryer drums reduce the water content of the web to a desirable level through evaporation to yield a paper product. Rising energy costs have made it increasingly desirable to remove as much water as possible from the web prior to its entering the dryer section. As the dryer drums are often heated from within by steam, costs associated with steam production can be substantial, especially when a large amount of water needs to be removed from the web. Traditionally, press sections have included a series of nips formed by pairs of adjacent cylindrical press rolls. In recent years, the use of long press nips of the shoe type has been found to be more advantageous than the use of nips formed by pairs of adjacent press rolls. This is because the web takes longer to pass through a long press nip than through one formed by press rolls. The longer the time a web can be subjected to pressure in the nip, the more water can be removed there, and, consequently, the less water will remain behind in the web for removal through evaporation in the dryer section. The present invention relates to long nip presses of the shoe type. In this variety of long nip press, the nip is formed between a cylindrical press roll and an arcuate pressure shoe. The latter has a cylindrically concave surface having a radius of curvature close to that of the cylindrical press roll. When the roll and shoe are brought into close physical proximity to one another, a nip which can be five to ten times longer in the machine direction than one formed between two press rolls is formed. Since the long nip is five to ten times longer than that in a conventional two-roll press, the so-called dwell time of the fibrous web in the long nip is correspondingly longer under the same level of pressure per square inch in pressing force used in a two-roll press. The result of this long nip technology has been a dramatic increase in dewatering of the fibrous web in the long nip when compared to conventional nips on paper machines. A long nip press of the shoe type requires a special belt, such as that shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537. This belt is designed to protect the press fabric supporting, carrying and dewatering the fibrous web from the accelerated wear that would result from direct, sliding contact over the stationary pressure shoe. Such a belt must be provided with a smooth, impervious surface that rides, or slides, over the stationary shoe on a lubricating film of oil. The belt moves through the nip at roughly the same speed as the press fabric, thereby subjecting the press fabric to minimal amounts of rubbing against the surface of the belt. Belts of the variety shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537 are made by impregnating a woven base fabric, which takes the form of an endless loop, with a synthetic polymeric resin. Preferably, the resin forms a coating of some predetermined thickness on at least the inner surface of the belt, so that the yarns from which the base fabric is woven may be protected from direct contact with the arcuate pressure shoe component of the long nip press. It is specifically this coating which must have a smooth, impervious surface to slide readily over the lubricated shoe and to prevent any of the lubricating oil from penetrating the structure of the belt to contaminate the press fabric, or fabrics, and fibrous web. The base fabric of the belt shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537 may be woven from monofilament yarns in a single- or multi-layer weave, and woven so as to be sufficiently open to allow the impregnating material to totally impregnate the weave. This eliminates the possibility of any voids forming in the final belt. Such voids may allow the lubrication used between the belt and shoe to pass through the belt and contaminate the press fabric or fabrics and fibrous web. The base fabric may be flat-woven, and subsequently seamed into endless form, or woven endless in tubular form. When the impregnating material is cured to a solid condition, it is primarily bound to the base fabric by a mechanical interlock, wherein the cured impregnating material surrounds the yarns of the base fabric. In addition, there may be some chemical bonding or adhesion between the cured impregnating material and the material of the yarns of the base fabric. Long nip press belts, such as that shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,238,537, depending on the size requirements of the long nip presses on which they are installed, have lengths from roughly 13 to 35 feet (approximately 4 to 11 meters), measured longitudinally around their endless-loop forms, and widths from roughly 100 to 450 inches (approximately 250 to 1125 centimeters), measured transversely across those forms. It will be appreciated that the manufacture of such belts is complicated by the requirement that the base fabric be endless prior to its impregnation with a synthetic polymeric resin. It is often desirable to provide the belt with a resin coating of some predetermined thickness on its outer surface as well as on its inner surface. By coating both sides of the belt, its woven base fabric will be closer to, if not coincident with, the neutral axis of bending of the belt. In such a circumstance, the internal stresses which arise when the belt is flexed on passing around a roll or the like on a paper machine will be less likely to cause the coating to delaminate from either side of the belt. Moreover, when the outer surface of the belt has a resin coating of some predetermined thickness, it permits grooves, blind-drilled holes or other cavities or voids to be formed on that surface without exposing any part of the woven base fabric. These features provide for the temporary storage of water pressed from the web in the press nip. In fact, for some long nip press configurations the presence of some void volume, provided by grooves, blind-drilled holes or the like, on the outer surface of the belt is a necessity. Long nip press belt having a plurality of grooves are known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,731 to Dutt shows such a long nip press belt, which has a base fabric which includes, in at least one of the machine and cross-machine directions, a spun yarn of staple fibers. When the base fabric is coated with a polymeric resin material, individual staple fibers extend from the spun yarns outward into the surrounding coating material. Subsequently, machine-direction grooves are cut into the coating on the outer surface of the belt. The so-called land areas separating the grooves from one another are anchored to the belt by these staple fibers, which make them less susceptible to delamination. Another example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,428,874 to McGahern et al. shows a resin-impregnated endless belt for a long nip press of the shoe type that has a base structure impregnated by a polymeric resin material which renders the belt impermeable to fluids, such as oil, water and air. The polymeric resin material forms layers on the inner and outer sides of the base structure. The inner layer is smooth, but the outer layer has primary grooves for the temporary storage of water pressed from a paper web. The primary grooves are separated by land areas which have secondary grooves extending there across to relieve stresses which give rise to flex fatigue and stress cracking. Accordingly, shoe press belts which are constructed with a grooved surface offer many advantages over belts without grooves, e.g. improved water removal, improved sheet profile, improved felt conditioning and felt lifetime. But in a number of applications, particularly on a slower speed paper machine, the advantages of using a grooved belt are less clear. Specifically, in applications where the press exhibits an ingoing nip spray (especially in the case of an inverted press) it may be more advantageous to use blind drilled circular holes on the surface of the belt rather than the above-described grooved belts. That is, ingoing nip spray is caused when the press fabric enters the pressure nip. Water is pressed out of the web by the press roll and into the press fabric and subsequently into the grooves. Because the grooves are continuous through the length of the belt, water is sprayed at the ingoing and outgoing nip ends. Ingoing nip spray leads to a loss of void volume in the press fabric, resulting in reduced web dewatering. The present invention provides a solution to this problem by providing a shoe press belt with a grooved surface wherein the length of a number of a grooves may not be continuous and may be less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe of the long nip press. The area of the press nip associated with the highest nip pressure (and highest water removal) is prior to the nip exit. As the groove exits the nip, the groove opening may not be present at the nip entrance or the nip entrance may be blocked because the length of the groove is less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe and thus less than the length of the pressure nip. Since the nip entrance is blocked (not vented to the atmosphere) ingoing nip spray is reduced or eliminated, and hydraulic pressure within the press fabric is increased resulting in effective water removal from the web as the groove segment in the belt surface exits the nip. Accordingly, the discontinuous grooves of the present invention reduce or eliminate ingoing nip spray and increase the efficiency of dewatering. The grooves of the above-mentioned present belt may extend in a direction substantially parallel to the machine direction (MD). Alternatively, the grooves of the present belt may be oriented in the cross-machine direction (CD) of the belt surface, and may be continuous or discontinuous. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention is a belt which may be used with a long nip shoe press. The belt comprises at least one layer, e.g. a base structure, which may be in the form of an endless loop. The long nip press may have an arcuate pressure shoe. A polymeric resin material impregnates or coats at least one surface of a layer of the belt and forms an outer layer or coating thereon. The outer layer may have a plurality of grooves oriented generally in the machine direction (MD), a number of grooves having a length less than the length of the arcuate pressure shoe. In other embodiments, the present belt includes a plurality of continuous or discontinuous grooves oriented substantially in the cross-machine direction (CD). The present invention will now be described in more complete detail with reference being made to the figures wherein like reference numerals denote like elements and parts, which are identified below. | 20041115 | 20080617 | 20050616 | 60281.0 | 4 | HUG, JOHN ERIC | SHOE PRESS BELT HAVING A GROOVED SURFACE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,914 | ACCEPTED | Boards comprising an array of marks to facilitate attachment | A board is provided that includes a pattern to facilitate attachment of the board to a frame structure. The pattern comprises a first array of marks disposed along a first imaginary line; a second array of marks disposed along a second imaginary line, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance apart; and a third array of marks disposed along a third imaginary line, said first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance apart. The board may be used in a variety of construction applications, where the pattern facilitates the quick attachment of the board to an underlying frame. | 1. A board including a pattern to facilitate attachment of the board to a frame structure, the pattern comprising: a first array of marks disposed along a first imaginary line; a second array of marks disposed along a second imaginary line, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance apart; and a third array of marks disposed along a third imaginary line, said first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance apart; wherein said second array of marks have a first form, and said third array of marks have a second form; and wherein the distance between said second imaginary line and said third imaginary line is different than the length of said first predetermined distance between said first imaginary line and said second imaginary line. 2. The board according to claim 1, wherein in each array the marks are spaced a uniform distance apart along each of the imaginary lines. 3. The board according to claim 1, further comprising a fourth array of marks disposed along a fourth imaginary line, said first and fourth imaginary lines being spaced a third predetermined distance apart. 4. The board according to claim 1, wherein the marks in the fourth array have a form different from said first form and said second form. 5. The board according to claim 1, wherein the pattern further comprises indicia associated with at least one of the arrays. 6. The board according to claim 1, wherein the marks in the first array, the marks in the second array, and the marks in the third array are ink marks. 7. The board according to claim 3, further comprising: a fifth array of marks disposed along a fifth imaginary line, said first and fifth imaginary lines being spaced a fourth predetermined distance apart; a sixth array of marks disposed along a sixth imaginary line, said first and sixth imaginary lines being spaced a fifth predetermined distance apart; and a seventh array of marks disposed along a seventh imaginary line, said first and seventh imaginary lines being spaced a sixth predetermined distance apart. 8. The board according to claim 7, wherein the form of said fifth array of marks is the same as the first form, the form of the sixth array of marks is the same as the second form, and the form of the seventh array of marks is different from the first and second forms. 9. The board according to claim 8, wherein the first predetermined distance is about 16 inches, the second predetermined distance is about 19{fraction (3/16)} inches, the third predetermined distance is about 24 inches, the fourth predetermined distance is about 32 inches, the fifth predetermined distance is about 38⅜ inches, and the sixth predetermined distance is about 48 inches. 10. The board according to claim 5, wherein the indicia are selected from alphanumeric characters. 11. The board according to claim 1, wherein the board has a first half and a second half, the first array of marks, the second array of marks and the third array of marks are located in the first half, and the second half is a mirror image of the first half. 12. The board according to claim 1, wherein the marks of one of the arrays are circles, the marks of another array are squares, and the marks of yet another array are diamonds. 13. The board according to claim 1, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 14. The board according to claim 2, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 15. The board according to claim 3, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 16. The board according to claim 4, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 17. The board according to claim 7, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 18. The board according to claim 8, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 19. The board according to claim 9, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. 20. The board according to claim 12, wherein the board is composed of oriented strand board. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/012,918, filed Oct. 30, 2004, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Wood boards or sheets, typically made from wood composite products like plywood or oriented strand board, are common construction materials in commercial, industrial and residential buildings. During construction, these boards are placed over and fastened to an underlying supporting frame to form the wall, roof or floor of the building. While this method of construction is an improvement over other construction techniques, it could nonetheless be made more efficient. A principal drawback to this construction method is that when a worker places the board over the frame, the frame is no longer visible. Thus, in order to fasten or attach the board to the supporting frame it is necessary to add an additional step of measuring and marking positions on the board to align the placement of fasteners (e.g., nails or screws) so that they are directed through the board and into the underlying supporting frame. This additional measuring and marking step is problematic not only because of the time it takes, but also because measurement errors may cause the fasteners to be misaligned and fail to contact the frame. Misaligned fasteners not only decrease construction efficiency because they require that the misaligned fasteners be removed and new fasteners inserted, but also could undermine structural integrity if the worker is unaware of the error or ignores it. To address this problem, boards have previously been manufactured with patterns on their surface to indicate the dimensions of the board and to indicate to workers using these boards the appropriate places for cutting and mounting the wood boards during construction projects. However, these patterns are typically in the form of a complicated and potentially confusing series of grids formed by a series of intersecting lines as well as other reference indicia. While these complicated patterns allow the boards to be used in a wide variety of building and construction applications they also require more time and effort by an installer to use. Given the foregoing, there is a continuing need to develop a board comprising a pattern that may be used in many different construction applications, while also facilitating the quick attachment of the board to structural frames without the expenditure of considerable time and effort by the installer. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly, the invention provides a board that includes a pattern to facilitate attachment of the board to a structure, the pattern comprising a first array of marks disposed along a first imaginary line; and a second array of marks disposed along a second imaginary line, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance apart; and a third array of marks disposed along a third imaginary line, said first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance apart. The invention also provides a board for forming a structure including a pattern comprising a first array of marks disposed along a first imaginary line; a second array of marks disposed along a second imaginary line, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance apart; and a third array of marks disposed along a third imaginary line, said first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance apart; whereby the first array of marks, the second array of marks, and the third array of marks may be used to define points that are useful for connecting the board to the structure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown in the drawings. In the figures, the same reference numerals are used to indicate the same elements of each of the illustrated boards. FIG. 1 is a top plan view of a board prepared according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a top plan view of a board prepared according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a top plan view of a board prepared according to a third embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 4 is a partial top plan view of a board prepared according to the third embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As used herein, “wood” is intended to mean a cellular structure, having cell walls composed of cellulose and hemicellulose fibers bonded together by lignin polymer. By “wood composite material” it is meant a composite material that comprises wood and one or more other additives, such as adhesives or waxes. Non-limiting examples of wood composite materials include oriented strand board (“OSB”), waferboard, particle board, chipboard, medium-density fiberboard, plywood, agfiber boards, boards that are a composite of strands and ply veneers, and boards that are a composite of agfiber and strands. As used herein, “flakes”, “strands”, and “wafers” are considered equivalent to one another and are used interchangeably. A non-exclusive description of wood composite materials may be found in the Supplement Volume to the Kirk-Rothmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, pp 765-810, 6th Edition. All parts, percentages and ratios used herein are expressed by weight unless otherwise specified. All documents cited herein are incorporated by reference. The following describes preferred embodiments of the present invention which provides a board or panel, preferably made from a wood or wood composite material and suitable for use in residential and commercial building construction as well as by industrial, and original equipment manufacturers. This board or panel has a pattern that makes it possible to rapidly attach the panel to a supporting frame structure as part of the construction of a roof, floor or wall by eliminating the need for additional steps of measuring and marking. As shown in FIG. 1, there is a board 5 prepared according to a first embodiment of the present invention. The board 5 is in a rectangular shape defined by two parallel longitudinal edges 16 and two parallel transverse edges 18. However, boards prepared according to the present invention may be in a variety of other shapes, such as squares, triangles, etc. Nor is it necessary that edges always be parallel, rather the edges may be scalloped, have a sinusoidal form or some other form. The board 5 may be used in a variety of different applications, but it is envisioned that the board 5 will be attached to a conventional frame structure(not shown). The conventional frame structure has a plurality of spaced vertical components, which may be spaced any distance apart from each other. These vertical components are connected at each end by horizontal frame components. The vertical components are referred to as “studs” in the case of a frame structure forming a wall, “joists” in a frame structure supporting a floor, and “rafters” for a frame structure underlying a roof. The board 5 includes a pattern comprising a first array of marks 7 disposed along a first imaginary line 40, and a second array of marks 9 disposed along a second imaginary line 42, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance 10 apart. (The imaginary lines illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 are shown only for reference, they are not actually marked on the board). This first predetermined distance 10 is set so that it represents the distance between the vertical components of the frame structure (not shown). Thus, these arrays function to identify locations where fasteners (not shown) can be used to attach the board 5 to the frame structure. The frame structure is typically made from wood or a wood composite. In actual use, the board 5 is placed upon the frame structure, and the fasteners inserted completely through the board 5 and into the vertical components of the underlying frame structure. A non-exclusive list of suitable fasteners include nails, screws, ring-shank nails, cemented-coated nails and staples. Thus, the first predetermined distance 10 can be any suitable distance that corresponds to the spacing of vertical components of a frame structure. In FIGS. 1-3, the first predetermined distance 10 is shown as about 16 inches (about 40.7 cm). Although not shown in the figures, boards prepared according to the present invention may have a pattern of one-dimensional arrays each of which are separated by the same first predetermined distance 10, repeated over the entire surface of the board. (The dimensions indicated in the figure are, of course, not included or in anyway printed on the board, but are shown only for reference to illustrate the layout and arrangement of one particular pattern of arrays. Patterns of arrays having different dimensions are also acceptable.) Rather than repeating a series of arrays each series being separated by the same distance, over the entire marking surface 22 of the board 5, it is preferred that arrays separated by different spacings be used so that the board 5 can be installed on frame structures having a variety of different vertical component spacings. In FIGS. 1-3, the pattern additionally comprises a third array of marks 24 disposed along a third imaginary line 44, the first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance 26 apart, a fourth array of marks 28 disposed along a fourth imaginary line 46, said first and fourth imaginary lines 40, 46 being spaced a third predetermined distance apart 30. In FIGS. 1-3, the second predetermined distance is about 19{fraction (3/16)} inches (about 48.7 cm), while the third predetermined distance is about 24 inches (about 61 cm). Additionally, this pattern in FIGS. 1-3 also includes a fifth array of marks 32 disposed along a fifth imaginary line 48, said first and fifth imaginary lines 40, 48 being spaced a fourth predetermined distance 34 apart; a sixth array of marks 37 disposed along a sixth imaginary line 50, said first and sixth imaginary lines 40, 50 being spaced a fifth predetermined distance apart 36; and a seventh array of marks 38 disposed along a seventh imaginary line 52, said first and seventh imaginary lines 40, 52 being spaced a sixth predetermined distance apart 41. These first seven arrays are found in the first half of the marking surface 22 of the board 5. The second half of the board 5 has mirror symmetry with the first half, the mirror being set upon the seventh imaginary line 52. In FIGS. 1-3, the fourth predetermined distance is about 32 inches (about 81.3 cm), while the fifth predetermined distance is about 38⅜ inches (about 97.4 cm) and the sixth predetermined distance is about 48 inches (about 122 cm). Indicia, particular alphanumeric characters such as numbers or letters, may be used to indicate the vertical component spacings represented by each of the arrays. In the preferred embodiment shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, the alphanumeric indicia are numerals 11. Thus, in FIGS. 2 and 3, the numerals shown as “16” represent the appropriate spacings for joists, rafters or studs that are separated by 16 inches. Likewise, “19” or “19.2” represent the 19{fraction (3/16)} inch spacing, and “24” represents the 24 inch spacing. Thus, the board 5 may be affixed to a supporting frame by directing fasteners through the board at the locations indicated by the appropriate arrays—the appropriate arrays are those having a spacing corresponding to the vertical components of the supporting frame. The marks on the board may be selected from several different forms, the forms include circles, dots, squares, diamonds and other forms. In the third embodiment of the present invention shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the marks are selected from several different forms. Marks in the first array 7, the second array 9, and the fifth array 32 are all in the form of circles, while marks in the third array 24 and the sixth array 36 are both in the form of diamonds. Marks in the fourth array 28 are in the form of squares. Marks in the seventh array 38 are shown as squares with dots inside. Thus, the circles indicate a separation of 16 inches, so when the board 5 is placed over a frame structure having vertical components spaced every sixteen inches, then the circles indicate the location of the vertical components beneath the board 5. The marks shown in FIG. 3 for each of the arrays are for illustration only, different marks may be selected for each of the arrays and the list of marks mentioned above is not intended to be exhaustive of the forms the marks may take. The marks are not necessarily shown to scale. By directing the fasteners into the board 5 along the imaginary lines defined by these markings, the board 5 may be affixed to the frame structure. In a similar fashion, the diamonds represent a 19{fraction (3/16)} inch spacing between vertical components, while the squares represent a twenty four inch spacing. The dot enclosed by the square indicates that this portion of the board may be placed over either a 16 inch or a 24 inch-spaced vertical component. By having all these sets of marks, a single board may be applied to frame structures in which the vertical components are separated by 16 inches, 19{fraction (3/16)} inches, or 24 inches. While it is not necessary to use marks having different forms, such a practice may facilitate the use of the presently disclosed boards. Although not a necessary aspect of the present invention, FIGS. 1-3 all show a preferred embodiment in which the marks that comprise each of the arrays are uniformly spaced apart in the transverse direction by about 6 inches (15.25 cm). Thus, these marks not only indicate the precise location of the underlying vertical component of the frame structure, they may also serve as “targets” to indicate the precise location that a worker should place a fastener into the board to secure the board to the vertical component of the frame. Generally, municipal or state building codes require that a minimum number of fasteners be used to affix the board to the vertical components of a frame structure in order to insure at least a minimum standard of structural integrity. Thus, the number of marks in an array may correspond to this minimum number of fasteners required by law so that by inserting a fastener at each of the marks, compliance with building code standards can be achieved. Although in a preferred embodiment the marks are uniformly spaced apart, this is not a required aspect of the present invention, and the transverse spacing of the marks may be non-uniform, as well. In the process of constructing a roof, floor, wall or other building elements with these boards, a worker first applies the board upon the vertical components of the frame structure. When this is done, the arrays of marks corresponding to a certain vertical component spacing will be aligned with the vertical components of the structural frame. The application process may then occur in two steps: a first step in which the board is temporarily secured to the frame structure with a few nails or screws, and a second step in which a worker uses special equipment such as a high-speed fastener or nail gun to permanently attach the board to the frame structure. Alternatively, the application process may be carried out in a single step of applying the board permanently to the frame structure. Each of the arrays of marks defines an imaginary line along which fasteners are inserted into the board in order to attach the board to the frame structure. The worker may elect to insert the fasteners into the board anywhere along the imaginary lines defined by the array. In a preferred embodiment of the application process, the worker places the fasteners through the board and into the vertical component of the frame at only those locations of the board identified by a mark. Although the board can be made of any commonly used material, it is preferred that the board be made from a wood or wood composite material. A preferred wood composite material is oriented strand board. OSB panels are derived from a starting material that is naturally occurring hard or soft woods, singularly or mixed, whether such wood is dry (having a moisture content of between 2 wt % and 12 wt %) or green (having a moisture content of between 30 wt % and 200 wt %). Typically, the raw wood starting materials, either virgin or reclaimed, are cut into strands, wafers or flakes of desired size and shape, which are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. After the strands are cut they are dried in an oven to a moisture content of about 2 wt % to 5 wt % and then coated with one or more polymeric thermosetting binder resins, waxes and other additives. The binder resin and the other various additives that are applied to the wood materials are referred to herein as a coating, even though the binder and additives may be in the form of small particles, such as atomized particles or solid particles, which do not form a continuous coating upon the wood material. Conventionally, the binder, wax and any other additives are applied to the wood materials by one or more spraying, blending or mixing techniques, a preferred technique is to spray the wax, resin and other additives upon the wood strands as the strands are tumbled in a drum blender. After being coated and treated with the desired coating and treatment chemicals, these coated strands are used to form a multi-layered mat. In a conventional process for forming a multi-layered mat, the coated wood materials are spread on a conveyor belt in a series of two or more, preferably three layers. The strands are positioned on the conveyor belt as alternating layers where the “strands” in adjacent layers are oriented generally perpendicular to each other. Various polymeric resins, preferably thermosetting resins, may be employed as binders for the wood flakes or strands. Suitable polymeric binders include isocyanate resin, urea-formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde (“MUF”) and the copolymers thereof. Isocyanates are the preferred binders, and preferably the isocyanates are selected from the diphenylmethane-p,p′-diisocyanate group of polymers, which have NCO-functional groups that can react with other organic groups to form polymer groups such as polyurea, —NCON—, and polyurethane, —NCOON—. 4,4-diphenyl-methane diisocyanate (“MDI”) is preferred. A suitable commercial MDI product is Rubinate pMDI available from ICI Chemicals Polyurethane Group. Suitable commercial MUF binders are the LS 2358 and LS 2250 products from the Dynea corporation. The binder concentration is preferably in the range of about 1.5 wt % to about 20 wt %, more preferably about 3 wt % to about 10 wt %. A wax additive is commonly employed to enhance the resistance of the OSB panels to moisture penetration. Preferred waxes are slack wax or an emulsion wax. The wax loading level is preferably in the range of about 0.5 to about 2.5 wt %. After the multi-layered mats are formed according to the process discussed above, they are compressed under a hot press machine that fuses and binds together the wood materials to form consolidated OSB panels of various thickness and sizes. Preferably, the panels of the invention are pressed for 2-10 minutes at a temperature of about 175° C. to about 240° C. The resulting composite panels will have a density in the range of about 35 to about 50 pcf (as measured by ASTM standard D1037-98) and a thickness of about 0.6 cm (about ¼″) to about 3.8 cm (about 1½″). Suitable OSB products are marketed under the name ADVANTECH®, which is available form the J.M. Huber Corporation of Edison, N.J. After being compressed in the hot press, the array of marks are positioned on the board using any suitable marking process, such as by ink stamps, roll-coder or metal stamp. The marks may be carved on the marking surface of the board, using a laser beam, a blade or similar item. In a preferred embodiment, the marks are printed on the board by the use of ink-jet technology. An apparatus suitable for marking the boards can be assembled by integrating a device for handling the board (such as a Globe 16Q hold-down device) with a device for marking the board, such as one of the industrial ink-jet printing and coding system products made by the Matthews International Corporation. As the board enters the hold-down device, it makes contact with four steel drive rollers (coated with rubber or some other elastomer) which reduce slippage. Each of these drive rollers has a series of tension rollers installed directly above in order to flatten the panel prior to printing, which improves the accuracy with which the indicia are applied to the panel. The speed of the board is monitored with an encoder mounted on the hold-down device's drive shaft, and the ink-jet printing system triggered, in coordination with the encoder, to deposit the markings on the board at the appropriate time. By the use of this mechanical process, the ink-jet printing system can be mounted much closer to the board for enhanced printing quality, and the boards can be marked at much higher speeds. Although the present invention has been described in detail with relation to wood materials, the presently disclosed pattern may also be used on boards composed of non-wood materials such as fiberglass composite, drywall, sheetrock, and metals. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes could be made to the embodiments described above without departing from the broad inventive concept thereof. It is understood, therefore, that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed, but it is intended to cover modifications within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Wood boards or sheets, typically made from wood composite products like plywood or oriented strand board, are common construction materials in commercial, industrial and residential buildings. During construction, these boards are placed over and fastened to an underlying supporting frame to form the wall, roof or floor of the building. While this method of construction is an improvement over other construction techniques, it could nonetheless be made more efficient. A principal drawback to this construction method is that when a worker places the board over the frame, the frame is no longer visible. Thus, in order to fasten or attach the board to the supporting frame it is necessary to add an additional step of measuring and marking positions on the board to align the placement of fasteners (e.g., nails or screws) so that they are directed through the board and into the underlying supporting frame. This additional measuring and marking step is problematic not only because of the time it takes, but also because measurement errors may cause the fasteners to be misaligned and fail to contact the frame. Misaligned fasteners not only decrease construction efficiency because they require that the misaligned fasteners be removed and new fasteners inserted, but also could undermine structural integrity if the worker is unaware of the error or ignores it. To address this problem, boards have previously been manufactured with patterns on their surface to indicate the dimensions of the board and to indicate to workers using these boards the appropriate places for cutting and mounting the wood boards during construction projects. However, these patterns are typically in the form of a complicated and potentially confusing series of grids formed by a series of intersecting lines as well as other reference indicia. While these complicated patterns allow the boards to be used in a wide variety of building and construction applications they also require more time and effort by an installer to use. Given the foregoing, there is a continuing need to develop a board comprising a pattern that may be used in many different construction applications, while also facilitating the quick attachment of the board to structural frames without the expenditure of considerable time and effort by the installer. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Briefly, the invention provides a board that includes a pattern to facilitate attachment of the board to a structure, the pattern comprising a first array of marks disposed along a first imaginary line; and a second array of marks disposed along a second imaginary line, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance apart; and a third array of marks disposed along a third imaginary line, said first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance apart. The invention also provides a board for forming a structure including a pattern comprising a first array of marks disposed along a first imaginary line; a second array of marks disposed along a second imaginary line, said first and second imaginary lines being spaced a first predetermined distance apart; and a third array of marks disposed along a third imaginary line, said first and third imaginary lines being spaced a second predetermined distance apart; whereby the first array of marks, the second array of marks, and the third array of marks may be used to define points that are useful for connecting the board to the structure. | 20041115 | 20110208 | 20050407 | 60361.0 | 1 | NGUYEN, CHI Q | BOARDS COMPRISING AN ARRAY OF MARKS TO FACILITATE ATTACHMENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,988,957 | ACCEPTED | Valve actuator apparatus | A valve actuator apparatus and method comprises an operator housing secured to a bonnet assembly. The bonnet assembly is secured to the valve body, and includes a bonnet stem movably within a bonnet housing for moving a gate within the valve body to open and close the valve. A downstop member is fixably secured to the bonnet stem and engages removable stem spacers which are added or removed to obtain a selected bonnet stem drift setting. The operator housing connects to a base ring that surrounds the bonnet housing and rotates to allow positioning of a fluid port in the operator housing. The operator housing may removed and replaced without altering the bonnet stem drift adjustment. A top shaft extends from the operator housing and rotates with respect to the bonnet stem to prevent torque transmission from the top shaft to the bonnet stem. A replaceable sealing cartridge sealingly supports the top shaft for axial movement within the operator housing. | 1. A valve actuator for moving a valve gate between open and closed valve positions within a valve body, the valve actuator comprising: an operator assembly comprising: an operator housing defining a pressure chamber therein and having a fluid entry port; and an operator member within the operator housing movable toward the valve body in response to pressurized fluid introduced into the operator housing pressure chamber through the fluid entry port; and a bonnet assembly comprising: a bonnet housing securable to the valve body, the bonnet housing having a bonnet housing bore therethrough; an elongated bonnet stem having first and second ends, the stem axially movable in the bonnet housing bore, unconnected at the first end to the operator member, and securable at the second end to the valve gate for moving the valve gate to the open and closed valve positions; a spring for producing a biasing force opposing axial movement of the operator member toward the valve body; a contact member, separate from the operator member, having an outer flange, and rotatably and axially affixed to the first end of the bonnet stem, and having a surface facing the operator member for drive contact with the operator member; an upper spring retainer having an inner flange for engagement with the outer flange to transmit the biasing force to the bonnet stem and to receive the movement of the operator member toward the valve body; and a base ring coaxially surrounding the bonnet housing, the base ring securing the operator housing to the bonnet housing by bolts disposed in apertures in the base ring and threaded into longitudinal openings in a base of the operator housing, wherein the operator assembly is removable intact from the intact bonnet assembly by removal of the bolts. 2. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the operator assembly further comprises a shaft extending from a shaft aperture in the operator housing, the shaft axially movable through the shaft aperture and unconnected to the bonnet stem. 3. The actuator of claim 2, wherein the shaft is rotatable with respect to the bonnet stem. 4. The actuator of claim 1, further comprising: a seal cartridge disposed within a shaft aperture of the operator housing, the seal cartridge having a shaft bore therethrough with a seal therein for sealingly engaging a shaft and an outer surface with a seal thereon for sealingly engaging the shaft aperture; and a retainer ring disposed within the shaft aperture above the seal cartridge for retaining the seal cartridge within the shaft aperture, the retainer ring accessible from the exterior of the actuator to permit removal of the retainer ring and seal cartridge without removing the operator housing from the bonnet housing. 5. The actuator of claim 1, further comprising: a flexible diaphragm that applies pressure against the operator member, the flexible diaphragm having an engagement side that engages the operator member and a face side opposite the engagement side; a metallic insert disposed on the face side of the flexible diaphragm; and a diaphragm retainer nut threaded to the operator member, wherein the diaphragm retainer nut retains the flexible diaphragm in a fixed position with respect to the operator member and provides a circular groove disposed therein for receiving an elastomeric face seal. 6. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the base ring is configured for rotation with respect to the bonnet housing, thereby permitting the fluid port to be selectively rotated with respect to the bonnet housing. 7. The actuator of claim 1, further comprising: a top plug secured to the operator housing and having a bore therethrough; a shaft extendible through the top plug and into the pressure chamber, wherein the shaft is unconnected and rotatable with respect to the bonnet stem and movable axially to apply force to the bonnet stem; and a mechanical override secured to the top plug, wherein the shaft prevents transference of rotation from the mechanical override to the bonnet stem. 8. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the bonnet assembly further comprises one or more bonnet stem spacers disposed on a stop surface fixably positioned with respect to the bonnet housing, the spacers engageable by the contact member to stop axial movement of the bonnet stem with respect to the valve body for a selected bonnet stem drift. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/244,376, filed on Sep. 16, 2002, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/888,194, filed on Jun. 23, 2001, and now U.S. Pat. No. 6,450,477, issuing Sep. 17, 2002, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/538,881, filed on Mar. 30, 2000, and now U.S. Pat. No. 6,250,605, issuing Jun. 26, 2001, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/968,904, filed on Nov. 6, 1997, and now U.S. Pat. No. 6,089,531, issuing Jul. 18, 2000, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/206,424, filed on Mar. 4, 1994, and now abandoned. Each of the above applications is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an actuator apparatus and method and, more particularly, to a valve actuator including a bonnet assembly having an improved downstop mechanism that is rotatably free with respect to a floating top shaft and engageable with respect to a replaceable operator without affecting bonnet stem drift adjustment. 2. Description of the Related Art Gate valves are generally comprised of a valve body having a central axis aligned with inlet and outlet passages, and a space between the inlet and outlet passages in which a slide, or gate, may be moved perpendicular to the central axis to open and close the valve. In the closed position, the gate surfaces typically seal against sealing rings which surround the fluid passage through the valve body. Gate valves have been used for centuries to control the flow of a great variety of fluids. Often the fluid to be controlled by the gate valve is under pressure. In the petroleum industry, gate valves are used along piping at various locations, and in particular are used in piping referred to in the petroleum industry as a Christmas tree, which is used as part of a drilling operation. Actuators to open and close the gate valves may include manual operators, diaphragm-type operators, and hydraulic operators. The actuator may include a bonnet assembly, which interconnects the valve body and the valve gate, and a bonnet stem which is movable with the gate via an operator. It is often desirable to be able to change the operator without changing the bonnet assembly. However, this is difficult because, among other reasons, such a change also requires changes in up-stop and down-stop adjustments which assure the drift of the gate is positioned correctly in the open and closed position. If the valve is connected to a Christmas tree or is under pressure, it may be difficult to determine whether drift adjustments have been made correctly when replacing the operator since the bore of the valve is not available to receive a drift alignment check tool. Removal of a valve under pressure in a Christmas tree to make drift adjustments may take considerable time and cause substantial inconvenience. It is desirable to combine a manual operator with a diaphragm-type or hydraulic operator for back-up and test purposes. This combination typically results in the presence of a top shaft extending from the operator that may also serve to indicate whether the valve is open or closed. Because the top shaft is often exposed to the atmosphere, it may attract contaminants that cause damage to the top shaft seals or bearings. In the past, close tolerances have been required in the top shaft that have exacerbated the contaminant problems. As well, torque applied to the top shaft, which may be caused by manual operation, may cause gate, gate seal, or drift misalignment. Furthermore, changing the top shaft or the top shaft seals has previously required removal of the operator housing. The operator typically has a maximum force capability for applying to the bonnet stem. It is sometimes desirable to provide additional opening/closing power on a temporary basis without having to remove the original operator. It is also desirable that the same operator be adaptable to various control accessories, such as a mechanical override, hydraulic override, heat sensitive lock open device, block open cap, electrical limit switch and/or other electrical accessories. Another significant problem, especially related to diaphragm-type operators, is leakage of the diaphragms in the region adjacent the top shaft or bonnet stem. Such leakage may be caused by wear, loss of flexibility, and pinching or wear that occurs should the diaphragm make contact with the diaphragm case. This leakage may gradually develop, and may slowly reduce the operator power. In some cases, the positioning of the gate valves in the Christmas tree and other types of installations may be restricted because of piping which is supplied to operate an automatic actuator that controls gate movement. In the past, it has been difficult to use precisely laid piping because the position of the operator fluid port is fixed with respect to the operator housing. Allowing the operator to rotate with respect to the bonnet could result in leakage or cause misalignment of the up-stop and downstop drift adjustments of the valve gate. Thus, there has been a long felt need in the industry to provide an improved actuator that allows a more adaptable installation configuration, that reduces maintenance and installation time, and that increases long term durability. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate the present invention which provides solutions to these and other problems associated with valve actuators. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a valve actuator for moving a valve between open and closed states within a valve body. The valve actuator comprises an operator housing including a pressure chamber and a fluid port, and an operator member movable in response to the introduction of fluid into the pressure chamber through the fluid port. A bonnet housing is securable to the valve body and has a bonnet housing bore therethrough. A bonnet stem axially moves in the bonnet housing bore and is securable to the valve gate for moving the valve gate to the open and closed valve states. The bonnet stem is axially movable in response to movement of the operator member in an axial direction toward the valve body. The bonnet stem is rotatably free with respect to a top shaft. A downstop member rotatably and axially affixed to the bonnet stem is used for stopping axial movement of the bonnet stem in a direction toward the valve. The downstop is also rotatably free with respect to the top shaft. A stop surface is fixably positioned with respect to the bonnet housing. One or more bonnet stem spacers are disposed on the stop surface and engageable by the downstop to stop axial movement of the bonnet stem for selecting a desired bonnet stem drift. An object of the present invention is an valve actuator with improved versatility, reduced installation and maintenance, and/or increased life. Another object of the present invention is an actuator which allows removal or exchange of the valve operator while the valve is under pressure. Another object of the present invention is an actuator which allows removal or exchange of the valve operator without the need to reset drift adjustments or to examine the valve bore to determine if drift adjustments are correct. A feature of the present invention is a floating top stem which requires no metal-to-metal contact during operation. A further feature of a preferred embodiment of the present invention is an improved diaphragm having a metal insert ring to engage an elastomeric seal and thereby minimize or avoid in the diaphragm which may be caused by decreased diaphragm flexibility, leakage pinching or other reasons. Yet another feature of present invention is a replaceable seal cartridge that allows renewal of top stem seals without removing the operator. An advantage of the present invention is an economical construction for a valve actuator that is relatively simple yet reliable in construction, and is easy to service. These and other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the drawings, the descriptions given herein, and the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an elevational view, partially in section, of a diaphragm-type valve actuator in accord with the present invention; FIG. 1A is an elevational view, partially in section, of a block open cap attachable to the valve actuator of FIG. 1; FIG. 2 is an elevational view, partially in section, of a bonnet assembly in accord with the present invention; FIG. 3 is an elevational view, partially in section, of the bonnet assembly of FIG. 2 including drift adjustment lengths in accord with the present invention; FIG. 4 is an elevational view, of a replaceable operator without readjustment of the down-stop or up-stop drift in a bonnet assembly in accord with the present invention; FIG. 5 is a schematical representation of actuator accessory connections in accord with the present invention; FIG. 6 is an elevational view, partially in section, of a dual actuator assembly in accord with the present invention; and FIG. 7 is an elevational view, partially in section, of a hydraulic valve actuator in accord with the present invention. While the present invention will be described in connection with presently preferred embodiments, it will be understood that it is not intended to limit the invention to those embodiments. On the contrary, it is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents included within the spirit of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring now to the drawings, and more particularly to FIG. 1, a diaphragm-type valve actuator 10 is shown in accord with the present invention. Top shaft 12, which is preferably formed from stainless steel, effectively floats with respect to top diaphragm case 14. As a general matter, all non-stainless metallic components in actuator 10 are preferably coated for protection against environmental conditions. Wear bearing 16, as well as wear bearings 18 (shown in detail in FIG. 2), are preferably nonmetallic to eliminate close tolerance problems normally associated with the actuator top shaft and bonnet stem. The wear bearings effectively suspend top shaft 12 and bonnet stem 20 to thereby prevent metallic contact during operation. Thus, the wear bearings are preferably non-metallic and made from relatively hard plastic-like materials, such as Molygard, Nylatron, or Delrin. The wear bearings and other plastic-like components discussed hereinafter may also be made from various plastic-like materials such as, but not limited to, nylons, thermoplastics, resins, polyurethanes, phenolics, acetals, polyacrylates, epoxides, polycarbonates, polyester, aramids, polymers, molythane 90, and fluorelastomers. Top shaft 12 rotates independently of and is designed to eliminate transmission of torque to bonnet stem 20, gate 22, and/or gate seats (not shown) when using a manual override, such as manual override 24 shown in FIG. 5. Top shaft 12 preferably is large enough in diameter to prevent bearing and buckling stresses when loaded by manual override 24 or hydraulic override 26 shown in FIG. 5. (See also the dual actuator system of FIG. 6 and hydraulic actuator of FIG. 7). A large bottom shoulder 28 on top shaft 12 prevents top shaft 12 from being expelled from actuator 10. Top seal cartridge 30 can be removed for replacement as a single unit without disassembling top diaphragm housing 14. Top seal cartridge 30 is preferably formed of a plastic-like material such as Delrin and is held in place by retainer ring 32 which is preferably stainless steel. Top seal cartridge 30 incorporates rod wiper 34 to keep the shaft sealing region therebelow clean of dirt, grease, and other contaminants for longer life of the seals. Rod wiper 34 is preferably made from Molythane 90. Top seal cartridge 30 contains dual reciprocating stem seals 36 and dual static seals 38 to ensure seal integrity and long life. These and other seals may be T-seals or other substantially elastomeric seals, such as O-ring seals. Diaphragm 40 is preferably formed of nitrile laminated with several layers of nylon to ensure strength and flexibility for years of service. Materials such as Viton, a fluoroelastomer, may be used for H.sub.2 S—CO.sub.2 applications. The layers of nylon in diaphragm 40 eliminate the need for lubrication and do not experience frictional wear. Diaphragm 40 includes stainless steel concentric insert seal ring 42 bonded thereto to act in conjunction with a static O-ring face seal 44, which is provided in the diaphragm retaining nut 46. This seal eliminates leakage in the stem area which may normally occur due to diaphragm aging, pinching, or reduced flexibility. Diaphragm retaining nut 46 threadably engages diaphragm retainer plate 48 for easy, accurate installation. On up strokes of actuator 10, diaphragm retaining nut 46 prevents any possible pinching of diaphragm 40 by stopping movement of bonnet stem 20 should diaphragm retaining nut 46 engage top plug 50. Diaphragm retaining nut 46 provides dual stem seals 52 to engage and reliably seal top shaft 12. Diaphragm retaining nut 46 is preferably formed of stainless steel. Diaphragm retainer plate 48 engages downstop element 54 for downward axial movement of gate 22 via bonnet stem 20 when the cavity defined by top diaphragm housing 14 is filled with pressurized fluid, i.e. compressed air. Breather port 62 allows fluid (air) to flow out of lower diaphragm housing 64 as diaphragm retainer plate 48 moves downwardly. Downstop element 54 preferably is connected to bonnet stem 20 via large threads designed to withstand high load impacts and cycling for preventing changes in drift settings, as discussed hereinafter. Downstop element is also engaged by upper spring retainer 56 for upward movement of bonnet stem 20 induced by spring 58 and/or pressure within valve body 60. Top diaphragm housing 14 is sealingly secured to lower diaphragm housing 64 by bolts 66 and nuts 68 which secure diaphragm 40 therebetween. Diaphragm 40 is thus anchored by this connection and acts as a seal between the top diaphragm housing 14 and the lower diaphragm housing 64. Base plate ring 70 is secured to lower diaphragm housing 64 by bolts 72. Base plate ring 70 allows for 360 degree actuator rotation when exacting plumbing is required for connections to control pressure inlet 74. Lower spring retainer 88 secures spring 58 into a centralized position. In FIG. 1A is shown lock open cap 76 which threadably engages top plug 50 and is secured to top shaft 12 with bolt 78 to secure the valve in the open position. FIG. 2 discloses a portion of bonnet assembly 90. Bonnet assembly 90 is shown complete with spring 58 in FIG. 4. Preferably stainless steel stem spacers 92 are positioned on top of bonnet ring 94. Stem spacers 92 are used to determine the downward stop drift by controlling the length of the stroke of bonnet stem 20 toward valve body 60. Packing cartridge 96 acts in a similar manner as top seal cartridge 30 to seal between bonnet stem 20 and bonnet housing 98. Packing cartridge 96 preferably is formed of stainless steel. Packing cartridge 96 contains O-ring seals 100. Seals 102 are preferably T-seals comprised of Viton 90 rings with nylon backups. Packing cartridge 96 also includes rod wipers 104 to protect and maintain the long life of the sealing elements by preventing contaminants in the region of the sealing elements. Bonnet stem threads 21 are designed so that no injury to the seals occurs when the stem is passed through packing cartridge 96. Dual bearings 18 suspend bonnet stem 20 to preferably prevent contact of any metal surface thereby eliminating wear and galling to either the bonnet stem 20 or the packing cartridge 96. To prevent rotation of bonnet ring 94 with respect to bonnet housing 98, screw 106 is tightened into the corresponding groove or inset disposed adjacent the end portion of bonnet housing 98. Rotation of bonnet ring 94 with respect to bonnet housing 98 may alter the stroke length adjustments as discussed hereinafter. Bonnet ring 94 retains packing cartridge 96 in position within bonnet housing 98. Bonnet ring 94 also preferably includes an additional seal 102 for safety purposes. To set the downward stroke length or drift 106 of bonnet stem 20, stem spacers 92 are removed or added as necessary to increase or decrease the combined spacer width 108 as indicated in FIG. 3. In setting the bonnet stem drift, downstop 54 is first tightened to bonnet stem 20 with drive nut 110. Bonnet stem 20 is placed in its furthermost downward position. The position of the gate bore (not shown) through gate 22 is determined by running an appropriate drift tool (not shown) through valve body 60. The number of stem spacers 92 may then be removed or added as necessary to provide an accurate drift setting. Secondary metal-to-metal stem seal 112 provides sealing in the event of fire damage to the other seals and also acts as a stop for upward movement of gate 22. The adjustment of the up-stop drift is made in a manner dependent upon valve manufacture designs but may typically involve threadably engaging the gate stem with the bonnet stem and rotating until the correct adjustment is reached. Further rotation may be prevented by such means as a pin or other retainer means. FIG. 4 discloses the relative ease with which various operators 114 may be changed out without altering the up-stop and down-stop drift as discussed hereinbefore. Thus the operator may be exchanged with the valve under pressure. No additional drift adjustments are necessary because the alignment is not altered and remains accurate for the particular valve. This feature is especially useful where it may be difficult to make drift realignment. Base plate ring 70 may be rotated without changing the drift to accommodate the piping to inlet 74. FIG. 5 is a schematic disclosing numerous attachments that can be made to upper plug 50 and inlet valve 74 of actuator 10. Upper plug 50 preferably includes a substantially large diameter threaded outer connection to avoid stresses when using accessories. Clear stem protector 116 protects top shaft 12 from adverse effects of weather, sandblasting, contaminating operating environments, and painting. Heat sensitive lock open device 118 mechanically holds open the actuator and valve when other safety systems are inoperative. This device locks the device in the down position allowing it to rise only in the event of fire. Mechanical override 24 is used to mechanically stroke the valve, and is preferably used on low pressure valves or during installation and testing. Electrical limit switch contact 20 permits remote indication of gate valve position. Various types of fusible plugs 122, quick exhaust valves 124, pneumatic relays 126, and other sensors 128 may be used with inlet 74 and top stem 12. In the operation of diaphragm-type actuator 10 of the present invention, pressure is applied through fluid port 74 which moves both diaphragm 40 and diaphragm retainer plate 48 axially towards valve body 60. This movement engages downstop 54 to move bonnet stem 22 downward (towards valve body 60) until downstop 54 contacts stem spacers 92, whereupon further downward movement of bonnet stem 22 is prevented. At this point, gate 22 is properly aligned so that the valve is open (assuming a normally configured gate valve). If pressure is lost or purposely evacuated, the valve is closed via pressure from spring 58 acting against downstop 54 to move bonnet stem 22 axially away from valve body 60 until metal-to-metal contact is made at secondary stem seal 112. This action is referred to as fail-closed operation. If required, the valve can be configured with a fail open gate design for vent or blow-down systems. FIG. 6 discloses a dual actuator system which may be used to double the stroke power. Secondary operator 140 preferably threadably attaches to plug 143 via connector 141. Lock down plug 154 prevents rotation of operator 140 with respect to operator 10. Operation of secondary operator 140 is similar to that of single actuator 10. Pressurized fluid enters fluid port 142 causing diaphragm plate 144 to move downwardly, thereby forcing stem adaptor 146 and top shaft 148 downwardly. Air is vented from vent hole 150 during the down stroke. Downstop 152 controls the down stroke drift in the manner discussed hereinbefore. FIG. 7 discloses a hydraulic valve actuator 200 embodiment of the present invention. Top shaft 202 is kept clean via rod wiper 204 disposed within removable top plug 206. Dual wear bearings 208, preferably formed of molygard, are used to support top shaft 202. Top plug 206 also includes a Polypak seal 210, preferably formed of Nitroxile. Hydraulic pressure moves piston 212 axially downwardly to move downstop 214 into engagement with stem spacers 216 as described hereinbefore. Piston 212 floats on preferably non-metallic wear bearings 218 and is further sealed with seals 220. Upper spring retainer 222 applies force from coil 224 to move downstop 214 upwardly. Base plate ring 226 is bolted to housing 228 and provides support for lower spring retainer 230 as described with respect to diaphragm-type actuator 10. The foregoing detailed disclosure and description of the invention is illustrative and explanatory thereof, and it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, that various changes in the size, shape and materials as well as in the details of the illustrated construction, reliability configurations, or combinations of features of the various valve actuator elements of the present invention may be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to an actuator apparatus and method and, more particularly, to a valve actuator including a bonnet assembly having an improved downstop mechanism that is rotatably free with respect to a floating top shaft and engageable with respect to a replaceable operator without affecting bonnet stem drift adjustment. 2. Description of the Related Art Gate valves are generally comprised of a valve body having a central axis aligned with inlet and outlet passages, and a space between the inlet and outlet passages in which a slide, or gate, may be moved perpendicular to the central axis to open and close the valve. In the closed position, the gate surfaces typically seal against sealing rings which surround the fluid passage through the valve body. Gate valves have been used for centuries to control the flow of a great variety of fluids. Often the fluid to be controlled by the gate valve is under pressure. In the petroleum industry, gate valves are used along piping at various locations, and in particular are used in piping referred to in the petroleum industry as a Christmas tree, which is used as part of a drilling operation. Actuators to open and close the gate valves may include manual operators, diaphragm-type operators, and hydraulic operators. The actuator may include a bonnet assembly, which interconnects the valve body and the valve gate, and a bonnet stem which is movable with the gate via an operator. It is often desirable to be able to change the operator without changing the bonnet assembly. However, this is difficult because, among other reasons, such a change also requires changes in up-stop and down-stop adjustments which assure the drift of the gate is positioned correctly in the open and closed position. If the valve is connected to a Christmas tree or is under pressure, it may be difficult to determine whether drift adjustments have been made correctly when replacing the operator since the bore of the valve is not available to receive a drift alignment check tool. Removal of a valve under pressure in a Christmas tree to make drift adjustments may take considerable time and cause substantial inconvenience. It is desirable to combine a manual operator with a diaphragm-type or hydraulic operator for back-up and test purposes. This combination typically results in the presence of a top shaft extending from the operator that may also serve to indicate whether the valve is open or closed. Because the top shaft is often exposed to the atmosphere, it may attract contaminants that cause damage to the top shaft seals or bearings. In the past, close tolerances have been required in the top shaft that have exacerbated the contaminant problems. As well, torque applied to the top shaft, which may be caused by manual operation, may cause gate, gate seal, or drift misalignment. Furthermore, changing the top shaft or the top shaft seals has previously required removal of the operator housing. The operator typically has a maximum force capability for applying to the bonnet stem. It is sometimes desirable to provide additional opening/closing power on a temporary basis without having to remove the original operator. It is also desirable that the same operator be adaptable to various control accessories, such as a mechanical override, hydraulic override, heat sensitive lock open device, block open cap, electrical limit switch and/or other electrical accessories. Another significant problem, especially related to diaphragm-type operators, is leakage of the diaphragms in the region adjacent the top shaft or bonnet stem. Such leakage may be caused by wear, loss of flexibility, and pinching or wear that occurs should the diaphragm make contact with the diaphragm case. This leakage may gradually develop, and may slowly reduce the operator power. In some cases, the positioning of the gate valves in the Christmas tree and other types of installations may be restricted because of piping which is supplied to operate an automatic actuator that controls gate movement. In the past, it has been difficult to use precisely laid piping because the position of the operator fluid port is fixed with respect to the operator housing. Allowing the operator to rotate with respect to the bonnet could result in leakage or cause misalignment of the up-stop and downstop drift adjustments of the valve gate. Thus, there has been a long felt need in the industry to provide an improved actuator that allows a more adaptable installation configuration, that reduces maintenance and installation time, and that increases long term durability. Persons skilled in the art will appreciate the present invention which provides solutions to these and other problems associated with valve actuators. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a valve actuator for moving a valve between open and closed states within a valve body. The valve actuator comprises an operator housing including a pressure chamber and a fluid port, and an operator member movable in response to the introduction of fluid into the pressure chamber through the fluid port. A bonnet housing is securable to the valve body and has a bonnet housing bore therethrough. A bonnet stem axially moves in the bonnet housing bore and is securable to the valve gate for moving the valve gate to the open and closed valve states. The bonnet stem is axially movable in response to movement of the operator member in an axial direction toward the valve body. The bonnet stem is rotatably free with respect to a top shaft. A downstop member rotatably and axially affixed to the bonnet stem is used for stopping axial movement of the bonnet stem in a direction toward the valve. The downstop is also rotatably free with respect to the top shaft. A stop surface is fixably positioned with respect to the bonnet housing. One or more bonnet stem spacers are disposed on the stop surface and engageable by the downstop to stop axial movement of the bonnet stem for selecting a desired bonnet stem drift. An object of the present invention is an valve actuator with improved versatility, reduced installation and maintenance, and/or increased life. Another object of the present invention is an actuator which allows removal or exchange of the valve operator while the valve is under pressure. Another object of the present invention is an actuator which allows removal or exchange of the valve operator without the need to reset drift adjustments or to examine the valve bore to determine if drift adjustments are correct. A feature of the present invention is a floating top stem which requires no metal-to-metal contact during operation. A further feature of a preferred embodiment of the present invention is an improved diaphragm having a metal insert ring to engage an elastomeric seal and thereby minimize or avoid in the diaphragm which may be caused by decreased diaphragm flexibility, leakage pinching or other reasons. Yet another feature of present invention is a replaceable seal cartridge that allows renewal of top stem seals without removing the operator. An advantage of the present invention is an economical construction for a valve actuator that is relatively simple yet reliable in construction, and is easy to service. These and other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the drawings, the descriptions given herein, and the appended claims. | 20041115 | 20060418 | 20050331 | 99264.0 | 2 | KEASEL, ERIC S | VALVE ACTUATOR APPARATUS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,989,492 | ACCEPTED | Toner process | The present disclosure relates to a process including a first heating of a latomer mixture including at least one free radical polymerizable monomer, and at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining the polymeric particles with at least one amine. | 1. A process comprising: a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer, and at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles, wherein the second heating is at a higher temperature than the first heating. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer compound is selected from the group consisting of styrenic monomers, conjugated compounds, 9-vinyl carbazole compounds, vinyl chloride compounds, vinyl acetate compounds, acrylic monomers, methacrylates, and mixtures thereof. 3. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer is present in the latomer mixture in an amount of from about 85% to about 99% by weight relative to the at least one alkylene anhydride. 4. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one alkylene anhydride is present in the latomer mixture in an amount of from about 0.1% to about 20% by weight relative to the at least one free radical polymerizable compound. 5. The process of claim 1, wherein the first heating is at a temperature of from about 50° C. to about 145° C. 6. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer is styrene and wherein the at least one alkylene anhydride is maleic anhydride. 7. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer and the at least one alkylene anhydride react in a molar ratio of about 1:1. 8. The process of claim 1, further comprising after the first heating dispersing the latomer mixture in an immiscible liquid with high shear to form a miniemulsion. 9. The process of claim 8, wherein the miniemulsion comprises at least one surfactant. 10. The process of claim 9, wherein the at least one surfactant is selected from the group consisting of anionic, ionic, nonionic, and cationic surfactants. 11. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one amine is selected from the group consisting of diamine, polyoxypropylenediamine, diethylene triamine, 2-methylpentamethylene diamine, hexane diamine, hexamethylenediamine, N-isopropyl-N′-phenyl-phenylene diamine, N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-phenylene-diamine, N,N′-di(2-octyl)-4-phenylene diamine, N,N′-bis(1,4-dimethylpentyl)-4-phenylene diamine, dihydroxy tetraphenyl biphenylene diamine, 12. The process of claim 1, wherein the at least one amine is present in an amount of from about 0.5% to about 10% by weight relative to the amount of the polymeric particle. 13. The process of claim 12, wherein the at least one amine is present in an amount of from about 1% to about 4% by weight relative to the amount of the polymeric particle. 14. The process of claim 1, wherein the polymeric particles have a weight average molecular weight (Mw) of from about 3,000 to about 200,000 and a narrow polydispersity of from about 1.1 to about 3. 15. A toner process comprising: providing a resin miniemulsion comprising polymeric particles comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer compound and at least one alkylene anhydride; blending the miniemulsion with at least one colorant, at least one amine, and optionally at least one wax; heating the resulting mixture below or about equal to the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin emulsion; and heating the resulting mixture above or about equal to the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin emulsion. 16. The process of claim 15, wherein the at least one amine is present in an amount of from about 0.5% to about 10% by weight relative to the amount of the polymeric particle. 17. The process of claim 15, wherein the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer compound and the least one alkylene anhydride react in a molar ratio of about 1:1. 18. The process of claim 15, wherein the toner particles have a volume average diameter of from about 25 nm to about 50 μm. 19. A process for latex preparation comprising: a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer to low conversion and then adding at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to low conversion; a third heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles. 20. A toner obtained by the process of claim 1 and which toner further comprises at least one colorant. | FIELD The present disclosure relates to toners, uses and processes thereof. REFERENCES U.S. Pat. No. 4,880,432 describes a process for preparing colored polymeric particles wherein two or more different dyes may be covalently bonded to the polymeric particle subsequent to the particle synthesis. U.S. Pat. No. 4,912,009 describes a dry toner formed by suspension polymerizing a styrene-acrylic monomer mixture in the presence of a polyester-promoted colloidal silica suspending agent which is free of other hydrophilic polymers. U.S. Pat. No. 5,852,151 describes toner resins made by emulsion polymerization utilizing diacid cycloaliphatic emulsifiers. U.S. Pat. No. 5,952,144 describes a process for producing toner comprising subjecting a monomer composition to suspension polymerization in an aqueous dispersion medium to prepare colored polymer particles as the core component and adding at least one monomer for a shell component. U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,490 describes a polymerized toner comprising a polymer particle obtained by polymerizing a monomer for a shell, which monomer has a glass transition temperature higher than that of the polymer forming a core particle. U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,492 describes a process for producing a polymer comprising emulsion polymerizing a vinyl aromatic monomer, conjugated diene monomers, and an acrylate monomer, in the presence of a diacid cycloaliphatic emulsifier to produce the polymer. U.S. Pat. No. 6,469,094 describes a process for the preparation of polymeric particulate materials employing a free radical polymerizable monomer, a free radical initiator and a stable free radical compound wherein the process includes a first bulk polymerization where controlled initiation and limited or partial monomer polymerization is accomplished for the purpose of preparing a prepolymer mixture followed by a second stage miniemulsion polymerization where substantially complete monomer polymerization is accomplished. Polymers used in known resin applications usually comprise acrylic acid-containing monomers. These polymers may then be aggregated via, for example, the polyaluminum chloride (PAC) procedure. However, acrylic acid containing monomers may be difficult to incorporate into the stable free radical polymerization process, such as in combination with styrene. The present disclosure describes a process for preparing latexes using a stable free radical polymerization process, whereby the latexes can then be aggregated and coalesced into toner particles. SUMMARY In aspects of the disclosure, there is provided a process comprising a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer, and at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles, wherein the second heating is at a higher temperature than the first heating; a toner process comprising providing a resin miniemulsion comprising polymeric particles comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer compound and at least one alkylene anhydride; blending the miniemulsion with at least one colorant, at least one amine, and optionally at least one wax; heating the resulting mixture below or about equal to the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin emulsion; and heating the resulting mixture above or about equal to the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin emulsion; and a process for latex preparation comprising a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer to low conversion and then adding at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to low conversion; a third heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles. Moreover, further aspects of the disclosure relate to the toner products obtained from the processes illustrated herein. DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS The disclosed process allows for the preparation of latexes that may be able to aggregate and coalesce into toner particles. The present disclosure describes a process for latex preparation comprising a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radial polymerizable monomer, and at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles. The first heating of the first mixture can be at a polymerization temperature of, for example, from about 50° C. to about 145° C., and more specifically for example of from about 120° C. to about 130° C., for a duration of, for example, from about 5 minutes to about 4 hours, and more specifically from about 20 minutes to about 1 hour. The heating conditions can vary depending on, for example, the scale of the reaction and the results desired. The at least one free radical polymerizable monomer may include a functional group, and may be selected from the group consisting of known free radical polymerizable monomers, for example, unsaturated monomers, such as styrenic monomers (such as styrenesulfonic acids, 4-vinylbenzoic acids), conjugated compounds, 9-vinyl carbazole compounds, vinyl chloride compounds, vinyl acetate compounds, acrylic monomers and its derivatives of the formula (CH2═CH)COOR—COOH (where the R group can be a spacer aliphatic group to for example to impart different hydrophilicity), such as butylacrylate, ethyl acrylate, hydroxyethylacrylate; methacrylates and their derivatives of the formula (CH2═CCH3)COORCOOH (where the R group can be a spacer aliphatic group to for example impart different hydrophilicity) such as methylmethacrylate, butylmethacrylate; and the like; and mixtures thereof. The at least one free radical polymerizable monomer may be present in the latomer mixture in an amount of, for example, from about 85% to about 99% by weight relative to the at least one alkylene anhydride. The at least one free radical polymerizable monomer may copolymerize with the at least one alkylene anhydride. For example, the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer, such as styrene, may copolymerize with, for example, maleic anhydride (MA) in a 1:1 ratio. In embodiments, the copolymerization may result in a polymer having the formula (A-B)n, wherein A is the at least one stable free radical polymerizable monomer and B is the at least one alkylene anhydride. When the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer is present in the first mixture in an excess of the at least one alkylene anhydride, then it is believed that polymerization may occur until all the at least one alkylene anhydride is consumed and then polymerization of the remainder of the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer continues. In embodiments, the first mixture may have three populations of polymers such as, for example, poly(styrene/MA), poly(styrene/MA-b-styrene) block copolymers, and polystyrene. The at least one alkylene anhydride may be any anhydride with a double bond so long as the anhydride is able to polymerize with the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer. Non-limiting examples of the at least one alkylene anhydride include maleic anhydride, 2,3-dialkylmaleic anhydride such as 2,3-dimethylmaleic anhydride, 2,3-diphenylmaleic anhydride, tetrahydrophthalicanhydride, n-methylisatoic and the like, as well as mixtures thereof. In the latomer mixture, wherein latomer refers, for example, to a latex mixture, each ingredient (e.g., monomer, and alkylene anhydride) may be of only one type or may be composed of two or more types. The at least one alkylene anhydride may be present in the latomer mixture in an amount of, for example, from about 0.1% to about 20% by weight relative to the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer. In embodiments, the ingredients of the latomer mixture and the heating conditions for the latomer mixture are selected in order to perform a bulk polymerization or solution polymerization of the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer and the at least one alkylene anhydride. The latomer mixture may also optionally comprise at least one free radical initiator which may be selected from the group consisting of peroxide compounds and diazo compounds such as, for example, benzoyl peroxide, di-(t-butyl)peroxide, 4,4′-azobisvaleronitrile, and 4,4′-azobis(cyanohexane), hydrogen peroxide, t-butyl hydroperoxide, 2,2′-azobis(2-amidinopropane)dihydrochloride, 2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionamidine)dihydrochloride, 4,4′ azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid), 4,4′-azobis(4-cyanopentanoic acid), potassium persulfates and aminopersulfates. The at least one free radical initiator may be soluble in an immiscible liquid. The at least one free radical initiator may be present in an amount of, for example, from about 0.01% to about 5%, more specifically for example from about 1% to about 3% by weight relative to the at least one free radical polymerizable monomer. The latomer mixture may be dispersed in an immiscible liquid with at least one surfactant. The immiscible liquid may be any aqueous solution or mixture, such as water, so long as the liquid does not dissolve the monomer or prepolymer resin contained in the latomer mixture. The at least one surfactant can be selected from the group consisting of anionic, cationic, amphoteric, and nonionic surfactants customarily used in emulsion polymerization. In embodiments, the at least one surfactant may be an ionic surfactant, which class of surfactants may be generally better suited to the higher temperatures associated with the present processes. Nonlimiting examples of anionic surfactants include alkylaryl sulfonates, alkali metal alkyl sulfates, sulfonated alkyl esters, fatty acid soaps, and the like, such as sodium alpha-olefin (C14-C16) sulfonates. Exemplary surfactants are alkali metal alkylaryl sulfonates. In embodiments, suitable anionic surfactants include alkyl sulfonate salts or arylalkyl sulfonate salts, for example, dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid sodium salt (“SDBS”). A listing of suitable stabilizing compounds, such as surfactants, which may be useful in the inventive process is found in the book “McCutcheon's Emulsifiers and Detergents 1981 Annual”, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The at least one surfactant can be employed in varying amounts providing that a satisfactory miniemulsion is achieved by, for example, exceeding the critical micelle concentration (CMC). The at least one surfactant can be present in an amount of from about 1 to about 10 weight percent, for example from about 2 to about 5 weight percent, and as a further example from about 2 to about 3 weight percent, based on the weight of the immiscible liquid. At least one stabilizer can be optionally added to further minimize diffusion due to Oswald ripening. The at least one stabilizer may be a compound having a low water solubility, or may be substantially insoluble, such as long chain hydrocarbons with from about 10 to about 40 carbon atoms, and for example from about 15 to about 25 carbon atoms, alcohols, mercaptans, carboxylic acids, ketones, amines, hydrocarbons or any other long chain molecules, with or without functional groups that do not substantially interfere with the stable free radical or miniemulsion chemistry, for example, dodecyl mercaptan, hexadecane, cetyl alcohol, and the like, and mixtures thereof. The at least one stabilizer may be in a mole ratio of from about 0.004 to about 0.08, and for example from about 0.005 to about 0.05 with respect to the monomer. The at least one stabilizer may be in a mole ratio of from about 0.1 to about 10, and for example from about 0.5 to about 5 with respect to the at least one stabilizing compound. The dispersed latomer mixture may then be subjected to high shear to form a miniemulsion. In embodiments, the term “miniemulsion” refers to an aqueous dispersion of relatively stable hydrophobic droplets of less than about 1.5 μm in diameter, for example less than about 1 μm in diameter. The shearing can be accomplished by a variety of high shear mixing devices, for example, a piston homogenizer, a microfluidizer, a polytron, an ultrasonicator, static mixers and the like devices. In embodiments, the miniemulsion may be formed for instance in a piston homogenizer at from about 1 to about 60 minutes, for example about 5 to about 45 minutes, at a pressure of from about 1,000 to about 30,000 psi, for example from about 5,000 to about 20,000 psi. Shear may be defined as the force impacted to decrease the particle size from microns to nanometers. There may be added to the miniemulsion at any time prior to the formation of the polymeric particles a number of additional ingredients such as at least one free radical initiator. In embodiments, at least one of the additional ingredients can be added to the latomer mixture prior to the shearing. In other embodiments, at least one of the additional ingredients may be added to the miniemulsion. All manners of adding the additional ingredients are encompassed within the present disclosure. The miniemulsion can further include at least one buffer such as alkali metal carbonates, alkaline earth carbonates, alkali metal bicarbonates, acetates, borates, and the like, and mixtures thereof. In embodiments, the at least one buffer may be added before the formation of the miniemulsion. The second heating of the latomer mixture can be at a polymerization temperature of, for example, from about 95° C. to about 145° C., more specifically for example from about 110° C. to about 125° C. for a time of, for example, from about 2 hours to about 8 hours, more specifically for example from about 4 hours to about 6 hours. The heating conditions can vary depending on, for example, the scale of the reaction and the results desired. The second heating of the latomer mixture may result in the formation of polymeric particles. These polymeric particles may be combined with at least one amine to aggregate/coalesce the polymeric particles. In the present disclosure, the at least one amine may be water soluble and may comprise any number of functional groups, for example monoamines, diamines, and triamines, such as JEFFAMINE T-403, a trifunctional alklyetheramine. The at least one amine, in the presence of the polymer comprising the at least one alkylene anhydride, may react to form polymer chains covalently bonded to each other. These can then be used to aggregate chains together, thereby resulting in larger chains and eventually particles. Although, it is believed that imide formation may be difficult in aqueous systems, such as the water in which the latomer mixture may be stabilized, there is some precedent for imide formation in water. See Seijas, J. et al., “Microwave enhanced synthesis of bowl-shaped triimides with C3-symmetry,” Sixth International Electronic Conference on Synthetic Organic Chemistry, Sep. 30, 2002, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference The at least one amine may be selected from the group consisting of diamine, polyoxypropylenediamine, diethylene triamine, 2-methylpentamethylene diamine, hexane diamine, hexamethylenediamine, N-isopropyl-N′-phenyl-phenylene diamine, N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-phenylene-diamine, N,N′-di(2-octyl)-4-phenylene diamine, N,N′-bis(1,4-dimethylpentyl)-4-phenylene diamine, dihydroxy tetraphenyl biphenylene diamine (DHTBD), and the like. The amount of the at least one amine used may depend on the amount of the at least one alkylene anhydride. In embodiments, the at least one amine may be present in an amount of from about 0.5% to about 10%, for example from about 1% to about 4% by weight relative to the amount of the toner particle. The present process, in embodiments, provides for high monomer to polymer conversion levels, or degrees of polymerization, for example, of about 90 percent by weight or greater, or from about 95 to 100 percent, and for example from about 98 to about 100 percent (the conversion percentages refer to all monomers employed in the present process). After heating of the miniemulsion to the second polymerization temperature to form the polymeric particles, the resulting composition containing the polymeric particles may be considered a latex or emulsion. In embodiments, the present process can further include separating the polymeric particles (which may be solid) from the liquid phase, where such separation can be accomplished by conventional methods, such as filtration, sedimentation, spray drying, and the like known methods. The weight average molecular weight (Mw) of the resulting polymeric particles can be, for example, of from about 3,000 to about 200,000, and more specifically, for example, about 10,000 to about 150,000. The polymeric particles can, for example, possess a narrow polydispersity of from about 1.1 to about 3, more specifically, for example, from about 1.1 to about 2, and as a further example from about 1.05 to about 1.45. The polymeric particles may have a volume average diameter of, for example, from about 25 nm to about 50 μm, more specifically, for example, from about 100 nm to about 20 μm. The polymeric particles may be optionally crosslinked with, for example, known crosslinking or curing agents such as divinyl benzene and the like, either in situ or in a separate post-polymerization process procedure. Additional optional known additives may be used in the polymerization reactions which do not interfere with the present process and which may provide additional performance enhancements to the resulting product, for example, colorants, lubricants, release or transfer agents, antifoams, antioxidants, and the like. In embodiments, there can be incorporated into the latomer mixture, or the miniemulsion, or at any stage of the present process, at least one wax. Non-limiting examples of the wax include polypropylenes and polyethylenes commercially available from Allied Chemical and Petrolite Corporation, wax emulsions available from Michaelman Inc. and the Daniels Products Company, EPOLENE N-15™ commercially available from Eastman Chemical Products, Inc., VISCOL 550-P™, a low weight average molecular weight polypropylene available from Sanyo Kasei K. K., and similar materials. The commercially available polyethylenes selected may possess a molecular weight Mw of from about 700 to about 2,500, while the commercially available polypropylenes may possess a molecular weight of from about 4,000 to about 7,000. Examples of functionalized waxes, such as amines and amides include, for example, AQUA SUPERSLIP 6550™, SUPERSLIP 6530™ available from Micro Powder Inc.; fluorinated waxes, for example POLYFLUO 190™, POLYFLUO 200™, POLYFLUO 523XF™, AQUA POLYFLUO 411 ™, AQUA POLYSILK 19™, and POLYSILK 14™ available from Micro Powder Inc.; mixed fluorinated, amide waxes, for example MICROSPERSION 19™ also available from Micro Powder Inc.; imides, esters, quaternary amines, carboxylic acids or acrylic polymer emulsions, for example JONCRYL 74™, 89™, 130™, 537™, and 538™, all available from SC Johnson Wax; chlorinated polypropylenes and polyethylenes available from Allied Chemical and Petrolite Corporations, and S C Johnson wax. Suitable low molecular weight waxes are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,641, the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference. The at least one wax may be present in amounts of from about 0.1 to about 15 weight percent, and for example from about 2 to about 10 weight percent of the total monomer polymerized. Alternatively, the at least one wax may be added to the isolated polymeric product of the process. The use of such a component may be desirable for certain toner applications. Toner compositions can be prepared by a number of known methods, such as admixing and heating resin, or polymer particles obtained with the processes of the present disclosure in a toner extrusion device, such as the ZSK53 available from Werner Pfleiderer, and removing the formed toner composition from the device. Subsequent to cooling, the toner composition may be subjected to grinding utilizing, for example, a Sturtevant micronizer for the purpose of achieving toner particles with a volume median diameter of less than about 25 μm, and for example from about 6 to about 14 μm, which diameters are determined by a Coulter Counter. Other methods include those well-known in the art such as spray drying, melt dispersion, emulsion aggregation, and extrusion processing. Subsequently, the toner compositions can be classified utilizing, for example, a Donaldson Model B classifier for the purpose of removing toner fines, i.e., toner particles less than about 4 μm volume median diameter. Alternatively, the toner compositions may be ground with a fluid bed grinder equipped with a classifier wheel. In embodiments, a toner can be prepared directly, thereby foregoing the extensive particle sizing and separation process by including, for example, at least one colorant in the miniemulsion droplets prior to polymerization, and thereafter isolating the resulting colored toner particles. Emulsion aggregation processes suitable for making the disclosed toner particles are illustrated in a number of patents, the disclosures of which are totally incorporated herein by reference, such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,278,020; 5,290,654; 5,308,734; 5,344,738; 5,346,797; 5,348,832; 5,364,729; 5,366,841; 5,370,963; 5,376,172; 5,403,693; 5,418,108; 5,405,728; 5,482,812; 5,496,676; 5,501,935; 5,527,658; 5,585,215; 5,593,807; 5,604,076; 5,622,806; 5,648,193; 5,650,255; 5,650,256; 5,658,704; 5,660,965; 5,723,253; 5,744,520; 5,763,133; 5,766,818; 5,747,215; 5,804,349; 5,827,633; 5,853,944; 5,840,462; 5,863,698; 5,869,215; 5,902,710; 5,910,387; 5,916,725; 5,919,595; 5,922,501; 5,925,488; 5,945,245; 5,977,210; 6,017,671; 6,020,101; 6,045,240; 6,132,924; 6,143,457; and 6,210,853. The components and processes of the patents can be selected for the present disclosure in embodiments thereof. The colorant may be chosen from dyes and pigments, such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,788,123; 4,828,956; 4,894,308; 4,948,686; 4,963,455; and 4,965,158, the disclosures of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Non-limiting examples of the pigment include black, cyan, magenta, yellow, green, orange, brown, violet, blue, red, purple, white, and silver. Non-limiting examples of the colorant include carbon black (for example, REGAL 3300®), Flexiverse Pigment BFD121, nigrosine dye, aniline blue, magnetites and colored magnetites, such as Mobay magnetites M08029™, MO8060™; Columbian magnetites; MAPICO BLACKS™ and surface treated magnetites; Pfizer magnetites CB4799™, CB5300 ™, CB5600™, MCX6369™; Bayer magnetites, BAYFERROX 8600™, 8610™; Northern Pigments magnetites, NP-604™, NP-608™; Magnox magnetites TMB-100™, or TMB-104 ™; phthalocyanines, 2,9-dimethyl-substituted quinacridone and anthraquinone dyes identified in the Color Index as CI 60710, CI Dispersed Red 15, diazo dyes identified in the Color Index as CI26050, CI Solvent Red 19, copper tetra (octadecyl sulfonamide) phthalocyanine, x-copper phthalocyanine pigment listed in the Color Index as CI 74160, CI Pigment Blue, Anthradanthrene Blue identified in the Color Index as CI 69810, Special Blue X-2137, diarylide yellow 3,3-dichlorobenzidene acetoacetanilides, a monoazo pigment identified in the Color Index as CI 12700, CI Solvent Yellow 16, a nitrophenyl amine sulfonamide identified in the Color Index as Foron Yellow SE/GLN, CI Dispersed Yellow 33, 2,5-dimethoxy-4-sulfonanilide phenylazo-4′-chloro-2,5-dimethoxy acetoacetanilide, Permanent Yellow FGL, Pigment Yellow 74, B 15:3 cyan pigment dispersion, commercially available from Sun Chemicals, Magenta Red 81:3 pigment dispersion, commercially available from Sun Chemicals, Yellow 180 pigment dispersion, commercially available from Sun Chemicals, cyan components, and the like, as well as mixtures thereof. Other commercial sources of pigments available as aqueous pigment dispersion from either Sun Chemical or Ciba include, but are not limited to, Pigment Yellow 17, Pigment Yellow 14, Pigment Yellow 93, Pigment Yellow 74, Pigment Violet 23, Pigment Violet 1, Pigment Green 7, Pigment Orange 36, Pigment Orange 21, Pigment Orange 16, Pigment Red 185, Pigment Red 122, Pigment Red 81:3, Pigment Blue 15:3, and Pigment Blue 61, and other pigments that enable reproduction of the maximum Pantone color space. Other suitable colorants include, but are not limited to, Cinquasia Magenta (DuPont), Levanyl Black A-SF (Miles, Bayer), Sunsperse Carbon Black LHD 9303, Sunsperse Blue BHD 6000 and Sunsperse Yellow YHD 6001 available from Sun Chemicals; Normandy Magenta RD-2400, Permanent Yellow YE 0305, Permanent Violet VT2645, Argyle Green XP-111-S, Lithol Rubine Toner, Royal Brilliant Red RD-8192, Brilliant Green Toner GR 0991, and Ortho Orange OR 2673, all available from Paul Uhlich; Sudan Orange G, Tolidine Red, and E.D. Toluidine Red, available from Aldrich; Sudan III, Sudan II, and Sudan IV, all available from Matheson, Coleman, Bell; Scarlet for Thermoplast NSD PS PA available from Ugine Kuhlman of Canada; Bon Red C available from Dominion Color Co.; Lumogen Yellow D0790, Suco-Gelb L1250, Suco-Yellow D1355, Paliogen Violet 5100, Paliogen Orange 3040, Paliogen Yellow 152, Neopen Yellow, Paliogen Red 3871 K, Paliogen Red 3340, Paliogen Yellow 1560, Paliogen Violet 5890, Paliogen Blue 6470, Lithol Scarlet 4440, Lithol Fast Scarlet L4300, Lithol Scarlet D3700, Lithol Fast Yellow 0991 K, Paliotol Yellow 1840, Heliogen Green L8730, Heliogen Blue L6900, L7202, D6840, D7080, Neopen Blue, Sudan Blue OS, Sudan Orange 220, and Fanal Pink D4830, all available from BASF; Cinquasia Magenta available from DuPont; Novoperm Yellow FG1 available from Hoechst; Hostaperm Pink E, and PV Fast Blue B2G01 all available from American Hoechst; Irgalite Blue BCA, and Oracet Pink RF, all available from Ciba-Geigy. Mixtures of colorants can also be employed. The optional colorant may be present in the toner composition in any desired or effective amount, such as from about 1% to about 25% by weight of the toner composition, and for example from about 2% to about 15%, and as a further example from about 5% to about 12% by weight based upon the total weight of the toner composition. The amount can, however, be outside of these ranges. In embodiments, styrene-maleic anhydride resins may have covalently bonded thereto at least one colorant and may generally be the reaction product of a monomeric colorant and styrene-maleic anhydride. Copolymers of anhydrides with styrene, butadiene, methoxyvinylether, ethylene, alpha-olefins, mixtures thereof, and the like, are all suitable examples of polymeric materials with which the monomeric colorants of the present disclosure can be reacted to form colored polymeric materials. The toner composition optionally can also comprise a charge control additive, such as alkyl pyridinium halides, including cetyl pyridinium chloride and others as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,298,672, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference, sulfates and bisulfates, including distearyl dimethyl ammonium methyl sulfate as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,560,635, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference, and distearyl dimethyl ammonium bisulfate as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,937,157; 4,560,635, and copending application Ser. No. 07/396,497, abandoned, the disclosures of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference, zinc 3,5-di-tert-butyl salicylate compounds, such as Bontron E-84, available from Orient Chemical Company of Japan, or zinc compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,112, the disclosure of which is totally incorporated by reference, aluminum 3,5-di-tert-butyl salicylate compounds such as Bontron E-88, available from Orient Chemical Company of Japan, or aluminum compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,845,003, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference, charge control additives as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,944,493; 4,007,293; 4,079,014; 4,394,430; 4,464,452; 4,480,021; and 4,560,635, the disclosures of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference, and the like, as well as mixtures thereof. The optional charge control additive may be present in the toner composition in an amount of from about 0.1% to about 10% by weight, for example from about 1% to about 5% by weight with respect to the total weight of the toner composition. The amount can, however, be outside this range. The toner composition may also optionally comprise an external surface additive, including flow aid additives, which additives may be usually present on the toner surface thereof. Non-limiting examples of the external surface additive include metal oxides like titanium oxide, tin oxide, mixtures thereof, and the like, colloidal silicas, such as AEROSIL®, metal salts and metal salts of fatty acids inclusive of zinc stearate, aluminum oxides, cerium oxides, and mixtures thereof. Several of the aforementioned additives are illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,590,000 and 3,800,588, the disclosures of which are totally incorporated herein by reference. Moreover, the external surface additive may be a coated silica of U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,004,714; 6,190,815 and 6,214,507, the disclosures of which are totally incorporated herein by reference. The external surface additive can be added during the aggregation process or blended onto the formed toner particles. The optional external surface additive may be present in any desired or effective amount of from about 0.1% to about 5% by weight, for example from about 0.1% to about 1% by weight with respect to the total weight of the toner composition. The amount can, however, be outside this range. The disclosure will now be described in detail with respect to specific embodiments thereof, it being understood that these examples are intended to be illustrative only and the disclosure is not intended to be limited to the materials, conditions, or process parameters recited herein. All percentages and parts are by weight unless otherwise indicated. EXAMPLES Example 1 Incorporation of Maleic Anhydride at the Latex Step To a bulk polymerized styrene/butylacrylate (200 ml, ˜20% conversion−Mn=1900) was added maleic anhydride (16 g). The mixture was heated to ˜50° C. until all the maleic anhydride dissolved. This was added to an aqueous solution (600 g water and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS), 16 g) and stirred for 5 minutes. The resulting mixture was piston homogenized 3 times at 500 BAR and then transferred to a 1 L BUCHI reactor. Pressurizing with argon and then depressurizing (5 times) deoxygenated the latex mini-emulsion. This was then heated to 135° C. After 1 hour at temperature, a solution of ascorbic acid (8.5 ml of a 0.1 g/ml concentration) was added via pump at the rate of 0.035 ml/minute. The reaction was cooled after 6 hours to afford a resin in the latex of ˜200 microns with a solids content of 24.9% and Mn=9,700 and Mw=23,000. Example 2 Aggregation of Latex Using Diamines To a stable free radical polymerization latex (707 g, 23.48% solids content) was added 660 ml of water and pigment (cyan blue-BTD-FX-20, 47.8 g). This was stirred at room temperature and a diamine (Jeffamine D-400, 6.89 g in 100 ml water) was added over a 10 minute period. The resulting thickened suspension was heated to 55° C. over a 1 hour period. The suspension was then basified using NaOH (concentrated) to a pH of 7.3. This was subsequently heated to 95° C. over a 2 hour period and maintained at temperature for 5 hours. The suspension was then cooled, filtered, and washed 5 times with water until the filtrate conductivity was less than 15 microSiemens/cm2. The resulting powder was resuspended in minimal water and freeze dried to give 130 g of a 13.4 μm particle. Example 3 Incorporation of Maleic Anhydride at the Bulk Polymerization Step A stock solution of styrene (390 mL) and butylacrylate (110 ml) was prepared and to 400 ml was added TEMPO (3.12 g, 0.02 mole) and vazo 64 initiator (2.0 g, 0.0125 mole). This was heated under a nitrogen atmosphere to 135° C. (bath temperature) and then added to it dropwise a solution of maleic anhdryide (9.8 g) in 100 mL of the styrene/butylacrylate stock solution which had been deoxygenated using nitrogen. The addition was done over a 30 minute period after which it was stirred for 5 more minutes and then cooled to afford a poly(styrene/maleic anhydride-b-styrene/butylacrylate) (Mn=4990 with PD=1.23) solution in styrene/butylacrylate monomer. Example 4 Preparation of poly(SMA-b-S/BA) Latex A polymer solution of example 3 (300 ml), styrene (117 ml), butylacrylate (33 ml) and TEMPO (0.6 g) was added to a solution of SDBS (36 g, 1.2 l water) and stirred for 5 minutes. Then the mixture was piston homogenized once at a pressure of about 500 BAR and then discharged into a 2L BUCHI reactor. This was heated to 135° C. (reactor temperature) and when the reactor reached temperature a solution of ascorbic acid (2.4 g in 12 ml water) was added dropwise at a rate of 0.0283 ml/minute for a total of 8.5 ml. After 6 hours at reaction temperature the reactor was cooled and 1401.3 g of latex was discharched affording a poly(styrene/maleic anhydride-b-styrene/butylacrylate) (Mn=39, 168 with PD=1.64). Example 5 Aggregation/Coalescence of Latex Using Diamine as Aggregant To the latex prepared in example 4 (50 ml) was added 50 ml of water and stirred at room temperature while adjusting the pH to ˜1.78. To this was added dropwise 2.89 g of a Jeffamine D400 solution (20% w/w in water) at 23-25° C. and then slowly heated up to 60° C. over ˜1 hour. The particle size grew from about 200 nm to 6.8 μm. The solution pH was adjusted to pH 9.04 with dilute NaOH and then further heated slowly to 95° C. over the course of ˜1.5 hour and maintained at temperature for 1.5 hours to afford a coalesced white particle of 6.68 μm size (Mn=39, 168). For the purposes of this specification and appended claims, unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities, percentages or proportions, and other numerical values used in the specification and claims, are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present disclosure. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. It is noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the,” include plural referents unless expressly and unequivocally limited to one referent. Thus, for example, reference to “a resin” includes two or more different resins. Moreover, reference to “at least one resin” includes for example from 1 to about 7, from 2 to about 5, from 1 to about 3, and yet more specifically one, resin. As used herein, the term “include” and its grammatical variants are intended to be non-limiting, such that recitation of items in a list is not to the exclusion of other like items that can be substituted or added to the listed items. While particular embodiments have been described, alternatives, modifications, variations, improvements, and substantial equivalents that are or may be presently unforeseen may arise to applicants or others skilled in the art. Accordingly, the appended claims as filed and as they may be amended are intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications variations, improvements, and substantial equivalents. | <SOH> FIELD <EOH>The present disclosure relates to toners, uses and processes thereof. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In aspects of the disclosure, there is provided a process comprising a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer, and at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles, wherein the second heating is at a higher temperature than the first heating; a toner process comprising providing a resin miniemulsion comprising polymeric particles comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer compound and at least one alkylene anhydride; blending the miniemulsion with at least one colorant, at least one amine, and optionally at least one wax; heating the resulting mixture below or about equal to the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin emulsion; and heating the resulting mixture above or about equal to the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the resin emulsion; and a process for latex preparation comprising a first heating of a latomer mixture comprising at least one free radical polymerizable monomer to low conversion and then adding at least one alkylene anhydride; a second heating of the latomer mixture to low conversion; a third heating of the latomer mixture to form polymeric particles; and combining at least one amine with the polymeric particles. Moreover, further aspects of the disclosure relate to the toner products obtained from the processes illustrated herein. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041117 | 20091110 | 20060518 | 58411.0 | G03G9087 | 0 | LE, HOA VAN | TONER PROCESS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G03G | 2,004 |
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10,989,514 | ACCEPTED | Methods and compositions for treating allergic rhinitis and other disorders using descarboethoxyloratadine | Methods are disclosed utilizing DCL, a metabolic derivative of loratadine, for the treatment of allergic rhinitis, and other disorders, while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with other non-sedating antihistamines. | 1-47. (canceled) 48. A pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of urticaria or allergic rhinitis, which comprises a therapeutically effective amount of DCL, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 49. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 48, wherein the amount of DCL is from about 0.1 mg to about 10 mg. 50. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 49, wherein the amount of DCL is from about 0.1 mg to about 5 mg. 51. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 50, wherein the amount of DCL is about 5 mg. 52. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 48, which is suitable for oral, rectal, parenteral, or transdermal administration. 53. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 52, which is suitable for oral administration. 54. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 53, which is in the form of capsule or tablet. 55. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 49, 50, or 51, wherein the amount is administered in a single dose per day. 56. A pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of urticaria or allergic rhinitis comprising a therapeutically effective amount of DCL, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the amount of DCL is about 5 mg. 57. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 56, wherein the amount is administered in a single dose per day. 58. A method of treating urticaria or allergic rhinitis in a human comprising administering to a human in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of descarboethoxyloratadine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the amount of the descarboethoxyloratadine administered is about 5 mg per day. 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the amount is administered in a single dose. 60. The method of claim 58, which further comprises reducing or avoiding adverse effects associated with non-sedating antihistamines. 61. The method of claim 60, wherein the adverse effect is cardiac arrhythmia. 62. The method of claim 60, wherein the adverse effect is tumor promotion. 63. The method of claim 58, wherein the amount of said descarboethoxyloratadine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered together with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. | 1. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The methods of the present invention comprise administering a therapeutically effective amount of a metabolic derivative of loratadine. Chemically, this derivative is 8-chloro-6,11-dihydro-11-(4-piperidylidene)-5H-benzo[5,6]cyclohepta[1,2-b]pyridine and known as descarboethoxyloratadine (DCL). This compound is specifically described in Quercia, et al. Hosp. Formul., 28: 137-53 (1993) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,716. Loratadine is an antagonist of the H-1 histamine receptor protein. The histamine receptors H-1 and H-2 are two well-identified forms. The H-1 receptors are those that mediate the response antagonized by conventional antihistamines. H-1 receptors are present, for example, in the ileum, the skin, and the bronchial smooth muscle of man and other mammals. Loratadine binds preferentially to peripheral rather than to central H-1 receptors. Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137-53 (1993). Loratadine has been shown to be a more potent inhibitor of serotonin-induced bronchospasm in guinea pigs than terfenadine. Id. at 137-38. Its anti-allergenic activity in animal models was shown to be comparable to that of terfenadine and astemizole. Id. at 138. However, using standard animal model testing, on a milligram by milligram basis, loratadine was shown to be four times more potent than terfenadine in the inhibition of allergic bronchospasm. Id. Moreover, loratadine's antihistaminic activity was demonstrated in humans by evaluation of the drug's ability to suppress wheal formation. Id. Clinical trials of efficacy indicated that loratadine is an effective H-1 antagonist. See Clissold et al., Drugs 37: 42-57 (1989). Through H-2 receptor-mediated responses, histamine stimulates gastric acid secretion in mammals and the chronotropic effect in isolated mammalian atria. Loratadine has no effect on histamine-induced gastric acid secretion, nor does it alter the chronotropic effect of histamine on atria. Thus, loratadine has no apparent effect on the H-2 histamine receptor. Loratadine is well absorbed but is extensively metabolized. Hilbert, et al., J. Clin. Pharmacol. 27: 694-98 (1987). The main metabolite, DCL, which has been identified, is reported to be pharmacologically active. Clissold, Drugs 37: 42-57 (1989). It is also reported as having antihistaminic activity in U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,716. This patent recommends an oral dosage range of 5 to 100 mg/day and preferably 10 to 20 mg/day. Loratadine's efficacy in treating seasonal allergic rhinitis is comparable to that of terfenadine. Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137, 141 (1993). Loratadine also has a more rapid onset of action than astemizole. Id. Clissold et al., Drugs 37: 42, 50-54 (1989) describes studies showing loratadine as effective for use in seasonal and perennial rhinitis, colds (with pseudoephedrine), and chronic urticaria. It has also been suggested that loratadine would be useful for the treatment of allergic asthma. Temple et al. Prostaglandins 35: 549-554 (1988). Loratadine may also be useful for the treatment of motion sickness and vertigo. Some antihistamines have been found to be effective for the prophylaxis and treatment of motion sickness. See Wood, Drugs, 17: 471-79 (1979). Some antihistamines have also proven useful for treating vestibular disturbances, such as Meniere's disease, and in other types of vertigo. See Cohen et al., Archives of Neurology, 27: 129-35 (1972). In addition, loratadine may be useful in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy and other small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus. In tests on rats with streptozocin-induced diabetes, treatment by antihistamines prevented the activation of retinal histamine receptors which have been implicated in the development of diabetic retinopathy. The use of antihistamines to treat retinopathy and small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,019,591. It has also been suggested that loratadine, in combination with non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents or other non-narcotic analgesics, would be useful for the treatment of cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, pain, headache, fever, and general malaise associated therewith. Such compositions used in the methods of treating the above-described symptoms may optionally include one or more other active components including a decongestant (such as pseudoephedrine), a cough suppressant/antitussive (such as dextromethorphan) or an expectorant (such as guaifenesin). Many antihistamines cause adverse side-effects. These adverse side-effects include, but are not limited to, sedation, gastrointestinal distress, dry mouth, constipation or diarrhea. Loratadine has been found to cause relatively less sedation as compared with other antihistamines. Moreover, the incidence of fatigue, headache, and nausea was similar to those observed for terfenadine. See Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137, 142 (1993). Furthermore, compounds within the class of non-sedating antihistamines, including loratadine, astemizole, and terfenadine, have been known to cause other severe adverse electrophysiologic side-effects. These adverse side-effects are associated with a prolonged QT interval and include but are not limited to ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrhythmias, such as ventricular tachyarrhythmias or torsades de pointes. Knowles, Canadian Journal Hosp. Pharm., 45: 33, 37 (1992); Craft, British Medical Journal, 292: 660 (1986); Simons et al., Lancet, 2: 624 (1988); and Unknown, Side Effects of Drugs Annual, 12: 142 and 14: 135. Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137, 142 (1993) noted that serious cardiovascular adverse side-effects, including torsades de pointes and other ventricular arrhythmias, were reported in “healthy” patients who received terfenadine concurrently with either ketoconazole or erythromycin. Quercia et al., also states that arrhythmias have also been reported with the concomitant administration of astemizole and erythromycin or erythromycin plus ketoconazole. Thus, he cautions against using loratadine concurrently with ketoconazole, itraconazole, and macrolides, such as erythromycin. Additionally, it is also known that ketoconazole and/or erythromycin interfere with cytochrome P450, and thereby inhibit the metabolism of non-sedative antihistamines such as terfenadine and astemizole. Because of the interference with the metabolism of loratadine, there exists a greater potential for adverse interaction between loratadine or other non-sedating antihistamines and drugs known to inhibit cytochrome P450, such as but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, and erythromycin. In Brandes et al., Cancer Res. (52) 3796-3800 (1992), Brandes showed that the propensity of drugs to promote tumor growth in vivo correlated with potency to inhibit concanavalin A stimulation of lymphocyte mitogenesis. In Brandes et al., J. Nat'l Cancer Inst., 86: (10) 771-775 (1994), Brandes assessed loratadine in an in vitro assay to predict enhancement of in vivo tumor growth. He found that loratadine and astemizole were associated with growth of both melanoma and fibrosarcoma tumors. The dose for loratadine in this study was 10 mg/day. None of the above references teach or enable the methods of the present invention comprising administering DCL to a human while avoiding adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines; nor do the references alone or in combination suggest these methods. Thus, it would be particularly desirable to find methods of treatment with the advantages of known non-sedating antihistamines which would not have the aforementioned disadvantages. 2. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has now been discovered that DCL is an effective, non-sedating antihistamine which is useful in treating allergic rhinitis in a human, while avoiding adverse side-effects normally associated with the administration of other compounds within the class of non-sedating antihistamines such as loratadine, astemizole, and terfenadine. Such adverse side-effects include, but are not limited to, cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac conduction disturbances, fatigue, headache, gastrointestinal distress, appetite stimulation, weight gain, dry mouth, and constipation or diarrhea. Furthermore, DCL is useful for treating allergic rhinitis while avoiding tumor promotion associated with loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating allergic rhinitis in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. Furthermore, it has now also been discovered that DCL, is useful in treating allergic asthma in a human, while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines. As stated above, examples of such side-effects are appetite stimulation, weight gain, tumor promotion, cardiac arrhythmias, and cardiac conduction disturbances. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating allergic asthma in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. In addition, DCL is useful in treating such disorders in a human as retinopathy and small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with administration of other non-sedating antihistamines and while avoiding tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating retinopathy and small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus, in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. It has also been discovered that DCL, in combination with non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents or other non-narcotic analgesics, is useful for the treatment of cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, pain, headache, fever, and general malaise associated therewith in a human, while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines. The use of such pharmaceutical compositions, containing DCL, and non-narcotic analgesics or non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents such as aspirin, acetaminophen or ibuprofen, may optionally include one or more other active components including a decongestant (such as pseudoephedrine), a cough suppressant/antitussive (such as dextromethorphan) or an expectorant (such as guaifenesin). The present invention also involves the use of the above-described compositions to treat the above-described conditions while avoiding tumor promotion associated with loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, the present invention also relates to the use of these compositions to treat such conditions in a human having a higher then normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. The present invention also relates to a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin, and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating allergic rhinitis, allergic asthma, diabetic retinopathy and other small vessel disorders due to diabetes. This invention is also directed to a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin, and others known to those skilled in the art, while treating cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, which comprises administering a composition to said human, said composition comprising DCL and a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent or optionally contain one or more other active components including a decongestant, cough suppressant/antitussive, or expectorant. It has also been discovered that DCL is useful in treating other allergic disorders related to its activity as an antihistamine, including but not limited to, urticaria and symptomatic dermographism, in a human, while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines and/or while avoiding tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating allergic disorders, including but not limited to, urticaria and symptomatic dermographism in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. The present invention also relates to methods of avoiding interaction between loratadine or other non-sedating antihistamines and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, and erythromycin, and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating allergic disorders, including but not limited to, urticaria and symptomatic dermographism wherein said human is administered DCL. 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention encompasses a method of treating allergic rhinitis in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The present invention further encompasses a method of treating allergic asthma in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Also included in the present invention is a method of treating retinopathy or other small vessel diseases associated with diabetes mellitus in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The present invention further encompasses a method of treating cough, cold, cold-like, and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever, and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a composition, said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of at least one non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent or non-narcotic analgesic such as acetylsalicylic acid, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Additionally, the present invention encompasses a method of treating cough, cold, cold-like, and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever, and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a composition, said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a decongestant such as pseudoephedrine or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. It has been found that DCL is five to seven times less active in tumor promotion than loratadine. Thus, the present invention further encompasses a method of treating allergic rhinitis in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A further aspect of the present invention includes a method of treating allergic asthma in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The present invention further encompasses a method of treating retinopathy or other small vessel diseases associated with diabetes mellitus in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Because DCL is much less active than loratadine at promoting tumors, a further aspect of this invention is a method of treating allergic rhinitis in a human wherein said human has a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The present invention further encompasses a method of treating allergic asthma in a human wherein said human has a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Also included in the present invention is a method for treating retinopathy or other small vessel diseases associated with diabetes mellitus in a human wherein said human has a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer, which comprises administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Furthermore, the present invention also includes a method of treating cough, cold, cold-like, and/or and flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, wherein said human has a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer, which comprises administering to said human a composition, said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent or non-narcotic analgesic such as acetylsalicylic acid, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Moreover, the present invention further encompasses a method of treating cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, wherein said human has a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer, which comprises administering to said human a composition, said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a decongestant such as pseudoephedrine or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. It has also been found that when DCL is concurrently administered with a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin and others known by those skilled in the art, the interaction between said DCL and said drug is decreased in comparison to the concurrent administration of loratadine or other non-sedating antihistamines with said drug. Therefore, this invention also encompasses a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating allergic rhinitis in a human, wherein said human is administered DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Moreover, this invention also encompasses a method of avoiding interaction between loratadine or other non-sedating antihistamines and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating allergic asthma in a human, wherein said human is administered DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. This invention also encompasses a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating retinopathy or other small vessel diseases associated with diabetes mellitus in a human, wherein said human is administered DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Also encompassed by the present invention is a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating cough, cold, cold-like, and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, which comprises administering to said human a composition, said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent or non-narcotic analgesic, such as acetylsalicylic acid, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A further aspect of the invention is a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating cough, cold, cold-like, and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, which comprises administering to said human a composition, said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a decongestant such as pseudoephedrine or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A further aspect of this invention includes a method of treating urticaria in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, comprising administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Furthermore, the present invention includes a method of treating symptomatic dermographism in a human while avoiding the concomitant liability of adverse side-effects associated with the administration of non-sedating antihistamines, comprising administering to said human a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. It has also now been found that DCL is at least about twenty times more potent at the histamine receptor when compared to loratadine. Thus, the dosage range by the modes of administration described herein and for use in the methods of the present invention, are about 0.1 to less than about 10 mg per day. This is significantly lower than what has been recommended for other non-sedating antihistamines, including loratadine which has a recommended oral dose of 5 to 100 mg per day. However, due to the significantly less side-effects, DCL can be given in doses higher than those suggested for loratadine thereby offering an improved therapeutic range than loratadine. Loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines have antihistaminic activity and provide therapy and a reduction of symptoms for a variety of conditions and disorders related to allergic rhinitis and other allergic disorders, diabetes mellitus and other conditions; however, such drugs, while offering the expectation of efficacy, causes adverse side-effects. Utilizing DCL results in clearer dose-related definitions of efficacy, diminished adverse side-effects, and accordingly, an improved therapeutic index. It is, therefore, more desirable to use DCL than to use loratadine itself or other non-sedating antihistamines. The term “adverse effects” includes, but is not limited to cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac conduction disturbances, appetite stimulation, weight gain, sedation, gastrointestinal distress, headache, dry mouth, constipation, and diarrhea. The term “cardiac arrhythmias” includes, but is not limited to ventricular tachyarrhythmias, torsades de pointes, and ventricular fibrillation. The phrase “therapeutically effective amount” means that amount of DCL which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment or management of allergic rhinitis and other allergic disorders such as urticaria, symptomatic dermographism, allergic asthma, retinopathy or other small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus, and the symptoms associated with allergic rhinitis such as cough, cold, cold-like, and/or flu symptoms including, but not limited to, sneezing, rhinorrhea, lacrimation, and dermal irritation. The term “allergic asthma” is defined as a disorder characterized by increased responsiveness of the trachea and bronchi to various stimuli which results in symptoms which include wheezing, cough, and dyspnea. The term “diabetic retinopathy” or “retinopathy associated with diabetes mellitus” is that disorder caused by increased permeability of the capillaries in the eye which leads to hemorrhages and edema in the eye and can lead to blindness. The term “small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus” includes, but is not limited to, diabetic retinopathy and peripheral vascular disease. The magnitude of a prophylactic or therapeutic dose of DCL in the acute or chronic management of disease will vary with the severity of the condition to be treated and the route of administration. The dose, and perhaps the dose frequency, will also vary according to the age, body weight, and response of the individual patient. In general, the total daily dose range, for the conditions described herein, is from about 0.1 mg to less than about 10 mg administered in single or divided doses orally, topically, transdermally, or locally by inhalation. For example, a preferred oral daily dose range should be from about 0.1 mg to about 5 mg. A more preferred oral dose is about 0.2 mg to about 1 mg. It is further recommended that children, patients aged over 65 years, and those with impaired renal or hepatic function initially receive low doses, and that they then be titrated based on individual response(s) or blood level(s). It may be necessary to use dosages outside these ranges in some cases as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Further, it is noted that the clinician or treating physician will know how and when to interrupt, adjust, or terminate therapy in conjunction with individual patient response. The term “therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof” is encompassed by the above-described dosage amounts. In addition, the terms “said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of at least one non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent or non-narcotic or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof”; and “said composition comprising (i) a therapeutically effective amount of DCL or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a decongestant such as pseudoephedrine or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof” are also encompassed by the above-described dosage amounts and dose frequency schedule. Any suitable route of administration may be employed for providing the patient with an effective dosage of DCL according to the methods of the present invention. For example, oral, rectal, parenteral, transdermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, and like forms of administration may be employed. Dosage forms include tablets, troches, dispersions, suspensions, solutions, capsules, patches, and the like. The pharmaceutical compositions used in the methods of the present invention comprise DCL, the metabolic derivative of loratadine, as active ingredient, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and may also contain a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally, other therapeutic ingredients. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to a salt prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic acids or bases including inorganic acids or bases or organic acids or bases. Examples of such inorganic acids are hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic, sulfuric, and phosphoric. Appropriate organic acids may be selected, for example, from aliphatic, aromatic, carboxylic and sulfonic classes of organic acids, examples of which are formic, acetic, propionic, succinic, glycolic, glucuronic, maleic, furoic, glutamic, benzoic, anthranilic, salicylic, phenylacetic, mandelic, embonic (pamoic), methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, pantothenic, benzenesulfonic, stearic, sulfanilic, algenic, and galacturonic. Examples of such inorganic bases include metallic salts made from aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and zinc. Appropriate organic bases may be selected, for example, from N,N-dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine, ethylenediamine, meglumaine (N-methylglucamine), lysine and procaine. The compositions for use in the methods of the present invention include compositions such as suspensions, solutions and elixirs; aerosols; or carriers such as starches, sugars, microcrystalline cellulose, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents, and the like, in the case of oral solid preparations (such as powders, capsules, and tablets), with the oral solid preparations being preferred over the oral liquid preparations. The most preferred oral solid preparations are tablets. Because of their ease of administration, tablets and capsules represent the most advantageous oral dosage unit form, in which case solid pharmaceutical carriers are employed. If desired, tablets may be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques. In addition to the common dosage forms set out above, the compound for use in the methods of the present invention may also be administered by controlled release means and/or delivery devices such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,845,770; 3,916,899; 3,536,809; 3,598,123; and 4,008,719, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Pharmaceutical compositions for use in the methods of the present invention suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules, cachets, or tablets, or aerosol sprays, each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient, as a powder or granules, or as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid, a non-aqueous liquid, an oil-in-water emulsion, or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. Such compositions may be prepared by any of the methods of pharmacy, but all methods include the step of bringing into association the active ingredient with the carrier which constitutes one or more necessary ingredients. In general, the compositions are prepared by uniformly and intimately admixing the active ingredient with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product into the desired presentation. For example, a tablet may be prepared by compression or molding, optionally, with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, surface active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding, in a suitable machine, a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. Desirably, each tablet contains from about 0.1 mg to less than about 10 mg of the active ingredient, and each cachet or capsule contains from about 0.1 mg to about less than 10 mg of the active ingredient, i.e., DCL. The invention is further defined by reference to the following examples describing in detail the preparation of the compound and the compositions used in the methods of the present invention, as well as their utility. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many modifications, both to materials and methods, may be practiced which are within the scope of this invention. 4. EXAMPLES 4.1 Example 1 Preparation of Loratadine and its Metabolites Loratadine can be synthesized by methods disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,282,233. The metabolites are prepared similarly, by reaction steps conventional in the art, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,716 which is incorporated here by reference in its entirety. One common method of preparing DCL is to reflux loratadine in the presence of sodium hydroxide and ethanol as depicted below. Extraction of Commercially Available Claritin Tablets (600×10 mg): Tablets of loratadine, were diluted with water and chloroform. The mixture was stirred, then filtered through celite, rinsed with chloroform until the filtrate contained no loratadine. The separated aqueous layer was extracted with chloroform twice. The combined organic layer was washed with water, brine and dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated to give pure loratadine as a white solid. Saponification of Loratadine: Loratadine (4.0 g) was added to a solution of sodium hydroxide (5.9 g) in 280 mL of absolute ethanol and the mixture was stirred at reflux for four days. The mixture was cooled and concentrated to remove ethanol. The residue was diluted with water and aqueous layer was extracted with methylene chloride five times. The combined organic layer was washed with water, brine and dried over sodium sulfate. The solvent was evaporated to give 2.82 g (87%) of pure loratadine derivative (or metabolite) as a pale-tan solid. 4.2 Example 2 Antihistaminic Activity The antihistaminic activity of loratadine and DCL were compared in isolated strips of guinea pig ileum contracted with histamine. This preparation is generally accepted by those skilled in the art as predicative of its efficacy as a peripheral histamine H-1 receptor. Methods: Experiments were performed on pieces of ileum taken from male guinea pigs (Hartley strain, 419-560 grams; Elm Hill Breeding Laboratories, Chelmsford, Mass.). The tissues were suspended in tissue chambers containing 40 ml of Tyrode's solution aerated with 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide at 35° C. The Tyrode's solution contained (in mM) 137 NaCl, 2.7 KCl, 2.2 CaCl21 0.025 MgCl21 0.4 NaHPO4, 11.9 NaHCO3 and 5.5 glucose. Contractions in response to histamine were recorded with isotonic transducers (Model 357, Harvard Apparatus Company, South Natick, Mass.) using an ink-writing polygraph (Model 7, Grass Instrument Company, Quincy, Mass.). A tension of one gram was maintained on all tissues at all times. In each experiment three or four pieces of ileum were removed from a single animal, suspended in individual tissue chambers and allowed to equilibrate with the bathing solution for one hour before the administration of any drugs. In four initial experiments in which tissues were exposed to histamine at concentrations of 1×10−7, 1×10−6 and 1×105 mol/l, histamine at 1×10−6 mol/l produced strong contractions on the linear portion of the log-concentration-effect curve and this concentration of histamine was chosen for use in all further experiments. For determining the antihistaminic effects of loratadine and DCL, tissues were exposed briefly (about 15 seconds) to 1×10−6 mol/l of histamine at intervals of 15 minutes. After two successive exposures to histamine produced contractions of approximately the same magnitude, loratadine or DCL, at final concentrations that varied three- or ten-fold, was added to all but one of the tissue chambers, the untreated tissue serving as a control for the treated tissues. After each exposure of drug-treated tissues to histamine, the fluid in the tissue chamber was replaced with fluid free of histamine but containing the same drug at the same concentration. The histamine challenges were made at 5, 20, 35, 50, 65, 80, 95, 110 and 125 minutes of exposure to the drug or at comparable times in the control tissues. Subsequent analyses of the results from each experiment involved (i) normalization of the data from each tissue for differences in inherent contractility by expressing all contractions as a percent of the last predug contraction, (ii) normalization of the data for possible time-related changes in contractility by expressing the contractions recorded during drug-exposure as a percent of the corresponding value for the untreated tissue, and finally (iii) calculation of the drug-related percent reduction of each contraction. The resultant sets of data for drug concentration and corresponding percent reduction in histamine-response were then used to estimate for each experiment the concentration of drug that would have produced a 50 percent reduction in the histamine response, the IC50. This was done by fitting straight lines to the data using the method of least squares and calculating the IC50 from the equation of the line. The mean+/−standard error of the values for the experiments on each drug were calculated, and differences between the drugs was examined using the Kruskal Wallis 1-way analysis of variance by ranks. A summary of the results are shown in the following two tables. The percentages of reduction of histamine-induced contractions of the isolated guinea pig ileum produced by exposure for 125 minutes to various concentrations of each drug are set forth below: TABLE 1 Reduction of Histamine-induced Guinea Pig Ileum Contractions (Percent) Expt Concentration of drug (mol/1) Drug No. 3 × 10−10 1 × 10−9 3 × 10−9 1 × 10−8 3 × 10−8 1 × 10−7 Loratadine 1 — 19.05 — 13.33 — 88.57 2 — — — 28.32 54.42 98.66 3 — — — 39.64 44.68 93.38 4 — — — 55.86 45.83 86.46 DCL 1 11.93 73.12 2 38.91 38.81 56.71 3 40.00 62.69 76.21 4 35.43 44.13 76.43 TABLE 2 Reduction of Histamine-Induced Guinea Pig Icum Contractions (IC50) Drug Expt IC50 (M) Loratadine 1 1.90 × 10−8 2 2.21 × 10−8 3 2.10 × 10−8 4 1.22 × 10−8 Mean 1.86 × 10−8 S.E. 0.22 DCL 1 6.36 × 10−10 2 19.2 × 10−10 3 5.26 × 10−10 4 8.66 × 10−10 Mean 9.75 × 10−10 S.E. 3.20 Note: There is a statistically significant drug-related difference in IC50 values (P = 0.0209). These results indicate that DCL is approximately 20 fold more potent at the histamine receptor than loratadine. 4.3 Example 3 Receptor Binding Studies Receptor binding studies on the binding affinities of loratadine and DCL at histamine H-1 receptors were performed. The methods described by Dini et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference herein (Agents and Actions, 33:181-184, 1991), were used for these binding studies. Guinea pig cerebella membranes were incubated with 0.5 nM 3H-pyrilamine for 10 min at 25° C. Following incubation, the assays were rapidly filtered under vacuum through GF/B glass fiber filters (Whatman) and washed several times with ice-cold buffer using a Brandel Cell Harvester. Bound radioactivity was determined with a liquid scintillation counter (LS 6000, Beckman) using a liquid scintillation cocktail (Formula 989, DuPont NEN). IC50 values were determined for compounds tested and pyrilamine at the H-1 histamine receptor: TABLE 3 Inhibition of Pyrilamine Binding at H-1 Receptor H-1 receptor Compound IC50 (nM) (nH) Loratadine 721 (1.55) DCL 51.1 (1.12) Pyrilamine 1.4 (0.98) As shown above, DCL was found to have a 14 fold greater affinity than loratadine for histamine H-1 receptors. These results are consistent with the findings demonstrating a higher potency of DCL over loratadine for inhibition of histamine-induced contractions of guinea pig ileum. These studies confirm that DCL has a higher potency for histamine receptors than loratadine. 4.4 Example 4 Tumor Promoting Activity Inhibition of lymphocyte mitogenesis was used to screen the potencies of loratadine and DCL as tumor promoting agents. Mitogenesis Studies: Fresh spleen cells (5×10) obtained from 5-week old BALB/c mice (Charles River, ST. Constant, PQ) were suspended in RPMI 1640 medium containing 2% fetal calf serum (Grand Island Biological Co., Grand Island, N.Y.) seeded into replicate microwell plates (Nunc) to which concanavalin (Con) A (2 μg/ml; Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) was added and incubated (37° C., 95% air, 5% CO2) in the absence or presence of increasing concentrations of the test agents dissolved in saline or other vehicles. Forty-three hours after the addition of Con A, 0.25 nmol 3H-thymidine (6.7 Ci/nmol; ICN Radiopharmaceuticals, Montreal, PQ) was added to each well. After an additional 5-hour incubation, the cells were washed from the wells onto filter papers employing an automated cell sorter. The filters were placed into vials containing 5 ml scintillation fluid (Readysafe; Beckman), and radioactivity incorporated into DNA at 48 hours was determined (n=3). IC50 values for inhibition of mitogenesis were determined over wide range of concentrations (0.1 to 10 μM). TABLE 4 Inhibition of Concanavalin A Induced Stimulation of Lymphocytes (IC50) Loratadine 1.0 μM DCL 5.6 μM These results indicate that DCL is 5-7 fold less active than loratadine at promoting tumor growth. 4.5 Example 5 Cardiovascular Effects The effects of DCL on cardiac potassium currents were studied. Methods: Single ventricular myocytes of the guinea-pig and the rabbit were dissociated by enzymatic dispersion (see Carmeliet, J. Pharmacol. Exper. Ther., 1992, 262, 809-817 which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). The single suction patch electrode, with a resistance of 2 to 5 MΩ was used for voltage clamp (Axoclamp 200A). P-clamp software (Axon Instruments) was used to generate voltage-clamp protocols and to record and analyze data. The standard solution contained in mM: NaCl 137.6, KCl 5.4, CaCl2 1.8, MgCl2 0.5, HEPES 11.6 and glucose 5, and NaOH was added to pH 7.4. The intracellular solution contained KCl 120, MgCl2 6, CaCl2 0.154, Na2ATP 5, EGTA 5, and HEPES 10, with KOH added until pH 7.2. Effect on the Delayed Rectifying K+ Current, (Ikr) in Rabbit Ventricular Myocytes: The voltage clamp protocol consisted of clamps from a holding potential of −50 mV to +10 mV for a duration of 4 sec. The change in tail current was measured as a function of the drug concentration. This concentration was changed between 10−7 and 10−5 M in five steps. Exposure to each concentration lasted 15 min. At the end, washout was attempted during 30 min. Effect on the Inward Rectifier Current in Guinea-Pig Myocytes: The inward rectifier was measured by applying ramp voltage clamps starting from −50 mV and hyperpolarizing the membrane to −120 mV at a speed of 10 mV/sec. The starting concentration was the 50% efficiency concentration, determined in the preceding experiments. Higher concentrations were applied if this initial concentration was without effect. Effect on IKs in Guinea-Pig Ventricular Myocytes: Tail currents were measured following depolarizing clamps of 2 sec duration to potentials between −30 mV and +60 mV; holding potential −50 mV. The results from these studies indicate that DCL is less active than terfenadine in inhibiting the cardiac delayed rectifier and thus has no potential for cardiac side-effects. Thus, the methods of the present invention are less toxic than methods which use other non-sedating antihistamines. 4.6 Example 6 Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 This study is conducted to determine the extent that loratadine and DCL inhibit human cytochrome P4503A4 (CYP3A4). CYP3A4 is involved in many drug-drug interactions and quantitation of inhibition of CYP3A4 by loratadine or DCL indicates the potential of such drug-drug interactions. Inhibition is measured using the model substrate testosterone and cDNA-derived CYP3A4 in microsomes prepared from a human lymphoblastoid cell line designated h3A4v3. Study Design: The inhibition study consists of the determination of the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) for the test substance. A single testosterone concentration (120 μM, approximately twice the apparent Km) and ten test substance concentrations, separated by approximately {fraction (1/2)} log, are tested in duplicate. Testosterone metabolism is assayed by the production of the 6(β)-hydroxytestosterone metabolite. This metabolite is readily quantitated via HPLC separation with absorbance detection. Storage/Preparation of the Test Substances and Addition to the Incubations: The test substances will be stored at room temperature. The test substances will be dissolved in ethanol for addition to the incubations. The solvent concentration will be constant for all concentrations of the test substance. IC50 Determination: Final test substance concentrations will be 100, 30, 10, 3, 1, 0.3, 0.1, 0.03, 0.01, 0.003 and 0 μM. Each test concentration will be tested in duplicate incubations in accordance with the method below: Method: A 0.5 ml reaction mixture containing 0.7 mg/ml protein, 1.3 mM NADP+, 3.3 mM glucose-6-phosphate, 0.4 U/ml glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 3.3 mM magnesium chloride and 120 μM testosterone in 100 mM potassium phosphate (pH 7.4) will be incubated at 37° C. for 30 min. A known quantity of 11(β)-hydroxytestosterone will be added as an internal standard to correct for recovery during extraction. The reaction mixture will be extracted with 1 ml methylene chloride. The extract will be dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate and evaporated under vacuum. The sample will be dissolved in methanol and injected into a 4.6×250 mm 5u C18 HPLC column and separated at 50° C. with a mobile phase methanol/water at a flow rate of 1 ml per min. The retention times are approximately 6 min for the 6(β)-hydroxy, 8 min for 11(˜)-hydroxy and 12 min for testosterone. The product and internal standard are detected by their absorbance at 254 nm and quantitated by correcting for the extraction efficiency using the absorbance of the 11(β)-hydroxy peak and comparing to the absorbance of a standard curve for 6(β)-hydroxytestosterone. Data Reporting: For each test substance, the concentration of 6(β)-hydroxytestosterone metabolite in each replicate incubation is determined and the percentage inhibition relative to solvent control is calculated. The IC50 is calculated by linear interpolation. Useful pharmaceutical dosage forms for administration of the compounds used in the methods of the present invention can be illustrated as follows: 4.7. Example 7 Capsules A large number of unit capsules are prepared by filling standard two-piece hard gelatin capsules each with 0.1 to 10 milligrams of powdered active ingredient, 150 milligrams of lactose, 50 milligrams of cellulose, and 6 milligrams magnesium stearate. 4.8. Example 8 Soft Gelatin Capsules A mixture of active ingredient in a digestible oil such as soybean oil, lecithin, cottonseed oil or olive oil is prepared and injected by means of a positive displacement pump into gelatin to form soft gelatin capsules containing is 0.1 to 10 milligrams of the active ingredient. The capsules are washed and dried. 4.9 Example 9 Tablets A large number of tablets are prepared by conventional procedures so that the dosage unit was 0.1 to 10 milligrams of active ingredient, 0.2 milligrams of colloidal silicon dioxide, 5 milligrams of magnesium stearate, 275 milligrams of microcrystalline cellulose, 11 milligrams of starch and 98.8 milligrams of lactose. Appropriate coatings may be applied to increase palatability or delay absorption. Various modifications of the invention in addition to those shown and described herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description. Such modifications are also intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. The foregoing disclosure includes all the information deemed essential to enable those skilled in the art to practice the claimed invention. Because the cited patents or publications may provide further useful information these cited materials are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. | <SOH> 1. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The methods of the present invention comprise administering a therapeutically effective amount of a metabolic derivative of loratadine. Chemically, this derivative is 8-chloro-6,11-dihydro-11-(4-piperidylidene)-5H-benzo[5,6]cyclohepta[1,2-b]pyridine and known as descarboethoxyloratadine (DCL). This compound is specifically described in Quercia, et al. Hosp. Formul., 28: 137-53 (1993) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,716. Loratadine is an antagonist of the H-1 histamine receptor protein. The histamine receptors H-1 and H-2 are two well-identified forms. The H-1 receptors are those that mediate the response antagonized by conventional antihistamines. H-1 receptors are present, for example, in the ileum, the skin, and the bronchial smooth muscle of man and other mammals. Loratadine binds preferentially to peripheral rather than to central H-1 receptors. Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137-53 (1993). Loratadine has been shown to be a more potent inhibitor of serotonin-induced bronchospasm in guinea pigs than terfenadine. Id. at 137-38. Its anti-allergenic activity in animal models was shown to be comparable to that of terfenadine and astemizole. Id. at 138. However, using standard animal model testing, on a milligram by milligram basis, loratadine was shown to be four times more potent than terfenadine in the inhibition of allergic bronchospasm. Id. Moreover, loratadine's antihistaminic activity was demonstrated in humans by evaluation of the drug's ability to suppress wheal formation. Id. Clinical trials of efficacy indicated that loratadine is an effective H-1 antagonist. See Clissold et al., Drugs 37: 42-57 (1989). Through H-2 receptor-mediated responses, histamine stimulates gastric acid secretion in mammals and the chronotropic effect in isolated mammalian atria. Loratadine has no effect on histamine-induced gastric acid secretion, nor does it alter the chronotropic effect of histamine on atria. Thus, loratadine has no apparent effect on the H-2 histamine receptor. Loratadine is well absorbed but is extensively metabolized. Hilbert, et al., J. Clin. Pharmacol. 27: 694-98 (1987). The main metabolite, DCL, which has been identified, is reported to be pharmacologically active. Clissold, Drugs 37: 42-57 (1989). It is also reported as having antihistaminic activity in U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,716. This patent recommends an oral dosage range of 5 to 100 mg/day and preferably 10 to 20 mg/day. Loratadine's efficacy in treating seasonal allergic rhinitis is comparable to that of terfenadine. Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137, 141 (1993). Loratadine also has a more rapid onset of action than astemizole. Id. Clissold et al., Drugs 37: 42, 50-54 (1989) describes studies showing loratadine as effective for use in seasonal and perennial rhinitis, colds (with pseudoephedrine), and chronic urticaria. It has also been suggested that loratadine would be useful for the treatment of allergic asthma. Temple et al. Prostaglandins 35: 549-554 (1988). Loratadine may also be useful for the treatment of motion sickness and vertigo. Some antihistamines have been found to be effective for the prophylaxis and treatment of motion sickness. See Wood, Drugs, 17: 471-79 (1979). Some antihistamines have also proven useful for treating vestibular disturbances, such as Meniere's disease, and in other types of vertigo. See Cohen et al., Archives of Neurology, 27: 129-35 (1972). In addition, loratadine may be useful in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy and other small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus. In tests on rats with streptozocin-induced diabetes, treatment by antihistamines prevented the activation of retinal histamine receptors which have been implicated in the development of diabetic retinopathy. The use of antihistamines to treat retinopathy and small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,019,591. It has also been suggested that loratadine, in combination with non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents or other non-narcotic analgesics, would be useful for the treatment of cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, pain, headache, fever, and general malaise associated therewith. Such compositions used in the methods of treating the above-described symptoms may optionally include one or more other active components including a decongestant (such as pseudoephedrine), a cough suppressant/antitussive (such as dextromethorphan) or an expectorant (such as guaifenesin). Many antihistamines cause adverse side-effects. These adverse side-effects include, but are not limited to, sedation, gastrointestinal distress, dry mouth, constipation or diarrhea. Loratadine has been found to cause relatively less sedation as compared with other antihistamines. Moreover, the incidence of fatigue, headache, and nausea was similar to those observed for terfenadine. See Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137, 142 (1993). Furthermore, compounds within the class of non-sedating antihistamines, including loratadine, astemizole, and terfenadine, have been known to cause other severe adverse electrophysiologic side-effects. These adverse side-effects are associated with a prolonged QT interval and include but are not limited to ventricular fibrillation and cardiac arrhythmias, such as ventricular tachyarrhythmias or torsades de pointes. Knowles, Canadian Journal Hosp. Pharm., 45: 33, 37 (1992); Craft, British Medical Journal, 292: 660 (1986); Simons et al., Lancet, 2: 624 (1988); and Unknown, Side Effects of Drugs Annual, 12: 142 and 14: 135. Quercia et al., Hosp. Formul. 28: 137, 142 (1993) noted that serious cardiovascular adverse side-effects, including torsades de pointes and other ventricular arrhythmias, were reported in “healthy” patients who received terfenadine concurrently with either ketoconazole or erythromycin. Quercia et al., also states that arrhythmias have also been reported with the concomitant administration of astemizole and erythromycin or erythromycin plus ketoconazole. Thus, he cautions against using loratadine concurrently with ketoconazole, itraconazole, and macrolides, such as erythromycin. Additionally, it is also known that ketoconazole and/or erythromycin interfere with cytochrome P450, and thereby inhibit the metabolism of non-sedative antihistamines such as terfenadine and astemizole. Because of the interference with the metabolism of loratadine, there exists a greater potential for adverse interaction between loratadine or other non-sedating antihistamines and drugs known to inhibit cytochrome P450, such as but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, and erythromycin. In Brandes et al., Cancer Res. (52) 3796-3800 (1992), Brandes showed that the propensity of drugs to promote tumor growth in vivo correlated with potency to inhibit concanavalin A stimulation of lymphocyte mitogenesis. In Brandes et al., J. Nat'l Cancer Inst., 86: (10) 771-775 (1994), Brandes assessed loratadine in an in vitro assay to predict enhancement of in vivo tumor growth. He found that loratadine and astemizole were associated with growth of both melanoma and fibrosarcoma tumors. The dose for loratadine in this study was 10 mg/day. None of the above references teach or enable the methods of the present invention comprising administering DCL to a human while avoiding adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines; nor do the references alone or in combination suggest these methods. Thus, it would be particularly desirable to find methods of treatment with the advantages of known non-sedating antihistamines which would not have the aforementioned disadvantages. | <SOH> 2. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It has now been discovered that DCL is an effective, non-sedating antihistamine which is useful in treating allergic rhinitis in a human, while avoiding adverse side-effects normally associated with the administration of other compounds within the class of non-sedating antihistamines such as loratadine, astemizole, and terfenadine. Such adverse side-effects include, but are not limited to, cardiac arrhythmias, cardiac conduction disturbances, fatigue, headache, gastrointestinal distress, appetite stimulation, weight gain, dry mouth, and constipation or diarrhea. Furthermore, DCL is useful for treating allergic rhinitis while avoiding tumor promotion associated with loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating allergic rhinitis in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. Furthermore, it has now also been discovered that DCL, is useful in treating allergic asthma in a human, while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines. As stated above, examples of such side-effects are appetite stimulation, weight gain, tumor promotion, cardiac arrhythmias, and cardiac conduction disturbances. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating allergic asthma in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. In addition, DCL is useful in treating such disorders in a human as retinopathy and small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with administration of other non-sedating antihistamines and while avoiding tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating retinopathy and small vessel disorders associated with diabetes mellitus, in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. It has also been discovered that DCL, in combination with non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents or other non-narcotic analgesics, is useful for the treatment of cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, pain, headache, fever, and general malaise associated therewith in a human, while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines. The use of such pharmaceutical compositions, containing DCL, and non-narcotic analgesics or non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents such as aspirin, acetaminophen or ibuprofen, may optionally include one or more other active components including a decongestant (such as pseudoephedrine), a cough suppressant/antitussive (such as dextromethorphan) or an expectorant (such as guaifenesin). The present invention also involves the use of the above-described compositions to treat the above-described conditions while avoiding tumor promotion associated with loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, the present invention also relates to the use of these compositions to treat such conditions in a human having a higher then normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. The present invention also relates to a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin, and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating allergic rhinitis, allergic asthma, diabetic retinopathy and other small vessel disorders due to diabetes. This invention is also directed to a method of avoiding interaction between DCL and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, erythromycin, and others known to those skilled in the art, while treating cough, cold, cold-like and/or flu symptoms and the discomfort, headache, pain, fever and general malaise associated therewith, in a human, which comprises administering a composition to said human, said composition comprising DCL and a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent or optionally contain one or more other active components including a decongestant, cough suppressant/antitussive, or expectorant. It has also been discovered that DCL is useful in treating other allergic disorders related to its activity as an antihistamine, including but not limited to, urticaria and symptomatic dermographism, in a human, while avoiding the adverse side-effects associated with the administration of other non-sedating antihistamines and/or while avoiding tumor promotion associated with the administration of loratadine and other non-sedating antihistamines. Thus, this invention also relates to novel methods of treating allergic disorders, including but not limited to, urticaria and symptomatic dermographism in a human having a higher than normal propensity for or incidence of cancer. The present invention also relates to methods of avoiding interaction between loratadine or other non-sedating antihistamines and a drug that inhibits cytochrome P450 including but not limited to ketoconazole, itraconazole, and erythromycin, and others known by those skilled in the art, while treating allergic disorders, including but not limited to, urticaria and symptomatic dermographism wherein said human is administered DCL. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041117 | 20070508 | 20050616 | 99703.0 | 12 | CHANG, CELIA C | METHODS FOR THE TREATMENT OF ALLERGIC RHINITIS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,989,756 | ACCEPTED | Elliptical exercise machine | An exercise machine includes a pair of slide members having front ends connected to a crank unit for turning along with the crank unit and rear ends linearly slidable on a support. A pair of reciprocating members are mounted on the support for reciprocating forward and backward. A pair of foot support members each have a front pivotal end and a rear free end. The front pivotal end of each foot support member is connected pivotally to one of the slide members between the front and rear ends of the slide member. Each foot support member is connected to one of the reciprocating members rearwardly of the front pivotal end. | 1. An exercise machine comprising: a support; a pulley mounted on said support; a crank unit connected to said pulley for rotation along with said pulley; a pair of slide members having front ends connected to said crank unit for turning along with said crank unit and rear ends linearly slidable on said support; a pair of reciprocating members mounted movably on said support for reciprocating forward and backward; a pair of foot support members each of which has a front pivotal end and a rear free end, said front pivotal end of each of said foot support members being connected pivotally to one of said slide members between said front and rear ends of said one of said slide members, each of said foot support members being connected to one of said reciprocating members rearwardly of said front pivotal end. 2. The exercise machine as claimed in claim 1, wherein said support includes a base and an upstanding frame extending upward from a front end of said base, said pulley being mounted on said base adjacent said upstanding frame. 3. The exercise machine as claimed in claim 2, further comprising a pair of handles mounted pivotally on said upstanding frame, and a pair of swinging arms mounted pivotally on said upstanding frame and connected respectively to said handles for swinging simultaneously with said handles, each of said swinging arms having a top end connected to a corresponding one of said handles and a bottom end connected to a front end of one of said reciprocating members. 4. The exercise machine as claimed in claim 1, wherein each of said slide members includes a top side opposite to said base, and a pivot member mounted on said top side and connected pivotally to said front pivotal end of a corresponding one of said foot support members. 5. The exercise machine as claimed in claim 4, wherein each of said reciprocating members has a fixing unit which is provided rearwardly of said front pivotal end of a corresponding one of said foot support members, each of said foot support members being connected immovably to one of said reciprocating members through said fixing unit. 6. The exercise machine as claimed in claim 5, wherein said fixing unit includes two fasteners that are spaced apart longitudinally from each other. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority of Taiwanese Invention Patent Application No. 93126350, filed on Sep. 1, 2004. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an exercise machine, more particularly to an elliptical exercise machine which permits the user to exercise by moving his/her feet along an elliptical path. 2. Description of the Related Art Referring to FIG. 1A, a typical elliptical exercise machine includes a frame 11 which carries a pair of swinging arms 16, a pair of foot members 14 connected to a wheel 12 through cranks 13, and a pair of reciprocating members 17 each of which is connected to one of the swinging arms 16. The foot members 14 are provided respectively with foot platforms 15. The bottom ends of the foot members 14 are slidable along rails provided on the frame 11. When the user stands on the foot platforms 15 and makes an exercise by moving the foot platforms 15 with his feet, the foot members 14 move forward and rearward, and the cranks 13 rotate about the axis of the wheel 12 so that each foot platform 15 ascends and descends along an elliptical path. However, since the foot platforms 15 are mounted fixedly on the foot members 14, they are immovable relative to the foot members 14. The immovable foot platforms 15 are inflexible and are therefore unable to change their inclining position according to the varying inclining position of the user' feet during the course of exercising movement. Therefore, the foot platforms 15 are unable to contact and support the entire part of the user's feet which tend to incline at different inclining angles during their movements along elliptical paths. Especially, when the user's feet reach their highest or lowest position, they are unsupported at the heels so that the heels are substantially in a suspended position and are vulnerable to strain and fatigue. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,540,637 and 5,813,949 also disclose an exercise machine which enables a user to move his feet along an elliptical path. In this machine, foot platforms are supported by respective foot members which are not connected to a crank and which do not slide on the base of a frame. However, like the prior art shown in FIG. 1, the foot platforms of the machine disclosed in each patent are also immovable relative to the foot members so that they cannot provide sufficient support for the user's feet. FIG. 1B shows an exercise machine including foot platforms 10 each of which is pivotal relative to a foot member 101 to which the foot platform 10 is attached. Each foot platform 10 is pivoted to a fulcrum member 103 which is mounted on the foot member 101 through a pivot pin 104 and is further connected pivotally to a reciprocating member 102 through a head part 105 of the pivot pin 104. While each foot platform 10 is pivotal to move along with the user's foot for providing good support, since it is connected to the foot member 101 only by means of the pivot pin 104 passing through the fulcrum member 103, the exercise machine, when in use, can be subjected to huge bending force and stress concentration at the joint between the foot platform 10 and the foot member 101, thereby resulting in failure of the joint or damage of the machine. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide an elliptical exercise machine with a foot support member that is pivotal relative to a slide member to which the foot support member is attached so as to provide good support for the user's foot. Another object of the present invention is to provide an elliptical exercise machine with an improved arrangement which can minimize stress concentration and bending forces exerted on the exercise machine by the user during exercising. According to this invention, an exercise machine comprises a support, a pulley mounted on the support, a crank unit connected to the pulley for rotation along with the pulley, a pair of slide members having front ends connected to the crank unit for turning along with the crank unit and rear ends linearly slidable on the support; a pair of reciprocating members mounted on the support for reciprocating forward and backward; and a pair of foot support members each of which has a front pivotal end and a rear free end. The front pivotal end of each of the foot support members is connected pivotally to one of the slide members between the front and rear ends of the one of the slide members. Each of the foot support members is connected to one of the reciprocating members rearwardly of the front pivotal end. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent in the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1A is a schematic view of a conventional exercise machine; FIG. 1B is an exploded view of another conventional exercise machine; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an exercise machine embodying the present invention; FIG. 3 is a top plan view of the exercise machine of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a side elevation view of the exercise machine of FIG. 2, illustrating that a foot support member at the right side of the machine reaches a highest level position of an elliptical path; FIG. 5 is the same view as FIG. 4 but with the right side foot support member moving to a frontmost position; FIG. 6 is the same view as FIG. 4 but with the right side foot support member moving to a lowest level position; and FIG. 7 is the same view as FIG. 4 but with the right side foot support member moving to a rearmost position. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIGS. 2 to 7, an exercise machine embodying the present invention includes a support 2 which has a base 21, and an upstanding frame 22 extending upward from the base 21. A flywheel 201 and a pulley 202 are mounted on the base 21 adjacent to the upstanding frame 22. Two slide rails 23 are provided in the base 21 at a rear part of the base 21 distal from the upstanding frame 22. A crank unit includes two crank members 24 which are connected pivotally and respectively to two opposite sides of the pulley 202. A pair of slide members 31 have front ends 311 connected pivotally to respective crank members 24 for rotation along with the crank members 24. Rear ends 312 of the slide members 31 are wheeled and engaged slidingly with respective slide rails 23 so that the rear ends 312 are slidable linearly on the base 21. Each slide member 31 has a U-shaped pivot seat 32 between the front and rear ends 311 and 312. A foot support assembly 4 includes two foot support members 41 each of which has a front pivotal end 411 and a rear free end 412. The front pivotal end 411 of each foot support member 41 is connected pivotally to one of the slide members 31 between the front and rear ends 311 and 312 of the corresponding slide member 31 and through the pivot seat 32 and a pivot pin 42. The front pivotal end 411 is located above a top side 313 of the slide member 31. A pedal member 43 is disposed on and fixed to each foot support member 41. A swinging unit 5 includes a pair of swinging arms 51 and a pair of reciprocating members 52. The swinging arms 51 have top ends connected pivotally and respectively to two connecting members 221 provided at two opposite sides of the upstanding frame 22. The connecting members 221 are in turn connected respectively to bottom ends of two handles 511 so that the handles 511 are swingable together with the respective swinging arms 51. The front end of each reciprocating member 52 is pivoted to the bottom end of the corresponding swinging arm 51. Each reciprocating member 52 is adjacent side by side and is connected immovably to the corresponding foot support member 41 through a fixing unit. Specifically, the fixing unit includes two fasteners or fastening pins 53 which are spaced apart longitudinally from each other and are provided rearwardly of the front pivotal end 411 of each foot support member 41 to connect each foot support member 41 to a rear end portion of the corresponding reciprocating member 52. As such, the foot support members 41 are pivotal with respect to the respective slide members 31 and are immovable with respect to the respective reciprocating members 52. Referring once again to FIGS. 4 to 7, when the user stands on the pedal members 43 with his feet moving along elliptical paths, the front ends 311 of the slide members 31 move along with the respective crank members 24 along circular paths, and the rear ends 312 of the slide members 31 slide linearly in the respective slide rails 23. As a result, each foot of the user ascends and descends alternately together with the foot support members 41 along an elliptical path. As the foot support members 41 move, the reciprocating members 52 swing reciprocatingly together with the swinging members 51. Due to the swinging movement of the corresponding swinging member 51 about an axis of rotation, the front end of each reciprocating member 52 moves along an arc-shaped path while the rear end of the reciprocating member 52 moves along the elliptical path together with the corresponding foot support member 41. Alternatively, the reciprocating members 52 maybe arranged in such a manner that the front ends of the reciprocating members 52 are slidable on the base 21. In either case, the reciprocating members 52 can periodically change their inclination angles so that the pedal members 43 on the foot support members 41 will incline upward and downward during the ascent and descent of the foot support members 41. Each pedal member 43 has its surface lying substantially horizontally, as shown in FIG. 6, when reaching substantially a lowest level position of the elliptical path. In other stages, the front end of the pedal members 43 is inclined downward. The pedal member 43 is inclined at the greatest inclining angle (see FIG. 4) when reaching substantially the highest level position of the elliptical path. Since the foot support members 41 are pivoted to the respective slide members 31 at the front pivotal ends 411 thereof, the rear free ends 412 of the foot support members 41 are permitted to swing within a wide range of angles. As the foot support members 41 are pivotal, each pedal member 43 is permitted to contact substantially the entire part of the user's foot during the exercising movement of the user, thereby providing good support for the user's feet. In addition, because each foot support member 41 is supported at its front pivotal end 411 by the corresponding slide member 31 and at its intermediate part by the corresponding reciprocating member 52, the dynamic forces exerted on each foot support member 41 by the user during exercising can be shared by the slide member 31 and the reciprocating member 52, thereby avoiding stress concentration, minimizing bending forces, and increasing the durability of the exercise machine. While the present invention has been described in connection with what is considered the most practical and preferred embodiment, it is understood that this invention is not limited to the disclosed embodiment but is intended to cover various arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the broadest interpretations and equivalent arrangements. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an exercise machine, more particularly to an elliptical exercise machine which permits the user to exercise by moving his/her feet along an elliptical path. 2. Description of the Related Art Referring to FIG. 1A , a typical elliptical exercise machine includes a frame 11 which carries a pair of swinging arms 16 , a pair of foot members 14 connected to a wheel 12 through cranks 13 , and a pair of reciprocating members 17 each of which is connected to one of the swinging arms 16 . The foot members 14 are provided respectively with foot platforms 15 . The bottom ends of the foot members 14 are slidable along rails provided on the frame 11 . When the user stands on the foot platforms 15 and makes an exercise by moving the foot platforms 15 with his feet, the foot members 14 move forward and rearward, and the cranks 13 rotate about the axis of the wheel 12 so that each foot platform 15 ascends and descends along an elliptical path. However, since the foot platforms 15 are mounted fixedly on the foot members 14 , they are immovable relative to the foot members 14 . The immovable foot platforms 15 are inflexible and are therefore unable to change their inclining position according to the varying inclining position of the user' feet during the course of exercising movement. Therefore, the foot platforms 15 are unable to contact and support the entire part of the user's feet which tend to incline at different inclining angles during their movements along elliptical paths. Especially, when the user's feet reach their highest or lowest position, they are unsupported at the heels so that the heels are substantially in a suspended position and are vulnerable to strain and fatigue. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,540,637 and 5,813,949 also disclose an exercise machine which enables a user to move his feet along an elliptical path. In this machine, foot platforms are supported by respective foot members which are not connected to a crank and which do not slide on the base of a frame. However, like the prior art shown in FIG. 1 , the foot platforms of the machine disclosed in each patent are also immovable relative to the foot members so that they cannot provide sufficient support for the user's feet. FIG. 1B shows an exercise machine including foot platforms 10 each of which is pivotal relative to a foot member 101 to which the foot platform 10 is attached. Each foot platform 10 is pivoted to a fulcrum member 103 which is mounted on the foot member 101 through a pivot pin 104 and is further connected pivotally to a reciprocating member 102 through a head part 105 of the pivot pin 104 . While each foot platform 10 is pivotal to move along with the user's foot for providing good support, since it is connected to the foot member 101 only by means of the pivot pin 104 passing through the fulcrum member 103 , the exercise machine, when in use, can be subjected to huge bending force and stress concentration at the joint between the foot platform 10 and the foot member 101 , thereby resulting in failure of the joint or damage of the machine. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the present invention is to provide an elliptical exercise machine with a foot support member that is pivotal relative to a slide member to which the foot support member is attached so as to provide good support for the user's foot. Another object of the present invention is to provide an elliptical exercise machine with an improved arrangement which can minimize stress concentration and bending forces exerted on the exercise machine by the user during exercising. According to this invention, an exercise machine comprises a support, a pulley mounted on the support, a crank unit connected to the pulley for rotation along with the pulley, a pair of slide members having front ends connected to the crank unit for turning along with the crank unit and rear ends linearly slidable on the support; a pair of reciprocating members mounted on the support for reciprocating forward and backward; and a pair of foot support members each of which has a front pivotal end and a rear free end. The front pivotal end of each of the foot support members is connected pivotally to one of the slide members between the front and rear ends of the one of the slide members. Each of the foot support members is connected to one of the reciprocating members rearwardly of the front pivotal end. | 20041115 | 20080108 | 20060302 | 85451.0 | A63B2204 | 2 | CROW, STEPHEN R | ELLIPTICAL EXERCISE MACHINE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | A63B | 2,004 |
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10,989,776 | ACCEPTED | Extension and locking assembly for dripless element, and container therefore | A filter assembly includes housing enclosing a replaceable filter element. A support core is provided in the housing, and includes an extension and locking assembly. The element includes a ring of filtration media with a pair of end caps. The first end cap includes a central opening to receive the support core. The extension and locking assembly prevents the cover of the housing from being attached to the housing body without a proper filter element installed. The extension and locking assembly includes a bypass member and a locking member, which are in locking engagement when an element is absent in the housing. The second end cap includes internal protrusions which engage the locking member when the filter element is installed to disengage the bypass member from the support core, and allow the element to be inserted and the cover to be installed. | 1. A fluid-tight container for a cylindrical filter element having a disk-shaped end cap at either end of the filter element, the container comprising: i) a first thin-walled container portion, the first container portion having a dimension sufficient to enclose at least a portion of the filter element; ii) a second thin-walled container portion, said second container portion also having a dimension sufficient to enclose at least a portion of the filter element, the first and second container portions connectable to form a fluid-tight enclosure for the filter element; iii) means integral with one of the container portions for removably coupling one of the end caps of the filter element to the one container portion; and iv) means for removably connecting the first container portion to the second container portion so as to form a fluid-tight enclosure for the filter element, wherein the filter element remains coupled to the one container portion when the first container portion is removed from the second container portion and the one container portion is inverted. 2. The container as in claim 1, wherein the first container portion comprises a cup-shaped body with a disc-shaped end wall, and a relatively long cylindrical sidewall projecting axially away from the end wall, and the second container portion comprises a lid of the container, and also includes a disc-shaped end wall, and a relatively short annular flange, the annular flange of the lid closely receiving the cylindrical sidewall of the body to allow the lid to be easily connected to and removed from the body. 3. The container as in claim 2, wherein the cylindrical sidewall includes a bead bounding an open end of the body, the flange resiliently deflecting to engage the bead and retain the lid to the body. 4. The container as in claim 1, wherein the means to retain includes resilient means integral with the one container portion, the resilient means resiliently deflectable to engage a portion of the filter element to retain the filter element to the one container portion. 5. The container as in claim 4, wherein the means to retain includes a resilient portion of the cylindrical sidewall that resiliently deforms and can engage one of the end caps of the filter element. 6. The container as in claim 5, wherein the cylindrical sidewall includes an annular bead or ridge that can engage and resiliently deflect around the one end cap to retain the one end cap of the filter element. 7. The container as in claim 4, wherein the retaining means includes one of an annular flange, bead, channel or ridge that can deformably engage and retain the one end cap of the filter element. 8. The container as in claim 7, wherein the retaining means is unitary with the one container portion. 9. The container as in claim 4, wherein the means to retain includes an annular flange integral with a disk-shaped end wall of the first container portion and projecting internally of the first container portion, the annular flange including a deformable portion engageable with a portion of one end cap of the filter element to retain the filter element to the first container portion. 10. The container as in claim 9, wherein the deformable portion of the annular flange includes an annular catch projecting radially outward from the annular flange at a distal inner end of the annular flange. 11. The container as in claim 1, wherein the first and second container portions are formed of incineratable material. 12. The container as in claim 1, wherein the first and second container portions have a wall thickness of between 0.015 and 0.030 inches. 13. A storage container for a cylindrical filter element having a disk-shaped end cap at either end of the filter element, the container comprising: i) a first container portion comprising an imperforate cup-shaped body sufficient to enclose at least a portion of the filter element; ii) a second container portion comprising an imperforate cup-shaped lid sufficient to enclose at least a portion of the filter element, the body and lid connectable to form a fluid-tight enclosure for the filter element; iii) a resilient retaining device integral with the body for cooperating with one of the end caps of the filter element and removably coupling the filter element to the body; wherein the lid and body have cooperating structure allowing the lid to be easily attached to and removed from the body so as to form a fluid-tight enclosure for the filter element, wherein the filter element remains coupled to the body when the lid is removed from the body and the body is inverted. 14. The storage container as in claim 13, wherein the retaining device includes one of an annular flange, bead, channel or ridge that can deformably engage and retain the one end cap of the filter element. 15. The storage container as in claim 13, wherein the retaining device is unitary with the one container portion. 16. The storage container as in claim 13, wherein the first and second container portions are formed of incineratable material. 17. The storage container as in claim 13, wherein the body and lid are both thin-walled. 18. An assembly including a cylindrical filter element having a disk-shaped end cap at either end of the filter element, and a container for the element, the container comprising: i) a first container portion comprising an imperforate cup-shaped body enclosing at least a portion of the filter element; ii) a second container portion comprising an imperforate cup-shaped lid also enclosing at least a portion of the filter element, the body and lid forming a fluid-tight enclosure for the filter element and disconnectable from each other so as to provide access to the filter element; and iii) a resilient retaining device integral with the body cooperating with one of the end caps of the filter element and retaining the filter element within the body; wherein the lid and body have cooperating structure allowing the lid to be easily attached to and removed from the body, wherein the filter element remains retained within the body when the lid is removed from the body and the body is inverted. 19. The assembly as in claim 18, wherein the retaining device includes one of an annular flange, bead, channel or ridge that can deformably engage and retain the one end cap of the filter element. 20. The assembly as in claim 19, wherein the retaining device is unitary with the first container portion. 21. The assembly as in claim 18, wherein the first and second container portions are formed of incineratable material. 22. The assembly as in claim 18, wherein the body and lid are both thin-walled. 23. A filter element including a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central axis and having first and second ends; a first end cap sealingly bonded to the first end of the filtration media, and a second end cap sealingly bonded to the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element; said first end cap also including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said first end cap having a smaller diameter than said central opening of said second end cap, said central opening of said first end cap bounded by an annular flange integral with said first end cap and projecting axially inward a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said first end cap than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; and a series of distinct protrusions spaced radially outward from said annular flange and radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said protrusions permanently fixed to said first end cap and projecting axially inward from said first end cap a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and remaining with the filter element when the filter element is removed from between the housing portions. 24. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein said elongated protrusions are evenly spaced in an annular arrangement surrounding said annular flange. 25. The filter element as in claim 24, wherein the protrusions extend in arcuate segments in an annular configuration along a surface of the first end cap. 26. The filter element as in claim 24, wherein the annular flange has a tapered inner distal end. 27. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein each of said protrusions has a distal free end, and the distal free end of the protrusions has a helical ramped surface. 28. The filter element as in claim 27, wherein the helical ramped surfaces extend in an annular direction around a surface of the first end cap. 29. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein said protrusions are unitary with said first end cap. 30. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein the ring of filtration media radially outwardly bounds the protrusions. 31. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein said flange is spaced radially inward apart from the filtration media, and defines an annular gap between the flange and the media. 32. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein said protrusions are radially spaced inward apart from the filtration media, and radially spaced outward apart from the flange. 33. The filter element as in claim 23, wherein said second end cap has an annular body portion with a surface that is sealingly bonded in surface-to-surface contact with an annular end surface of the filtration media ring. 34. A filter element removably positionable between a pair of housing portions, with a central support core projecting axially away from one of the housing portions toward the other of the housing portions, said filter element comprising: i) a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central cavity along a central axis and having first and second ends, and first and second end caps at opposite ends of the media; ii) the first end cap having a surface sealingly bonded to a surface at the first end of the filtration media and having a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said first end cap being defined by an annular flange integral with said first end cap and projecting axially inward a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said first end cap than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; and a series of protrusions permanently fixed to the first end cap and extending axially inward a short first distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap, said protrusions spaced radially outward apart from said flange and radially inward apart from said ring of filtration media, and being radially outwardly bounded by the ring of filtration media; and iii) the second end cap having a surface sealingly bonded to a surface at the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap also having a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said second end cap having a larger diameter than said central opening of said first end cap and dimensioned to receive the central support core, wherein the protrusions remain with the filter element when the filter element is removed from between the pair of housing portions. 35. The filter element as in claim 34, wherein the protrusions are unitary with the first end cap. 36. The filter element as in claim 34, wherein the protrusions are evenly-spaced in an annular arrangement around the annular flange. 37. A filter element removeably positionable between a pair of housing portions, the filter element including a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central axis and having first and second ends; a first end cap sealingly bonded to the first end of the filtration media, and a second end cap sealingly bonded to the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element; said first end cap also including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said first end cap having a smaller diameter than said central opening of said second end cap, said central opening of said first end cap bounded by an annular flange integral with said first end cap and projecting axially inward a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said first end cap than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; at least one protrusion spaced radially outward from said annular flange and radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said at least one protrusion permanently fixed to said first end cap and projecting axially inward from said first end cap a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and remaining with the filter element when the filter element is removed from between the housing portions. 38. The filter element as claim 37, wherein the at least one protrusion extends in an arcuate segment in an annular configuration along a surface of the first end cap. 39. The filter element as in claim 38, wherein said at least one protrusion has a distal free end with a helical ramped surface. 40. The filter element as in claim 39, wherein the helical ramped surface extends in an annular direction around a surface of the first end cap. 41. The filter element as in claim 37, wherein said at least one protrusion is unitary with said first end cap. 42. The filter element as in claim 37, wherein the ring of filtration media radially outwardly bounds the at least one protrusion. 43. The filter element as in claim 37, wherein said flange is spaced radially inward apart from the filtration media, and defines an annular gap between the flange and the media. 44. The filter element as in claim 37, wherein said at least one protrusion is radially spaced inward apart from the filtration media, and radially spaced outward apart from the flange. 45. The filter element as in claim 37, wherein said second end cap has an annular body portion with a surface that is sealingly bonded in surface-to-surface contact with an annular end surface of the filtration media ring. 46. A filter element including a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central axis and having first and second ends; a first end cap sealingly bonded to the first end of the filtration media, and a second end cap sealingly bonded to the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element; said first end cap also including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said first end cap having a smaller diameter than said central opening of said second end cap, said central opening of said first end cap bounded by an annular flange integral with said first end cap and projecting axially inward a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said first end cap than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; at least one protrusion located radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said at least one protrusion permanently fixed to said first end cap and projecting axially inward from said first end cap a short distance toward said second end cap. 47. The filter element as in claim 46, further including a plurality of protrusions equally spaced apart and located radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said protrusions permanently fixed to said first end cap and projecting axially inward from said first end cap a short distance toward said second end cap. 48. A filter element removeably positionable within a housing, the filter element including a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central axis and having first and second ends; a first end cap sealingly bonded to the first end of the filtration media, and a second end cap sealingly bonded to the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element; said first end cap also including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said first end cap having a smaller diameter than said central opening of said second end cap, said central opening of said first end cap bounded by an annular flange integral with said first end cap and projecting axially inward a short distance from said first end cap toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said first end cap than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; at least one protrusion located radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said at least one protrusion permanently fixed to said first end cap and projecting axially inward from said first end cap a short distance toward said second end cap, and remaining with the filter element when the filter element is removed from the housing. 49. The filter element as in claim 48, further including a plurality of protrusions equally spaced apart and located radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said protrusions permanently fixed to said first end cap and projecting axially inward from said first end cap a short distance toward said second end cap. | RELATED CASES This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/371,751, filed Feb. 21, 2003; which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/584,972, filed Jun. 1, 2000, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to fluid filters, and more particularly to fuel filters for vehicles. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many types of filters (also referred to as “separators”) are known in the prior art. Filters are widely known for removing contaminants and other impurities from fluids such as fuel and oil. A popular type of filter has a housing that encloses a replaceable ring-shaped filter element. The filter element ensures that impurities are removed from fuel or oil before it is delivered to system components such as fuel injection pumps and fuel injectors. Mating portions of the housing form an interior enclosure for the element, and the housing portions may be separated for replacement of a spent filter element. Periodic replacement of the filter element is required so that the filter element will not become so loaded with impurities that flow is restricted. It is known that problems may arise when such filter elements are replaced. One problem is that filter elements with different sizes and/or filtration capabilities often have identical mounting configurations and can fit on the same filter head. However, use of the wrong filter element can cause poor engine performance and allow undesirable amounts of contaminants to pass through the system. Another problem is that individuals may remove a spent filter element and simply re-attach the housing portions without a fresh element. If an automatic drain valve is used in the filter (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,386), fuel or oil can be dumped to drain when an element is not installed in the housing. While the engine may operate (at least for a short period of time), this can be detrimental to the engine, particularly if the operation of the engine depends on the continued supply of oil or fuel from the filter. A still further problem is that upon removing the element, an individual may come into contact with the fuel/oil and any impurities on the element, and get dirty hands. The user typically has to reach down into the housing to grasp the element, and may come into contact with residual fuel or oil in the housing and on the element. In addition, any fuel or oil remaining on the element may drip off on the surrounding engine components when the element is removed, thereby fouling the engine; or worse yet, drip off onto the ground and create environmental issues. To reduce and at least partially eliminate some of these problems, the filter assembly shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,923, owned by the Assignee of the present application, was developed. This filter assembly includes a unique replaceable filter element that is attached to a removable cover. The filter element includes an opening in one end cap opposite from the cover, which allows the filter element to be removeably located over an elongated standpipe in the housing. The element is removed when the cover is removed (screwed off) from the housing. While this reduces skin contact with the element and thereby reduces the mess associated with an element change, this does not fully address the problem with fuel, oil and impurities draining off the element as it is removed from the housing and carried across the engine. In addition, the cover of the housing in the '923 patent is typically discarded with each spent element. This is undesirable from a conservation and solid waste standpoint, as the cover is usually a heavy plastic or metal component. It is generally desirable to minimize the amount of material discarded, particularly if a discarded element must be treated as hazardous waste and/or cannot be easily incinerated. The cover also represents a portion of the cost of the replacement element. As a result, this design adds cost to the replacement element. The element in the '923 patent may also be separated from the cover, and the cover re-attached to the housing without a fresh element also being installed. As such, this design does not fully address the problems associated with operating an engine without a filter element installed. An improved filter assembly is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,065, also owned by the assignee of the present application. In this patent, a standpipe is similarly provided internally to the housing, and a spring-biased valve element is provided internal to the standpipe. The valve element is normally closed, and can be engaged and moved to an open position by a projection on an end cap of the element when the element is properly installed in the housing. The valve (and hence the filter assembly) generally cannot be operated without a proper filter element installed. The filter shown in the '065 patent overcomes some of the problems associated with the earlier '923 patent, however, the cover is attached to the element in the same manner as in the '923 patent, and fuel and oil can still drip onto the engine and the surrounding area when the filter element is replaced. Also, as in the '923 patent, the cover may be detached from the element and screwed back onto the housing with out a fresh element being installed. In some high-pressure fuel systems, the valve element may actually be forced open, and unfiltered fuel can be allowed to pass to the downstream components. This can also be detrimental to the engine. It is therefor believed there exists a need for a still further filter that reduces if not eliminates, the mess and environmental issues associated with changing an element; and prevents the operation of the filter without a proper filter element. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION A new and unique filter assembly is provided that prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. According to the present invention, the filter assembly includes a replaceable element with a ring of filtration media, and an end cap sealingly bonded to either end of the filtration media. An internal support core is fixed to an end wall of the filter housing, and one of the end caps of the filter element include a central opening, such that the filter element can be removably received over the support core. The support core provides internal support for the filter element, so that the filter element can be composed of only material which is easily incinerated. An extension and locking assembly is provided with the support core. The extension and locking assembly operates to prevent the cover of the housing from being attached to the housing body without a proper filter element installed in the housing, or without a filter element in the housing. The extension and locking assembly includes a bypass member and a locking member. The bypass member is closely and slideably received in the locking member, while the locking member is closely and slideably received in the support core. In one embodiment, both the locking member and the bypass member have enlarged heads, with the enlarged head of the bypass member overlying the enlarged head of the locking member. A main spring extends between a shoulder on the support core and the enlarged head of the locking member to bias the locking member and bypass member outwardly from the support core. When the locking member and bypass member are in their outer position, the distal inner end of the locking member urges the distal inner end of the bypass member radially outward against the inner surface of the support core. The support core includes an annular step or shoulder along its inner surface, and the distal inner end of the bypass member engages the step to prevent the extension and locking assembly from being pushed inwardly into the support core. The extension and locking assembly is long enough such that the cover of the housing cannot be attached to the housing body when the extension and locking assembly is in its outer position. The enlarged head of the bypass member includes a series of openings which allow access to the enlarged head of the locking member. The openings are strategically placed, and the other end cap (opposite from the end cap of the filter element with the central opening) has a series of protrusions that extend axially inward from the end cap, in orientation with the openings. When the element is installed over the support core, the protrusions extend through the openings in the head of the bypass member and engage the head of the locking member. The protrusions force the locking member axially inward, and in so doing, move the distal inner end of the locking member away from the distal inner end of the bypass member. This allows the distal inner end of the bypass member to disengage from the step in the support core, and the locking member and bypass member to slide inwardly (retract) into the support core. In its inner position, the extension and locking assembly allows the filter element to be properly located in the filter housing, and the cover to be attached to the housing body. As should be appreciated, a filter element without a correct arrangement of protrusions on its end cap will not engage the head of the locking member, and the extension and locking assembly will remain locking in its outer position, thereby preventing the filter element from being properly assembled in the filter housing. Another feature of the filter assembly is that during an element change, when the cover is removed, the extension and locking assembly will urge the spent element slightly outwardly from the housing, as the extension and locking assembly moves to its outer position. This facilitates removing the spent filter element from the housing, and reduces contact with any fuel or oil remaining in the housing. A bypass valve can be provided in the bypass member to allow fluid to bypass the filter element when the filter element becomes clogged with impurities. The bypass valve can be provided as a unitary piece with the bypass member, or as a separate piece supported by the bypass member. A bypass spring biases the head of the bypass valve against a central opening in the adjacent end cap to normally prevent fluid bypassing the element, but to allow fluid bypass when the pressure in the housing increases above a predetermined amount. As discussed above, the filter element includes a pair of end caps, with a first of the end caps including a central opening to receive the central support core. The second end cap includes the protrusions for operating the extension and locking assembly, and can include a central opening if the bypass valve is used. The central opening in the second end cap is preferably bounded by a short annular flange, which extends inwardly into the filter element, and seals against the bypass valve when the element is located in the housing. The flange and protrusions can be easily formed with the end cap such as by molding the end cap as a unitary component, and the filter element is otherwise a simple and inexpensive component to manufacture. While not as preferred, the protrusions could also be formed on a separate piece and held against the inside surface of the second end cap. Another feature of the present invention is that the filter element is preferably stored for shipment in a fluid-tight container. The container includes a cup-shaped body and a lid, with the lid being easily attachable to the body to allow easy access to the filter element. The body and lid are preferably formed from inexpensive, lightweight, incineratable material, for example, a plastic. The container body includes a retaining device, such as a ridge or bead, integral with either the sidewall and/or end wall of the body, which is designed to engage an appropriate part of the element and retain the element in the body. The retaining device can have a number of different forms, and can be configured to engage different locations on the filter element to retain the element within the container body. It is preferred that the retaining device be resilient, and resiliently deflect to engage a portion of the end cap, such as the outer periphery of one of the end caps. During an element change, a fresh element can be removed from the container and set aside. The empty body of the container is then inverted, and inserted open-end first into the open end of the filter housing, in surrounding relation to the spent element. This is facilitated by the element sitting slightly outwardly from the housing as discussed above. The resilient retaining device engages the element, and cooperates with the element to retain the element to the body. The container body is then removed from the housing, with the element attached thereto. Upon removing the body from the housing, the body is immediately turned upright, thereby preventing any fuel or oil from dripping off the element and contaminating the surrounding area. The lid is then attached to the body, and the entire assembly, with the spent element, can then be disposed of such as by incineration. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter, and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. Further features and advantages will be apparent upon reviewing the following Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiment and the accompanying Drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an elevated perspective view in partial cross section of a first embodiment of the filter constructed according to the principles of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an exploded view of certain components of the filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter of FIG. 1, illustrating the outer position of the extension and locking assembly; FIG. 5 is an enlarged view of a portion of the filter of FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is an elevated perspective view of the extension and locking assembly for the filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is an inside view of the upper end cap for the filter element; FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional side view of the extension and locking assembly, illustrating the end cap of the filter element engaging the locking member; FIG. 9 is cross-sectional side view of the filter, illustrating the extension and locking assembly in an outer position; FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional side view of the extension and locking assembly shown constructed according to a further embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is an exploded view of the extension and locking assembly of FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is an elevated perspective view of a separate end piece with protrusions for the filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 13 is an exploded view of the container and a fresh element for the fuel filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional side view of a first embodiment of the container for the filter element; FIG. 15 is an enlarged view of a portion of the container of FIG. 14; FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional enlarged view of another portion of the container of FIG. 14; FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional enlarged side view of a portion of the container, illustrating a second embodiment of the container; FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional side view of a third embodiment of the container; FIG. 19 is an elevated perspective view of a fourth embodiment of the container; FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional side view of the container, illustrating a fifth embodiment of the container; FIG. 21 is an enlarged view of a portion of the container of FIG. 20; and FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional side view of a sixth embodiment of the container. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings, and initially to FIG. 1, a first embodiment of a filter constructed according to the principles of the present invention, is indicated generally at 30. The filter 30 is particularly suited for filtering water and other particulate and contaminants from fuel (e.g., diesel fuel), but is generally appropriate for separating any low density fluid (e.g., water) from a higher density fluid (e.g., oil). The filter 30 of the first embodiment includes an annular housing body 32 with a cup-shaped cover 34 removeably attached to an open end of the housing body. The housing body 32 and cover 34 define an interior cavity 35 for a removable filter element 36. Housing 32 and cover 34 are formed from materials appropriate for the particular application, for example hard plastic, and the housing 32 is fixed to an appropriate location on the engine. Annular housing body 32 includes a disk-shaped end wall 37, an inlet port 38 and an outlet port 39 which direct fuel into and out of the filter. The inlet and outlet ports are illustrated as being formed in the end wall 37, however one or both could also be formed in housing body 32, or even in cover 34. In any case, fuel (or oil) to be filtered is directed through inlet port 38 and into a peripheral region 40 of the filter, between housing body 32 and filter element 36. The fuel then passes radially inward through element 36, where contaminants/particulate in the fuel are removed, and the filtered fuel then passes through port 39 to the downstream components of the fuel system. The housing body 32 includes an open end 42, and a series of internal threads 44 are provided near the open end. The cover 34 also includes an open end 46, with a series of external threads 48 provided near the open end. Threads 44 of housing cooperate with threads 48 of cover 34 to enable the cover to be easily screwed onto and off of the housing. An O-ring seal or gasket 50 is provided between the housing components to provide a fluid-tight seal. The above is only one technique for attaching the cover to the housing, and other techniques are possible as should be known to those skilled in the art. A threaded spud or collar 54 is provided centrally in the end wall 37 of the housing, and bounds outlet port 39. Spud 54 projects axially upward a short distance from the end wall 37 toward the open end 42 of the housing body. If necessary or desirable, an automatic drain valve (not shown) can be installed in the end wall 37 of the housing, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,386. This patent is incorporated herein by reference. Referring now to FIGS. 2-5 , a support core or tube 56 extends along the axial center line of the housing, and includes a threaded inner end 57 which is screwed into and sealingly received in spud 54. The inner end of the support core includes a short annular skirt 58 (see also FIG. 8) which is radially outwardly spaced from the core, and is closely outwardly received around spud 54. The support core 56 includes a series of ribs or flights as at 60 along its length. Flights 60 preferably extend in a continuous helix, and facilitate the movement of fuel along the length of the support core, as well as provide uniform support along the inside surface of the filter element 36. The support core 56 preferably has one or more openings 62 (FIG. 3) toward its outer (upper) end 64 to allow fuel to pass inward into the support core. The remainder of the length of the support core can be imperforate, or may also have appropriate openings, depending upon the desired level of fuel to be maintained in the support core. In certain situations, it is desired to maintain a certain level of fuel in the support core for the smooth operation of the filter during start-up. Finally, the support core includes an outer annular shoulder 66 and an inner annular step 68 (FIG. 5), both at appropriate locations along the length of the core, and the reasons for which will be described below. Support core 56 is formed of material, e.g., hard plastic, appropriate for the particular application. An extension and locking assembly, indicated generally at 70 in FIG. 4, is received in support core 56. Extension and locking assembly 70 prevents the cover 34 from being attached to housing body 32 unless a proper filter element is installed in the housing. To this end, the extension and locking assembly 70 include a locking member 74 and a bypass member 76; with locking member 74 being closely and slidingly received in bypass member 76, and bypass member 76 being closely and slidingly received in support core 56. As shown in FIG. 3, locking member 74 includes a body 78 with a series of lower openings 79 for fluid flow, a series of upper openings 80, an annular base 82, and an enlarged annular head 84. The base 82 of the locking member includes a radially-outward projecting annular flange 86 (see FIG. 5). Body 78 includes a series of inner axial channels or slots 90, which are positioned to slidingly receive fingers 92 of bypass member 76. Locking member 74 is preferably formed unitarily (in one piece) from appropriate material, such as hard plastic. Bypass member 76 includes fingers 92 and an enlarged annular head 94 which overlays the enlarged annular head 84 of locking member 74 when fingers 92 are received in channels 90. Fingers 92 extend along slots 90 in locking member 74, and project outwardly (downwardly in the Figures) through upper openings 80. An imperforate dome-shaped end wall 96 is provided radially inwardly of head 94, as shown in FIG. 4. Bypass member 76 is also preferably formed unitarily (in one piece) from appropriate material, such as hard plastic. A main spring 100 is provided in surrounding relation to the outer (upper) end of support core 56 and the locking member 74 and bypass member 76. Spring 100 extends between annular shoulder 66 on support core 56 and the enlarged head 84 of locking member 74. Spring 100 urges the head of locking member 74 against the head of bypass member 76, and hence urges these components axially outward from support core 56. When the bypass member 76 is received in locking member 74, fingers 92 of bypass member 76 project axially through openings 80 in locking member 74 and are received between the annular base 82 of the locking member and the inside surface of the support core, as best seen in FIG. 5. The annular flange 86 of the base 82 urges the fingers 92 radially outward against the inner surface of the support core, and creates an interference fit to retain the locking member and bypass member in the support core, that is, to prevent the main spring 100 from pushing these components entirely outwardly from the support core. A bypass spring 102 is provided internally of the dome-shaped end wall 96 (as seen in FIG. 4), and biases bypass member 76 outwardly away from locking member 74. Bypass spring 102 extends between the dome-shaped end wall 96 and a radially inward directed annular spring stop 106 (FIG. 2) on locking member 74. As indicated above, the extension and locking assembly prevents attachment of the cover 34 to the housing body 32 without a proper filter element installed in the housing. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the main spring 100 normally urges the locking member and bypass member outwardly such that the distal inner ends of the fingers 92 of the bypass member 76 are axially outward of the annular step 68 (FIG. 5) in the support core. The annular base 82 of the locking member 74 urges the fingers 92 radially outward against the support core, such that the fingers engage the step and prevent the extension and locking assembly from being pushed inwardly into the support core. As illustrated in FIG. 9, the extension and locking assembly 70 has an axial length sufficient that the cover 34 cannot be fully screwed onto the housing body 32 when the extension and locking assembly is in its outer position. To disengage the bypass member from the step in the support core, the base 82 of the locking member is moved axially away (inwardly) from the distal ends of the fingers 92 of the bypass member. As shown in FIG. 6, the head 94 of the bypass member has a series of openings 110 that allow access to the underlying head 84 of the locking member. The filter element has an end cap 114, which as shown in FIG. 7, has a series of distinct, axially-extending protrusions 116 corresponding to the location of the openings 110 in the bypass valve head 94. As illustrated, four such protrusions 116 are shown in a generally evenly-spaced annular arrangement extending outwardly, away from the end cap 114, however the number and spacing of the protrusions can vary depending upon the number and location of openings 110, and it is noted that only a single protrusion may be necessary in some applications. The distal ends of the protrusions 116, and/or the lands 118 between the openings 110, can have angled or helical ramped surfaces, to facilitate the orientation of the protrusions with the openings 110. The angled or helical surfaces force or urge the filter element to rotate when the element is installed in the housing such that the protrusions 116 automatically become aligned with the openings 110. When the filter element is installed in the housing, the protrusions 116 on the end cap 114 project through openings 110, and engage the head 84 of the locking member 74. The protrusions 116 force the locking member axially inward into the support core, as shown in FIGS. 2 and 8. The base 82 of the locking member moves axially away from the inner ends of fingers 92 of bypass member 76, thereby allowing the fingers to disengage from step 68 and the bypass member to slide inwardly into the support core. This allows the extension and locking assembly to retract into the support core, compressing main spring 100, and allows the cover 34 to be attached to the housing body 32. The length of the protrusions necessary to move the locking member an appropriate axial distance can be easily determined. It should be appreciated that an element without a proper arrangement of protrusion(s) will not engage the head of the locking member, and the extension and locking assembly will remain locked in its outer position. It will not be possible to attach the cover 34 to the housing body 32. Thus, the invention not only prevents the operation of the filter without a filter element installed, but also prevents the operation of the filter even if an element is installed, but where the element fails to have a proper arrangement of protrusion(s). Referring again to FIGS. 2 and 3, the filter element 36 includes a ring of filtration media 120 formed of an appropriate material in an appropriate manner. The element also includes a disk-shaped end cap 114 sealingly bonded (such as with adhesive) to the outer (upper) end of the media ring; and an opposite disk-shaped end cap 122 sealingly bonded (such as with adhesive) to the inner (lower) annular end of the media ring. The end cap 122 includes a central circular opening 124 dimensioned to receive the support core 56 and enable the filter element to be removeably located over the support core. A short annular flange 126 projects axially downward and bounds opening 124 in end cap 122, to provide a fluid-tight seal against the sleeve 58 of the support core. Alternatively (or in addition), an O-ring or resilient gasket (not shown) can be provided between the end cap 122 and the support core 56. The outer end cap 114 also includes a central opening 128, with a diameter somewhat smaller than the opening 124 end cap 122. As shown in FIG. 7, an annular flange 130 bounds the opening 128 in end cap 114, and projects a short distance axially inward into the filter element from end cap 114 toward end cap 122 (but terminating at a point much closer to end cap 114 than end cap 122). The protrusions 116 are spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media 120 and radially outward from flange 130. Flange 130 includes a tapered distal end 132 which is dimensioned to engage flush against the dome-shaped end wall 96 of the bypass member 76 when the element is located in the housing (see, e.g., FIG. 2). The inner and outer end caps 114, 122 are preferably each formed of an appropriate material (such as plastic) unitarily (in one piece) in a conventional manner, such as by molding. The dome-shaped end wall 96 and bypass spring 102 of the bypass member, and the flange 130 on the end cap 114 provide a bypass valve for the filter element. When the element is located in the housing, the flange 130 engages and seals against the dome-shaped end wall 96, thereby preventing fluid from bypassing the element. When an overpressure situation exists in the peripheral region 40 of the element, such as when the element becomes plugged, the pressure forces bypass member 76 inwardly against bypass spring 102, thereby creating a flow gap between the end wall 96 and the flange 130, and allowing fluid to bypass the element. The spring constant of bypass spring 102 can be chosen to determine the appropriate cracking force for the bypass feature. Further discussion of the bypass valve can be found, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,054, which is incorporated herein by reference. It is noted that the bypass valve is an optional feature, and that the filter could also be configured without such a bypass valve, in which case end wall 96 and spring 102 would be absent, and the end cap 114 would be continuous (imperforate) across its diameter. While it is illustrated above that the locking member and bypass member are received internally of the support core, it is anticipated that with appropriate modifications, the bypass member and locking member could likewise be received around (outwardly from) the support core. In this case, the bypass member and locking member could function in the same manner as described above to lock the extension and locking assembly in an outward position when an element is absent from the housing, and allow the extension and locking assembly to move inwardly when an appropriate filter element is located in the housing. When the element is installed properly in the housing, the fuel entering inlet port 38 flows into the peripheral region 40 surrounding the element, and then radially inward through the element to the support core 56. The filtered fuel then passes through the support core to the outlet 39. If an element becomes clogged and a bypass valve is provided, the valve will allow fluid to bypass the element when the fluid pressure in the peripheral region 40 exceeds a predetermined amount. When it is desirable to change a spent element, the cover 34 is removed (screwed off), and the element can be easily accessed and replaced with a fresh element. To facilitate the easy grasping of the spent element, the extension and locking assembly 70 automatically pushes the spent element outwardly a short distance by virtue of main spring 100. This also allows at least some of the fuel to drip off the element and remain in the filter housing, rather than drip onto the surrounding area during element removal. A second embodiment of the extension and locking assembly 70 is illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11. In this embodiment, the bypass feature is provided by a separate valve component, indicated generally at 144. Valve component 144 operates in the same manner as the bypass valve described above, and includes a body 146; an enlarged valve head 148; and a pair of elongated and axially-extending fingers 150, each of which have a catch 152 at their distal ends. The body 146 of the valve component is received in a circular opening defined by an annular support 154 in the locking member, with the catches 152 engaging the support 154 to prevent the valve component from being removed from locking member 74. Bypass spring 102 extends between the head 148 of the valve component and an inner annular shoulder 155 of the bypass member, and urges valve component 144 outwardly from the support core. The enlarged annular head is absent from the locking member 74 illustrated in FIG. 11. Instead, the valve head 148 and the catches 152 on the fingers 150 of the valve component 144 retain the bypass member and valve component together. Main spring 100 is applied directly to the enlarged head 94 of the bypass member. The outer end of fingers 157 of locking member 74 are accessible through the openings 110 in the head 94 of the bypass member, and can be engaged by the protrusions 116 on end cap 114 to move the locking member inwardly into the support core. The locking member 74 and bypass member 76 otherwise have the same configuration as discussed previously and operate in the same manner to lock the extension and locking assembly in an outward position if an element is absent, or if an element does not have an appropriate arrangement of protrusion(s). A further embodiment of the filter element of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 12. In this embodiment, the protrusions 116 are formed in a separate end piece 160. End piece 160 has an annular configuration, and fits against the inside surface of the end cap 114. The end piece 160 can be permanently fixed to the end cap, such as with adhesive, or can merely be located against the end cap and held in place by friction fit, or by the interaction with the locking member 76. The angled or helical distal end surfaces of the protrusions are clearly visible in this Figure. The remainder of the filter element is preferably the same as described previously. Referring now to FIGS. 13-22, a further feature of the present invention is that a fluid-tight container is provided for the filter element that substantially reduces, if not eliminates, fouling the surrounding area with dripping fuel. The container is also handy for shipping, and eliminates the need for a shipping carton or box. Referring first to FIGS. 13-16, the container is indicated generally at 164, and includes an imperforate, cup-shaped body 166, and an imperforate lid or cap 168. The cup-shaped body has a sidewall 169 with a cylindrical dimension slightly larger than the element, and disk-shaped end wall 170. The body and lid form a fluid-tight enclosure with a dimension slightly larger than the element to entirely enclose the filter element. The body also has a dimension sufficient to enable it to be inserted into the housing body 32, between the housing body 32 and the filter element 36. Lid 168 has an annular, axially extending lip portion 171, which as shown in FIG. 16, closely receives and cooperates with a bead 172 bounding the open end of the housing body to enable the lid to be easily attached to and removed form the body. Other techniques are of course possible for easily attaching the lid to the body, such as corresponding screw threads, and any technique is possible, as long as it allows relatively easy attachment and removal of the lid. The container 164 further includes a retaining device, indicated generally at 174, integral with either the sidewall 119 or end wall 170. As shown in FIG. 15, the retaining device 174 can include a resilient member, such as an annular channel or ridge 175 formed in the sidewall 32, that engages around the outer periphery of end cap 114. The sidewall 169 has some resiliency to allow the container body 166 to be easily located over the filter element, and snap. around the end cap 114 to hold the end cap against end wall 170. An alternative embodiment of the retaining device 174 is shown in FIG. 17. In this embodiment, an annular bead 178 is formed near the end wall 170, and engages the periphery of the end cap 114 when the container is located over the filter element. The annular bead 178 is likewise formed in sidewall 169, and the sidewall resiliently deflects to allow the container body 166 to be easily located over the filter element. The body 166 and lid 16 are preferably formed from inexpensive, lightweight material, such as plastic, polypropylene, polyethylene, polycarbonate, PET, or other similar material. The material is preferably easily incinerated (burned), or at least recyclable. The body 166, including retaining device 174, and lid 168 are each preferably formed unitary (in one piece) by appropriate techniques, such as injection molding, vacuum-forming or drawing. While the dimensions of the body and lid can vary, it is preferred that the body and lid have relatively thin walls, and it has been found that a body and lid with a wall thickness of between 0.015 and 0.030 inches, provides a durable, inexpensive and incineratable product. As should be appreciated, when the filter element is to be changed, the fresh element is removed from the container 164. The fresh element is preferably inverted in the container for shipping, and the end caps on the element can be dimensioned such that the retaining device does not retain the fresh element in the container, or the element is only loosely retained. In any case, the body of the empty container is then inverted and located open-end first, down around the filter element. This is facilitated by the element being supported somewhat outwardly from the housing, as discussed above. The container is pushed downwardly until the retaining device is received and snapped around the end cap. The body of the container can then be removed from the housing, thereby simultaneously removing the element. When the container body is free from the housing, the container body is quickly inverted to reduce the amount of fuel or oil dripping onto the surrounding area. This also virtually eliminates skin-contact with the element and the fuel or oil. Once inverted, the container body catches any remaining fuel or oil, and the lid 168 can be easily attached to the body 166 to form a fluid-tight enclosure for the element. Since it is preferred that the element is comprised of combustible materials, the spent element and container can then be disposed of in an incinerator. While the retaining device is illustrated above as being unitary with the sidewall of the container, the retaining device can alternatively be unitary with the end wall 170, or formed as a separate piece and permanently fixed to the end wall or sidewall. There are numerous embodiments of the retaining device that would be appropriate for the present invention. For example, as shown in FIG. 18, the retaining device 174 can be formed at the opposite, open end of the container body 166, and comprises a channel, ridge or bead 180 in sidewall 169 that snaps around the opposite end cap 122 of the element. FIG. 19 shows a further embodiment, where the container body can include a retaining device 174 comprising a screw thread 181. The screw thread cooperates with end cap 122 to allow the container body to be screwed onto the end cap. The lid (not shown) can then have cooperating internal threads to allow the lid to be easily screwed onto (and off of) the container body. FIGS. 20 and 21 show a still further embodiment, where the retaining device 174 comprises an annular flange 182 centrally located on the end wall 170 of the container body 166, and received in the central opening 128 of the end cap 114 of the element. The flange 182 includes an annular, radially-outward directed catch 186 at the distal inner end that deformably engages the annular flange 132 surrounding opening 128 in end cap 114 to retain the element to the container. The length of the container body 166 can of course vary, with the lid 168 consequently having a longer or shorter axial length such that the two components entirely encapsulate the element. As shown in FIG. 22, the container body 166 is shown as a relatively short component, only as long as necessary that the retainer device 174 snaps around the end cap 114 of the element. The lid 168 would then have a relatively long length to fully encapsulate the element. Other alternatives are of course possible. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. The principles, preferred embodiments and modes of operation of the present invention have been described in the foregoing specification. The invention which is intended to be protected herein should not, however, be construed as limited to the particular form described as it is to be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive. Variations and changes may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Many types of filters (also referred to as “separators”) are known in the prior art. Filters are widely known for removing contaminants and other impurities from fluids such as fuel and oil. A popular type of filter has a housing that encloses a replaceable ring-shaped filter element. The filter element ensures that impurities are removed from fuel or oil before it is delivered to system components such as fuel injection pumps and fuel injectors. Mating portions of the housing form an interior enclosure for the element, and the housing portions may be separated for replacement of a spent filter element. Periodic replacement of the filter element is required so that the filter element will not become so loaded with impurities that flow is restricted. It is known that problems may arise when such filter elements are replaced. One problem is that filter elements with different sizes and/or filtration capabilities often have identical mounting configurations and can fit on the same filter head. However, use of the wrong filter element can cause poor engine performance and allow undesirable amounts of contaminants to pass through the system. Another problem is that individuals may remove a spent filter element and simply re-attach the housing portions without a fresh element. If an automatic drain valve is used in the filter (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,386), fuel or oil can be dumped to drain when an element is not installed in the housing. While the engine may operate (at least for a short period of time), this can be detrimental to the engine, particularly if the operation of the engine depends on the continued supply of oil or fuel from the filter. A still further problem is that upon removing the element, an individual may come into contact with the fuel/oil and any impurities on the element, and get dirty hands. The user typically has to reach down into the housing to grasp the element, and may come into contact with residual fuel or oil in the housing and on the element. In addition, any fuel or oil remaining on the element may drip off on the surrounding engine components when the element is removed, thereby fouling the engine; or worse yet, drip off onto the ground and create environmental issues. To reduce and at least partially eliminate some of these problems, the filter assembly shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,923, owned by the Assignee of the present application, was developed. This filter assembly includes a unique replaceable filter element that is attached to a removable cover. The filter element includes an opening in one end cap opposite from the cover, which allows the filter element to be removeably located over an elongated standpipe in the housing. The element is removed when the cover is removed (screwed off) from the housing. While this reduces skin contact with the element and thereby reduces the mess associated with an element change, this does not fully address the problem with fuel, oil and impurities draining off the element as it is removed from the housing and carried across the engine. In addition, the cover of the housing in the '923 patent is typically discarded with each spent element. This is undesirable from a conservation and solid waste standpoint, as the cover is usually a heavy plastic or metal component. It is generally desirable to minimize the amount of material discarded, particularly if a discarded element must be treated as hazardous waste and/or cannot be easily incinerated. The cover also represents a portion of the cost of the replacement element. As a result, this design adds cost to the replacement element. The element in the '923 patent may also be separated from the cover, and the cover re-attached to the housing without a fresh element also being installed. As such, this design does not fully address the problems associated with operating an engine without a filter element installed. An improved filter assembly is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,065, also owned by the assignee of the present application. In this patent, a standpipe is similarly provided internally to the housing, and a spring-biased valve element is provided internal to the standpipe. The valve element is normally closed, and can be engaged and moved to an open position by a projection on an end cap of the element when the element is properly installed in the housing. The valve (and hence the filter assembly) generally cannot be operated without a proper filter element installed. The filter shown in the '065 patent overcomes some of the problems associated with the earlier '923 patent, however, the cover is attached to the element in the same manner as in the '923 patent, and fuel and oil can still drip onto the engine and the surrounding area when the filter element is replaced. Also, as in the '923 patent, the cover may be detached from the element and screwed back onto the housing with out a fresh element being installed. In some high-pressure fuel systems, the valve element may actually be forced open, and unfiltered fuel can be allowed to pass to the downstream components. This can also be detrimental to the engine. It is therefor believed there exists a need for a still further filter that reduces if not eliminates, the mess and environmental issues associated with changing an element; and prevents the operation of the filter without a proper filter element. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION <EOH>A new and unique filter assembly is provided that prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. According to the present invention, the filter assembly includes a replaceable element with a ring of filtration media, and an end cap sealingly bonded to either end of the filtration media. An internal support core is fixed to an end wall of the filter housing, and one of the end caps of the filter element include a central opening, such that the filter element can be removably received over the support core. The support core provides internal support for the filter element, so that the filter element can be composed of only material which is easily incinerated. An extension and locking assembly is provided with the support core. The extension and locking assembly operates to prevent the cover of the housing from being attached to the housing body without a proper filter element installed in the housing, or without a filter element in the housing. The extension and locking assembly includes a bypass member and a locking member. The bypass member is closely and slideably received in the locking member, while the locking member is closely and slideably received in the support core. In one embodiment, both the locking member and the bypass member have enlarged heads, with the enlarged head of the bypass member overlying the enlarged head of the locking member. A main spring extends between a shoulder on the support core and the enlarged head of the locking member to bias the locking member and bypass member outwardly from the support core. When the locking member and bypass member are in their outer position, the distal inner end of the locking member urges the distal inner end of the bypass member radially outward against the inner surface of the support core. The support core includes an annular step or shoulder along its inner surface, and the distal inner end of the bypass member engages the step to prevent the extension and locking assembly from being pushed inwardly into the support core. The extension and locking assembly is long enough such that the cover of the housing cannot be attached to the housing body when the extension and locking assembly is in its outer position. The enlarged head of the bypass member includes a series of openings which allow access to the enlarged head of the locking member. The openings are strategically placed, and the other end cap (opposite from the end cap of the filter element with the central opening) has a series of protrusions that extend axially inward from the end cap, in orientation with the openings. When the element is installed over the support core, the protrusions extend through the openings in the head of the bypass member and engage the head of the locking member. The protrusions force the locking member axially inward, and in so doing, move the distal inner end of the locking member away from the distal inner end of the bypass member. This allows the distal inner end of the bypass member to disengage from the step in the support core, and the locking member and bypass member to slide inwardly (retract) into the support core. In its inner position, the extension and locking assembly allows the filter element to be properly located in the filter housing, and the cover to be attached to the housing body. As should be appreciated, a filter element without a correct arrangement of protrusions on its end cap will not engage the head of the locking member, and the extension and locking assembly will remain locking in its outer position, thereby preventing the filter element from being properly assembled in the filter housing. Another feature of the filter assembly is that during an element change, when the cover is removed, the extension and locking assembly will urge the spent element slightly outwardly from the housing, as the extension and locking assembly moves to its outer position. This facilitates removing the spent filter element from the housing, and reduces contact with any fuel or oil remaining in the housing. A bypass valve can be provided in the bypass member to allow fluid to bypass the filter element when the filter element becomes clogged with impurities. The bypass valve can be provided as a unitary piece with the bypass member, or as a separate piece supported by the bypass member. A bypass spring biases the head of the bypass valve against a central opening in the adjacent end cap to normally prevent fluid bypassing the element, but to allow fluid bypass when the pressure in the housing increases above a predetermined amount. As discussed above, the filter element includes a pair of end caps, with a first of the end caps including a central opening to receive the central support core. The second end cap includes the protrusions for operating the extension and locking assembly, and can include a central opening if the bypass valve is used. The central opening in the second end cap is preferably bounded by a short annular flange, which extends inwardly into the filter element, and seals against the bypass valve when the element is located in the housing. The flange and protrusions can be easily formed with the end cap such as by molding the end cap as a unitary component, and the filter element is otherwise a simple and inexpensive component to manufacture. While not as preferred, the protrusions could also be formed on a separate piece and held against the inside surface of the second end cap. Another feature of the present invention is that the filter element is preferably stored for shipment in a fluid-tight container. The container includes a cup-shaped body and a lid, with the lid being easily attachable to the body to allow easy access to the filter element. The body and lid are preferably formed from inexpensive, lightweight, incineratable material, for example, a plastic. The container body includes a retaining device, such as a ridge or bead, integral with either the sidewall and/or end wall of the body, which is designed to engage an appropriate part of the element and retain the element in the body. The retaining device can have a number of different forms, and can be configured to engage different locations on the filter element to retain the element within the container body. It is preferred that the retaining device be resilient, and resiliently deflect to engage a portion of the end cap, such as the outer periphery of one of the end caps. During an element change, a fresh element can be removed from the container and set aside. The empty body of the container is then inverted, and inserted open-end first into the open end of the filter housing, in surrounding relation to the spent element. This is facilitated by the element sitting slightly outwardly from the housing as discussed above. The resilient retaining device engages the element, and cooperates with the element to retain the element to the body. The container body is then removed from the housing, with the element attached thereto. Upon removing the body from the housing, the body is immediately turned upright, thereby preventing any fuel or oil from dripping off the element and contaminating the surrounding area. The lid is then attached to the body, and the entire assembly, with the spent element, can then be disposed of such as by incineration. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter, and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. Further features and advantages will be apparent upon reviewing the following Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiment and the accompanying Drawings. | 20041116 | 20060110 | 20050616 | 90999.0 | 3 | THERKORN, ERNEST G | EXTENSION AND LOCKING ASSEMBLY FOR DRIPLESS ELEMENT, AND CONTAINER THEREFORE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,989,815 | ACCEPTED | Model train control system | A system which operates a digitally controlled model railroad transmitting a first command from a first client program to a resident external controlling interface through a first communications transport. A second command is transmitted from a second client program to the resident external controlling interface through a second communications transport. The first command and the second command are received by the resident external controlling interface which queues the first and second commands. The resident external controlling interface sends third and fourth commands representative of the first and second commands, respectively, to a digital command station for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad. | 1-47. (canceled) 48. A method of operating a digitally controlled model railroad comprising the steps of: (a) transmitting a first command from a first program to an interface through a first transport; (b) transmitting a second command from a second program to said interface through a second transport; (c) receiving said first command and said second command at said interface; (d) said interface queuing said first and second commands; (e) validating said first and second commands against permissible actions of said model railroad; and (e) said interface sending third and fourth commands representative of said first and second commands, respectively, for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad. 49. The method of claim 48, further comprising the steps of: (a) providing an acknowledgment to said first program in response to receiving said first command by said interface that said first command was successfully validated prior to validating said first command; and (b) providing an acknowledgment to said client program in response to receiving said second command by said interface that said second command was successfully validated prior to validating said second command. 50. The method of claim 48, further comprising the steps of: (a) selectively sending said third command; and (b) selectively sending said fourth command. 51. The method of claim 48, further comprising the step of receiving responses representative of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad and validating said responses regarding said interaction. 52. The method of claim 48 wherein said first and second commands relate to the speed of locomotives. 53. The method of claim 49, further comprising the step of updating said successful validation to at least one of said first and second client programs of at least one of said first and second commands with an indication that at least one of said first and second commands was unsuccessfully validated. 54. The method of claim 48, further comprising the step of updating a database of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad based upon said responses representative of said state of said digitally controlled model railroad. 55. The method of claim 54 wherein said validation is performed by a dispatcher. 56. The method of claim 54 wherein said first command and third command are the same command, and said second command and said fourth command are the same command. 57. A method of operating a digitally controlled model railroad comprising the steps of: (a) transmitting a first command from a first program to an interface through a first communications transport; (b) receiving said first command at said interface; (c) validating said first command against permissible actions regarding said model railroad; and (d) said interface selectively sending a second command representative of said first command for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained within at least one of said first and second commands. 58. The method of claim 57, further comprising the steps of: (a) transmitting a third command from a second program to said interface through a second communications transport; (b) receiving said third command at said interface; (c) validating said third command against permissible actions regarding said model railroad; and (d) said interface selectively sending a fourth command representative of said third command for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained within at least one of said third and fourth commands. 59. The method of claim 58 wherein said first communications transport is at least one of a COM interface and a DCOM interface. 60. The method of claim 58 wherein said first communications transport and said second communications transport are DCOM interfaces. 61. The method of claim 57 wherein said first program and said interface are operating on the same computer. 62. The method of claim 58 wherein said first program, said second program, and said interface are all operating on different computers. 63. The method of claim 57, further comprising the step of providing an acknowledgment to said first program in response to receiving said first command by said interface prior to validating said first command. 64. The method of claim 57, further comprising the step of receiving responses representative of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad and validating said responses regarding said interaction. 65. The method of claim 64, further comprising the step of comparing said responses to previous commands to determine which said previous commands it corresponds with. 66. The method of claim 57, further comprising the step of updating validation of said first command. 67. The method of claim 66, further comprising the step of updating a database of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad based upon responses representative of said state of said digitally controlled model railroad. 68. The method of claim 67, further comprising the step of updating said successful validation to said first program in response to receiving said first command by said interface together with state information from said database related to said first command. 69. The method of claim 57 wherein said interface communicates in an asynchronous manner with said first program while communicating in a synchronous manner with command stations. 70. A method of operating a digitally controlled model railroad comprising the steps of: (a) transmitting a first command from a first program to an interface through a first communications transport; (b) transmitting a second command from a second program to said interface through a second communications transport; (c) receiving said first command at said interface; (d) receiving said second command at said interface; (e) validating said first and second commands against permissible actions of said model railroad; and (f) said interface sending a third and fourth command representative of said first command and said second command, respectively, for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad; 71. The method of claim 70 wherein said interface communicates in an asynchronous manner with said first and second programs. 72. The method of claim 70 wherein said first communications transport is at least one of a COM interface and a DCOM interface. 73. The method of claim 70 wherein said first communications transport and said second communications transport are DCOM interfaces. 74. The method of claim 70,wherein said first program and said interface are operating on the same computer. 75. The method of claim 70 wherein said first program, said second program, and said interface are all operating on different computers. 76. The method of claim 70, further comprising the step of providing an acknowledgment to said first program in response to receiving said first command by said interface that said first command was successfully validated prior to validating said first command. 77. The method of claim 76, further comprising the step of receiving responses representative of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad. 78. The method of claim 77, further comprising the step of comparing said responses to previous commands to determine which said previous commands it corresponds with. 79. The method of claim 78, further comprising the step of updating a database of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad based upon said responses representative of said state of said digitally controlled model railroad. 80. The method of claim 7-9, further comprising the step of updating said successful validation to said first program in response to receiving said first command by said interface together with state information from said database related to said first command. 81. The method of claim 70 wherein said validation is performed by a dispatcher. 82. A method of operating a digitally controlled model railroad comprising the steps of: (a) transmitting a first command from a first program to a first processor through a first communications transport; (b) receiving said first command at said first processor; and (c) said first processor providing an acknowledgment to said first client program through said first communications transport indicating that said first command has been validated against permissible actions of said model railroad and properly executed prior to execution of commands related to said first command by said digitally controlled model railroad. 83. The method of claim 82, further comprising the step of sending said first command to a second processor which processes said first command into a state suitable for a for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad. 84. The method of claim 83, further comprising the step of said second process queuing a plurality of commands received. 85. The method of claim 82, further comprising the steps of: (a) transmitting a second command from a second program to said first processor through a second communications transport; (b) receiving said second command at said first processor; and (c) said first processor selectively providing an acknowledgment to said second program through said second communications transport indicating that said second command has been validated against permissible actions regarding the interaction between a plurality of objects of said model railroad and properly executed prior to execution of commands related to said second command by said digitally controlled model railroad. 86. The method of claim 85, further comprising the steps of: (a) sending a third command representative of said first command for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained within at least one of said first and third commands; and (b) sending a fourth command representative of said second command for execution on said digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained within at least one of said second and fourth commands. 87. The method of claim 82 wherein said first communications transport is at least one of a COM interface and a DCOM interface. 88. The method of claim 85 wherein said first communications transport and said second communications transport are DCOM interfaces. 89. The method of claim 82 wherein said first program and said first processor are operating on the same computer. 90. The method of claim 85 wherein said first program, said second program, and said first processor are all operating on different computers. 91. The method of claim 82, further comprising the step of receiving responses representative of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad. 92. The method of claim 82, further comprising the step of updating a database of the state of said digitally controlled model railroad. 93. The method of claim 92, further comprising the step of updating said successful validation to said first program in response to receiving said first command by first processor together with state information from said database related to said first command. 94. The method of claim 90 wherein said first processor communicates in an asynchronous manner with said first program. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a system for controlling a model railroad. Model railroads have traditionally been constructed with of a set of interconnected sections of train track, electric switches between different sections of the train track, and other electrically operated devices, such as train engines and draw bridges. Train engines receive their power to travel on the train track by electricity provided by a controller through the track itself. The speed and direction of the train engine is controlled by the level and polarity, respectively, of the electrical power supplied to the train track. The operator manually pushes buttons or pulls levers to cause the switches or other electrically operated devices to function, as desired. Such model railroad sets are suitable for a single operator, but unfortunately they lack the capability of adequately controlling multiple trains independently. In addition, such model railroad sets are not suitable for being controlled by multiple operators, especially if the operators are located at different locations distant from the model railroad, such as different cities. A digital command control (DDC) system has been developed to provide additional controllability of individual train engines and other electrical devices. Each device the operator desires to control, such as a train engine, includes an individually addressable digital decoder. A digital command station (DCS) is electrically connected to the train track to provide a command in the form of a set of encoded digital bits to a particular device that includes a digital decoder. The digital command station is typically controlled by a personal computer. A suitable standard for the digital command control system is the NMRA DCC Standards, issued March 1997, and is incorporated herein by reference. While providing the ability to individually control different devices of the railroad set, the DCC system still fails to provide the capability for multiple operators to control the railroad devices, especially if the operators are remotely located from the railroad set and each other. DigiToys Systems of Lawrenceville, Ga. has developed a software program for controlling a model railroad set from a remote location. The software includes an interface which allows the operator to select desired changes to devices of the railroad set that include a digital decoder, such as increasing the speed of a train or switching a switch. The software issues a command locally or through a network, such as the internet, to a digital command station at the railroad set which executes the command. The protocol used by the software is based on Cobra from Open Management Group where the software issues a command to a communication interface and awaits confirmation that the command was executed by the digital command station. When the software receives confirmation that the command executed, the software program sends the next command through the communication interface to the digital command station. In other words, the technique used by the software to control the model railroad is analogous to an inexpensive printer where commands are sequentially issued to the printer after the previous command has been executed. Unfortunately, it has been observed that the response of the model railroad to the operator appears slow, especially over a distributed network such as the internet. One technique to decrease the response time is to use high-speed network connections but unfortunately such connections are expensive. What is desired, therefore, is a system for controlling a model railroad that effectively provides a high-speed connection without the additional expense associated therewith. The foregoing and other objectives, features, and advantages of the invention will be more readily understood upon consideration of the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION The present invention overcomes the aforementioned drawbacks of the prior art, in a first aspect, by providing a system for operating a digitally controlled model railroad that includes transmitting a first command from a first client program to a resident external controlling interface through a first communications transport. A second command is transmitted from a second client program to the resident external controlling interface through a second communications transport. The first command and the second command are received by the resident external controlling interface which queues the first and second commands. The resident external controlling interface sends third and fourth commands representative of the first and second commands, respectively, to a digital command station for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad. Incorporating a communications transport between the multiple client program and the resident external controlling interface permits multiple operators of the model railroad at locations distant from the physical model railroad and each other. In the environment of a model railroad club where the members want to simultaneously control devices of the same model railroad layout, which preferably includes multiple trains operating thereon, the operators each provide commands to the resistant external controlling interface, and hence the model railroad. In addition by queuing by commands at a single resident external controlling interface permits controlled execution of the commands by the digitally controlled model railroad, would may otherwise conflict with one another. In another aspect of the present invention the first command is selectively processed and sent to one of a plurality of digital command stations for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained therein. Preferably, the second command is also selectively processed and sent to one of the plurality of digital command stations for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained therein. The resident external controlling interface also preferably includes a command queue to maintain the order of the commands. The command queue also allows the sharing of multiple devices, multiple clients to communicate with the same device (locally or remote) in a controlled manner, and multiple clients to communicate with different devices. In other words, the command queue permits the proper execution in the cases of: (1) one client to many devices, (2) many clients to one device, and (3) many clients to many devices. In yet another aspect of the present invention the first command is transmitted from a first client program to a first processor through a first communications transport. The first command is received at the first processor. The first processor provides an acknowledgement to the first client program through the first communications transport indicating that the first command has properly executed prior to execution of commands related to the first command by the digitally controlled model railroad. The communications transport is preferably a COM or DCOM interface. The model railroad application involves the use of extremely slow real-time interfaces between the digital command stations and the devices of the model railroad. In order to increase the apparent speed of execution to the client, other than using high-speed communication interfaces, the resident external controller interface receives the command and provides an acknowledgement to the client program in a timely manner before the execution of the command by the digital command stations. Accordingly, the execution of commands provided by the resident external controlling interface to the digital command stations occur in a synchronous manner, such as a first-in-first-out manner. The COM and DCOM communications transport between the client program and the resident external controlling interface is operated in an asynchronous manner, namely providing an acknowledgement thereby releasing the communications transport to accept further communications prior to the actual execution of the command. The combination of the synchronous and the asynchronous data communication for the commands provides the benefit that the operator considers the commands to occur nearly instantaneously while permitting the resident external controlling interface to verify that the command is proper and cause the commands to execute in a controlled manner by the digital command stations, all without additional high-speed communication networks. Moreover, for traditional distributed software execution there is no motivation to provide an acknowledgment prior to the execution of the command because the command executes quickly and most commands are sequential in nature. In other words, the execution of the next command is dependent upon proper execution of the prior command so there would be no motivation to provide an acknowledgment prior to its actual execution. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a model train control system. FIG. 2 is a more detailed block diagram of the model train control system of FIG. 1 including external device control logic. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the external device control logic of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is an illustration of a track and signaling arrangement. FIG. 5 is an illustration of a manual block signaling arrangement. FIG. 6 is an illustration of a track circuit. FIGS. 7A and 7B are illustrations of block signaling and track capacity. FIG. 8 is an illustration of different types of signals. FIGS. 9A and 9B are illustrations of speed signaling in approach to a junction. FIG. 10 is a further embodiment of the system including a dispatcher. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIG. 1, a model train control system 10 includes a communications transport 12 interconnecting a client program 14 and a resident external controlling interface 16. The client program 14 executes on the model railroad operator's computer and may include any suitable system to permit the operator to provide desired commands to the resident external controlling interface 16. For example, the client program 14 may include a graphical interface representative of the model railroad layout where the operator issues commands to the model railroad by making changes to the graphical interface. The client program 14 also defines a set of Application Programming Interfaces (API's), described in detail later, which the operator accesses using the graphical interface or other programs such as Visual Basic, C++, Java, or browser based applications. There may be multiple client programs interconnected with the resident external controlling interface 16 so that multiple remote operators may simultaneously provide control commands to the model railroad. The communications transport 12 provides an interface between the client program 14 and the resident external controlling interface 16. The communications transport 12 may be any suitable communications medium for the transmission of data, such as the internet, local area network, satellite links, or multiple processes operating on a single computer. The preferred interface to the communications transport 12 is a COM or DCOM interface, as developed for the Windows operating system available from Microsoft Corporation. The communications transport 12 also determines if the resident external controlling interface 16 is system resident or remotely located on an external system. The communications transport 12 may also use private or public communications protocol as a medium for communications. The client program 14 provides commands and the resident external controlling interface 16 responds to the communications transport 12 to exchange information. A description of COM (common object model) and DCOM (distributed common object model) is provided by Chappel in a book entitled Understanding ActiveX and OLE, Microsoft Press, and is incorporated by reference herein. Incorporating a communications transport 12 between the client program(s) 14 and the resident external controlling interface 16 permits multiple operators of the model railroad at locations distant from the physical model railroad and each other. In the environment of a model railroad club where the members want to simultaneously control devices of the same model railroad layout, which preferably includes multiple trains operating thereon, the operators each provide commands to the resistant external controlling interfaces and hence the model railroad. The manner in which commands are executed for the model railroad under COM and DCOM may be as follows. The client program 14 makes requests in a synchronous manner using COM/DCOM to the resident external interface controller 16. The synchronous manner of the request is the technique used by COM and DCOM to execute commands. The communications transport 12 packages the command for the transport mechanism to the resident external controlling interface 16. The resident external controlling interface 16 then passes the command to the digital command stations 18 which in turn executes the command. After the digital command station 18 executes the command an acknowledgement is passed back to the resident external controlling interface 16 which in turn passes an acknowledgement to the client program 14. Upon receipt of the acknowledgement by the client program 14, the communications transport 12 is again available to accept another command. The train control system 10, without more, permits execution of commands by the digital command stations 18 from multiple operators, but like the DigiToys Systems' software the execution of commands is slow. The present inventor came to the realization that unlike traditional distributed systems where the commands passed through a communications transport are executed nearly instantaneously by the server and then an acknowledgement is returned to the client, the model railroad application involves the use of extremely slow real-time interfaces between the digital command stations and the devices of the model railroad. The present inventor came to the further realization that in order to increase the apparent speed of execution to the client, other than using high-speed communication interfaces, the resident external controller interface 16 should receive the command and provide an acknowledgement to the client program 12 in a timely manner before the execution of the command by the digital command stations 18. Accordingly, the execution of commands provided by the resident external controlling interface 16 to the digital command stations 18 occur in a synchronous manner, such as a first-in-first-out manner. The COM and DCOM communications transport 12 between the client program 14 and the resident external controlling interface 16 is operated in an asynchronous manner, namely providing an acknowledgement thereby releasing the communications transport 12 to accept further communications prior to the actual execution of the command. The combination of the synchronous and the asynchronous data communication for the commands provides the benefit that the operator considers the commands to occur nearly instantaneously while permitting the resident external controlling interface 16 to verify that the command is proper and cause the commands to execute in a controlled manner by the digital command stations 18, all without additional high-speed communication networks. Moreover, for traditional distributed software execution there is no motivation to provide an acknowledgment prior to the execution of the command because the command executes quickly and most commands are sequential in nature. In other words, the execution of the next command is dependent upon proper execution of the prior command so there would be no motivation to provide an acknowledgment prior to its actual execution. It is to be understood that other devices, such as digital devices, may be controlled in a manner as described for model railroads. Referring to FIG. 2, the client program 14 sends a command over the communications transport 12 that is received by an asynchronous command processor 100. The asynchronous command processor 100 queries a local database storage 102 to determine if it is necessary to package a command to be transmitted to a command queue 104. The local database storage 102 primarily contains the state of the devices of the model railroad, such as for example, the speed of a train, the direction of a train, whether a draw bridge is up or down, whether a light is turned on or off, and the configuration of the model railroad layout. If the command received by the asynchronous command processor 100 is a query of the state of a device, then the asynchronous command processor 100 retrieves such information from the local database storage 102 and provides the information to an asynchronous response processor 106. The asynchronous response processor 106 then provides a response to the client program 14 indicating the state of the device and releases the communications transport 12 for the next command. The asynchronous command processor 100 also verifies, using the configuration information in the local database storage 102, that the command received is a potentially valid operation. If the command is invalid, the asynchronous command processor 100 provides such information to the asynchronous response processor 106, which in turn returns an error indication to the client program 14. The asynchronous command processor 100 may determine that the necessary information is not contained in the local database storage 102 to provide a response to the client program 14 of the device state or that the command is a valid action. Actions may include, for example, an increase in the train's speed, or turning on/off of a device. In either case, the valid unknown state or action command is packaged and forwarded to the command queue 104. The packaging of the command may also include additional information from the local database storage 102 to complete the client program 14 request, if necessary. Together with packaging the command for the command queue 104, the asynchronous command processor 100 provides a command to the asynchronous request processor 106 to provide a response to the client program 14 indicating that the event has occurred, even though such an event has yet to occur on the physical railroad layout. As such, it can be observed that whether or not the command is valid, whether or not the information requested by the command is available to the asynchronous command processor 100, and whether or not the command has executed, the combination of the asynchronous command processor 100 and the asynchronous response processor 106 both verifies the validity of the command and provides a response to the client program 14 thereby freeing up the communications transport 12 for additional commands. Without the asynchronous nature of the resident external controlling interface 16, the response to the client program 14 would be, in many circumstances, delayed thereby resulting in frustration to the operator that the model railroad is performing in a slow and painstaking manner. In this manner, the railroad operation using the asynchronous interface appears to the operator as nearly instantaneously responsive. Each command in the command queue 104 is fetched by a synchronous command processor 110 and processed. The synchronous command processor 110 queries a controller database storage 112 for additional information, as necessary, and determines if the command has already been executed based on the state of the devices in the controller database storage 112. In the event that the command has already been executed, as indicated by the controller database storage 112, then the synchronous command processor 110 passes information to the command queue 104 that the command has been executed or the state of the device. The asynchronous response processor 106 fetches the information from the command cue 104 and provides a suitable response to the client program 14, if necessary, and updates the local database storage 102 to reflect the updated status of the railroad layout devices. If the command fetched by the synchronous command processor 110 from the command queue 104 requires execution by external devices, such as the train engine, then the command is posted to one of several external device control logic 114 blocks. The external device control logic 114 processes the command from the synchronous command processor 110 and issues appropriate control commands to the interface of the particular external device 116 to execute the command on the device and ensure that an appropriate response was received in response. The external device is preferably a digital command control device that transmits digital commands to decoders using the train track. There are several different manufacturers of digital command stations, each of which has a different set of input commands, so each external device is designed for a particular digital command station. In this manner, the system is compatible with different digital command stations. The digital command stations 18 of the external devices 116 provide a response to the external device control logic 114 which is checked for validity and identified as to which prior command it corresponds to so that the controller database storage 112 may be updated properly. The process of transmitting commands to and receiving responses from the external devices 116 is slow. The synchronous command processor 110 is notified of the results from the external control logic 114 and, if appropriate, forwards the results to the command queue 104. The asynchronous response processor 100 clears the results from the command queue 104 and updates the local database storage 102 and sends an asynchronous response to the client program 14, if needed. The response updates the client program 14 of the actual state of the railroad track devices, if changed, and provides an error message to the client program 14 if the devices actual state was previously improperly reported or a command did not execute properly. The use of two separate database storages, each of which is substantially a mirror image of the other, provides a performance enhancement by a fast acknowledgement to the client program 14 using the local database storage 102 and thereby freeing up the communications transport 12 for additional commands. In addition, the number of commands forwarded to the external device control logic 114 and the external devices 116, which are relatively slow to respond, is minimized by maintaining information concerning the state and configuration of the model railroad. Also, the use of two separate database tables 102 and 112 allows more efficient multi-threading on multi-processor computers. In order to achieve the separation of the asynchronous and synchronous portions of the system the command queue 104 is implemented as a named pipe, as developed by Microsoft for Windows. The queue 104 allows both portions to be separate from each other, where each considers the other to be the destination device. In addition, the command queue maintains the order of operation which is important to proper operation of the system. The use of a single command queue 104 allows multiple instantrations of the asynchronous functionality, with one for each different client. The single command queue 104 also allows the sharing of multiple devices, multiple clients to communicate with the same device (locally or remote) in a controlled manner, and multiple clients to communicate with different devices. In other words, the command queue 104 permits the proper execution in the cases of: (1) one client to many devices, (2) many clients to one device, and (3) many clients to many devices. The present inventor came to the realization that the digital command stations provided by the different vendors have at least three different techniques for communicating with the digital decoders of the model railroad set. The first technique, generally referred to as a transaction (one or more operations), is a synchronous communication where a command is transmitted; executed, and a response is received therefrom prior to the transmission of the next sequentially received command. The DCS may execute multiple commands in this transaction. The second technique is a cache with out of order execution where a command is executed and a response received therefrom prior to the execution of the next command, but the order of execution is not necessarily the same as the order that the commands were provided to the command station. The third technique is a local-area-network model where the commands are transmitted and received simultaneously. In the LAN model there is no requirement to wait until a response is received for a particular command prior to sending the next command. Accordingly, the LAN model may result in many commands being transmitted by the command station that have yet to be executed. In addition, some digital command stations use two or more of these techniques. With all these different techniques used to communicate with the model railroad set and the system 10 providing an interface for each different type of command station, there exists a need for the capability of matching up the responses from each of the different types of command stations with the particular command issued for record keeping purposes. Without matching up the responses from the command stations, the databases can not be updated properly. Validation functionality is included within the external device control logic 114 to accommodate all of the different types of command stations. Referring to FIG. 3, an external command processor 200 receives the validated command from the synchronous command processor 110. The external command processor 200 determines which device the command should be directed to, the particular type of command it is, and builds state information for the command. The state information includes, for example, the address, type, port, variables, and type of commands to be sent out. In other words, the state information includes a command set for a particular device on a particular port device. In addition, a copy of the original command is maintained for verification purposes. The constructed command is forwarded to the command sender 202 which is another queue, and preferably a circular queue. The command sender 202 receives the command and transmits commands within its queue in a repetitive nature until the command is removed from its queue. A command response processor 204 receives all the commands from the command stations and passes the commands to the validation function 206. The validation function 206 compares the received command against potential commands that are in the queue of the command sender 202 that could potentially provide such a result. The validation function 206 determines one of four potential results from the comparison. First, the results could be simply bad data that is discarded. Second, the results could be partially executed commands which are likewise normally discarded. Third, the results could be valid responses but not relevant to any command sent. Such a case could result from the operator manually changing the state of devices on the model railroad or from another external device, assuming a shared interface to the DCS. Accordingly, the results are validated and passed to the result processor 210. Fourth, the results could be valid responses relevant to a command sent. The corresponding command is removed from the command sender 202 and the results passed to the result processor 210. The commands in the queue of the command sender 202, as a result of the validation process 206, are retransmitted a predetermined number of times, then if error still occurs the digital command station is reset, which if the error still persists then the command is removed and the operator is notified of the error. The digital command stations 18 program the digital devices, such as a locomotive and switches, of the railroad layout. For example, a locomotive may include several different registers that control the horn, how the light blinks, speed curves for operation, etc. In many such locomotives there are 106 or more programable values. Unfortunately, it may take 1-10 seconds per byte wide word if a valid register or control variable (generally referred to collectively as registers) and two to four minutes to error out if an invalid register to program such a locomotive or device, either of which may contain a decoder. With a large number of byte wide words in a locomotive its takes considerable time to fully program the locomotive. Further, with a railroad layout including many such locomotives and other programmable devices, it takes a substantial amount of time to completely program all the devices of the model railroad layout. During the programming of the railroad layout, the operator is sitting there not enjoying the operation of the railroad layout, is frustrated, loses operating enjoyment, and will not desire to use digital programmable devices. In addition, to reprogram the railroad layout the operator must reprogram all of the devices of the entire railroad layout which takes substantial time. Similarly, to determine the state of all the devices of the railroad layout the operator must read the registers of each device likewise taking substantial time. Moreover, to reprogram merely a few bytes of a particular device requires the operator to previously know the state of the registers of the device which is obtainable by reading the registers of the device taking substantial time, thereby still frustrating the operator. The present inventor came to the realization that for the operation of a model railroad the anticipated state of the individual devices of the railroad, as programmed, should be maintained during the use of the model railroad and between different uses of the model railroad. By maintaining data representative of the current state of the device registers of the model railroad determinations may be made to efficiently program the devices. When the user designates a command to be executed by one or more of the digital command stations 18, the software may determine which commands need to be sent to one or more of the digital command stations 18 of the model railroad. By only updating those registers of particular devices that are necessary to implement the commands of a particular user, the time necessary to program the railroad layout is substantially reduced. For example, if the command would duplicate the current state of the device then no command needs to be forwarded to the digital command stations 18. This prevents redundantly programming the devices of the model railroad, thereby freeing up the operation of the model railroad for other activities. Unlike a single-user single-railroad environment, the system of the present invention may encounter “conflicting” commands that attempt to write to and read from the devices of the model railroad. For example, the “conflicting” commands may inadvertently program the same device in an inappropriate manner, such as the locomotive to speed up to maximum and the locomotive to stop. In addition, a user that desires to read the status of the entire model railroad layout will monopolize the digital decoders and command stations for a substantial time, such as up to two hours, thereby preventing the enjoyment of the model railroad for the other users. Also, a user that programs an extensive number of devices will likewise monopolize the digital decoders and command stations for a substantial time thereby preventing the enjoyment of the model railroad for other users. In order to implement a networked selective updating technique the present inventor determined that it is desirable to implement both a write cache and a read cache. The write cache contains those commands yet to be programmed by the digital command stations 18. Valid commands from each user are passed to a queue in the write cache. In the event of multiple commands from multiple users (depending on user permissions and security) or the same user for the same event or action, the write cache will concatenate the two commands into a single command to be programmed by the digital command stations 18. In the event of multiple commands from multiple users or the same user for different events or actions, the write cache will concatenate the two commands into a single command to be programmed by the digital command stations 18. The write cache may forward either of the commands, such as the last received command, to the digital command station. The users are updated with the actual command programmed by the digital command station, as necessary. The read cache contains the state of the different devices of the model railroad. After a command has been written to a digital device and properly acknowledged, if necessary, the read cache is updated with the current state of the model railroad. In addition, the read cache is updated with the state of the model railroad when the registers of the devices of the model railroad are read. Prior to sending the commands to be executed by the digital command stations 18 the data in the write cache is compared against the data in the read cache. In the event that the data in the read cache indicates that the data in the write cache does not need to be programmed, the command is discarded. In contrast, if the data in the read cache indicates that the data in the write cache needs to be programmed, then the command is programmed by the digital command station. After programming the command by the digital commands station the read cache is updated to reflect the change in the model railroad. As becomes apparent, the use of a write cache and a read cache permits a decrease in the number of registers that need to be programmed, thus speeding up the apparent operation of the model railroad to the operator. The present inventor further determined that errors in the processing of the commands by the railroad and the initial unknown state of the model railroad should be taken into account for a robust system. In the event that an error is received in response to an attempt to program (or read) a device, then the state of the relevant data of the read cache is marked as unknown. The unknown state merely indicates that the state of the register has some ambiguity associated therewith. The unknown state may be removed by reading the current state of the relevant device or the data rewritten to the model railroad without an error occurring. In addition, if an error is received in response to an attempt to program (or read) a device, then the command may be re-transmitted to the digital command station in an attempt to program the device properly. If desirable, multiple commands may be automatically provided to the digital command stations to increase the likelihood of programming the appropriate registers. In addition, the initial state of a register is likewise marked with an unknown state until data becomes available regarding its state. When sending the commands to be executed by the digital command stations 18 they are preferably first checked against the read cache, as previously mentioned. In the event-that the read cache indicates that the state is unknown, such as upon initialization or an error, then the command should be sent to the digital command station because the state is not known. In this manner the state will at least become known, even if the data in the registers is not actually changed. The present inventor further determined a particular set of data that is useful for a complete representation of the state of the registers of the devices of the model railroad. An invalid representation of a register indicates that the particular register is not valid for both a read and a write operation. This permits the system to avoid attempting to read from and write to particular registers of the model railroad. This avoids the exceptionally long error out when attempting to access invalid registers. An in use representation of a register indicates that the particular register is valid for both a read and a write operation. This permits the system to read from and write to particular registers of the model railroad. This assists in accessing valid registers where the response time is relatively fast. A read error (unknown state) representation of a register indicates that each time an attempt to read a particular register results in an error. A read dirty representation of a register indicates that the data in the read cache has not been validated by reading its valid from the decoder. If both the read error and the read dirty representations are clear then a valid read from the read cache may be performed. A read dirty representation may be cleared by a successful write operation, if desired. A read only representation indicates that the register may not be written to. If this flag is set then a write error may not occur. A write error (unknown state) representation of a register indicates that each time an attempt to write to a particular register results in an error. A write dirty representation of a register indicates that the data in the write cache has not been written to the decoder yet. For example, when programming the decoders the system programs the data indicated by the write dirty. If both the write error and the write dirty representations are clear then the state is represented by the write cache. This assists in keeping track of the programming without excess overhead. A write only representation indicates that the register may not be read from. If this flag is set then a read error may not occur. Over time the system constructs a set of representations of the model railroad devices and the model railroad itself indicating the invalid registers, read errors, and write errors which may increases the efficiently of programing and changing the states of the model railroad. This permits the system to avoid accessing particular registers where the result will likely be an error. The present inventor came to the realization that the valid registers of particular devices is the same for the same device of the same or different model railroads. Further, the present inventor came to the realization that a template may be developed for each particular device that may be applied to the representations of the data to predetermine the valid registers. In addition, the template may also be used to set the read error and write error, if desired. The template may include any one or more of the following representations, such as invalid, in use, read error, write only, read dirty, read only, write error, and write dirty for the possible registers of the device. The predetermination of the state of each register of a particular device avoids the time consuming activity of receiving a significant number of errors and thus constructing the caches. It is to be noted that the actual read and write cache may be any suitable type of data structure. Many model railroad systems include computer interfaces to attempt to mimic or otherwise emulate the operation of actual full-scale railroads. FIG. 4 illustrates the organization of train dispatching by “timetable and train order” (T&TO) techniques. Many of the rules governing T&TO operation are related to the superiority of trains which principally is which train will take siding at the meeting point. Any misinterpretation of these rules can be the source of either hazard or delay. For example, misinterpreting the rules may result in one train colliding with another train. For trains following each other, T&TO operation must rely upon time spacing and flag protection to keep each train a sufficient distance apart. For example, a train may not leave a station less than five minutes after the preceding train has departed. Unfortunately, there is no assurance that such spacing will be retained as the trains move along the line, so the flagman (rear brakeman) of a train slowing down or stopping will light and throw off a five-minute red flare which may not be passed by the next train while lit. If a train has to stop, a flagman trots back along the line with a red flag or lantern a sufficient distance to protect the train, and remains there until the train is ready to move at which time he is called back to the train. A flare and two track torpedoes provide protection as the flagman scrambles back and the train resumes speed. While this type of system works, it depends upon a series of human activities. It is perfectly possible to operate a railroad safely without signals. The purpose of signal systems is not so much to increase safety as it is to step up the efficiency and capacity of the line in handling traffic. Nevertheless, it's convenient to discuss signal system principals in terms of three types of collisions that signals are designed to prevent, namely, rear-end, side-on, and head-on. Block signal systems prevent a train from ramming the train ahead of it by dividing the main line into segments, otherwise known as blocks, and allowing only one train in a block at a time, with block signals indicating whether or not the block ahead is occupied. In many blocks, the signals are set by a human operator. Before clearing the signal, he must verify that any train which has previously entered the block is now clear of it, a written record is kept of the status of each block, and a prescribed procedure is used in communicating with the next operator. The degree to which a block frees up operation depends on whether distant signals (as shown in FIG. 5) are provided and on the spacing of open stations, those in which an operator is on duty. If as is usually the case it is many miles to the next block station and thus trains must be equally spaced. Nevertheless, manual block does afford a high degree of safety. The block signaling which does the most for increasing line capacity is automatic block signals (ABS), in which the signals are controlled by the trains themselves. The presence or absence of a train is determined by a track circuit. Invented by Dr. William Robinson in 1872, the track circuit's key feature is that it is fail-safe. As can be seen in FIG. 6, if the battery or any wire connection fails, or a rail is broken, the relay can't pick up, and a clear signal will not be displayed. The track circuit is also an example of what is designated in railway signaling practice as a vital circuit, one which can give an unsafe indication if some of its components malfunction in certain ways. The track circuit is fail-safe, but it could still give a false clear indication should its relay stick in the closed or picked-up position. Vital circuit relays, therefore, are built to very stringent standards: they are large devices; rely on gravity (no springs) to drop their armature; and use special non-loading contacts which will not stick together if hit by a large surge of current (such as nearby lightning). Getting a track circuit to be absolutely reliable is not a simple matter. The electrical leakage between the rails is considerable, and varies greatly with the seasons of the year and the weather. The joints and bolted-rail track are by-passed with bond wire to assure low resistance at all times, but the total resistance still varies. It is lower, for example, when cold weather shrinks the rails and they pull tightly on the track bolts or when hot weather expands to force the ends tightly together. Battery voltage is typically limited to one or two volts, requiring a fairly sensitive relay. Despite this, the direct current track circuit can be adjusted to do an excellent job and false-clears are extremely rare. The principal improvement in the basic circuit has been to use slowly-pulsed DC so that the relay drops out and must be picked up again continually when a block is unoccupied. This allows the use of a more sensitive relay which will detect a train, but additionally work in track circuits twice as long before leakage between the rails begins to threaten reliable relay operation. Referring to FIGS. 7A and 7B, the situations determining the minimum block length for the standard two-block, three-indication ABS system. Since the train may stop with its rear car just inside the rear boundary of a block, a following train will first receive warning just one block-length away. No allowance may be made for how far the signal indication may be seen by the engineer. Swivel block must be as long as the longest stopping distance for any train on the route, traveling at its maximum authorized speed. From this standpoint, it is important to allow trains to move along without receiving any approach indications which will force them to slow down. This requires a train spacing of two block lengths, twice the stopping distance, since the signal can't clear until the train ahead is completely out of the second block. When fully loaded trains running at high speeds, with their stopping distances, block lengths must be long, and it is not possible to get enough trains over the line to produce appropriate revenue. The three-block, four-indication signaling shown in FIG. 7 reduces the excess train spacing by 50% with warning two blocks to the rear and signal spacing need be only ½ the braking distance. In particularly congested areas such as downgrades where stopping distances are long and trains are likely to bunch up, four-block, four-indication signaling may be provided and advanced approach, approach medium, approach and stop indications give a minimum of three-block warning, allowing further block-shortening and keeps things moving. FIG. 8 uses aspects of upper quadrant semaphores to illustrate block signaling. These signals use the blade rising 90 degrees to give the clear indication. Some of the systems that are currently developed by different railroads are shown in FIG. 8. With the general rules discussed below, a railroad is free to establish the simplest and most easily maintained system of aspects and indications that will keep traffic moving safely and meet any special requirements due to geography, traffic pattern, or equipment. Aspects such as flashing yellow for approach medium, for example, may be used to provide an extra indication without an extra signal head. This is safe because a stuck flasher will result in either a steady yellow approach or a more restrictive light-out aspect. In addition, there are provisions for interlocking so the trains may branch from one track to another. To take care of junctions where trains are diverted from one route to another, the signals must control train speed. The train traveling straight through must be able to travel at full speed. Diverging routes will require some limit, depending on the turnout members and the track curvature, and the signals must control train speed to match. One approach is to have signals indicate which route has been set up and cleared for the train. In the American approach of speed signaling, in which the signal indicates not where the train is going but rather what speed is allowed through the interlocking. If this is less than normal speed, distant signals must also give warning so the train can be brought down to the speed in time. FIGS. 9A and 9B show typical signal aspects and indications as they would appear to an engineer. Once a route is established and the signal cleared, route locking is used to insure that nothing can be changed to reduce the route's speed capability from the time the train approaching it is admitted to enter until it has cleared the last switch. Additional refinements to the basic system to speed up handling trains in rapid sequence include sectional route locking which unlocks portions of the route as soon as the train has cleared so that other routes can be set up promptly. Interlocking signals also function as block signals to provide rear-end protection. In addition, at isolated crossings at grade, an automatic interlocking can respond to the approach of a train by clearing the route if there are no opposing movements cleared or in progress. Automatic interlocking returns everything to stop after the train has passed. As can be observed, the movement of multiple trains among the track potentially involves a series of interconnected activities and decisions which must be performed by a controller, such as a dispatcher. In essence, for a railroad the dispatcher controls the operation of the trains and permissions may be set by computer control, thereby controlling the railroad. Unfortunately, if the dispatcher fails to obey the rules as put in place, traffic collisions may occur. In the context of a model railroad the controller is operating a model railroad layout including an extensive amount of track, several locomotives (trains), and additional functionality such as switches. The movement of different objects, such as locomotives and entire trains, may be monitored by a set of sensors. The operator issues control commands from his computer console, such as in the form of permissions and class warrants for the time and track used. In the existing monolithic computer systems for model railroads a single operator from a single terminal may control the system effectively. Unfortunately, the present inventor has observed that in a multi-user environment where several clients are attempting to simultaneously control the same model railroad layout using their terminals, collisions periodically nevertheless occur. In addition, significant delay is observed between the issuance of a command and its eventual execution. The present inventor has determined that unlike full scale railroads where the track is controlled by a single dispatcher, the use of multiple dispatchers each having a different dispatcher console may result in conflicting information being sent to the railroad layout. In essence, the system is designed as a computer control system to implement commands but in no manner can the dispatcher consoles control the actions of users. For example, a user input may command that an event occur resulting in a crash. In addition, a user may override the block permissions or class warrants for the time and track used thereby causing a collision. In addition, two users may inadvertently send conflicting commands to the same or different trains thereby causing a collision. In such a system, each user is not aware of the intent and actions of other users aside from any feedback that may be displayed on their terminal. Unfortunately, the feedback to their dispatcher console may be delayed as the execution of commands issued by one or more users may take several seconds to several minutes to be executed. One potential solution to the dilemma of managing several users' attempt to simultaneously control a single model railroad layout is to develop a software program that is operating on the server which observes what is occurring. In the event that the software program determines that a collision is imminent, a stop command is issued to the train overriding all other commands to avoid such a collision. However, once the collision is avoided the user may, if desired, override such a command thereby restarting the train and causing a collision. Accordingly, a software program that merely oversees the operation of track apart from the validation of commands to avoid imminent collisions is not a suitable solution for operating a model railroad in a multi-user distributed environment. The present inventor determined that prior validation is important because of the delay in executing commands on the model railroad and the potential for conflicting commands. In addition, a hardware throttle directly connected to the model railroad layout may override all such computer based commands thereby resulting in the collision. Also, this implementation provides a suitable security model to use for validation of user actions. Referring to FIG. 10, the client program 14 preferably includes a control panel 300 which provides a graphical interface (such as a personal computer with software thereon or a dedicated hardware source) for computerized control of the model railroad 302. The graphical interface may take the form of those illustrated in FIGS. 5-9, or any other suitable command interface to provide control commands to the model railroad 302. Commands are issued by the client program 14 to the controlling interface using the control panel 300. The commands are received from the different client programs 14 by the controlling interface 16. The commands control the operation of the model railroad 302, such as switches, direction, and locomotive throttle. Of particular importance is the throttle which is a state which persists for an indefinite period of time, potentially resulting in collisions if not accurately monitored. The controlling interface 16 accepts all of the commands and provides an acknowledgment to free up the communications transport for subsequent commands. The acknowledgment may take the form of a response indicating that the command was executed thereby updating the control panel 300. The response may be subject to updating if more data becomes available indicating the previous response is incorrect. In fact, the command may have yet to be executed or verified by the controlling interface 16. After a command is received by the controlling interface 16, the controlling interface 16 passes the command (in a modified manner, if desired) to a dispatcher controller 310. The dispatcher controller 310 includes a rule-based processor together with the layout of the railroad 302 and the status of objects thereon. The objects may include properties such as speed, location, direction, length of the train, etc. The dispatcher controller 310 processes each received command to determine if the execution of such a command would violate any of the rules together with the layout and status of objects thereon. If the command received is within the rules, then the command may be passed to the model railroad 302 for execution. If the received command violates the rules, then the command may be rejected and an appropriate response is provided to update the clients display. If desired, the invalid command may be modified in a suitable manner and still be provided to the model railroad 302. In addition, if the dispatcher controller 310 determines that an event should occur, such as stopping a model locomotive, it may issue the command and update the control panels 300 accordingly. If necessary, an update command is provided to the client program 14 to show the update that occurred. The “asynchronous” receipt of commands together with a “synchronous” manner of validation and execution of commands from the multiple control panels 300 permits a simplified dispatcher controller 310 to be used together with a minimization of computer resources, such as com ports. In essence, commands are managed independently from the client program 14. Likewise, a centralized dispatcher controller 310 working in an “off-line” mode increases the likelihood that a series of commands that are executed will not be conflicting resulting in an error. This permits multiple model railroad enthusiasts to control the same model railroad in a safe and efficient manner. Such concerns regarding the interrelationships between multiple dispatchers does not occur in a dedicated non-distributed environment. When the command is received or validated all of the control panels 300 of the client programs 14 may likewise be updated to reflect the change. Alternatively, the controlling interface 16 may accept the command, validate it quickly by the dispatcher controller, and provide an acknowledgment to the client program 14. In this manner, the client program 14 will not require updating if the command is not valid. In a likewise manner, when a command is valid the control panel 300 of all client programs 14 should be updated to show the status of the model railroad 302. A manual throttle 320 may likewise provide control over devices, such as the locomotive, on the model railroad 302. The commands issued by the manual throttle 320 may be passed first to the dispatcher controller 310 for validation in a similar manner to that of the client programs 14. Alternatively, commands from the manual throttle 320 may be directly passed to the model railroad 302 without first being validated by the dispatcher controller 302. After execution of commands by the external devices 18, a response will be provided to the controlling interface 16 which in response may check the suitability of the command, if desired. If the command violates the layout rules then a suitable correctional command is issued to the model railroad 302. If the command is valid then no correctional command is necessary. In either case, the status of the model railroad 302 is passed to the client programs 14 (control panels 300). As it can be observed, the event driven dispatcher controller 310 maintains the current status of the model railroad 302 so that accurate validation may be performed to minimize conflicting and potentially damaging commands. Depending on the particular implementation, the control panel 300 is updated in a suitable manner, but in most cases, the communication transport 12 is freed up prior to execution of the command by the model railroad 302. The computer dispatcher may also be distributed across the network, if desired. In addition, the computer architecture described herein supports different computer interfaces at the client program 14. The terms and expressions which have been employed in the foregoing specification are used therein as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention, in the use of such terms and expressions, of excluding equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, it being recognized that the scope of the invention is defined and limited only by the claims which follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a system for controlling a model railroad. Model railroads have traditionally been constructed with of a set of interconnected sections of train track, electric switches between different sections of the train track, and other electrically operated devices, such as train engines and draw bridges. Train engines receive their power to travel on the train track by electricity provided by a controller through the track itself. The speed and direction of the train engine is controlled by the level and polarity, respectively, of the electrical power supplied to the train track. The operator manually pushes buttons or pulls levers to cause the switches or other electrically operated devices to function, as desired. Such model railroad sets are suitable for a single operator, but unfortunately they lack the capability of adequately controlling multiple trains independently. In addition, such model railroad sets are not suitable for being controlled by multiple operators, especially if the operators are located at different locations distant from the model railroad, such as different cities. A digital command control (DDC) system has been developed to provide additional controllability of individual train engines and other electrical devices. Each device the operator desires to control, such as a train engine, includes an individually addressable digital decoder. A digital command station (DCS) is electrically connected to the train track to provide a command in the form of a set of encoded digital bits to a particular device that includes a digital decoder. The digital command station is typically controlled by a personal computer. A suitable standard for the digital command control system is the NMRA DCC Standards, issued March 1997, and is incorporated herein by reference. While providing the ability to individually control different devices of the railroad set, the DCC system still fails to provide the capability for multiple operators to control the railroad devices, especially if the operators are remotely located from the railroad set and each other. DigiToys Systems of Lawrenceville, Ga. has developed a software program for controlling a model railroad set from a remote location. The software includes an interface which allows the operator to select desired changes to devices of the railroad set that include a digital decoder, such as increasing the speed of a train or switching a switch. The software issues a command locally or through a network, such as the internet, to a digital command station at the railroad set which executes the command. The protocol used by the software is based on Cobra from Open Management Group where the software issues a command to a communication interface and awaits confirmation that the command was executed by the digital command station. When the software receives confirmation that the command executed, the software program sends the next command through the communication interface to the digital command station. In other words, the technique used by the software to control the model railroad is analogous to an inexpensive printer where commands are sequentially issued to the printer after the previous command has been executed. Unfortunately, it has been observed that the response of the model railroad to the operator appears slow, especially over a distributed network such as the internet. One technique to decrease the response time is to use high-speed network connections but unfortunately such connections are expensive. What is desired, therefore, is a system for controlling a model railroad that effectively provides a high-speed connection without the additional expense associated therewith. The foregoing and other objectives, features, and advantages of the invention will be more readily understood upon consideration of the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION <EOH>The present invention overcomes the aforementioned drawbacks of the prior art, in a first aspect, by providing a system for operating a digitally controlled model railroad that includes transmitting a first command from a first client program to a resident external controlling interface through a first communications transport. A second command is transmitted from a second client program to the resident external controlling interface through a second communications transport. The first command and the second command are received by the resident external controlling interface which queues the first and second commands. The resident external controlling interface sends third and fourth commands representative of the first and second commands, respectively, to a digital command station for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad. Incorporating a communications transport between the multiple client program and the resident external controlling interface permits multiple operators of the model railroad at locations distant from the physical model railroad and each other. In the environment of a model railroad club where the members want to simultaneously control devices of the same model railroad layout, which preferably includes multiple trains operating thereon, the operators each provide commands to the resistant external controlling interface, and hence the model railroad. In addition by queuing by commands at a single resident external controlling interface permits controlled execution of the commands by the digitally controlled model railroad, would may otherwise conflict with one another. In another aspect of the present invention the first command is selectively processed and sent to one of a plurality of digital command stations for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained therein. Preferably, the second command is also selectively processed and sent to one of the plurality of digital command stations for execution on the digitally controlled model railroad based upon information contained therein. The resident external controlling interface also preferably includes a command queue to maintain the order of the commands. The command queue also allows the sharing of multiple devices, multiple clients to communicate with the same device (locally or remote) in a controlled manner, and multiple clients to communicate with different devices. In other words, the command queue permits the proper execution in the cases of: (1) one client to many devices, (2) many clients to one device, and (3) many clients to many devices. In yet another aspect of the present invention the first command is transmitted from a first client program to a first processor through a first communications transport. The first command is received at the first processor. The first processor provides an acknowledgement to the first client program through the first communications transport indicating that the first command has properly executed prior to execution of commands related to the first command by the digitally controlled model railroad. The communications transport is preferably a COM or DCOM interface. The model railroad application involves the use of extremely slow real-time interfaces between the digital command stations and the devices of the model railroad. In order to increase the apparent speed of execution to the client, other than using high-speed communication interfaces, the resident external controller interface receives the command and provides an acknowledgement to the client program in a timely manner before the execution of the command by the digital command stations. Accordingly, the execution of commands provided by the resident external controlling interface to the digital command stations occur in a synchronous manner, such as a first-in-first-out manner. The COM and DCOM communications transport between the client program and the resident external controlling interface is operated in an asynchronous manner, namely providing an acknowledgement thereby releasing the communications transport to accept further communications prior to the actual execution of the command. The combination of the synchronous and the asynchronous data communication for the commands provides the benefit that the operator considers the commands to occur nearly instantaneously while permitting the resident external controlling interface to verify that the command is proper and cause the commands to execute in a controlled manner by the digital command stations, all without additional high-speed communication networks. Moreover, for traditional distributed software execution there is no motivation to provide an acknowledgment prior to the execution of the command because the command executes quickly and most commands are sequential in nature. In other words, the execution of the next command is dependent upon proper execution of the prior command so there would be no motivation to provide an acknowledgment prior to its actual execution. | 20041116 | 20070213 | 20050721 | 67987.0 | 1 | BEAULIEU, YONEL | MODEL TRAIN CONTROL SYSTEM | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,989,817 | ACCEPTED | Method of providing information to a telephony subscriber | An information fulfillment system and method for providing information to a caller having a wireless communication device. Upon receipt of sensory prompting and manual or automatic input of access codes to the wireless communication device, the caller's identity and the input access code are verified. Thereafter, the call is connected through the PWN and along the PSTN to the system messaging or fulfillment center for automatic or live-operator delivery of the requested information. Automatic verification, connection, and billing modification processes are provided for implementation of the system and method. | 1. A method for providing research information via a fulfillment center through a public wireless telecommunications network to a caller having a wireless telecommunications transmitting and receiving device comprising the steps of: providing the caller with an observable prompt that comprises, at least in part, a specialized access code that corresponds to additional information regarding an advertised item; initiating a call to the fulfillment center through dialing of the specialized access code into the wireless telecommunications and receiving device; directing the call from the public wireless telecommunications network to the fulfillment center based upon the specialized access code; and delivering information as designated by the specialized access code to the caller from the fulfillment center through the wireless telecommunications transmitting and receiving device. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein delivering information further comprises prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier. 3. The method of claim 2 wherein prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier further comprises prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier as corresponds to a specific advertiser. 4. The method of claim 2 wherein prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier further comprises prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier as corresponds to a specific product. 5. The method of claim 2 wherein delivering information further comprises transferring the caller to a retailer. 6. The method of claim 2 wherein prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier further comprises prompting the caller to enter the additional identifier using a verbal entry. 7. The method of claim 6 wherein delivering information further comprises receiving the verbal entry at a voice activated switch. 8. The method of claim 6 wherein delivering information further comprises interpreting the verbal entry using speech recognition software. 9. The method of claim 2 wherein prompting the caller to enter an additional identifier further comprises using a live operator to deliver a request for the additional identifier. 10. The method of claim 1 wherein providing the caller with an observable prompt further comprises providing the caller with an observable prompt via electronic media. 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the electronic media comprises electronic promotional media. 12. The method of claim 1 wherein the wireless telecommunications transmitting and receiving device is coupled to a computer 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the wireless telecommunications transmitting and receiving device connects to the computer via a hardware interface. 14. The method of claim 1 and further comprising: receiving, at a server, information regarding delivery of the information. 15. The method of claim 14 and further comprising: tracking, at the server, billing data as corresponds to the delivery of the information. 16. The method of claim 1 wherein delivering information as designated by the specialized access code to the caller from the fulfillment center further comprises using a computer to deliver the information. 17. The method of claim 16 wherein using a computer to deliver the information further comprises using the computer to further route the call. 18. The method of claim 17 wherein using the computer to further route the call further comprises using the computer to further route the call to facilitate further processing. 19. The method of claim 18 wherein the further processing comprises at least one of: gathering demographics information; facilitating a sweepstakes entry; facilitating an order; conducting a survey; scheduling an appointment. 20. The method of claim 18 wherein the further processing comprises gathering billing verification information. | RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of co-pending prior application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney Docket No. 83541) filed on Nov. 9, 2004 and co-pending application Ser. No. 10/453,452 filed on Jun. 3, 2003 and co-pending application Ser. No. 10/104,867 filed on Mar. 22, 2002 and of co-pending application Ser. No. 10/104,197 filed on Mar. 22, 2002, which are both continuation-in-part applications of application Ser. No. 08/998,183 filed on Dec. 24, 1997 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,397,057), which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/475,800 filed on Jun. 7, 1995 (now U.S. Pat. No. 5,752,186). FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a system and method for a caller to obtain various levels of fulfillment, research, two way communication, and other services utilizing wireless communication products. The system includes one or a plurality of wireless or cellular telephone users connected via cellular service or other wireless service providers to a central or regional messaging and fulfillment center. Advanced interconnection and caller location can be achieved via the Public Wireless Network (PWN) using the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Dialed Number Identification Service (DNIS), or the intelligent network. A method for dynamic modification of traditional wireless billing methods to (i) divert billing to third parties, (ii) block roaming wireless users, treat them as callers local to the system they are operating in or process roaming billing in a tradition means after acceptance of billing responsibility by the caller, and (iii) change the billing party for wireless and Plain Old Telephone System (POTS) services during the pendency of the call is additionally implemented. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Wireless communication technology provides accessibility of communications for callers from virtually any location. While radio has provided a wireless medium for delivery of advertising messages for decades, the radio medium has limitations for advertisers based upon the cost of on-air time and programming schedules. Road signage has clear space limitations coupled with minimal “viewing” periods during which a prospective customer is exposed to the message. Since many prospective customers now travel regularly with wireless telephone equipment at the disposal, it may be advantageous to provide advertising services via wireless telephone linking. From a marketing perspective, a system for wireless telephone delivery of advertising messages is ideally one in which the prospective customer initiates the call, thereby eliminating the time and cost expenditures related to “cold-call” advertising delivery services of the past. In addition, the call should be free to the prospective customer and the system should be equipped to modify existing billing procedures in order to shift the cost of the advertiser. U.S. Pat. No. 5,131,020 of Liebesny, et al. discloses a method for providing traffic updates to cellular telephone customers within a regional calling area. User input of a code representing the traffic zone of interest to the user automatically connects to either a live operator or a taped message including the requested traffic information. While the Liebesny method does deliver user-requested information via cellular linking, its delivery is local and the messages fixed in scope. U.S. Pat. No. 5,214,793 of Conway, et al. provides a system for automatically delivering advertising, traffic status, directions, or other information to motorists having microwave transmitter/receiver systems at their respective locations. The requirement that the Conway user have the microwave equipment clearly limits the prospective audience and transmission delivery capabilities of such a system. U.S. Pat. No. 5,216,703 of Roy provides a cellular switching system whereby indicia dialed by the user after a cellular star (*) number is unique to a specific third party advertiser (TPA) and is used to direct the user's call through a special trunk in the switching system in order to deliver the TPA's message to the user. The Roy system utilizes cellular technology to enter into a trunked system, but is clearly limited in its ability to provide switching through an extensive network of advertisers and providers. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Pursuant to one embodiment, a prospect driving past an outdoor signboard will observe the advertiser's message, which will include a call-to-action, for example “CALL *500” or selected other abbreviated access code using the driver's cellular phone. In another embodiment, a prospect driving and listening to a radio broadcast will be prompted to dial *4AD (for example) by trailers to commercials. In a third embodiment, drivers passing highway interchanges with informational gas, food, and lodging signage will also be prompted to “CALL *522”, for example. Other uses may involve prompts located on buses, on board commuter trains, in public stadiums, etc. Following the general direction to dial the access code, each individual commercial spot will contain a one or more digit identifying alphanumeric code known as the Advertiser Identifier. Hence, a typical outdoor signboard will contain the following: CALL *500 SEND 1234 No Airtime Charges The prospect, held captive in his or her car, perhaps sitting in rush-hour traffic, will utilize their cellular phone to seek out additional information on the advertised product or service. In the case of the highway interchange, the prospect can obtain detailed information of the products or services (e.g. shopping, food, lodging, gas, etc.) available within three to five minutes of that particular interchange. In one embodiment, once prospects call *500 or other designated access code, they will hear a short message welcoming them to the system and prompting them to either dial or speak a one or more digit identifier, for example the name of the advertiser or a product name. After dialing or speaking an identifier, the customer will enter either an automated messaging system or be greeted by a live operator. Due to the inherent limitations of outdoor and radio advertising in terms of communicating a detailed message of product and service benefits, the additional level of transmitted information will have a high perceived value to both the advertiser and the primary media company. Based upon the particular services contracted, prospects can be provided with a menu of additional customer services including: the mailing of product/service information to their home or business; an audio listing of local retailers and their addresses or telephone numbers (with directions under certain circumstances); direct product sales; couponing; sampling; sweepstakes entry; polling; optional transfer to a retailer; optional transfer to the advertiser's customer service number; optional transfer to the advertiser's mail order desk; or, an opportunity to participate in a brief survey (for which the prospect may receive some nominal compensation or award). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 provides an overview block diagram in accordance with an embodiment of the inventive system. FIG. 2 details call routing in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates access code routing in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 provides a block diagram detailing elements related to call initiation in one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a block diagram detailing integration as per an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing changes to existing the public wireless network (PWN) in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a flow diagram showing billing process flow in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 illustrates a flow diagram of the system illustrating how digits are processed using ISDN technology in an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9 provides a flow diagram of one embodiment illustrating how digits are processed using DNIS technology. FIG. 10 provides a block diagram of the interconnected components required at the target or processing location of the call pursuant to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 11 is a flow chart showing advanced billing features pursuant to yet another embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT In detailing the subject invention, several industry-recognized definitions and newly-coined terms will be used throughout the description. In order to facilitate an understanding of the invention, the following glossary of terms is provided: Access Code: Abbreviated dialing code to access the system such as “*500”. Advertiser Identifier: Secondary code used to select target advertiser. Also referred to as “advertiser extension.” ANI: Automatic Number Identification. Commonly referred to as a ten digit telephone number. CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access CO: Central Office DNIS: Dialed Number Identification Service ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network IVIS: Intelligent Vehicle Highway System LEC: Local Exchange Carrier MTSO: Mobile Telephone Switching Office N-AMPS: Narrow band AMPS NPA NXX: The first six digits of the ANI representing the Number Plan Area (Area Code) and Local Exchange. PCS: Personal Communications System POTS: Plain Old Telephone System PSTN: Public Switch Telephone Network PWN: Public Wireless Network SDN: Software Defined Network Target Location: Final destination of the wireless call for fulfillment. TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access FIG. 1 provides a process overview. There are essentially four distinct basic functions which comprise the process flow, the details of which are discussed below. These elements are (1) the call initiation at 103, the detailed process flow for which is provided in FIG. 4; (2) switching or other elements of the PWN at 104, as further detailed in FIG. 6; (3) transfer of the call over the PSTN at 105, as further detailed in FIGS. 8 and 9; and (4) control over fulfillment and feedback to the user, as detailed in FIG. 10. The call initiation function is generally outlines as boxes 101-103. At box 101, the prospect receives the sensory input which prompts use of the system, either via road signage, an audio message from the radio, etc. Upon manual input to a telephone, at 102, the prospect (hereinafter referred to as the “caller”) calls in to obtain the information suggested by the sensory input. Box 103 refers to the initiation of the wireless call from the system perspective, as opposed to the caller input and transmission from the caller's telephone. As an alternative to the caller manually placing the telephone call, the call may be initiated by automatic processing, as will be discussed below with reference to FIG. 4. Box 103 initiation of the wireless call by the system results from either a third party remote triggered signal or a local independent transmitting signal and includes the mobile identification number and the electronic component's serial number for subsequent access and billing verification. Subsequent to system initiation of the wireless call, the call is transmitted along the Public Wireless Network (PWN) at 104, for caller identification, billing verification and/or modification, and routing to the PSTN, as is further detailed below. Thereafter, service is provided along the PSTN at 105 and the call is ultimately provided for routing to the messaging center at 106 and thence handled at the gateway to the target fulfillment center, at 107. Clearly, it may be possible to route the call and connect to the target center using only the wireless network, particularly for communications between geographically local callers and target locations. However, accessing the PSTN provides greater transmission reliability and increased geographical distribution of prompting media and fulfillment centers to realize a national system. FIG. 2 provides a more detailed description of the path of a call through the inventive system. From the wireless telephone, 110 of the block diagram, the call is sent with the caller input access code, which is an abbreviated dialing code to access the system, such as *500. In accordance with prior art wireless telephone service, the call is communicated to a base station remote switch, 111, at which a base station controller relays the call to the MTSO or other wireless service switch 112, as appropriate. Central to the operation of the inventive system is the functioning of wireless switch 112. This switch must recognize the caller seeking to utilize the system and must recognize the access code and compare it to entries in a database of approved codes. The switch 112 also performs recognition on the subscriber identity and the subscriber location, and determines the billing status for the caller as either a local system user or a roaming user (billing detail is provided in FIGS. 7 and 11). Depending upon the billing status determination (i.e., local or roaming), software or firmware at the switch is utilized to modify established billing procedures and to create a new billing record for the third party provider of the service under a preset billing arrangement. Alternatively, if the system determines that the caller is roaming and the caller's service provider has not arranged to allow treatment of the call as local, the system queries the caller if the caller will agree to be billed for all airtime charges. Absent caller acceptance of billing responsibility, access to the system is blocked. Switches which can be adapted to perform the foregoing functionality include AT&T's System 85 5E Diffinity Generic 2. Assuming favorable determinations with respect to verification of the input access code, of subscriber identity, and of caller billing, switch 112 converts the access code to a land line 800-number and routes the call to the PSTN's central office, illustrated as block 113. The central office of the PSTN accepts the call and recognizes it as belonging to the system described by preassigned POTS numbers and, if necessary, translates the land line 800-number to a Routing Telephone Number (i.e., the POTS number). Typically, the preassigned POTS numbers will be traditional 800 service numbers. Such service is exemplified by AT&T's MEGACOM 800 Service with a Customer Specific Term Plan II (CSTP II). Typically, such service will also utilize on-line call detail data software to collect information about the system calls such as connect time, the 800 number sent by the wireless carrier, call disposition, date and time of call, call duration, and the ANI of the caller. Such service is generally described as a high capacity digital, direct access, virtual banded, inbound calling service, and requires a dedicated connection between the serving central office and the target location, as is known to one having familiarity in the art. Depending upon the access code, and the nature of the fulfillment of a call bearing that access code, the call may be routed along one of several call completion paths at the PSTN, as further detailed in FIG. 3. Call completion involves selecting the long distance carrier of choice and routing the call to this carrier's Point of Preference at 114 via the selected Routing Telephone Number. This procedure is implemented using either a conventional in-band Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) system or by packetizing the digits and processing them via a Signaling Transfer Point (STP) 121 into the Signaling System 7 common channel signaling network 122. If the Point of Preference is local to the messaging center, the connection is made, via Long Distance Trunk 115 using the dedicated 800-number, to the local Point of Preference and thence to the target location messaging center 119 using T1.5 or T3 access lines 118. When the carrier Point of Preference is not local to the messaging center, the call is routed via the network to a Signal Transfer Point 121 (also referred to as a Signal Control Point, SCP) or other network node that contains databases that support Cellular Linking services. Thus, from the Foreign Data Base at 123, access is made to the Central Office 117 and ultimately to the Messaging Center 119. By means of an Integrated Voice Response (IVR), the mobile wireless subscriber is thus able to obtain information and/or fulfillment services. Subsequent to initial call dialing the mobile subscriber inputs information on the geographic location of the mobile terminal involved in the call, or alternatively inputs location information received from one or more of a variety of media including, but not limited to, contacts with other cellular subscribers, broadcast radio, especially programs dealing with traffic conditions or similar events, global positioning systems, intelligent highway systems, roadside signs displaying city boundaries and street names, personal observation, information from other passengers, etc. Electronic positioning data from consumer equipment within the car may be converted into DTMF tones and coupled to the mobile wireless terminal for automatic transmission over the cellular network. Location data that does not form part of the inherent capabilities of the cellular system and is not available in electronic form will be input to the wireless terminal as additional dialed digits that will be requested by the IVR system established by Cellular Linking at the informational and fulfillment database. The location of the mobile wireless terminal will be computed by a processor and special software permits a display of the cellular service area containing the terminal to be cross referenced against positional data input by the customer as dialed digits. Location information obtained in this manner is used to more readily fulfill the Cellular Linking customer's needs for the services requested from Cellular Linking's third party service providers. Certain new kinds of digital cellular systems, such as GSM and other TDMA and CDMA systems, and PCS networks may have the ability to process special numbers, identify subscribers including roamers, authorize alternative billing procedures, and identify mobile terminal locations more readily than conventional AMPS and NAMPS systems. In such cases, special location processing software that forms an inherent part of the mobile switching system will determine the location of the mobile wireless terminal, transmitting this information along with other necessary data to the Cellular Linking central database. FIG. 3 describes three alternative call path routings based upon the specific access code dialed by the user. Upon recognition of the access code at 131, as conducted at the MTSO or other wireless service switch, wireless switch translation is conducted at 132. Since access codes are assigned based upon the type of fulfillment service, different categories of access codes will be automatically routed at switch 112. As shown in FIG. 3, three representative call routing paths may be automatically selected, though it may be possible to integrate many more than three possible paths into a wide-scale system. In accordance with the representative routing plan, an access code */# X-X-X, 133, denotes routing via the PSTN, at 134, to a live operator, at 135, and prompting, at 136, of the advertiser identifier at the target location. Given an access code */# Y-Y-Y at 143, routing proceeds via the PSTN at 144 to an audiotex service bureau, at 145, and prompting of the advertiser identifier at the target location at 146. Finally, access code */# Z-Z-Z at 153 denotes routing to the PSTN at 154 and 155 and prompting of the advertiser identifier within the PSTN at 156 with subsequent direction of the call to the target location which may be an advertiser's premise at 157. The use of the above described call path routings allows for minimal access codes to be required by the system and provides for cost efficiency to the system by routing a majority of calls without prompting of the advertiser code within the PSTN. FIG. 4 describes the initiation of the wireless call, into FIG. 1, box 103, using manual or automated means. Note the following means for call initiation: (a) Sensory input 101 and manual initiation 102: as shown in FIG. 1, the mobile subscriber receives a sensory input from any of a variety of physical and electronic promotional and/or advertising media, 101a through 101e, including, but not limited to, pagers, cellular calls, broadcast radio, billboards, roadside signs, printed media, vehicle sign panels, or other means. Upon receipt of the sensory input at 101, the caller manually conducts the telephone call at one of the input modules 102a through 102d. (b) Automated signal initiation is triggered through the mobile wireless antenna or a vehicle antenna, 202a or 202b, upon receipt or input from any of the components 201a through 201d which can communicate with the antennas. Such signal to be originally generated by AM or FM radio transmitters, satellite feed, roadside low power transmitters, or other means triggers the automated signal at 202. (c) Third party remote triggered signal at 302 and subsequent initiation parallels the automated signal at 202 since such signaling is automatically conducted by the mobile wireless antenna or the vehicle antenna 302a or 302b. The input, though, may be transmitted through further means, 301a through 301g, including cellular or other wireless telephony equipment. A sensory input that contains any information that encourages the subscriber to utilize the invention may prompt the customer to initiate a wireless call using the keypad of a cellular telephone to dial or speak a set of digits commencing with *, or some other call prefix such as #, utilizing a special code. These digits, along with the command SEND activate the cellular communications system and connect the subscriber by means of a formatted mobile message through a wireless channel via base station firmware over a T1 or other kind of link to the line interface at the MTSO where the call is demodulated and connected to the central processor at the mobile switch. Using the same input media, an advertiser can access the system to update or modify fulfillment data from a remote location using the appropriate (*) or (#) identifier or a POTS wireline. FIG. 5 describes the integration of the wireless telephone or specifically the mobile wireless transmitter and receiver 210 to a vehicle transporting the caller. The wireless telephone may be connected by a hardwire interface to a vehicle's central key pad 211 located on the steering wheel or other convenient location. Such connection will permit easier use of the invention and will allow for visual confirmation of system functions through the vehicle's heads-up-display capabilities, at 212. The wireless telephone may also be connected by a hardwire interface to a vehicle's central computer 213 to allow both components to operate more effectively. The wireless telephone may access memory or processing capabilities of the central computer to enhance its function as a communications device. Similarly, the vehicle may access the transmission and reception capabilities of the wireless phone to perform a variety of diagnostic, safety or passenger convenience tasks. Yet another arrangement provides that the wireless telephone be connected by a hardwire interface to a vehicle's video terminal 214 to allow display of telephony functions or the receipt and display of video messages sent by wireless means to the user. A hardware connection can also be made to a vehicle's positioning system 215, such as GPS, and automobile mapping system 216 in order to facilitate communication of position data or to allow advertisers to transmit data containing directions or location-related information. Integration of the wireless telephone 210 to the vehicle's safety system 217 provides for automated transmission of emergency messages. When coupled with the vehicle positioning system 215, such emergency messages may contain the specific location of the troubled vehicle or user. Vehicle location data is often valuable for both caller purposes (e.g., emergencies) and cellular system efficiencies, as evidenced by the systems disclosed in U.S. Patent Nos. 5,327,144 and 5,343,493. Cellular location can be determined by one or more of the following means: A. Identification of the MTSO which routes the call to the PSTN; B. Identification of the cell, sub-cell, or microcell from which the call was placed or is currently being serviced; C. The use of the intelligent network such as ISDN or DNIS information; D. The signal strength of the call; E. The call history; F. Alternative visual identification; or G. Vehicle based locations systems. The caller's location may be determined by identifying the subscriber's position within the cell by one or more of the following techniques: (A) To cell level by identifying the base station taking part in the transmission; to sub-cell level subsequent to a hand-off when further data becomes available as to the location of the mobile subscriber. (B) To sub-cell level for small cells from signal strength and azimuthal data at the directional antenna as follows: (1) Antenna at cell base station receives signal from subscriber's terminal; (2) Signal is fed via antenna combiner to radio transceiver module; (3) Signal is analyzed by radio controller which determines signal strength and azimuth using directional antenna segmentation techniques; (4) Special software program in controller instructs processor to represent these data in the form of a digital code for modulating a T1 line or other form of communication channel for transmission to MTSO; (5) MTSO codec demodulates digital signal reproducing original bit stream sent from base station; (6) Call processing software translates this bit stream into digits recognizable by central; (7) Processing unit at centralized or regional messaging center; (8) Software program at center receives digits and compares these with database of signal strength and azimuthal information on specific cell base station; (9) Special geographical location software package instructs processor to compute comparative data in terms of geographic locale of mobile subscriber. (C) To cell level for wireless communication systems with very small cells such as PCS; (D) To cell level where more precise location identification is deemed unnecessary by the third party service provider responding as part of claimed procedures; (E) To sub-cell level for large cells from directional data collected from non-multipath propagation patterns such as occur in rural and semi-rural service areas; (F) To sub-cell level by using triangulation data from two or more adjacent base stations; (G) To sub-cell level by using location updating procedures from previous calling patterns established by that subscriber due to frequent and continued use of the invention; and (H) To sub-cell level from subscriber-input data received from personal observation of external information including but not limited to numerical data displayed on billboards or other visible advertising media, instructions received over broadcast radio channels, information gathered from other visible sources, information received from fellow passengers in the vehicle equipped with the mobile radio terminal; other personal third party sources; information previously provided to the subscriber as part of commercial agreements. The caller location information can be used to reconnect inadvertently dropped calls. The caller's location or home or office phone number can also be used to identify a local dealer by reference to a computerized vertical-horizontal file, as detailed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,757,267 Integration of the wireless telephone to the Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS) 219 will provide enhanced features and further communication abilities utilizing the receiver and transmitter of the wireless phone. The wireless telephone may also be connected by hardwire interface to a vehicle's printer or other mobile facsimile or printer at 218 to allow printed transmissions from advertisers, including coupons, etc. Finally, the wireless telephone may be connected by a hardwire interface to a vehicle's radio 220 to allow audible display of telephony functions or the receipt and display of audio messages sent by other wireless means to the user. FIG. 6 further describes the functions of the MTSO of the PWN in accordance with the present invention. The MTSO comprises the central office computerized equipment that coordinates and controls the routing and completion of calls in a cellular system. The MTSO includes a Central Processor (not shown) for identifying, accepting, and taking action upon receipt of the dialed digits as part of a Cellular Linking call having a special prefix. The central processor functions are detailed at FIG. 6. At 250, the MTSO receives the abbreviated access code and verifies both the access code and the caller identity at 251. An object of the present invention is the use of relatively few digits as advertiser identifiers to reduce user induced errors in the system and generally increase user friendliness. The MTSO first determines whether the received access code is one which the MTSO recognizes as valid. Assuming validity of the access code, the MTSO next verifies the caller's identity and approved access to the system. One or more of the following identifiers can be verified at the MTSO: Mobile Identification Number (MIN) or ANI of the wireless telephone; Electronic Serial Number (ESN); International Mobile Station Identifier (IMSI); Mobile Station Type (fixed, automobile, transportable, portable, aircraft); ANI of the MTSO; Source such as Mobile Station (MS), Base Station Controller (BSC), Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Home Location Register (HLR) for fixed mobiles, Selective Router or other sources; Caller Geographic Location (latitude, longitude, altitude, resolution which information is contained in the subscriber's signature only for cellular or other wireless telephone communication systems that have the inherent ability to generate and process such positional data); Billing Number; Subscriber name; Subscriber billing address; Subscriber home telephone number; Subscriber personal telephone number; Subscriber priority indication; Priority Access & Channel Assignment (PACA) level (A,B or C); Preferred language; and, Home wireless service provider information. As will be apparent to one having skill in the art, some of the above-listed information may be automatically appended to the user-input access code by the wireless telephone, depending upon the specific preprogramming thereof. After caller identification, the user-input access code digits are provided for analysis and translation at 252 by the central processor at the switch where software operates on them and compares them with data received from a number of databases, 253-255. These databases provide data on both calling and called parties and preferred routing through the network and are integral to the call processing procedure, examples of these databases being user files, number tables, access codes and routing tables. The various data are analyzed and, when the dialed digits and other transmitted identifiers are approved, the processor creates a set of translated digits that are returned to the call processing module for additional actions to be taken, such as determination of the caller's local or roaming status at 256, billing procedures at 257, and call routing. At 257, software within the central processor at the MTSO insures that the mobile subscriber making the Cellular Linking call is not billed for air time, local or long distance call charges, or local and remote charges. In the case of roamers this may be done by creating a pseudo-cellular number for the Cellular Linking provider number for third party billing procedures, or by some other means which will be apparent to one having skill in the art (see: e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,216,703). Billing modification, with the object of allowing the MTSO to accept calls it otherwise would not, is further detailed in FIGS. 7 and 11. Finally, upon successful completion of steps 250-252, 256 and 257, at which time the access code has been recognized, the subscriber identity has been recorded, the presence of roamers has been determined and the necessary roamer billing acceptance procedures have been started, the access code is converted to a landline Cellular Linking number at 258 and the call routing software at the MTSO instructs the central processor to proceed to the next stage of telephone network call completion procedures by routing the call to the PTSN at 259. Connection and transmission may be based on TDMA, CDMA, GSM, SMR, PCS or N-AMPS technology, as would occur to one having familiarity with the subject technology. If the above process is interrupted at any point after receipt of the mobile subscriber signature, further special software instructs the switch to send a recorded message that prompts the subscriber to redial the complete number sequence. On receipt of the digits, the call validation and call processing procedures are restarted. FIG. 7 further describes the billing modification processing of the invention. Central to the invention is recognition by the PWN, and specifically the MTSO, that the caller is accessing the invention. The PWN must identify the caller as a local subscriber or a roamer at decision box 280. Local callers are automatically granted access to the system and the call billing file is altered to delete any charges to the caller for the call, at 281. In addition, a special billing record is established for the third party service provider at 282 including accessing the third party provider's plan, as necessary. The call is then processed at 284. If the determination at decision box 280 is that the caller is roaming, the MTSO central processor next determines if the caller's service provider will allow treatment of the call as local, with the attendant third party billing at 285. If the service provider, to which the roamer is a subscriber, has agreed to allow roamers to be treated as local for purposes of using the present invention, the roamer's service provider is bypassed and no billing or call information is forwarded. A third party billing record is created at 282 and the call progresses at 284. If the roamer's home carrier has not established a protocol for allowing its roamers to be treated as locals on the system (i.e., a “no” determination at decision box 285), then the roaming caller is notified at 286 that they have been identified as a roamer and that access to the cellular linking system will only be provided if the caller agrees to accept airtime charges. If a caller acknowledges acceptance of such charges, by depressing SEND or by other means conveying a “yes” decision for box 287, the acceptance is confirmed at 288 and the caller is permitted access at 286 and is charged in a traditional manner. If the roamer's home carrier has not established a protocol for allowing its roamers to be treated as locals on the system and the roaming caller fails to acknowledge acceptance of airtime charges at 287, then the roaming caller is blocked from the service at 289. FIG. 8 provides a detailed description of the call processing in accordance with the present invention when ISDN technology is available. The long distance carrier's data base functions are central to the implementation of the present invention which relies on ISDN technology. ISDN provides a common architecture for the development and deployment of digitally integrated communications services, using out-of-band signaling to permit the user's equipment and the PSTN to exchange control and signaling information over a separate channel from that which carries voice or other user information. ISDN lines are divided into bearer (“B”) channels and a supervisory control or data (“D”) channel. The D channel is used for out-of-band signaling and the B channels carry digitally encoded voice or other traffic. The D channel also carriers information about caller identification which can be used in the present invention to determine approximate geographic location. The invention utilizes ISDN technology to acquire the ANI of the LEC, MTSO, or caller and combine the geographic locator element of this ANI with the advertiser identifier to create an unique advertiser code and access fulfillment commands. At 310, the call is received at the PTSN, the identity of the ANI is checked at 311, and the call is routed to the target location at 312. The ISDN information is read on the D channel at 313, the D channel protocol conducted at 314, and the ANI verification conducted at 315 and 316. Once the ANI has been confirmed, the call is answered on the B channel at 317, with audible prompting to the caller being provided at 318. The ANI and the advertiser code (from the caller) will be linked at 319 and the database accessed at 320 in order to fulfill the call (i.e., retrieve and deliver the advertiser's message). FIG. 9 is a process flow utilized by the present invention when implemented with DNIS technology. DNIS technology allows the PSTN to transport information on the number dialed or in this application the POTS “800” number translated by a given wireless provider. Such information can then be read by the target location to determine via a preassigned look-up table the approximate geographic location of the caller. Variants of the present invention which rely only on DNIS technology may utilize T1 access with in-band signaling only. Upon translation of the access code to the 800 POTS number, at 330, the call is routed to the LEC at 331. Attachment of the DNIS data using the long distance carrier database is conducted at 332 and the call routed to the target location at 333. At the target location, the call is answered at 334, the DNIS data received at 335 and the caller prompted to provide the advertiser's code at 336. Linking of the DNIS and the advertiser's code is conducted at 337 followed by accessing of the fulfillment information. The inventive process thus utilizes DNIS technology to acquire the ANI of the transcribed POTS “800” number and combine the geographic locator element of this ANI with the advertiser identifier to create an unique advertiser code at 336 and to access fulfillment commands at 338. FIG. 10 further describes the components of the invention related to the target, or fulfillment, location. The target or fulfillment location may include a voice activated switch 400 to welcome the user and prompt verbal entry of a required alphanumeric code. An alternative key pad switch 401 may be available for receipt of keyed input of the required code. When the caller provides an audible identifier for interpretation by speech recognition software at the system's messaging center, inability to recognize an identifier, whether incorrect or unrecognizable for other reasons, will result in a prompt for the caller to repeat the audible identifier. If still not recognized as correct, the system will prompt the caller to enter the identifier using the phone keypad. In some instances, a live operator may answer the call and deliver the request for an identifier or trigger a recorded message requesting the identifier. The operator would then retrieve the advertiser specific files manually or by entry to one of a plurality of networked PC's, 402-404, after hearing the user speak the alphanumeric code. Whether automatically or manually queued, the front end PC's select the relevant advertiser file, deliver the advertiser message and, if necessary, route the call for further processing (e.g., demographics information gathering; sweepstakes entry; caller ordering with attendant information gathering including credit card or other personal account billing verification based upon input provided by the user either by magnetic card reading or secured transmission of alphanumeric information entered by the caller at the time of ordering or preprogrammed into the telephone, which may be conducted directly by an entity at the messaging center or may require transfer of the call to the advertiser's order desk; survey participation, appointment scheduling; etc). As appropriate, one or more local servers 406, or one or more remote servers 409, receives call fulfillment information, as does the system provider server 407 for tracking of system use, advertiser and caller demographics and billing data, etc. The system's target or fulfillment center also includes a customized administrative database 405 which notes the time of calls, duration of calls, location of caller, number of calls for each identifier, monitors volume and other physical parameters of a call, and administrates billing of calls. Other database information which may be stored and/or updated includes a caller's social security number, address, credit or debit card number, sizing and credit history. In those variants of the present invention which utilize ISDN technology, the target location must use an ISDN compatible switch with T1 or T3 cards, such as the Varilink CSU Model 551 or Northern Telecom's SL1 Meridian Model Option 81. ISDN processing also requires Extended Super Frame (ESF) Binary Eight Zero Suppression (B8ZS) signaling. FIG. 11 describes the advanced billing process flow for the present invention. Although one of the objectives of the system is to control call length to be within predefined parameters established by the advertiser and the third party service provider, call length can be extended if the caller so desires and is willing to incur the additional expense of the call. In that way, extended communication with the advertiser, their dealer or representative can be provided without requiring the caller to initiate a second call. FIG. 11 describes the process whereby the billing of the wireless land-based telephony charges revert back to the caller from a given point during the pendency of the call. If, at 420, the caller desires to transfer the call, or to extend the duration of the call beyond the time preset by the third party billing arrangement and monitored by the system, the caller is notified, at 421, of the caller's need to accept billing responsibility for the remainder of the call. At decision box 422, the system ascertains whether the caller is willing to accept the billing responsibility. If not, the call is terminated at 423. If, however, the caller will accept billing, the system notifies the wireless carriers to modify the billing process at 424. The wireless carrier then verifies the caller's credit at 425 and creates a new billing records at 426. Thereafter, the call is extended, or transferred as required, at 427. Such billing reconfiguration requires utilization of the intelligent network such as ISDN in order to signal the wireless provider of the need to modify is billing process. If transfer is required, the call is transferred to a second target location using traditional POTS means. The wireless mobile communications system as taught provides that the caller not be charged for any connection or service time but rather the targeted receiver is charged for the call using a specific dialing prefix. In the alternative, the targeted receiver can be charged for the call based upon a specific and dedicated frequency to be used for all such calls. Yet another arrangement provides the targeted receiver be charged for the call based upon a specific and dedicated numbering code to be used for all such calls. A final billing arrangement can provide that the wireless receiver of a call is not charged for any connection or service time but rather the caller is charged for the call based upon: (A) A “collect call” type system wherein the key pad of the receiving cellular phone or other wireless communications device affirmatively indicates that the caller willing to pay charges. (B) A “collect call” type system wherein some non-key pad indicator on the receiving cellular phone or other wireless communications device affirmatively indicates that the caller willing to pay charges. (C) The receiving wireless caller answering the call by pressing >send! alone to answer or >send! plus a second key such as >#! or >*!. Several advanced system features may be incorporated to enhance the capabilities of the inventive system, including an encryption system to secure financial data transmission,; automatic downloading of data to the caller's wireless phone or via the phone receiver to other vehicle systems; concurrent transmission of voice and data; and integration of automatic directories of advertiser's codes. Additional advantages and modifications will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to the specific details provided herein. Accordingly, departure may be made from such details without departing from the spirit and scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Wireless communication technology provides accessibility of communications for callers from virtually any location. While radio has provided a wireless medium for delivery of advertising messages for decades, the radio medium has limitations for advertisers based upon the cost of on-air time and programming schedules. Road signage has clear space limitations coupled with minimal “viewing” periods during which a prospective customer is exposed to the message. Since many prospective customers now travel regularly with wireless telephone equipment at the disposal, it may be advantageous to provide advertising services via wireless telephone linking. From a marketing perspective, a system for wireless telephone delivery of advertising messages is ideally one in which the prospective customer initiates the call, thereby eliminating the time and cost expenditures related to “cold-call” advertising delivery services of the past. In addition, the call should be free to the prospective customer and the system should be equipped to modify existing billing procedures in order to shift the cost of the advertiser. U.S. Pat. No. 5,131,020 of Liebesny, et al. discloses a method for providing traffic updates to cellular telephone customers within a regional calling area. User input of a code representing the traffic zone of interest to the user automatically connects to either a live operator or a taped message including the requested traffic information. While the Liebesny method does deliver user-requested information via cellular linking, its delivery is local and the messages fixed in scope. U.S. Pat. No. 5,214,793 of Conway, et al. provides a system for automatically delivering advertising, traffic status, directions, or other information to motorists having microwave transmitter/receiver systems at their respective locations. The requirement that the Conway user have the microwave equipment clearly limits the prospective audience and transmission delivery capabilities of such a system. U.S. Pat. No. 5,216,703 of Roy provides a cellular switching system whereby indicia dialed by the user after a cellular star (*) number is unique to a specific third party advertiser (TPA) and is used to direct the user's call through a special trunk in the switching system in order to deliver the TPA's message to the user. The Roy system utilizes cellular technology to enter into a trunked system, but is clearly limited in its ability to provide switching through an extensive network of advertisers and providers. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Pursuant to one embodiment, a prospect driving past an outdoor signboard will observe the advertiser's message, which will include a call-to-action, for example “CALL *500” or selected other abbreviated access code using the driver's cellular phone. In another embodiment, a prospect driving and listening to a radio broadcast will be prompted to dial *4AD (for example) by trailers to commercials. In a third embodiment, drivers passing highway interchanges with informational gas, food, and lodging signage will also be prompted to “CALL *522”, for example. Other uses may involve prompts located on buses, on board commuter trains, in public stadiums, etc. Following the general direction to dial the access code, each individual commercial spot will contain a one or more digit identifying alphanumeric code known as the Advertiser Identifier. Hence, a typical outdoor signboard will contain the following: CALL *500 SEND 1234 No Airtime Charges The prospect, held captive in his or her car, perhaps sitting in rush-hour traffic, will utilize their cellular phone to seek out additional information on the advertised product or service. In the case of the highway interchange, the prospect can obtain detailed information of the products or services (e.g. shopping, food, lodging, gas, etc.) available within three to five minutes of that particular interchange. In one embodiment, once prospects call *500 or other designated access code, they will hear a short message welcoming them to the system and prompting them to either dial or speak a one or more digit identifier, for example the name of the advertiser or a product name. After dialing or speaking an identifier, the customer will enter either an automated messaging system or be greeted by a live operator. Due to the inherent limitations of outdoor and radio advertising in terms of communicating a detailed message of product and service benefits, the additional level of transmitted information will have a high perceived value to both the advertiser and the primary media company. Based upon the particular services contracted, prospects can be provided with a menu of additional customer services including: the mailing of product/service information to their home or business; an audio listing of local retailers and their addresses or telephone numbers (with directions under certain circumstances); direct product sales; couponing; sampling; sweepstakes entry; polling; optional transfer to a retailer; optional transfer to the advertiser's customer service number; optional transfer to the advertiser's mail order desk; or, an opportunity to participate in a brief survey (for which the prospect may receive some nominal compensation or award). | 20041116 | 20101012 | 20051103 | 96104.0 | 1 | LEE, JUSTIN YE | METHOD OF PROVIDING INFORMATION TO A TELEPHONY SUBSCRIBER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,989,877 | ACCEPTED | Soft input panel system and method | A method and system for receiving user input data into a computer system having a graphical windowing environment. A touch-sensitive display screen for displaying images and detecting user activity is provided. A management component connects to the graphical windowing environment to create an input panel window for display on the screen. An input method which may be a COM object is selected from multiple input methods available, and installed such that the input method can call functions of the management component. Each input method includes a corresponding input panel, such as a keyboard, which it draws in the input panel window. When the user taps the screen at the input panel, the input method calls a function of the management component to pass corresponding input information appropriate information such as a keystroke or character to the management component. In response, the management component communicates the user data to the graphical windowing environment as a message, whereby an application program receives the message as if the message was generated on a hardware input device. | 1. In a computing environment, a computer-implemented method comprising: displaying an icon representative of a menu of selectable software input methods; receiving a request via the icon, and in response, displaying a plurality of selectable input methods on a displayed menu; receiving a request to select an input method from the menu, and in response, installing a software input method as a selected input method; and receiving input via an input panel that corresponds to the selected input method. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising, communicating information representative of the input data to a graphical windowing environment. 3. The method of claim 2 wherein communicating the information comprises passing the information to an interface. 4. The method of claim 2 further comprising, communicating the information from the graphical windowing environment to an application program. 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the input method corresponds to a displayed keyboard, and wherein receiving input via the selected input method comprises receiving information corresponding to a keyboard character entered via the displayed keyboard. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the input method corresponds to a handwriting input area, and wherein receiving input via the selected input method comprises receiving information corresponding to handwritten data. 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising, hiding the input panel. 9. The method of claim 1 further comprising, docking the input panel. 10. At least one computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions, which when executed perform the method of claim 1. 11. At least one computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions, which when executed perform steps, comprising: selecting one of a plurality of executable input methods for supplying user input to the computer system, each executable input method comprising an interchangeable software component and having a defined interface set such that the executable input method is connectable to other executable software; opening an input window on a display of the computer system independent of a window of an active application program; and displaying an input panel in the input window, the input panel corresponding to the selected executable input method such that user input may be received via the executable input method panel and information corresponding thereto provided to the active application program 12. The computer-readable medium of claim 11 further comprising, providing an input panel button on the display of the computer system, the input panel button being responsive to open and to close the input window. 13. The computer-readable medium of claim 11 further comprising, providing an input method button on the display of the computer system, the input method button being responsive to display a selectable list of the plurality of executable input methods. 14. The computer-readable medium of claim 11 further comprising, receiving a selection of one of the plurality of executable input methods displayed in the list as a selected executable input method, and in response, closing any open input window, and opening a new input window corresponding to the selected executable input method. 15. At least one computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions, which when executed perform steps, comprising: presenting data corresponding to a plurality of available input methods; invoking a selected input method, including presenting an input panel window; and accepting user data entered in the input panel window. 16. The computer-readable medium of claim 15 wherein accepting user data includes detecting user interaction with a touch-sensitive display. 17. The computer-readable medium of claim 15 wherein input method comprises a component object model object, and wherein the step of invoking the selected input method includes the step of instantiating the input method. 18. The computer-readable medium of claim 15 further comprising converting the input data to a Unicode character value. 19. In a computing environment, a system comprising, a manager component that manages selection of a selected input method from among a plurality of available input methods, each input method comprising software that accepts user input; a computer program comprising software that is an independent program with respect to the selected input method; and the selected input method coupled to the computer program to pass data corresponding to the user input received at the selected input method to the computer program. 20. The system of claim 19 wherein the computer program comprises an application program having focus. 21. The system of claim 19 further comprising an input panel window corresponding to the input method. 22. The system of claim 21 wherein the selected input method presents an image representing a keyboard on the input panel window. 23. The system of claim 21 wherein the manager component selectively displays and hides the input panel window. 24. The system of claim 21 wherein interaction with the input panel does not cause the input panel window to receive focus. 25. The system of claim 19 where the input method is displayed on a touch-sensitive display screen. 26. The system of claim 19 wherein the manager component transfers information from the active application program to the selected input method. 27. The system of claim 19 wherein the selected input method calls functions in the manager component via a defined interface set. 28. The system of claim 19 wherein the selected input method comprises an object. 29. The system of claim 19 wherein the selected input method draws an input panel in an input panel window displayed in a graphical windowing environment. 30. The system of claim 29 wherein the manager component selectively displays and hides the display of the input panel window. 31. The system of claim 29 wherein the manager component docks the input panel window. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates generally to computer systems, and more particularly to the input of data into a computer system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Small, mobile computing devices such as personal desktop assistants including hand-held and palm-top computers and the like are becoming important and popular user tools. In general, they are becoming small enough to be extremely convenient while consuming less and less battery power, and at the same time becoming capable of running more and more powerful applications. Although such devices continue to shrink in size, size limitations are being reached as a result of human limitations. For example, a full character keyboard that enables user data input cannot be so small that human fingers cannot depress the individual keys thereon. As a result, the size of such devices (e.g., palm-top computers) has become limited to that which can accommodate a full character keyboard for an average user. One solution to reducing the size of the portion of the device that receives user input is to provide a touch-sensitive display, and thereby substantially eliminate the need for a physical keyboard. To this end, an application program such as a word processor displays a keyboard, whereby the user enters characters by touching the screen at locations corresponding to the displayed keys. Of course, touch screen devices can also be used simultaneously with devices having a physical keyboard, whereby characters can also be entered by manually pressing the keys of the physical keyboard. While a touch-screen device serves to provide a suitable means of user data entry, the data entry panel is typically part of the application program, i.e., each application needs to develop its own touch-sensitive interface. As a result, a substantial amount of duplication takes place. For example, both the word processor and a spreadsheet program require alphanumeric keyboard input, whereby each provides its own touch-screen keyboard interface. Other types of programs, such as a calculator program, need a numeric keypad with additional keys representing mathematical operations. This makes each program larger, more complex and consumes computer system resources. Alternatively, the operating system can supply all the virtual keyboards and thus eliminate the redundancy, however this limits applications to using only those virtual keyboards supplied by the operating system. Newer applications (e.g., those added by plug-in modules) are unable to provide an input mechanism that is more tailored to its particular needs. For example, a new paintbrush program may need its own graphical input screen. In sum, there is a tradeoff between flexibility and efficiency that is inherent with present user data input mechanisms. OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an improved method system for entering user data into a computer system. Another object of the present invention is to provide the method and system for user data entry that is both efficient and flexible. In accomplishing those objects, it is a related object to provide a method and system of the above kind that functions with touch-sensitive input mechanisms. Yet another object is to provide a method and system as characterized above that enables a plurality of applications to receive user input from a common input method. A related object is to provide a method and system that enables selection of one or more input methods for each application from among a set of interchangeable input methods. Yet another object is to provide such a method and system that is cost-effective, reliable, extensible and simple to implement. Briefly, the present invention provides a method and system for receiving user data input into a computer system, such as a computer system having a graphical windowing environment. The invention may utilize a touch-sensitive display screen for displaying images and detecting user contact therewith (or proximity thereto). A management component operatively connected to the graphical windowing environment creates an input panel window for display on the screen. An input method is selected from among a plurality of such input methods and installed, whereby the input method can call functions of the management component. Each input method includes a corresponding input panel, such as a keyboard, which it draws in the input panel window. When user data is received via the input panel, the input method calls a function of the management component to pass the user data thereto, and in response, the management component communicates the user data to the graphical windowing environment such as in a windows message. An application program receives the message, such as corresponding to a keystroke, as if the message was generated on a hardware keyboard. Other objects and advantages will become apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the drawings, in which: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram representing a computer system into which the present invention may be incorporated; FIG. 2 is a block diagram representing various components and connections therebetween for implementing interchangeable input panels according to an aspect of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flow diagram generally representing a process for getting user input from a selected input method to a selected application in accordance with one aspect of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a state diagram generally representing SIP selection states; FIG. 5 represents a display on a touch-sensitive display screen on an exemplary computing device; FIG. 6 represents a display on a touch-sensitive display screen on an exemplary computing device providing the ability to select from among interchangeable input panels in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 7 represents a display on a touch-sensitive display screen wherein a keyboard has been selected as an input panel in accordance with the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a flow diagram representing the general steps taken in response to a change in SIP status. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Exemplary Operating Environment FIG. 1 and the following discussion are intended to provide a brief, general description of a suitable computing environment in which the invention may be implemented. Although not required, the invention will be described in the general context of computer-executable instructions, such as program modules, being executed by a hand-held computing device such as a personal desktop assistant. Generally, program modules include routines, programs, objects, components, data structures and the like that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention may be practiced with other computer system configurations, including palm-top, desktop or laptop personal computers, mobile devices such as pagers and telephones, multi-processor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers and the like. The invention may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks are performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices. With reference to FIG. 1, an exemplary system for implementing the invention includes a general purpose computing device in the form of a hand-held personal computing device 20 or the like, including a processing unit 21, a system memory 22, and a system bus 23 that couples various system components including the system memory to the processing unit 21. The system bus 23 may be any of several types of bus structures including a memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus, and a local bus using any of a variety of bus architectures. The system memory includes read-only memory (ROM) 24 and random access memory (RAM) 25. A basic input/output system 26 (BIOS), containing the basic routines that help to transfer information between elements within the hand-held computer 20, such as during start-up, is stored in the ROM 24. A number of program modules are stored in the ROM 24 and/or RAM 25, including an operating system 28 (preferably Windows CE), one or more application programs 29, other program modules 30 and program data 31. A user may enter commands and information into the hand-held computer 20 through input devices such as a touch-sensitive display screen 32 with suitable input detection circuitry 33. Other input devices may include a microphone 34 connected through a suitable audio interface 35 and a physical (hardware) keyboard 36 (FIG. 2). The output circuitry of the touch-sensitive display 32 is also connected to the system bus 23 via video driving circuitry 37. In addition to the display 32, the device may include other peripheral output devices, such as at least one speaker 38 and printers (not shown). Other external input or output devices 39 such as a joystick, game pad, satellite dish, scanner or the like may be connected to the processing unit 21 through an RS-232 or the like serial port 40 and serial port interface 41 that is coupled to the system bus 23, but may be connected by other interfaces, such as a parallel port, game port or universal serial bus (USB). The hand-held device 20 may further include or be capable of connecting to a flash card memory (not shown) through an appropriate connection port (e.g., slot) 42 and interface 43. A number of hardware buttons 44 such as switches, buttons (e.g., for switching application) and the like may be further provided to facilitate user operation of the device 20, and are also connected to the system via a suitable interface 45. An infrared port 46 and corresponding interface/driver 47 are provided to facilitate communication with other peripheral devices, including other computers, printers, and so on (not shown). It will be appreciated that the various components and connections shown are exemplary and other components and means of establishing communications links may be used. Soft Input Panel The soft input panel architecture is primarily designed to enable character, key-based and other user data input via the touch screen 32 of the device 20 rather than a physical keyboard 36. However, as can be appreciated, a given computer system 20 may optionally and additionally include a physical keyboard, as represented by the dashed box 36 of FIG. 2. Moreover, as will become apparent, the “soft input panel” need not be an actual touch-sensitive panel arranged for directly receiving input, but may alternatively operate via another input device such as the microphone 34. For example, spoken words may be received at the microphone 34, recognized, and displayed as text in an on-screen window, i.e., a soft input panel. FIG. 2 shows a block diagram implementing the SIP architecture in accordance with one aspect of the present invention. The computer system 20 includes an operating system (OS) 28 such as the graphical windowing environment 60. Such a graphical windowing environment 60 is generally operational to receive user input through a variety of devices including the keyboard 36, a mouse (not shown), a digitizer (not shown) and so on. In turn, the graphical windowing environment 60 may provide such user input to an application having “input focus,” typically in the form of a keyboard character event. Note that a number of applications 29 may be executable by the computer system, however one application that is currently running is said to have “input focus” and receive the input. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the present architecture employs a SIP manager 58 to provide a single and flexible interface for a plurality of different input methods 64. In general, the SIP manager 58 provides keystrokes from a selected input method 64 to the graphical windowing environment 60 (e.g., the Windows CE operating system 28). Once received, the graphical windowing environment 60 sends information corresponding to the user input data to an application 29 (i.e., the application whose window currently has input focus) in the form of that keystroke, mouse or other message placed in the message queue of the application's window. The passing of such messages is well known in Windows programming and is described in “Programming Windows 95,” Charles Petzold, Microsoft Press (1996), hereby incorporated by reference. As a result, any application capable of handling keyboard input may be used with any appropriately-configured input method 64. Indeed, if an optional keyboard 36 is present, keystrokes are directly provided by a keyboard driver 62 to the graphical windowing environment 60, whereby appropriate keystrokes are likewise placed in the message queue of the active application's window without the application being provided with information as to the source. Input methods 64 may include, for example, various different displayable keyboards, (soft keyboards), a calculator, a formula and/or equation editor, chemical symbol template, voice recognition, handwriting recognition, shorthand symbol recognition (such as “Graffiti”), or other application-optimized input methods (e.g. a barcode reader). The SIP manager 58 provides a user interface for permitting a user to toggle a SIP window (panel) 50 (FIG. 7) between an opened and closed state, as described in more detail below. The SIP manager 58 also provides a user interface enabling user selection from a displayable list of available input methods. A user interacting with the user interface may select an input method 64, and in response, the SIP manager 58 loads and calls the selected input method 64. In a preferred embodiment, each of the input methods communicates with the SIP manager 58 through a COM (Component Object Model) interface shown as IIMCallback 61 and IInputmethod 63. A COM object comprises a data structure having encapsulated methods and data that are accessible through specifically defined interfaces. A detailed description of COM objects is provided in the reference entitled “Inside OLE,” second edition, Kraig Brockschmidt (Microsoft Press), hereby incorporated by reference. Generally, when the SIP window 50 is toggled between on/off by a user, as will be described in more detail below, the SIP manager 58 informs the selected input method 64 to correspondingly open/close the SIP window 50 through the IInputmethod mechanism 63. When a new input method is selected, the SIP manager 58, through the mechanism 63, informs any of the previously selected input methods to exit, and loads the newly selected input method. The interface 63 may also be utilized by the SIP manager 58 to obtain information specific to a selected input method, as also described in detail below. The selected input method 64 may also communicate information to the SIP manager 58 via the IIMCallback mechanism 61, such as which character or characters were entered by a user, irrespective of whether the character or characters are generated through keyboard selection, handwriting recognition, voice recognition, a formula editor, calculator or the like. Such character input is generally passed to the SIP manager 58, preferably received as (or converted to) a Unicode character (for Windows CE) by the SIP manager 58 and output to the graphical windowing environment 60. Command key information, such as “Ctrl” on a keyboard, may also be provided by the input method 64 to the SIP manager 58 via interface 61. SIP and input method-specific information may also be communicated through the SIP manager 58, and ultimately to the focused application 29, when the application is optimized for operating with a SIP (i.e., is “SIP-aware”) as described in more detail below. The system operates as generally represented in the steps of FIG. 3. Once an application is selected and has focus (steps 300-302), an input method 64 is selected therefor at step 304. Note that the input method 64 may be selected by the user, or a default input method may be selected for use with a particular application. Additionally, the input method 64 may be one that remains after having been selected for a previous application, i.e., a particular input method stays the same as the user switches between various applications. In any event, the input method 64 displays a SIP window 50 when selected. As the user inputs data at step 306, appropriate data is passed to the SIP manager 58 via the IIMCallback mechanism 61, described below. Note that the input method 64 may first process the received data at step 306. By way of example, one particular input method 64 may convert barcode symbols to Unicode characters representing digits, another input method may convert mathematical entries into a Unicode result (e.g., an entry of ‘3+6=’ sends a ‘9’ to the SIP manager 58), while yet another may be an equation editor (e.g., the characters “Sqrt” are converted into a single Unicode value representing a square root symbol). After any such processing, the input method 64 passes those digits to the SIP manager 58, which in turn passes those digits to the graphical windowing environment 60. The application receives the character data from the graphical windowing environment 60 as if the user had entered those digits on a physical keyboard, regardless of the input method used. As shown in FIGS. 5-7, the soft input panel (SIP) functionality of the system collectively includes the visible window 50 (FIG. 7), a visible SIP button 52, and various methods and functions (described below). As shown in FIG. 7, the SIP window 50 is a rectangular area provided by the input method 64 that can be hidden or shown at the user's (or an application program's) request. The visible SIP button 52 is located on a taskbar 56 or the like, and provides a touch-sensitive interface by which the user displays or hides the SIP window 50. Thus, as represented in the state diagram of FIG. 4, the window 50 toggles between an open, visible state (FIG. 7) and a closed, hidden state (FIG. 5) as the user taps the SIP button 52. A present design implements a 240 pixel wide by 80 pixel high SIP window 50 that is fixed (docked) on the display 32 at a position just above the taskbar 56. As will become apparent below, the soft input panel design supports other SIP window 50 sizes or positions. To this end, the operating system 28 creates a dedicated thread (the SIP manager 58) that registers itself as a SIP thread with the Windows CE system. The thread creates the SIP window 50, performs other SIP initialization, and then enters a message loop to respond to messages and user interface activity in the SIP window 50. The thread also serves to dispatch messages to an Input Method's window, and calls into the Input Method 64 to permit the Input Method 64 to create windows that will respond as special SIP windows. The SIP manager thread 58 is given special status by the system. For example, windows created by the SIP manager 58 thread are topmost windows, and ordinarily will not be obscured by other windows, except, e.g., when the taskbar 56 is activated in an auto-hide mode while the SIP window 50 is displayed. In this case, the SIP window 50 remains displayed in its current location and the taskbar 56 is displayed on top of the SIP window 50. More generally, any user interface element for controlling the SIP may (and should) be placed on top of (rather than underneath) the SIP window 50, whenever the controlling user interface element and the SIP window 50 overlap. Moreover, when tapped on, the SIP window 50 (and any child windows thereof such as pushbuttons, text entry fields, scrollbars and the like) will not receive the input focus as would conventional program windows. In this manner, the user may interact with the SIP window 50 without changing the system focus. As can be appreciated, changing the system focus each time the user inputs data into the SIP window 50 would be undesirable. The SIP button 52 will also not cause a change of focus for the same reason, i.e., it is undesirable to cause the window with focus to lose focus by tapping on the SIP button 52 to bring out the SIP window 50. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, the SIP system enables the selective installation of a specified Input Method 64. As generally described above, each Input Method 64 is an interchangeable component by which the user provides character, text or other user data via the touch-screen display (or some other input device). More particularly, the SIP manager 58 preferably exposes a COM interface that enables the selective installation of Input Methods 64. The Input Method 64 occupies space inside a SIP window 50 created by the system. Preferably, the Input Method 64 comprises a Component Object Model (COM) object that implements the IInputMethod interface. Notwithstanding, the Input Method 64 and SIP manager 58 can comprise virtually any components capable of communicating with one other through some mechanism, such as by receiving, responding to, and making function calls. The Input Method 64 is responsible for drawing in the SIP window 50 and responding to user input in the SIP window 50. Typically, the Input Method 64 will respond to user input and convert that input into characters which are then sent to the SIP manager 58 via exposed SIP functions. By way of example, one Input Method 64 includes a default QWERTY (alpha) keyboard 66 shown in FIG. 7. More particularly, this Input Method 64 displays an image of the keyboard 66 on the screen 32, and converts taps on that keyboard 66 (detected as screen coordinates) into characters which are sent to the SIP manager 58 and thereby to the system. Input Methods may be written by application vendors, and are added to the system using COM component installation procedures. The user interacts with the Input Method 64 manifested in the visible SIP window 50 to create system input. As best represented by the state diagram of FIG. 4 and as shown in FIG. 6, the user can select a different Input Method by tapping a SIP menu button 70 on the taskbar 56 that provides a pop-up input method list 72 into the SIP window 50. The user can also select among available Input Methods via a control panel applet (not shown) or the like. The SIP control panel applets communicate with the operating system 28 using the registry and the exposed SIP-aware functionality described below. As will be described in detail below, the various components cooperate to expose functions, structures, and window messages that enable system applications 29 to respond to changes in the SIP state. An application 29 that uses this functionality to adjust itself appropriately to SIP changes is considered “SIP-aware.” Other applications may be SIP-aware yet choose to retain their original size (and thus be partially obscured by the SIP window 50) when appropriate. Moreover, and as also described below, there are exposed functions that enable applications to programmatically alter the SIP state. Notwithstanding, applications 29 need not be aware of the SIP system in order to benefit from the present invention. Indeed, one aspect of the present invention is that applications do not ordinarily recognize whether data received thereby originated at a hardware input device such as the keyboard 36 or via user activity (e.g., contact or proximity detected by the screen 32 and detection circuitry 33) within the soft input panel window 50. This enables applications to operate with virtually any appropriate input method, irrespective of whether that application is SIP-aware. Turning to an explanation of the mechanism that facilitates the operation of an Input Method 64 installed by the SIP manager 58, a SIP-aware application 29 is notified when the SIP window 50 changes state and what the new, current state of the SIP window 50 is. The state includes whether the status of the SIP window 50 is visible or hidden, whether the SIP window 50 is docked or in a floating condition, and the size and position of the SIP window 50. As shown in the table below, a data structure (SIPINFO) contains this SIP information: Typedef struct { DWORD cbSize DWORD fdwFlags RECT rcVisibleDesktop RECT rcSipRect DWORD dwImDataSize Void *pvImData } SIPINFO; The cbsize field may be filled in by the application program 29 and indicates the size of the SIPINFO structure. This field allows for future enhancements while still maintaining backward compatibility, and indeed, the size of the SIPINFO structure may be used to indicate the version to the components of the system. The fdwFlags field represents the state information of the SIP window 50, and can be a combination of three flags. A SIPF_ON flag that is set indicates that the SIP window 50 is visible (i.e., not hidden), while a set SIPF_DOC flag indicates the SIP window 50 is docked (i.e. not floating). A set SIPF_LOCKED flag indicates that the SIP window 50 is locked, i.e., the user cannot change its visible or hidden status. Note that a given implementation may not allow floating or locked SIP windows, however the capability is present within the system. The rcVisibleDesktop field contains a rectangle, in screen coordinates, representing the area of the screen desktop 68 not obscured by the SIP window 50. If the SIP window 50 is floating (not docked), this rectangle is equivalent to the user-working area. Full-screen applications wishing to respond to SIP window 50 size changes can generally set their window rectangle data structure (“rect”) values to this RECT data structure's values. If the SIP window 50 is docked and does not occupy an entire edge (top, bottom, left or right), then this rectangle represents the largest rectangle not obscured by the SIP window 50. However, the system may provide available desktop space 68 not included in the RECT data structure. Next, the rcSipRect field contains the rectangle, in screen coordinates, representing the size and location of the SIP Window 50. Applications 29 will generally not use this information, unless an application 29 wants to wrap around a floating SIP window 50 or a docked SIP window 50 that is not occupying an entire edge. The dwImDataSize field contains the size of the data pointed to by the PvImData member, which is the next field, i.e., a pointer to the Input Method-specific data. The data are defined by the Input Method 64. Whenever the state of the SIP window 50 changes, i.e., a new Input Method has been selected and/or a visibility, docking or size change has occurred, a message, WM_SETTINGCHANGE, is sent to all top-level windows, as generally represented at step 800 of FIG. 8. In this manner, an application 29 can adjust itself to the new state of the SIP window 50, such as by adjusting its size in response to this message. To this end, a flag, SPI_SETSIPINFO, is sent with this message to indicate when SIP information has changed, and another flag, SPI_SETCURRENTIM, when the current Input Method has changed. As shown at step 802 of FIG. 8, the flag is tested to determine if the message is SIP-related or another type of setting change message (whereby it is handled at step 804). If SIP-related, for performance reasons, the applications that are not currently active in the foreground cache these SIP changes (steps 806-808). If the application's window is active, the application can adjust its size and/or window (steps 810-812). For example, as shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, when the SIP window 50 of FIG. 7 is hidden and an active application 29 notified, the application 29 may use the additional desktop space 68 to display more information such as the analog clock faces. Note that an application 29 that has cached a SIP change when inactive can query the current SIP state when activated to subsequently adjust itself in an appropriate manner in accordance with the information that is returned. To query the SIP manager 58, another function, SHSipInfo, is provided so that applications 29 can determine information about the SIP window 50 and Input Method 64. In general, if this function succeeds, the return value will be nonzero, while if this function fails, the return value will equal zero and extended error information will be available via a GetLastError( ) call. The following table sets forth the structure of this call: SHSipInfo ( UINT uiAction UINT uiParam PVOID pvParam UINT fwinIni ); The uiAction parameter can include the values SIP_SETSIPINFO, SPI_GETSIPINFO, SPI_SETCURRENTIM and SPI_GETCURRENTIM. SIP_SETSIPINFO indicates that pvParam points to a SIPINFO structure (described above). The cbsize, dwImDataSize and pvImDataSize are filled in before calling the SHSipInfo function. In response to this call, the SIPINFO structure is filled in with the current SIP size, state, and visible desktop rectangle. If both dWImDataSize and pvImData are nonzero, the data size and pointer are sent to the Input Method 64. If the Input Method 64 is called but does not provide Input Method-specific data, or the format or size of the data passed in is not in a format recognized by the Input Method 64, then the SHSipInfo function call fails (returns zero). If the size and format are supported by the Input Method 64, the Input Method 64 fills in the buffer that is pointed to by pvImData with the Input Method-specific data. Typically, an application 29 will set the pvImDataSize to zero and pvImData to NULL. A uiAction of SPI_SETSIPINFO indicates that pvParam points to a SIPINFO structure. The SIP window 50 size and state are set to the values specified in the SIPINFO structure. Before changing a SIP value, the application 29 should first obtain the current SIP state by calling SHSipInfo with SPI_GETSIPINFO, then change whatever specific SIP state values it wishes to change before making the SPI_SETSIPINFO call. The cbSize field is set to the size of the SIP in the structure, and if both pvImDataSize and pvImData are not zero, the data size and pointer are sent to the Input Method 64. The SHSipInfo call fails if the Input Method 64 is called and does not allow setting Input Method-specific data, or if the format or size of the passed data is not in a format recognized thereby. If a size and format are supported by the Input Method 64, the Input Method 64 uses the data to set Input Method-specific information. Typically, an application will set the pvImDataSize to zero and pvImData to NULL. SPI_SETCURRENTIM indicates that pvParam points to a CLSID structure which specifies the CLSID of the Input Method 64 to which the SIP will switch. If the CLSID is not valid, or if the specified Input Method 64 cannot be loaded, the call fails (return value equals zero) and a default Input Method 64 (e.g., the QWERTY-like keyboard 66) is loaded. Lastly, a uiAction of SPI_GETCURRENTIM indicates that pvParam points to a CLSID structure that receives the CLSID of the currently selected Input Method 64. The IInputMethod Interface IInputMethod is the interface implemented by the Input Method 64 components. The SIP manager 58 calls the methods of this interface to notify the Input Method 64 of state changes, and request action and information from the Input Method 64. In general, if the called method succeeds, a success is returned, and conversely, if the method fails, a failure result is returned. The following table sets forth the method calls available in this IInputMethod interface: Interface IinputMethod : Iunknown { HRESULT Select ( [in] HWND hwndSip ); HRESULT Deselect( void ); HRESULT Showing ( void ); HRESULT Hiding ( void ); HRESULT GetInfo ( [out] IMINFO *pimi ); HRESULT ReceiveSipInfo ( [in] SIPINFO *psi ); HRESULT RegisterCallback ( [in] IIMCallback* pIMCallback ); HRESULT GetImData ( [in] DWORD dwSize, [out] LPVOID pvImData ); HRESULT SetImData ( [in] DWORD dwSize, [in] LPVOID pvImData ); HRESULT UserOptionsDlg ( [in] HWND hwndParent ); } An Input Method 64 will ordinarily receive a Select( ), GetInfo( ), ReceiveSipInfo( ) and Register Callback( ) method call, in sequence, before rendering the SIP window 50 space or responding to user actions. When the SIP window 50 is displayed (i.e., turned on), Showing( ) will be called by the SIP manager 58, after which the Input Method 64 issues a WM_PAINT message to render the SIP window 50. The Select( ) method is called when the Input Method 64 has been selected into the SIP. The Input Method 64 generally performs any desired initialization in response to this call. The Input Method is responsible for drawing the entire client area of the SIP window 50, and thus ordinarily creates its windows and imagelists (collections of displayable bitmaps such as customized icons) in response to this call. For example, the window handle of the SIP window 50 is provided to the Input Method 64 as a parameter accompanying this Select( ) method call, and the Input Method normally creates a child window of this SIP window 50. The Input Method 64 is also provided with a pointer to a value, which is set to nonzero by the Input Method 64 if the method call is successful or zero if not successful. The Deselect( ) method is called when the Input Method 64 has been selected out of the SIP. The Input Method's window should be destroyed in response to this call, and the Input Method 64 will typically perform any other cleanup at this time. The Showing( ) method will cause the SIP window 50 to be shown upon return from the call. Note that the SIP window 50 is not visible prior to this call, and that once the SIP window 50 is shown, this window and its children will receive paint messages. Conversely, the Hiding( ) method hides the SIP window 50 upon return from the call. Accordingly, the Showing( ) and Hiding( ) methods are used to toggle the SIP window 50 between its open and closed states. The GetInfo( ) method is called when the system is requesting information about the Input Method 64. The information requested includes flags indicating any special properties of the Input Method 64, the handles of two imagelists which contain masked bitmaps that are to be displayed on the SIP button 52 when that Input Method 64 is active, indices into the specified imagelists, and a rectangle indicating the preferred size and placement of the Input Method 64. The call includes a parameter, pimi, which is a pointer to a data structure (IMINFO) that the Input Method 64 should fill in with appropriate data. The call also provides a pointer to a value that the Input Method should set to nonzero to indicate success and zero to indicate failure. More particularly, the IMINFO data structure is represented in the following table: Typedef struct { DWORD cbSize; HIMAGELIST hImageNarrow; HIMAGELIST hImageWide; Int iNarrow; Int iWide; DWORD fdwFlags; Rect rcSipRect; } IMINFO; The cbSize field contains the size of the IMINFO structure, and is filled in by the SIP manager 58 prior to calling calling GetInfo( ). The hImageNarrow field is a handle to an imagelist containing narrow (16×16) masked bitmaps for the Input Method 64. Similarly, hImageWide is a handle to the imagelist containing wide (32×16) masked bitmaps. The SIP manager 58 displays one of the bitmaps (e.g., on the taskbar 56) to indicate the Input Method 64 that is currently selected. Note that the SIP manager 58 may use the 16×16 or 32×16 bitmaps at various times depending on how it wishes to display the bitmap. The iNarrow field is an index into the hImageNarrow imagelist indicating which bitmap of several possible from that (narrow) imagelist should currently be displayed. Similarly, the iwide field is an index into the hImageWide imagelist indicating which bitmap from that (wide) image list should currently be displayed. Note that the Input Method 64 can initiate a change of the bitmap displayed in the SIP taskbar button 52 by calling IIMCallback::SetImages (described below). The fdwFlags field indicates the visible, docked and locked states (SIPF_ON SIPF_DOCKED and SIPF_LOCKED) of the Input Method 64, as well as any special Input Method flags that may be defined in the future. Note that the SIP state flags are ignored for the GetInfo( ) method, but are used in the SetImInfo callback method as described below. Lastly, the rcSipRect field describes the size and placement of the SIP rectangle. The sizing and placement information returned from GetInfo( ) may be used by the SIP when determining an initial default size and placement. When used, the SetImInfo callback method (described below) specifies the new size and placement of the SIP window 50. The ReceiveSipInfo( ) method provides information to the Input Method 64 about the SIP window, including the current size, placement and docked status thereof. This call is made whenever the user, an application 29 or the Input Method 64 changes the SIP state. When the SIP manager 58 sends this information during Input Method initialization, the SIP manger 58 is informing the Input Method 64 of the default SIP settings. The Input Method 64 can choose to ignore these defaults, however the values given are ones that either the user has selected or values that have been recommended as expected or accepted SIP values for that platform. A pointer to the SIPINFO structure that includes this information is passed with this call. The RegisterCallback method is provided by the SIP manager 58 to pass a callback interface pointer to the Input Method 64. In other words, the RegisterCallback method call passes an IIMCallback interface pointer as a parameter to the Input Method 64, whereby the Input Method 64 can call methods on this interface to send information back to the SIP manager 58 as described below. The Input Method 64 uses the callback interface pointer to send keystrokes to applications 29 via the SIP manager 58 and to change its SIP taskbar button icons 52. The GetImData( ) method is called when an application program 29 has asked the SIP for the SIPINFOdata structure and has provided a non-NULL pointer for the pvImData member of the SIPINFO structure. The application 29 will ordinarily cause this call to be made when requesting some special information from the Input Method 64. Two parameters are passed with this call, dwsize, the size of the buffer pointed to by pvImData, and pvImData, a void pointer to a block of data in the application 29. With this call, the application 29 is essentially requesting that the Input Method 64 fill the block with information, wherein the size and format of the data are defined by the Input Method 64. This call is designed for Input Methods 64 that wish to provide enhanced functionality or information to applications. By way of example, a SIP-aware application may wish to know whether a character was entered by way of the SIP or by some other means. An input method 64 can thus respond to the application's request by filling the block. The SetImData( ) method is called when an application 29 has set the SIPINFO data structure and has provided a non-NULL pointer for the pvImData member of the SIPINFO structure. The application 29 will ordinarily cause this call to be made when requesting that the Input Method 64 set some data therein. The parameters passed with this call include dwsize, the size of the buffer pointed to by pvImData, and pvImData, a void pointer to a block of data in the application 64. The IIMCallback Interface The Input Method 64 uses the IIMCallback interface to call methods in the SIP manager 58, primarily to send keystrokes to the current application or to change the icon that the taskbar 56 is displaying in the SIP button 52. The Input Method 64 ordinarily calls the IIMCallback methods only in response to a call thereto which was received through an IInputMethod method call. In general, if the function succeeds, the return value will be a success HRESULT, while conversely, if the function fails, the return value is a failure HRESULT. The following table represents the IIMCallback Interface: Interface IIMCallback : Iunknown { Hresult SetImInfo( IMINFO *pimi ); Hresult SendVirtualKey ( BYTE bVk, DWORD dwFlags ); Hresult SendCharEvents( UINT uVk, UINT uKeyFlags, UINT uChars, UINT *puShift, UINT *puChars ); Hresult SendString( BSTR ptrzStr, DWORD dwChars ); } The first callback, SetImInfo( ) is called by the Input Method 64 to change the bitmaps shown on the SIP taskbar button 52 representing the current SIP, or to change the visible/hidden state of the SIP window 50. It is also sent by the Input Method 64 to the SIP manager 58 as a notification when the Input Method 64 has changed the size, placement or docked status of the SIP window 50. By this mechanism, the various Input Methods 64 are able to alert the SIP manager 58 to these types of changes so that the two remain synchronized. By way of example, an Input Method 64 may wish to have a user interface element which allows the user to toggle between a docked state and a floating state, or between one or more subpanels (e.g. keyboard with buttons to switch to a number and/or symbol panel or international symbol panel). The Input Method 64 uses this call to inform the SIP manager 58 of each change in state. Although not necessary to the invention, all values passed in the IMINFO structure are used by the SIP manager 58. Consequently, the Input Method 64 should first determine the current state of the SIP window 50 as provided by the SIP manager 58 in the SIPINFO structure received via a prior ReceiveSipInfo( ) method call, described above. Then, the Input Method 64 should make changes to only those settings in which a change is desired, and pass a full set of values back in the IMINFO structure. The pimi parameter is sent as a pointer to an IMINFO structure representing the new Input Method 64 settings, including the size, placement and state of the SIP window 50 as well as the desired Input Method 64 images. In response to the SetImInfo( ) call, the SIP manager 58 will show or hide the SIP window 50 as specified in the fdwFlags of the IMINFO structure. However, the SIP manager 58 will not resize or move the SIP window 50 if requested, but will instead update the size and placement information returned to applications 29 when queried. If the specified values represent a change from the current SIP state, the SIP manager 58 will notify applications 29 that the SIP state has changed via a WM_SETTINGCHANGE message, described above. The SendVirtualKey( ) callback is used by an Input Method 64 to simulate a keystroke for a virtual key, e.g., a character or the like entered via the touch screen display 32 or some other Input Method 64. The key event will be sent to the window which currently has focus (i.e., the window which would have received keyboard input had a key been pressed on an external keyboard). The SendVirtualKey callback modifies the global key state for the virtual key sent, whereby, for example, an Input Method 64 can use this function to send SHIFT, CONTROL, and ALT key-up and key-down events, which will be retrieved correctly when the application 29 calls the GetKeyState( ) API. The SendVirtualKey callback should be used to send virtual key events that do not have associated characters (i.e., keys that do not cause a WM_CHAR sent as a result of TranslateMessage. Note that WM_CHAR, TranslateMessage and other key-related messages are described in the reference “Programming Windows 95”, Charles Petzold, supra). If character-producing virtual keys are sent via this function, they will be modified by the global key state. For example, a virtual key of VK—5 that is sent when the shift state is down will result in a ‘%’ WM_CHAR message for certain keyboard layouts. Parameters sent with this callback include bVk, which is the virtual keycode of the key to simulate, and dwFlags. The dwFlags may be a combination of a SIPKEY_KEYUP flag, (used to generate either a WM_KEYUP or WM_KEYDOWN), a SIPKEY_SILENT flag, (the key press will not make a keyboard click even if clicks are enabled on the device), or zero. The SendCharEvent callback allows an Input Method 64 to send Unicode characters to the window having focus, while also determining what WM_KEYDOWN and WM_KEYUP messages the application 29 should receive. This allows the Input Method 64 to determine its own keyboard layout, as it can associate any virtual key with any characters and key state. In keeping with one aspect of the invention, applications 29 thus see keys as if they were sent from a keyboard (i.e., they get WM_KEYDOWN, WM_CHAR, and WM_KEYUP messages). Thus, unlike the SendVirtualKey( ) function, this function does not affect the global key state. By way of example, with the SendCharEvent callback, the Input Method 64 can determine that the shifted (virtual key) VK_C actually sent the Unicode character 0x5564. The shift state flag (specified in the puShift parameter, described below) that is associated with the first character to be sent determines whether a WM_KEYDOWN or WM_KEYUP is generated. Parameters include uVk, the virtual keycode sent in the WM_KEYUP or WM_KEYDOWN message generated as a result of this function, and a uKeyFlags parameter, a set of KEY state flags that are translated into the lKEYData parameter received in the WM_CHAR, WM_KEYUP or WM_KEYDOWN messages received by the application 29 as a result of this call. Only the KeyStateDownFlag, KeyStatePrevDownFlag, and KeyStateAnyAltFlag key state flags are translated into the resulting lKeyData parameter. The uChars parameter represents the number of characters corresponding to this key event, while the puShift parameter is a pointer to a buffer containing the corresponding KEY_STATE_FLAGS for each character to be sent. If the KeyStateDownFlag bit is sent, this function generates a WM_KEYDOWN message, otherwise it generates a WM_KEYUP message. Lastly, the puchars parameter is a pointer to a buffer containing the characters to be sent. An Input Method 64 may use the SendString callback to send an entire string to the window which currently has the focus, whereby a series of WM_CHAR messages are posted to the application 29. An Input Method 64 would typically use this callback after it has determined an entire word or sentence has been entered. For example, a handwriting recognizer or speech recognizer Input Method 64 will use the SendString callback after it has determined that a full word or sentence has been entered. Parameters of the SendString callback include ptszStr, a pointer to a string buffer containing the string to send, and dwSize, the number of characters to send. This number does not include the null-terminator, which will not be sent. As can be seen from the foregoing detailed description, there is provided an improved method system for entering user data into a computer system. The method and system are both efficient and flexible, and function with touch-sensitive input mechanisms. With the system and method, a plurality of applications can receive user input from a common input method, while interchangeable input methods may be selected from among a set thereof for each application. The method and system are cost-effective, reliable, extensible and simple to implement. While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative constructions, a certain illustrated embodiment thereof is shown in the drawings and has been described above in detail. It should be understood, however, that there is no intention to limit the invention to the specific form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents falling within the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Small, mobile computing devices such as personal desktop assistants including hand-held and palm-top computers and the like are becoming important and popular user tools. In general, they are becoming small enough to be extremely convenient while consuming less and less battery power, and at the same time becoming capable of running more and more powerful applications. Although such devices continue to shrink in size, size limitations are being reached as a result of human limitations. For example, a full character keyboard that enables user data input cannot be so small that human fingers cannot depress the individual keys thereon. As a result, the size of such devices (e.g., palm-top computers) has become limited to that which can accommodate a full character keyboard for an average user. One solution to reducing the size of the portion of the device that receives user input is to provide a touch-sensitive display, and thereby substantially eliminate the need for a physical keyboard. To this end, an application program such as a word processor displays a keyboard, whereby the user enters characters by touching the screen at locations corresponding to the displayed keys. Of course, touch screen devices can also be used simultaneously with devices having a physical keyboard, whereby characters can also be entered by manually pressing the keys of the physical keyboard. While a touch-screen device serves to provide a suitable means of user data entry, the data entry panel is typically part of the application program, i.e., each application needs to develop its own touch-sensitive interface. As a result, a substantial amount of duplication takes place. For example, both the word processor and a spreadsheet program require alphanumeric keyboard input, whereby each provides its own touch-screen keyboard interface. Other types of programs, such as a calculator program, need a numeric keypad with additional keys representing mathematical operations. This makes each program larger, more complex and consumes computer system resources. Alternatively, the operating system can supply all the virtual keyboards and thus eliminate the redundancy, however this limits applications to using only those virtual keyboards supplied by the operating system. Newer applications (e.g., those added by plug-in modules) are unable to provide an input mechanism that is more tailored to its particular needs. For example, a new paintbrush program may need its own graphical input screen. In sum, there is a tradeoff between flexibility and efficiency that is inherent with present user data input mechanisms. | <SOH> OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an improved method system for entering user data into a computer system. Another object of the present invention is to provide the method and system for user data entry that is both efficient and flexible. In accomplishing those objects, it is a related object to provide a method and system of the above kind that functions with touch-sensitive input mechanisms. Yet another object is to provide a method and system as characterized above that enables a plurality of applications to receive user input from a common input method. A related object is to provide a method and system that enables selection of one or more input methods for each application from among a set of interchangeable input methods. Yet another object is to provide such a method and system that is cost-effective, reliable, extensible and simple to implement. Briefly, the present invention provides a method and system for receiving user data input into a computer system, such as a computer system having a graphical windowing environment. The invention may utilize a touch-sensitive display screen for displaying images and detecting user contact therewith (or proximity thereto). A management component operatively connected to the graphical windowing environment creates an input panel window for display on the screen. An input method is selected from among a plurality of such input methods and installed, whereby the input method can call functions of the management component. Each input method includes a corresponding input panel, such as a keyboard, which it draws in the input panel window. When user data is received via the input panel, the input method calls a function of the management component to pass the user data thereto, and in response, the management component communicates the user data to the graphical windowing environment such as in a windows message. An application program receives the message, such as corresponding to a keystroke, as if the message was generated on a hardware keyboard. Other objects and advantages will become apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the drawings, in which: | 20041115 | 20080812 | 20050428 | 86341.0 | 2 | NGUYEN, KIMNHUNG T | SOFT INPUT PANEL SYSTEM AND METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,989,938 | ACCEPTED | Mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead | An anti-wedging, controlled deployment broadhead with an over-center of gravity blade geometry for bow-hunting that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply before deploying its blades while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy in flight and at target. The inventive device includes the one-piece body, specially aligned and faceted cutting tip, blades, O-ring, and set screws. The blades have independent pivots that also act as travel limiters, are arch shaped with very sharp leading edges and a J-shaped lever. The center of gravity of each of the blades is oriented so as to insure retaining each blade in its respective retracted position during acceleration and assisting in deployment thereof during deceleration. The device with its special body and blade geometry now allows for more energy and blade area to be delivered to the vital organs of game to facilitate a faster and more humane harvest. | 1. An arrowhead for a broadhead arrow comprising: an elongated generally cylindrically shaped body having a forwardly projecting tip portion, said body being provided with a diametrically extending through-slot, a pair of cutting blades pivotally mounted on said body and being movable about spaced parallel pivot axes between a retracted position disposed substantially within said through-slot, and a deployed position extending outwardly from said body, each of said cutting blades having an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when the associated of said blades is in its retracted position; and the pivot axis of each of said blades being located longitudinally further from said tip portion of said body than the associated of said actuating levers. 2. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 3. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said body further comprises major and minor diameter portions, and wherein the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof. 4. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said actuating lever projects outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position, whereby said cutting blades move from said retracted position toward said deployed position first by engagement of the cutting edges thereof with the target and then by engagement of the actuating levers thereof with the target. 5. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said body comprises major and minor diameter portions, wherein: the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof, wherein said actuating lever projects outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position, whereby said cutting blades move from said retracted position toward said deployed position first by engagement of the cutting edges thereof with the target and then by engagement of the actuating levers thereof with the target, and wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 6. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow, wherein said body comprises a major diameter portion, and wherein the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than the major diameter portion thereof. 7. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said body comprises a major diameter portion and the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof, wherein said actuating lever projects outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when said cutting blades are disposed in their respective retracted position, whereby said cutting blades move from said retracted position toward said deployed position first by engagement of the cutting edges thereof with the target and then by engagement of the actuating levers thereof with the target. 8. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow, and wherein said actuating lever of each of said cutting blades projects outwardly from one side of said body and an associated cutting edge projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when said each cutting blade is disposed in its respective retracted position. 9. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said body is fabricated of an anodized aluminum alloy to provide a relatively hard and low friction external surface. 10. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said tip portion comprises at least two circumferentially spaced cutting edges, wherein said through-slot is aligned with said two cutting edges, such that upon penetration of said tip portion into a target, said cutting edges create fracture lines in the target which are aligned with the plane of movement of the cutting blades from their respective retracted to deployed positions. 11. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said cutting blades comprise cutting edges that are forwardly convex and arcuate in shape and which at least partially project from the sides of said body in their respective retracted positions to provide a cutting action directly rearwardly of said tip portion and to initiate deployment of said cutting blades out of the sides of said through-slot. 12. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said cutting blades are operatively disposed on said body in a manner so as to provide for limited movement of said cutting blades axially of their respective pivot axis, whereby the arrow is able to seek the path of least resistance as it penetrates the target. 13. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said cutting blades are pivotally mounted by means of pivot pins secured to said body, and wherein each cutting blade utilizes the pivot pin of the opposing blade as means for limiting movement toward its retracted and deployed positions. 14. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said body comprises a forward tip portion of a first diameter and a body portion disposed rearwardly of said tip portion of a second diameter, and wherein said first diameter is greater than said second diameter so that after penetration of the tip portion into a target, the rest of the body can pass into said target with reduced resistance. 15. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said cutting blades are pivotally mounted within and adjacent the rearward end of said through-slot, and which includes means within the forward end of said through-slot to ensure the tips of said cutting blades do not cross and become locked together. 16. The invention as set forth in claim 1 which includes a ring-shaped elastomeric element disposed around said body and said cutting blades to assure against premature deployment of said cutting blades. 17. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said body comprises a major diameter portion, and wherein the axial dimension between the forward end of said tip portion and said actuating levers on said cutting blades is approximately four to five times the major diameter of said body, whereby to permit the desired target penetration of the body portion preparatory to full deployment of said cutting blades. 18. The invention as set forth in claim 1 wherein, said tip portion and said body portion comprise separate assembled components. 19. An arrowhead adapted to be operatively associated with an arrow and comprising: a body having a diametrically extending through-slot, a pair of retractable cutting blades disposed within said through-slot and being independently movable between retracted and deployed positions, means defining a pair of laterally spaced parallel pivot axes arranged generally perpendicular to said through-slot and about which said cutting blades are pivotable between said retracted and deployed positions, the center of gravity of each of said blades being disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 20. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when the respective of said cutting blades is in its retracted position; and wherein, the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from the forward tip of the arrowhead than the associated of said actuating levers. 21. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said body comprises a major diameter portion, and wherein the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof. 22. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said actuating lever of each of said cutting blades projects outwardly from one side of said body and the associated cutting edge projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position, whereby said cutting blades move from said retracted position toward said deployed position first by engagement of the cutting edges thereof with the target and then by engagement of the actuating levers thereof with the target. 23. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when the cutting blade is in its retracted position, wherein: the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from the tip of the arrowhead than the associated of said actuating levers, wherein said body comprises a major diameter portion and wherein the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof, and wherein said actuating lever of each of said cutting blades projects outwardly from one side of said body and the associated cutting edge projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position. 24. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when said cutting blade is in its retracted position, wherein: the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from the tip of the arrowhead than the associated of said actuating levers, and wherein said body comprises a major diameter portion and wherein the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof. 25. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when said cutting blade is in its retracted position, wherein: the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from the tip of the arrowhead than the associated of said actuating levers, and wherein said actuating levers project outwardly from one side of said body and the cutting edge of each cutting blade projects outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position, whereby said cutting blades move from said retracted position toward said deployed position first by engagement of the cutting edges thereof with the target and then by engagement of the actuating levers thereof with the target. 26. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said body comprises a major diameter portion, wherein: the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof, and wherein each of said cutting blades comprises actuating lever means projecting outwardly from one side of said body and cutting means projecting outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position. 27. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said body is fabricated of an anodized aluminum alloy to provide a relatively hard and low friction external surface. 28. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said body is formed with a tip portion comprising at least two circumferentially spaced cutting edges, and wherein the open sides of said through-slot are aligned with said two cutting edges, whereby said cutting edges are aligned with the plane of movement of said cutting blades from their respective retracted to deployed positions. 29. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said cutting blades comprise cutting edges that are forwardly convex in shape to provide a cutting action directly rearwardly of the tip of the arrowhead and to facilitate deployment of said blades out of the sides of said through-slot. 30. The invention as set for forth in claim 19 wherein, said cutting blades are operatively disposed on said body in a manner so as to provide for limited movement of said blades axially of their respective pivot axis, whereby the arrow is able to seek the path of least resistance as it penetrates the target. 31. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said cutting blades are pivotally mounted on pivot means and wherein each cutting blade utilizes the pivot means of the opposing cutting blade as means for limiting movement toward its full retracted and full deployed positions. 32. The invention as set forth in claim 19, wherein said body comprises a tip portion of a first diameter, and a body portion disposed rearwardly of said tip portion has a second diameter, and wherein said first diameter is greater than said second diameter so that after penetration of the tip portion into a target, the rest of the body can pass into said target with reduced resistance. 33. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, said cutting blades are pivotally mounted within and adjacent the rearward end of said through-slot, and which includes means to prevent the cutting blades from crossing in their retracted positions. 34. The invention as set forth in claim 19 which includes a resilient means to assure against premature deployment of said cutting blades. 35. The invention as set forth in claim 19 wherein, the axial dimension between the forward end of said body and actuating levers on said cutting blades is at least four times the major diameter of said body. 36. The invention as set forth in claim 28 wherein said circumferentially spaced cutting edges are provided by an element assembled on the forward end of said body. 37. An arrowhead for use with a broadhead arrow, said arrowhead comprising: an elongated body having a forwardly projecting tip portion and major and minor diameter portions, said body having a longitudinally extending through-slot formed therein, a pair of cutting blades pivotally mounted on said body and being pivotable between a first position substantially retracted within said through-slot and a second position wherein the cutting edges of said cutting blades are deployed outwardly from said body, the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades being disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof. 38. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when the respective of said cutting blades is in its retracted position, and wherein the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from said tip portion than the associated of said actuating levers. 39. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in their respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and move toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 40. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises actuating lever means projecting outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projecting outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position. 41. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, each of said cutting blades includes an actuating lever projecting outwardly from said body when the respective of said cutting blades is in its retracted position, wherein the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from said tip portion than the associated of said actuating levers, wherein the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, and wherein each of said cutting blades has its respective actuating lever projecting outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projecting outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position. 42. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises an integral actuating lever projecting outwardly from one side of said body and an associated cutting edge projecting outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position, and wherein: the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from said tip portion than the associated of said actuating levers. 43. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, each of said cutting blades comprises a J-shaped actuating lever, wherein the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from said tip portion than the associated of said actuating levers, and wherein: the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 44. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, and wherein each of said cutting blades comprising actuating lever means projecting outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projecting outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position, whereby said cutting blades move from said retracted position toward said deployed position first by engagement of the cutting edges thereof with the target and then by engagement of the actuating levers thereof with the target. 45. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, said body is fabricated of a metal alloy having a relatively hard and low friction external surface. 46. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, said tip portion comprises at least two circumferentially spaced cutting edges, wherein said through-slot is aligned with said two cutting edges, whereby said cutting edges are aligned with the plane of movement of the cutting blades from their respective retracted to deployed positions. 47. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, the cutting edges of said cutting blades are forwardly convex and arcuate in shape to provide a cutting action directly rearwardly of said tip portion. 48. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, said cutting blades are operatively disposed on said body in a manner so as to provide for limited movement of said cutting blade axially of their respective pivot axis. 49. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, said cutting blades are each mounted on a pivot element, and wherein each cutting blade utilizes the pivot element of the opposing cutting blade as means for limiting movement toward at least one of the full retracted or full deployed positions. 50. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, said tip portion has a first diameter and said body has a second diameter portion located rearwardly of such tip portion, and wherein said first diameter is greater than said second diameter so that after penetration of the tip portion into a target, the rest of the body can pass into said target with reduced resistance. 51. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, said cutting blades are pivotally mounted within and adjacent the rearward end of said through-slot, and which includes stop means within the forward end of said through-slot to limit movement of said cutting blades. 52. The invention as set forth in claim 37 which includes means disposed around said body and said cutting blades to assure against premature deployment of said cutting blades. 53. The invention as set forth in claim 37 wherein, the axial dimension between the forward end of said tip portion and actuating means on each of said cutting blades is approximately four to five times the major diameter of said body. 54. The invention as set forth in claim 37 which includes means defining a pair of diametrically opposed cutting edges assembled onto said body. 55. In combination in a broadhead arrow, an arrowhead assembly comprising a longitudinally disposed body having a forwardly projecting tip portion and rearward mounting portion adapted to be operatively secured to the shaft of the arrow, said body being provided with a diametrically extending through-slot, a pair of cutting blades pivotally mounted within said through-slot of said body and each being movable about a respective pivot axis between a retracted and deployed position, each of said cutting blades comprising actuating lever means projecting outwardly from one side of said body and a cutting edge projecting outwardly from the opposite side of said body when each said cutting blade is disposed in its retracted position. 56. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, the pivot axis of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally further from said tip portion than the associated of said actuating levers. 57. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 58. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, said body comprises a major diameter portion, and wherein the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than said major diameter portion thereof. 59. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein the actuating lever of at least one of said cutting blades is located longitudinally closer to said tip portion than the associated of said pivot axis, wherein the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, and wherein, the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than the major diameter portion thereof. 60. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, the actuating levers of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally closer to said tip portion than the associated of said pivot axis, and wherein the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, whereby said cutting blades are retained in the respective retracted positions during acceleration of the arrow and moved toward their respective deployed positions upon deceleration of the arrow. 61. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, the actuating levers of each of said cutting blades is located longitudinally closer to said tip portion than the associated of said pivot axis, and wherein the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis. 62. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, the center of gravity of each of said cutting blades is disposed laterally inwardly from the associated of said pivot axis, wherein the pivotal axis of each of said cutting blades is disposed no further forward of said body than the major diameter portion thereof. 63. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, said body is fabricated of an anodized aluminum alloy taken from the group of 6061-T6 and 7075-T6, and wherein said body is Type III anodized. 64. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, said tip portion is formed with four equally circumferentially spaced cutting edges, wherein said through-slot is aligned with two of said cutting edges whereby the planes of movement of said cutting blades between said retracted and deployed positions are substantially aligned with said two cutting edges. 65. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein said cutting blades are formed with forwardly convex and arcuate cutting edges which provide a cutting action directly rearwardly of said tip portion and initiate deployment of said cutting blades out of said through-slot. 66. The invention as set for forth in claim 55 wherein, said cutting blades are relatively loosely secured to said body, whereby the arrow is able to seek the path of least resistance as it penetrates the target. 67. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, said cutting blades are pivotally supported on pivot elements secured to said body, and wherein at least one of said cutting blades utilizes the pivot element of the opposing cutting blade as means for limiting pivotal movement thereof. 68. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, said tip portion is of a first diameter and a portion of said body disposed directly rearwardly of said tip portion is of a second diameter, and wherein said first and second diameters are different to facilitate target penetration. 69. The invention as set forth in claim 55 which includes means within the forward end of said through-slot to limit movement of said cutting blades. 70. The invention as set forth in claim 55 which includes an O-ring disposed around a groove formed in said body and around both of said cutting blades to assure against premature deployment of said cutting blades. 71. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, the axial dimension between the forward end of said tip portion and the actuating levers on said cutting blades is greater than two times the major diameter of said body. 72. The invention as set forth in claim 55 wherein, said tip portion and said body comprise separate assembled components fabricated of different materials. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/520,707 filed on Nov. 17, 2003. The disclosure of the above application is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to bowhunting arrow tips and more specifically it relates to a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without “wedging” in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blade in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It can be appreciated that bowhunting arrow tips have been in use for years. Typically, bowhunting arrow tips are comprised of broadheads like the Vortex 100-125, Rocky Mountain Snyper, Sonoran 100-125, NAP Spiffire 100-125, Rockets Steelheads 100-125, Wasps Jackhammer 100-125, Game Tracker Silvertip 100, and Ironheads Expandables. The main problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips are the amount of penetration before blade deployment is insufficient to allow these broadheads to penetrate below-the-surface hard objects (such as hunted animal's ribs and shoulder blades) and then deploy the cutting blades. This results in very poor penetration, a high probability for deflection, a high probability for catapulting and needlessly wounding game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. Another problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips are the high level of deflection due to the design opens on contact and/or exposed blade actuation. Unless the shot is perpendicular to the target, this open, or cut-on-contact design flaw allows the broadhead's tip and/or blades to divert or steer the arrow off its course, wasting the kinetic energy that should be used for penetration. Another problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips are in all other broadhead designs to date, very high levels of wedge exist when the blades are actuated to deploy. This occurs because whatever hole or cavity the tip created on impact is now too small for the rest of the body and/or blades to pass through without wedging. Even with perfect conditions and shot placement, the design flaws consume considerable amounts of the arrow's kinetic energy as frictional heat before some or any penetration occurs. This results in inhumane kills or permanent wounding of game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. While these devices may be suitable for the particular purpose to which they address, they are not as suitable for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. The main problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips is the amount of penetration before blade deployment is insufficient to allow these broadheads to penetrate below-the-surface hard objects (such as hunted animal ribs and shoulder blades) and then deploy the cutting blades. This results in very poor penetration, a high probability for deflection, a high probability for catapulting and needless wounding game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. Another problem is the high level of deflection due to the design opens on contact and/or exposed blade actuation. Unless the shot is perpendicular to the target, this open, or cut-on-contact design flaw allows the broadhead's tip and/or blades to divert or steer the arrow off its course, wasting the kinetic energy that should be used for penetration. Also, another problem is in all other broadhead designs to date, very high levels of wedge exist when the blades are actuated to deploy. This occurs because whatever hole or cavity the tip created on impact is now too small for the rest of the body and/or blades to pass through without wedging. Even with perfect conditions and shot placement, the design flaws consume considerable amounts of the arrows kinetic energy as frictional heat before some or any penetration occurs. This results in inhumane kills or permanent wounding of game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. In these respects, the mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead according to the present invention substantially departs from the conventional concepts and designs of the prior art, and in so doing, provides an apparatus primarily developed for the purpose of providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the foregoing disadvantages inherent in the known types of bowhunting arrow tips now present in the prior art, the present invention provides a new mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead construction wherein the same can be utilized for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. The general purpose of the present invention, which will be described subsequently in greater detail, is to provide a new mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has many of the advantages of the bowhunting arrow tips mentioned heretofore and many novel features that result in a new mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead which is not anticipated, rendered obvious, suggested, or even implied by any of the prior art bowhunting arrow tips, either alone or in any combination thereof. To attain this, the present invention generally comprises the body, blades, O-ring, and set screws. The body is one-piece with an integrated faceted cutting tip. The cutting tip is slightly larger than the main body immediately following the tip. The body has a lengthwise slot, open to two sides that pass through part of it. A groove is cut into the exterior circumference of the body to locate a retainer like an O-ring. Two drilled and tapped holes are placed through the body for locating and holding the blades and are filled with supporting components like the set screws. The body then finishes at the rear with a pilot and then threads to attach to an arrow. The blades are curved and shaped on an arch with very sharp leading edges and a J-shaped lever. The blades each have one hole in them for location and pivot and the rest of the shape is made with multiple complex curves. The O-ring helps hold the blades in only for handling and premature deployment. The set screws retain, act as pivot points, and act as stop points for the blades in both closed and full open positions. There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, the more important features of the invention in order that the detailed description thereof may be better understood, and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. There are additional features of the invention that will be described hereinafter. In this respect, before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and to the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology herein are for the purpose of the description and should not be regarded as limiting. A primary object of the present invention is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that will overcome the shortcomings of the prior art devices. An object of the present invention is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that gives all bow hunters with varying levels of strength and size, the ability to first penetrate deep into all game, then deploy blades with very large cutting widths. This results in a consistent, humane, fast harvest of game. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that mimics the flight characteristics of a smooth, non-bladed field point, to help eliminate flight accuracy problems so all shots hit consistently and accurately. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has an anti-wedging design, so hard-target pass-through (such as bone) is accomplished before deploying the cutting blades. This is to conserve kinetic energy so the broadhead can penetrate further into the target. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has three independent blade deployment actuation devices that also work in concert with each other so that, after penetration, blade deployment reliability is not a factor. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that helps eliminate possibility of deflection (ricochet) and catapulting by first penetrating deep, then opening the blades in the game. The ability of this broadhead to anchor its flight path deep into the game before blade deployment helps insure a greatly reduced chance of deflection and allows for less-than-perfect off-axis shots to be taken with confidence. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has a one piece fully machined billet body with an integrated and aligned quad facet cutting tip larger than the body immediately following (to eliminate body wedging), utilizing a Type-III hard-anodized surface. This integrated and aligned tip provides consistent flight characteristics while the Type-III hardcoat increases surface hardness (over twelve times thicker/deeper than standard anodizing), lubricity and abrasion resistance. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that severs the tissues and vital organs of the game with very large curved blades designed to conserve forward momentum by using a slicing, not a chopping action. When deployed, the blades have a limited ability to articulate perpendicular to their pivot point. This feature reduces the chances of in-game deflection and blade breakage if the blades encounter hard materials. Other objects and advantages of the present invention will become obvious to the reader and it is intended that these objects and advantages are within the scope of the present invention. To the accomplishment of the above and related objects, this invention may be embodied in the form illustrated in the accompanying drawings, attention being called to the fact, however, that the drawings are illustrative only, and that changes may be made in the specific construction illustrated. Further areas of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the preferred embodiment of the invention, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings. Various other objects, features and attendant advantages of the present invention will become fully appreciated as the same becomes better understood when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the several views, and wherein: FIGS. 1A and 1B are plan and side views, respectively, of the body; FIG. 2 is a plan view of one of the cutting blades; FIG. 3 is an elevated perspective view of one of the set screws utilized for pivotably mounting the cutting blades; FIG. 4 is an elevated perspective view of the O-ring utilized to prevent premature deployment of the cutting blades; and FIGS. 5A-5F are plan views of the body and associated cutting blades, showing the blades in various positions from fully retracted to fully deployed. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description of the preferred embodiment(s) is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the invention, its application, or uses. Turning now descriptively to the drawings, in which similar reference characters denote similar elements throughout the several views, the attached figures illustrate a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead, which comprises the body, blades, O-ring and set screws. The body is one-piece with an integrated faceted cutting tip. The cutting tip is slightly larger than the main body immediately following the tip. The body has a lengthwise slot, open to two sides that pass through part of it. A groove is cut into the exterior circumference of the body to locate a retainer like an O-ring. Two drilled and tapped holes are placed through the body for locating and holding the blades and are filled with supporting components like the set screws. The body then finishes at the rear with a pilot and then threads to attach to an arrow. The blades are curved and shaped on an arch with very sharp leading edges and a J-shaped lever. The blades each have one hole in them for location and pivot and the rest of the shape is made with multiple complex curves. The O-ring helps hold the blades in only for handling and premature deployment. The set screws retain, act as pivot points, and act as stop points for the blades in both closed and full open positions. The body is one-piece with an integrated faceted cutting tip. The cutting tip is slightly larger than the main body immediately following the tip. The body has a lengthwise slot, open to two sides that pass through part of it. A groove is cut into the exterior circumference of the body to locate a retainer like an O-ring. Two drilled and tapped holes are placed through the body for locating and holding the blades and are filled with supporting components like the set screws. The body then finishes at the rear with a pilot and then threads to attach to an arrow. The body is fully machined from a hardened aluminum alloy 6061-T6 or 7075-T6, Type III anodized hard coat and constructed in one piece with an integrated faceted cutting tip. The one-piece construction is to provide the straightest alignment of the cutting surfaces as well as all the components held within. The Type III anodized hard coat creates a very hard and low friction surface. The penetration of this super hard aluminum oxide shell is over 12 times as thick as standard Type II anodize. This level of anodization greatly enhances the abrasion resistance of the body as well as the strength and integrity of the cutting facets on the tip. The design intent of the integrated cutting tip and one-piece body is to provide very consistent airflow, turbulence, and strength, which provide a very accurate and repeatable shooting ability. The tip's 1a major diameter is larger than the main body immediately following so that, after penetration of the tip into the target, the rest of the body can pass through with reduced resistance. The tip has four concave machined grooves in it to facilitate fracturing and creation of a hole/cavity of a hard material target. Behind the tip portion of the body is a machined slot 1c, clear and open to both sides of the body and oriented 180° through the body. It is aligned with the cutting tip so that two of the four cutting facet edges are in-line, as seen at 1d, with the slot. This helps to create both a fracture line in the target that the exposed blades can continue with, and also creates a “bow-wave” of turbulent air under which the exposed portions of the blades and blade levers can fly through with minimal energy loss. At the top of the slot, as seen at 1e, well inside the major diameter of the body is a “stop tab” machined and integral to the body material. This stop tab is insurance to guard against any possibility that the opposing blades tips might interlock and hinder deployment. At the bottom of the slot, the slot is terminated with a machined radius 1g to strengthen the body as well as further reduce possibilities of stress risers and fractures. A retention groove G is machined into exterior circumference of the body to facilitate the location of an O-ring R or similar device that is used to secure the blades within the slot of the body when the product is assembled and handled. Behind the retention groove are two threaded holes 1f that pass completely through the body at 90° to the slot orientation. These threaded holes are filled with fully threaded fasteners S that retain the blade assemblies and also serve to mechanically secure and stabilize the body from collapsing or spreading in the area of the slot 1c. In the rear portion of the body, behind where the slot ends, is the portion of the body that screws into an arrows shaft via the arrows (AMO standard) female threads 1h. This portion would not be visible when the product is assembled onto an arrow. It is comprised of a shoulder with major and minor diameters and a threaded portion to facilitate a positive stop when screwed into a standard arrow. This section of the body is designed to, and meets the AMO standards set forth by the ATA (Archery Trade Association). The body's geometry and function in the design intent is sound. Changes in overall length/size to produce lighter/heavier versions is planned. Changes to the geometry of the tip and of the cutting surfaces and facets are possible, including a separate tip, as well as a different material or alloy. The geometry of the cutting tips major diameter being larger than the body portion directly following it will most likely not change. Composition of the body may be modified to include, or be made of composites. Altering coatings, materials and/or lubricants (surface or imbedded treatments) to eliminate friction and ways to make the entire body stronger are all possibilities to improve the reliability of the design. The blades are curved and shaped on an arch with very sharp leading edges and a J-shaped lever. The blades each have one hole in them for location and pivot and the rest of the shape is made with multiple complex curves. Two blades are used in each broadhead. The blades have a constant thickness of currently 0.030″-0.032″ of an inch and are either blanked or lasered from sheet stock. As seen in FIG. 2, the blades are designed with complex curves and radii that add strength and specific function to the broadhead. They are made from a 300 series stainless steel alloy and are tempered to give a secure balance between hardness and ductility. The blades are sharpened along one curved edge 2a to razor sharpness. This curved edge requires a special sharpening process, which straight blades do not. The sharpened curved edge is exposed, or protrudes from the body, as seen in FIG. 5a, when in the fully closed position. At the rear of the blade is a through-hole 2b. This hole is the mounting point, as well as the pivot point for the blades as fastened to the body utilizing the fasteners S. On either side of the mounting hole are two radii 2c and 2d that will come in contact with the opposing blades mounting fastener. Radius 2d contacts the opposing blades fasteners in the closed position. Radius 2c contacts the opposing blades fasteners in the full open position, as seen in FIG. 5F. The blade also incorporates a J-shaped lever 2e that acts as the final deploying mechanism. This lever 2e is unsharpened and also incorporates a hooking radius on its leading edge 2f on its leading edge. This lever is exposed in the closed (or flight) position and retained within the bodies slot 1c in the open position. In the closed position, the tip of the blade 2g is completely hidden within the tip of the body and has a positive stop 1e to insure the blade tips do not cross and become hooked together. The blades will be examined for potential upgrade in strength if they can be made stronger, sharper, thinner, lighter, and more cost effective. Minor changes in material, geometry, sharpening of the J levers, hole sizes and lever ratios may be incorporated; however, the main geometry and design intent of the anti-wedging design of the part will stay the same. The O-ring R helps hold the blades in only for handling and premature deployment. The O-ring R is currently made from neoprene rubber. The O-ring's purpose is to give pressure to each of the blades when in the fully closed position. The O-ring R is under tension and locates in the groove G of the body. The O-ring R can be replaced/retrofitted with a variety of products. Some examples are; small rubber bands, shrink tubing, hose, string and/or a tape substance. A custom fitted proprietary retainer is not out of the question for the future. If there is something better than what we are using, the option for modification exists. The set screws S retain, act as pivot points, and act as stop points for the blades in both closed and full open positions. The set screws S are currently made from a black phosphate coated steel alloy, are #2-56 and are fully threaded with an internal hex drive to facilitate attachment to the body 1f. Two are utilized per broadhead assembly. The set screws S provide three main functions: (1) They are the pivot point for the blades. (2) They function as blade travel limiting stops for full open and full closed, as seen in FIG. 5A, using the two radii 2c and 2d on the blades. (3) Since they fasten perpendicular to and traverse the area of the body that contains the slot 1f, they provide support for the main body of the broadhead. These are over-the-counter items people can find almost anywhere. The material, style and thread size of the set screws may change. It may become necessary to make these fasteners longer or shorter, non-threaded, partially threaded vs. fully threaded and/or harder or softer. The two blades are attached to the body via the set screws S. Each blade is positioned into the body so that the J lever is protruding out the same side as the set screw that holds it in place, i.e., looking at the assembled broadhead in plan view, the left blade is located within the body using the left set screw S. Conversely, the right blade is held on the body using the right set screw S. The tips of the blades 2g are also oriented to stay on the side of the setscrews and J lever. The blade tips are held on their own side by both the opposing blades set screw and the limiting tab, i.e., inside the body. The O-ring R is slid onto the broadhead starting at the tip with the blades in the closed position. It is slid back until it locates itself into the O-ring groove G. Alternative variations of the broadhead are sizes/weights. The main body and its geometry does not change much, it only gets shorter in total length and/or smaller in diameter in relation to the shorter/longer blades. Behind the tip, almost right at the front of the slot and on the main body approximately half way from the O-ring to the tip there is a small tangent 1j where two different angles meet. It is in this rearward half of the body where the length difference would take place. As for the blades, they get shorter/longer as the bodies get shorter/longer. However, the rear portion and its anti-wedging geometry stay the same. The broadhead is attached to any AMO standard arrow shaft and is designed to be used in bow hunting for harvesting game of various sizes. The broadhead works on a “penetrate first and deploy the blades second” operation. The tip is sharp to a point with four concave facets and cutting surfaces. The tip is larger than most of the main body which provides less friction for deeper penetration. As the broadhead enters a low-density object (such as animal flesh), the tip makes contact and creates four cuts to allow the rest of the broadhead to penetrate. Next, the exposed blades protruding from the broadheads slot make contact with the target and continue the cutting process while at the same time being forced into the body and out the other side. As the exposed portion of the blade pivots in towards the body, the same blade tip starts to expose itself on the opposite side of the broadhead. This is the primary initiation of blade deployment of this design. Due to the design's inboard center-of-gravity blade geometry, deceleration in the target also causes the blade tips to expose and start deployment. As the broadhead continues penetration, the J levers make contact with the target and through a lever motion, forces the blades to further deploy. Forward motion and target resistance continues the opening of the blades until they reach their stops. The curved cutting surface of the broadhead further insures conservation of forward momentum and flight path. The farther the cutting surface of the blades is from the centerline of the body, the more parallel the cutting action becomes. This is to facilitate a slicing, rather than chopping action of the blades. In a hard target scenario, such as hitting bone just below the surface of the hide, the broadhead's tip penetrates, encounters bone, creates four fracture lines, folds and chips the hard mass forward and to the side and creates a cavity for the rest of the broadhead to pass through with relative ease. As the broadhead continues passing through bone the J levers at the very rear of the blades encounter resistance from the surface of the bone not broken by the tip and complete deployment of the blades. The blades are actuated from the rear of the broadhead and the blades deploy from inside the tip. This allows the broadhead to have already penetrated the bone and deploy the blades well after penetration. The design goes a step further by incorporating an anti-wedging geometry. Anti-wedging geometry is the ability of the broadhead to penetrate the target's hard components (such as bone, plywood, etc. targets) in such a way as to punch a hole or cavity with the tip, creating a cavity with the same or larger dimensions than the major diameter of the tip itself. The body then tapers down to a smaller diameter behind this tip. This allows conservation of kinetic energy after the initial pass-through cavity is created. While firing into a target, after the initial penetration is accomplished, the broadhead will penetrate to a depth of at least four times its major body diameter before the rear J levers encounter any physical resistance (the 125 grain version shown here has a penetration ratio greater than 5:1). Primary and/or partial blade deployment is accomplished thusly; the exposed portion of the blades (while encountering any resistance from the target and are located within the main body slot) initiates primary deployment by moving its cutting tip outside of the main body from the opposite side and/or from deceleration of the arrow causing the blades to seek their natural center-of-gravity which exposes the blade tips. Secondary and/or final deployment is achieved once the rear J levers encounter resistance from the target; the curved blades (which the trip levers are integral to) begin deployment starting from the front (within the tip area) of the broadhead. The design intent is to have the main blades deploy after a minimum of a 4:1 diameter-to-depth penetration ratio as well as not to have any wedging action caused by the geometry of the J levers deploying the blades within the cavity produced by the initial penetration of the tip. This design allows the body of the broadhead, while deploying the blades, to pass through a hole created by the tip, through a hard object (such as bone, plywood, etc.). For example, this broadhead can pass through a ½″ hole in ¼″ thick material while deploying the blades without blade wedging interference and subsequent energy loss. This pass-through feature, without wedging in the hole created by the tip and controlling blade deployment until well into the target is the main component of this design and of conserving kinetic energy. This conservation of energy now allows for use of lower poundage bows and/or better target penetration with existing bows. This broadhead also has attributes that make it very resistant to deflecting and catapulting off the target. First attribute: The broadhead has a designed-in greater than 4:1 diameter-to-depth penetration ratio, even an off axis shot can be self-correcting with this design. This is due to the broadheads ability to penetrate considerably and gain a deep anchor in the target before deflecting and/or catapulting leverage forces can have significant impact on flight path. This ability to penetrate without encountering deflection forces from exposed blades and mechanisms helps greatly to create a clean guide path for the rest of the broadhead and arrow. Second attribute: As the broadhead penetrates, whichever J lever/blade is closest to the target during entry is the one to start the deployment sequence first. Since this action will deploy the start of cutting actions on the part of the blade, a portion of forward kinetic energy is diverted into said blade and consequently alters the force vector towards a more desirable perpendicular path. However, this action (as seen in other broadhead designs) could, in some circumstances, create catapulting forces that would divert the broadhead/arrow assembly off of its desired path. This broadhead gets around this issue with another innovation, namely, Inboard Center of Gravity. Since the blade/J lever's center of gravity is inside of the pivot point, deceleration (as occurs when hitting the target) actually aids in deployment of the outside blade (without intervention of that blade's J lever) and consequently self-corrects the catapulting forces that would affect other designs to date. This same center of gravity advantage keeps the blades tucked tightly inside of the body during acceleration (such as releasing the arrow from the bow). Third attribute: The problem with all other lever style mechanical broadheads to date is that they have the pivot point of their blade mechanism far behind the leading edge of the tripping portion. Or said another way, they have their trip levers in front of the pivots. This undesirable characteristic actually aids in catapulting the penetrating tip away from the target (as well as causing wedging energy loss) and uses the kinetic energy to deflect the broadhead parallel to the target. This broadhead exposes a dagger style curved blade tip that aids in anchoring the current flight path while the other designs act more like a pole vault, deflecting the broadhead up and out of the target. This broadheads blade pivot surface is in line or in front of the blades final actuating levers. The broadhead also uses the opposing blades pivot point as a stop point for both the fully open positions as well as the fully closed positions. When the blades are fully deployed and encountering objects in the target that would try to force the blades beyond design intent, the pivot pins/screws would be under extreme shearing forces if not for the opposing blade stops holding the pins/screws in compression. As to a further discussion of the manner of usage and operation of the present invention, the same should be apparent from the above description. Accordingly, no further discussion relating to the manner of usage and operation will be provided. With respect to the above description then, it is to be realized that the optimum dimensional relationships for the parts of the invention, to include variations in size, materials, shape, form, function and manner of operation, assembly and use, are deemed readily apparent and obvious to one skilled in the art, and all equivalent relationships to those illustrated in the drawings and described in the specification are intended to be encompassed by the present invention. Therefore, the foregoing is considered as illustrative only of the principles of the invention. Further, since numerous modifications and changes will readily occur to those skilled in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to the exact construction and operation shown and described, and accordingly, all suitable modifications and equivalents may be resorted to, falling within the scope of the invention. The description of the invention is merely exemplary in nature and, thus, variations that do not depart from the gist of the invention are intended to be within the scope of the invention. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It can be appreciated that bowhunting arrow tips have been in use for years. Typically, bowhunting arrow tips are comprised of broadheads like the Vortex 100-125, Rocky Mountain Snyper, Sonoran 100-125, NAP Spiffire 100-125, Rockets Steelheads 100-125, Wasps Jackhammer 100-125, Game Tracker Silvertip 100, and Ironheads Expandables. The main problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips are the amount of penetration before blade deployment is insufficient to allow these broadheads to penetrate below-the-surface hard objects (such as hunted animal's ribs and shoulder blades) and then deploy the cutting blades. This results in very poor penetration, a high probability for deflection, a high probability for catapulting and needlessly wounding game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. Another problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips are the high level of deflection due to the design opens on contact and/or exposed blade actuation. Unless the shot is perpendicular to the target, this open, or cut-on-contact design flaw allows the broadhead's tip and/or blades to divert or steer the arrow off its course, wasting the kinetic energy that should be used for penetration. Another problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips are in all other broadhead designs to date, very high levels of wedge exist when the blades are actuated to deploy. This occurs because whatever hole or cavity the tip created on impact is now too small for the rest of the body and/or blades to pass through without wedging. Even with perfect conditions and shot placement, the design flaws consume considerable amounts of the arrow's kinetic energy as frictional heat before some or any penetration occurs. This results in inhumane kills or permanent wounding of game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. While these devices may be suitable for the particular purpose to which they address, they are not as suitable for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. The main problem with conventional bowhunting arrow tips is the amount of penetration before blade deployment is insufficient to allow these broadheads to penetrate below-the-surface hard objects (such as hunted animal ribs and shoulder blades) and then deploy the cutting blades. This results in very poor penetration, a high probability for deflection, a high probability for catapulting and needless wounding game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. Another problem is the high level of deflection due to the design opens on contact and/or exposed blade actuation. Unless the shot is perpendicular to the target, this open, or cut-on-contact design flaw allows the broadhead's tip and/or blades to divert or steer the arrow off its course, wasting the kinetic energy that should be used for penetration. Also, another problem is in all other broadhead designs to date, very high levels of wedge exist when the blades are actuated to deploy. This occurs because whatever hole or cavity the tip created on impact is now too small for the rest of the body and/or blades to pass through without wedging. Even with perfect conditions and shot placement, the design flaws consume considerable amounts of the arrows kinetic energy as frictional heat before some or any penetration occurs. This results in inhumane kills or permanent wounding of game that cannot be recovered by the hunter. In these respects, the mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead according to the present invention substantially departs from the conventional concepts and designs of the prior art, and in so doing, provides an apparatus primarily developed for the purpose of providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the foregoing disadvantages inherent in the known types of bowhunting arrow tips now present in the prior art, the present invention provides a new mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead construction wherein the same can be utilized for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. The general purpose of the present invention, which will be described subsequently in greater detail, is to provide a new mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has many of the advantages of the bowhunting arrow tips mentioned heretofore and many novel features that result in a new mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead which is not anticipated, rendered obvious, suggested, or even implied by any of the prior art bowhunting arrow tips, either alone or in any combination thereof. To attain this, the present invention generally comprises the body, blades, O-ring, and set screws. The body is one-piece with an integrated faceted cutting tip. The cutting tip is slightly larger than the main body immediately following the tip. The body has a lengthwise slot, open to two sides that pass through part of it. A groove is cut into the exterior circumference of the body to locate a retainer like an O-ring. Two drilled and tapped holes are placed through the body for locating and holding the blades and are filled with supporting components like the set screws. The body then finishes at the rear with a pilot and then threads to attach to an arrow. The blades are curved and shaped on an arch with very sharp leading edges and a J-shaped lever. The blades each have one hole in them for location and pivot and the rest of the shape is made with multiple complex curves. The O-ring helps hold the blades in only for handling and premature deployment. The set screws retain, act as pivot points, and act as stop points for the blades in both closed and full open positions. There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, the more important features of the invention in order that the detailed description thereof may be better understood, and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. There are additional features of the invention that will be described hereinafter. In this respect, before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and to the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology herein are for the purpose of the description and should not be regarded as limiting. A primary object of the present invention is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that will overcome the shortcomings of the prior art devices. An object of the present invention is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead for providing a bow-hunting broadhead that has the ability to penetrate bone and soft tissue deeply and without wedging in the hole created by the tip, before deploying its cutting blades in a controlled manner while conserving the highest possible amount of kinetic energy. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that gives all bow hunters with varying levels of strength and size, the ability to first penetrate deep into all game, then deploy blades with very large cutting widths. This results in a consistent, humane, fast harvest of game. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that mimics the flight characteristics of a smooth, non-bladed field point, to help eliminate flight accuracy problems so all shots hit consistently and accurately. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has an anti-wedging design, so hard-target pass-through (such as bone) is accomplished before deploying the cutting blades. This is to conserve kinetic energy so the broadhead can penetrate further into the target. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has three independent blade deployment actuation devices that also work in concert with each other so that, after penetration, blade deployment reliability is not a factor. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that helps eliminate possibility of deflection (ricochet) and catapulting by first penetrating deep, then opening the blades in the game. The ability of this broadhead to anchor its flight path deep into the game before blade deployment helps insure a greatly reduced chance of deflection and allows for less-than-perfect off-axis shots to be taken with confidence. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that has a one piece fully machined billet body with an integrated and aligned quad facet cutting tip larger than the body immediately following (to eliminate body wedging), utilizing a Type-III hard-anodized surface. This integrated and aligned tip provides consistent flight characteristics while the Type-III hardcoat increases surface hardness (over twelve times thicker/deeper than standard anodizing), lubricity and abrasion resistance. Another object is to provide a mechanical anti-wedging and controlled deployment broadhead that severs the tissues and vital organs of the game with very large curved blades designed to conserve forward momentum by using a slicing, not a chopping action. When deployed, the blades have a limited ability to articulate perpendicular to their pivot point. This feature reduces the chances of in-game deflection and blade breakage if the blades encounter hard materials. Other objects and advantages of the present invention will become obvious to the reader and it is intended that these objects and advantages are within the scope of the present invention. To the accomplishment of the above and related objects, this invention may be embodied in the form illustrated in the accompanying drawings, attention being called to the fact, however, that the drawings are illustrative only, and that changes may be made in the specific construction illustrated. Further areas of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the preferred embodiment of the invention, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. | 20041116 | 20080527 | 20050616 | 63514.0 | 1 | RICCI, JOHN A | MECHANICAL ANTI-WEDGING AND CONTROLLED DEPLOYMENT BROADHEAD | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,990,160 | ACCEPTED | Methods and systems for securitization of certificates of deposit | Various embodiments of the present invention are directed to methods and systems for securitization of certificates of deposit. In addition, the present invention relates to a corresponding security itself (e.g., a security associated with one or more certificates of deposit). As such, in one embodiment, the present invention creates a more or less standard investment instrument (i.e. the funding certificate) by pooling the CDs to back the instrument—thus, the net effect is the replacement of non-marketable instrument provided by financial institutions (i.e. the CD) with negotiable securities issued in the public capital markets (i.e. the funding certificate) | 1. A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; offering to purchase at least one CD from each of a plurality of seller banks by the funding certificate issuer; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least a portion of the CD's from the plurality of seller banks, which are recorded as acceptances, as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate, wherein the funding certificate is a note comprising either a debt, equity or a combination of debt and equity instrument; issuing the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to at least one investor; and using at least a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the funding certificate to obtain the pooled assets. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the funding certificate issuer is a limited liability company. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein a manager entity controls formation of the funding certificate issuer. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the manager entity is a limited liability company. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein a sponsor owns at least a portion of voting and profit interests in the manager entity. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming a plurality of funding certificate issuers, wherein each of the plurality of funding certificate issuers has associated therewith distinct pooled assets. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of seller banks is: (a) a federal, state, or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, the deposits of which are FDIC insured under federal law; and (b) categorized as well capitalized under the FDIC Improvement Act of 1991. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein: (a) each of the plurality of seller banks is provided a respective offer electronically via at least one of: (i) an email message; and (ii) a website; and (b) the acceptance mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks includes at least one of: (i) an email message; and (ii) a website. 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to reject the offer. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the rejection mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks includes at least one of: (a) an email message; and (b) a website. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein all of the CD's comprising the pooled assets have substantially the same interest rate and stated maturity. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein each CD comprising the pooled assets is in an amount, including a yield to a stated maturity, not in excess of x dollars, wherein x is an FDIC insurance cap. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein essentially all of the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate are used to purchase the pooled assets. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein a plurality of investors purchase the funding certificate. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one of the offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD, the providing a mechanism to accept the offer, the sale of the funding certificate and the purchase of the pooled assets is made using an automated order entry and clearing platform. 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the steps are carried out in the order recited. 17. A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; collateralizing a loan with the pooled assets; purchasing the pooled assets in the name of the funding certificate issuer with the proceeds from the loan; selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor so as to generate funding certificate proceeds; and using the funding certificate proceeds to pay off the loan. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the pooled assets are utilized to collateralize essentially the entire loan. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein essentially all of the proceeds of the loan are utilized to purchase the pooled assets. 20. A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: purchasing at least one CD from each of a plurality of seller banks by an issuer; aggregating at least a portion of the CD's from the plurality of seller banks as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate, wherein the funding certificate is a negotiable security issued in the public capital markets; and issuing the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to at least one investor; using at least a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the funding certificate to obtain the pooled assets. 21. The method of claim 20 wherein the issuer issues a plurality of funding certificates where each funding certificate corresponds to a specific sub-pool of CDs where each CD, in that sub-pool, has a substantially equivalent maturity date. 22. The method of claim 21 wherein the maturity date of the corresponding funding certificate corresponds to the CDs maturity date of that sub-pool. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the steps are carried out in the order recited. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/520,411, filed Nov. 13, 2003 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/526,124, filed Dec. 1, 2003. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Various embodiments of the present invention are directed to methods and systems for securitization of certificates of deposit. More particularly, one embodiment of the present invention provides 1. A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; offering to purchase at least one CD from each of a plurality of seller banks by the funding certificate issuer; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least a portion of the CD's from the plurality of seller banks, which are recorded as acceptances, as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate, wherein the funding certificate is a note comprising either a debt, equity or a combination of debt and equity instrument; issuing the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to at least one investor; and using at least a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the funding certificate to obtain the pooled assets. Another embodiment of the present invention provides a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; collateralizing a loan with the pooled assets; purchasing the pooled assets in the name of the funding certificate issuer with the proceeds from the loan; selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor so as to generate funding certificate proceeds; and using the funding certificate proceeds to pay off the loan. A further embodiment of the present invention, A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: purchasing at least one CD from each of a plurality of seller banks by an issuer; aggregating at least a portion of the CD's from the plurality of seller banks as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate, wherein the funding certificate is a negotiable security issued in the public capital markets; and issuing the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to at least one investor; using at least a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the funding certificate to obtain the pooled assets. For example, the issuer issues a plurality of funding certificates where each funding certificate corresponds to a specific sub-pool of CDs where each CD, in that sub-pool, has a substantially equivalent maturity date. In another example, the maturity date of the corresponding funding certificate corresponds to the CDs maturity date of that sub-pool. Another embodiment of the present invention provides a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; and selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor; wherein the pooled assets are essentially the sole assets of the funding certificate issuer. For the purposes of the present application the term “entity” is intended to refer to any person, organization, or group. Further, for the purposes of the present application the term “security” is intended to refer to an instrument evidencing debt and/or ownership of asset(s). Further still, for the purposes of the present application the term “securitization” is intended to refer to providing an instrument evidencing debt and/or ownership of asset(s). Further, for purposes of the present invention, unless otherwise stated, a “certificate of deposit” or “CD” is an instrument containing an acknowledgment by a bank that a sum of money has been received by the bank and a promise by the bank to repay the sum of money upon maturity of the instrument. As such, a certificate of deposit is a note of the bank. Of note, various embodiments of the present invention may hereinafter sometimes be referred to below as the “Capital Market CD Program” or “Program”. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of certain steps carried out according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of certain steps carried out according to another embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 3 shows a block diagram of certain steps carried out according to another embodiment of the present invention. Among those benefits and improvements that have been disclosed, other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures. The figures constitute a part of this specification and include illustrative embodiments of the present invention and illustrate various objects and features thereof. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely illustrative of the invention that may be embodied in various forms. In addition, each of the examples given in connection with the various embodiments of the invention are intended to be illustrative, and not restrictive. Further, the figures are not necessarily to scale, some features may be exaggerated to show details of particular components. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention. In one embodiment a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction is provided, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor so as to generate proceeds; and using the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate to purchase the pooled assets. In one example, the funding certificate issuer may be a limited liability company. In another example, a manager entity may control formation of the funding certificate issuer. In another example, the manager entity may be a limited liability company. In another example, a sponsor may own at least a portion of voting and profit interests in the manager entity. In another example, the method may further comprise forming a plurality of funding certificate issuers, wherein each of the plurality of funding certificate issuers has associated therewith distinct pooled assets. In another example, each of the plurality of seller banks may be (but not limited to): (a) a federal, state, or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, the deposits of which are FDIC insured under federal law; and/or (b) categorized as well capitalized under the FDIC Improvement Act of 1991. In another example: (a) each of the plurality of seller banks may be provided a respective offer electronically via at least one of (but not be limited to): (i) an email message; and (ii) a website; and/or (b) the acceptance mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks may include (but not be limited to) at least one of: (i) an email message; and (ii) a website. In another example, the method may further comprise providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to reject the offer. In another example, the rejection mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks may include (but not be limited to) at least one of: (a) an email message; and (b) a website. In another example, all of the CD's comprising the pooled assets may have the same interest rate and the same stated maturity. In another example, each CD comprising the pooled assets may be in an amount, including a yield to a stated maturity, not in excess of x dollars, wherein x is an FDIC insurance cap. In another example, essentially all of the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate may be used to purchase the pooled assets. In another example, a plurality of investors may purchase the funding certificate. In another example, at least one of the offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD, the providing a mechanism to accept the offer, the sale of the funding certificate and/or the purchase of the pooled assets may be made using an automated order entry and clearing platform. In another example, the steps may be carried out in the order recited. In another example, the funding certificate issuer may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under the law of the state of Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware). In another example, the funding certificate issuer may have management and operations governed by the terms of a limited liability company agreement. In another example, the activities of the funding certificate issuer may be limited by the terms of the limited liability company agreement to: (a) purchasing, owning and collecting proceeds from the pooled assets; (b) selling the funding certificate; and/or (c) taking other actions and entering into agreements as are necessary for or incidental to activities (a) and (b). In another example, the manager entity may control operations of the funding certificate issuer on a day to day basis. In another example, the manager entity may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under the law of the applicable state (e.g. Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware), Colorado). In another example, the sponsor may own essentially 100% of the voting and profit interests in the manager entity. In another example, the funding certificate may represent a limited recourse obligation of the funding certificate issuer to pay a holder of the funding certificate a pro rata share of at least one of (but not be limited to): (a) the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate; and/or (b) the pooled assets. In another example, each acceptance may be recorded in a database. In another example, each rejection may be recorded in a database. In another example, the step of aggregating at least some of the CD's may comprise operating on at least one record in the database. In another embodiment a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction is provided, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; collateralizing a loan with the pooled assets; purchasing the pooled assets in the name of the funding certificate issuer with the proceeds from the loan; selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor so as to generate funding certificate proceeds; and using the funding certificate proceeds to pay off the loan. In one example, the funding certificate issuer may be a limited liability company. In another example, a manager entity may control formation of the funding certificate issuer. In another example, the manager entity may be a limited liability company. In another example, a sponsor may own at least a portion of voting and profit interests in the manager entity. In another example, the method may further comprise forming a plurality of funding certificate issuers, wherein each of the plurality of funding certificate issuers has associated therewith distinct pooled assets. In another example, each of the plurality of seller banks may be (but not limited to): (a) a federal, state, or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, the deposits of which are FDIC insured under federal law; and/or (b) categorized as well capitalized under the FDIC Improvement Act of 1991. In another example: (a) each of the plurality of seller banks may be provided a respective offer electronically via at least one of (but not be limited to): (i) an email message; and (ii) a website; and/or (b) the acceptance mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks may include (but not be limited to) at least one of: (i) an email message; and (ii) a website. In another example, the method may comprise providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to reject the offer. In another example, the rejection mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks may include (but not be limited to) at least one of: (a) an email message; and/or (b) a website. In another example, all of the CD's comprising the pooled assets may have the same interest rate and the same stated maturity. In another example, each CD comprising the pooled assets may be in an amount, including a yield to a stated maturity, not in excess of x dollars, wherein x is an FDIC insurance cap. In another example, the pooled assets may be utilized to collateralize essentially the entire loan. In another example, essentially all of the proceeds of the loan may be utilized to purchase the pooled assets. In another example, essentially all of the funding certificate proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate may be used to pay off essentially the entire loan. In another example, a plurality of investors may purchase the funding certificate. In another example, at least one of the offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD, the providing a mechanism to accept the offer, the collateralization of the loan, the purchase of the pooled assets, the sale of the funding certificate and/or the paying off of the loan may be made using an automated order entry and clearing platform. In another example, the steps may be carried out in the order recited. In another example, the funding certificate issuer may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under the law of the state of Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware). In another example, the funding certificate issuer may have management and operations governed by the terms of a limited liability company agreement. In another example, the activities of the funding certificate issuer may be limited by the terms of the limited liability company agreement to: (a) purchasing, owning and collecting proceeds from the pooled assets; (b) selling the funding certificate; and/or (c) taking other actions and entering into agreements as are necessary for or incidental to activities (a) and (b). In another example, the manager entity may control operations of the funding certificate issuer on a day to day basis. In another example, the manager entity may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under the law of the state of Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware). In another example, the sponsor may own essentially 100% of the voting and profit interests in the manager entity. In another example, the funding certificate may represent a limited recourse obligation of the funding certificate issuer to pay a holder of the funding certificate a pro rata share of at least one of (but not be limited to): (a) the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate; and/or (b) the pooled assets. In another example, each acceptance may be recorded in a database. In another example, each rejection may be recorded in a database. In another example, the step of aggregating at least some of the CD's may comprise operating on at least one record in the database. In another embodiment a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction is provided, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; and selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor; wherein the pooled assets are essentially the sole assets of the funding certificate issuer. In one example, the funding certificate issuer may be a limited liability company. In another example, a manager entity may control formation of the funding certificate issuer. In another example, the manager entity may be a limited liability company. In another example, a sponsor may own at least a portion of voting and profit interests in the manager entity. In another example, the method may comprise forming a plurality of funding certificate issuers, wherein each of the plurality of funding certificate issuers has associated therewith distinct pooled assets. In another example, each of the plurality of seller banks may be (but not limited to): (a) a federal, state, or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, the deposits of which are FDIC insured under federal law; and/or (b) categorized as well capitalized under the FDIC Improvement Act of 1991. In another example: (a) each of the plurality of seller banks may be provided a respective offer electronically via at least one of (but not be limited to): (i) an email message; and (ii) a website; and/or (b) the acceptance mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks may include (but not be limited to) at least one of: (i) an email message; and (ii) a website. In another example, the method may further comprise providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to reject the offer. In another example, the rejection mechanism provided to each of the plurality of seller banks may include (but not be limited to) at least one of: (a) an email message; and (b) a website. In another example, all of the CD's comprising the pooled assets may have the same interest rate and the same stated maturity. In another example, each CD comprising the pooled assets may be in an amount, including a yield to a stated maturity, not in excess of x dollars, wherein x is an FDIC insurance cap. In another example, the method may further comprise using proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate to purchase the pooled assets. In another example, essentially all of the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate may be used to purchase the pooled assets. In another example, a plurality of investors may purchase the funding certificate. In another example, at least one of the offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD, the providing a mechanism to accept the offer and/or the sale of the funding certificate may be made using an automated order entry and clearing platform. In another example, the steps may be carried out in the order recited. In another example, the funding certificate issuer may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under the law of the state of Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware). In another example, the funding certificate issuer may have management and operations governed by the terms of a limited liability company agreement. In another example, the activities of the funding certificate issuer may be limited by the terms of the limited liability company agreement to: (a) purchasing, owning and collecting proceeds from the pooled assets; (b) selling the funding certificate; and/or (c) taking other actions and entering into agreements as are necessary for or incidental to activities (a) and (b). In another example, the manager entity may control operations of the funding certificate issuer on a day to day basis. In another example, the manager entity may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under the law of the state of Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware). In another example, the sponsor may own essentially 100% of the voting and profit interests in the manager entity. In another example, the funding certificate may represent a limited recourse obligation of the funding certificate issuer to pay a holder of the funding certificate a pro rata share of at least one of (but not be limited to): (a) the proceeds from the sale of the funding certificate; and/or (b) the pooled assets. In another example, each acceptance may be recorded in a database. In another example, each rejection may be recorded in a database. In another example, the step of aggregating at least some of the CD's may comprise operating on at least one record in the database. Another embodiment of the present invention provides a mechanism for a subscriber to raise non-brokered CD money on a regular, systematic basis (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, semi-annually, annually). In one example, the Funding Company (the “Company”) purchases FDIC insured CDs from a plurality of financial institutions (e.g. community-based). In one specific example, the purchase are accomplished through an electronic exchange (“eTN”) (e.g. an exchange developed by IPFS by SunGard Financial Networks). The Company finances this purchase with an issuance of notes (e.g. medium term) to capital markets investors through a Reg. 144A placement. In one specific example, the notes are DTC eligible. In a specific example, a bank acts as clearing agent for the transactions conducted through the eTN. As such, in one embodiment, the present invention creates a more or less standard investment instrument (i.e. the funding certificate) by pooling the CDs to back the instrument—thus, the net effect is the replacement of non-marketable instrument provided by financial institutions (i.e. the CD) with negotiable securities issued in the public capital markets (i.e. the funding certificate). In yet another example, an issuer aggregates CDs from a plurality of CD issuers (e.g. banks). The issuer issues one or more Funding Certificates to one or more investors while, in return, the investors provide funding, either directly or indirectly, to the issuer. The Funding Certificate is a note that may be a debt, equity or a combination of debt and equity instrument. In one embodiment, the issuer issues one Funding Certificate that corresponds to a specific pool of CDs where each CD has the substantial equivalent maturity date. As such, the maturity date of the Funding Certificate corresponds to the CDs maturity date. In another embodiment, the issuer issues a plurality of Funding Certificates where each Funding Certificate corresponds to a sub-pool that corresponds to a specific sub-pool of CDs where each CD, in that sub-pool, has the substantial equivalent maturity date—the maturity date of the corresponding Funding Certificate corresponds to the CDs maturity date of that sub-pool. In a further example, at maturity of the Funding Certificate—the “unwinding” of the pool—each bank pays the pool owner of the CDs (e.g. the issuer or equivalent) the amount of the CD at maturity of the CD. These proceeds fund the payment, at maturity, of the Funding Certificate. A summary of one embodiment of the present invention will now be described. More particularly, under this embodiment the present invention may operate as follows (the specific dates, time periods, interest rates and the like are, of course, provided simply as examples which are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive). In another example, a Parent Entity may initiate the “Capital Market CD Program”, which may involve a series of limited liability companies (each an “Issuer”) that may purchase certificates of deposit from eligible financial institutions (each a “Seller Bank”). Each Seller Bank may be required to be a federal, state or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, the deposits of which are eligible for FDIC insurance under federal law, and may be required to be categorized as “well-capitalized” under FDIC rules and regulations. The deposit account records of each Seller Bank may reflect that the Issuer, which purchased a certificate of deposit (each a “CD”), is the sole owner of that CD. Each Issuer may be a separate limited liability company organized under applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) law that is owned by qualified investors (“Investors”), as described below. Each Issuer may be managed by a separate applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) limited liability company (the “Facilitator”) that may be wholly owned by the Parent Entity. The following is an illustrative example the components of the Capital Market CD Program (e.g. the specific dates, time periods, interest rates and the like are, of course, provided simply as examples which are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive): The Facilitator. The Parent Entity may form the Facilitator, a bankruptcy-remote limited liability company organized under the applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) Limited Liability Company Act, of which the Parent Entity may be the sole equity member. The Facilitator may at all times maintain a separate legal existence from the Parent Entity, from each Issuer, and from each Investor. The Facilitator may be the sole manager of each Issuer, and may offer ownership interests to Investors through the distribution of Funding Certificates (of course, under various other embodiments, one or more other classes may be utilized). The Issuers. The Parent Entity or the Facilitator may form the Issuers, each of which may be a special purpose, bankruptcy-remote limited liability company organized under the applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) Limited Liability Company Act, of which the Facilitator may be the sole manager. Each Issuer may have a separate legal existence from the Parent Entity, the Facilitator, and from each other Issuer and each Investor. Each Issuer may be formed for a limited purpose, which may be primarily to acquire and hold a portfolio of CDs issued by a diverse set of well-capitalized Seller Banks according to the uniform terms as specified by each individual Issuer. In order to isolate the specific criteria set for each pool of CDs (hereinafter each a “Funding Pool”), the CDs held in a Funding Pool may need to be purchased and held by each Issuer as a separate entity. All CDs held in any one Funding Pool may need to qualify as FDIC insured deposits, although this may be only one of many criteria required to be satisfied in order for a CD to be isolated and pooled with other CDs in any Funding Pool. Although CDs may be required to be in a face amount (including yield to maturity) not in excess of, for example, $100,000.00, this limitation, together with the concentration limits (as more fully defined in the Termsheet described below) may help assure that any Funding Pool will hold uniform term obligations from a large pool of Seller Banks. The CDs. Each Issuer may from time to time specify criteria for maturity, yield, interest payment dates and other relevant terms for the purchase of CDs from Seller Banks and may solicit offers from potential Seller Banks to sell CDs on a specified date (hereafter a “Funding Date”) that meets the specified criteria. CDs purchased by an Issuer on any Funding Date may be issued by Seller Banks pursuant to standard documentation. Only those CDs that meet uniform specified requirements and the other criteria for eligibility may be purchased by an Issuer on any Funding Date. The stated final maturity date of all CDs acquired by any Issuer and held in its Funding Pool may be the same for each CD and may be expected to range, in one example, from 24 to 60 months from the date of purchase, although an Issuer may from time to time request issuance of CDs with shorter (or longer) maturities. It is expected that an Issuer may hold the CDs in its Funding Pool to maturity, and with limited exceptions, may only purchase CDs on its Funding Date. Seller Banks may issue their CDs at a discount to their face amount so that all fees and expenses related to a Funding may be paid or reserved on the Funding Date, rather than paid out of cash flow generated by the Funding Pool. All CDs in any one Funding Pool may need to be deposits insured by the FDIC. The Investors. Each Investor may need to be a “qualified institutional buyer” under the provisions of Rule 144A that is also a “qualified purchaser” within the meaning of Section 2(a)(51)(A) of the Investment Company Act and related rules. In exchange for its investment in an Issuer, an Investor may receive a senior undivided pro rata equity interest in that Issuer, either in the form of debt or a form of undivided interest, evidenced by a Funding Certificate, pursuant to the terms of the Limited Liability Company Agreement of that Issuer. An Investor's beneficial interest in an Issuer may be treated for federal income tax purposes as an equity interest in an entity taxable as a partnership. All investments made by Investors in any Issuer may need to be used by that Issuer to purchase CDs from Seller Banks which will be held in that Issuer's Funding Pool, and to pay the fees and expenses of each Funding. In one specific example, there may only be one investor and that same investor or the sole investor in other Issuers. Reference will now be made to an example customer transaction process associated with the Capital Market CD Program. Of note, this example customer transaction process is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive (e.g., all dates, times, values, etc. are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive) In any case, the example customer process may take the following form: Implementation Steps: Customer may be required to complete appropriate documentation to receive offerings (e.g., via email and/or electronic posting at a Website) “Participation Agreement for Capital Market CD Program” Customer may agree to use email messaging and/or electronic use of a Website for acceptance/rejection of a deposit offer Customer may agree to acceptance of ACH credits and debits for funds transfer (e.g., through an agent) “Capital Market CD (CMCD) Customer Information Form” may require the following: Institutional Information (name, address, insurance number, etc.) ACH account number information Authorized representative information (name, email, phone, etc.) Capital Market CD Timeline Thursday Deposit offerings specifying offering details (e.g., for a $100k CD) sent to customers (e.g., all authorized participants identified in each Customer Information Form). Offerings may be sent via email and/or electronic posting at a Website (if sent by email, the email may include a link to an appropriate page on a Website). Monday All deposit offers may need to be accepted/rejected (by at least one authorized participant of each customer) by Monday, 4:00p.m. EST. Acceptances/rejections may be made via electronic use of a Website (a “login screen” with a “username” and “password” may be used at the Website to provide proper identification and security in executing the transaction). Once the customer has completed the login process, a Web Page permitting acceptance or rejection of the deposit offer maybe provided (the Web Page may specify the details of the offering). If customer accepts the deposit offer, an acceptance verification Web Page (which may specify details of the offering) may be provided (allowing the customer to confirm acceptance or reconsider acceptance). If customer confirms acceptance, an offer accepted Web Page may be provided (which may specify details of the offering) and all authorized participants associated with the customer may receive an acknowledgement (e.g., via email) specifying details of the offering. If customer rejects the deposit offer, a rejection verification Web Page (which may specify details of the offering) may be provided (allowing the customer to confirm rejection or reconsider rejection). If customer confirms rejection, an offer rejected Web Page may be provided (which may specify details of the offering) and all authorized participants associated with the customer may receive an acknowledgement (e.g., via email) of the rejection. Wednesday Final settlement confirmation (which may specify final details of the deposit) sent to customers accepting deposits (confirmation may be sent via email to all authorized participants of each customer accepting a deposit). ACH transfer to participating banks completing the transaction. Continuing with the above example, on Monday, the Investors are informed of the amount of the Funding Certificate that corresponds to the confirmed orders by the customers. On Wednesday, the Funding Certificate is issued to the Investors that corresponds to the pool of CD's that occurred with the final settlement confirmation. In one embodiment, the final settlement confirmation and the issuance of the Funding Certificate are completed simultaneously. In another embodiment, the issuance and settlement are done sequentially in either order. Reference will now be made to an example “Funding Certificates Termsheet” (hereinafter “Termsheet”). Of note, this example Termsheet is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive (e.g., all dates, times, values, etc. are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive). In any case, the example Termsheet may include the following: Issuer: The Issuer may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) law. Its management and operations may be governed by the terms of a Limited Liability Company Agreement (hereinafter the “Operating Agreement”). The activities of the Issuer may be limited by the terms of its Operating Agreement to: (i) purchasing, owning and collecting proceeds from eligible certificates of deposit and related assets; (ii) issuing the Funding Certificates, and (iii) taking such actions and entering into such agreements as are necessary or incidental to the foregoing. Manager: The Manager may be a special purpose limited liability company organized under applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) law and wholly owned by the Sponsor. The Manager may arrange, on behalf of the Issuer, for the simultaneous closing of the issuance of the Funding Certificates and the purchase from Seller Banks of eligible certificates of deposit to be held by the Issuer. In addition, the Manager may act as manager of the Issuer under the terms of the Operating Agreement and may control all day to day operations of the Issuer not otherwise delegated to the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee or Escrow Agent but subject to the restrictions set forth in the Operating Agreement and the Indenture. Sponsor: The Sponsor may own 100% of the voting and profit interests in the Manager. Funding Certificate Program: The Issuer may be formed and the Funding Certificates offered pursuant to a program under which the Manager may from time to time (e.g., periodically) arrange for the formation of a special purpose issuer and the issuance by such issuer of funding certificates, the proceeds of which are used to purchase pools of certificates of deposit from eligible institutions. There may be generally only one funding date, one series of funding certificates and one pool of certificates of deposit for each Issuer. Each of the Manager, the Escrow Agent and the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee may act in capacities similar to those described herein for each Issuer formed under the program. Escrow Agent: Any appropriate entity may be appointed as Escrow Agent under an Escrow Agreement among the Escrow Agent, the Manager and the Issuer (the “Escrow Agreement”). Pursuant to the terms of the Escrow Agreement, the Escrow Agent may receive and hold all proceeds from subscriptions for the Funding Certificates and, in accordance with the Closing Notice, apply such proceeds to the purchase of certificates of deposit from the Seller Banks for the account of the Issuer, payment of certain closing expenses and making of deposits into certain reserve accounts. Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee: Any appropriate entity may be appointed as Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee of the Issuer under an Indenture among the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee, the Manager and the Issuer (the “Indenture”). Pursuant to the Indenture, the Indenture Trustee may: (i) open and maintain on behalf of the Issuer a CD Account for holding the certificates of deposit, which may be issued in book-entry form, a Collection Account for receipt of collections on the Funding Pool, an Expense Reserve Account and if required a Proceeds Account; (ii) act as custodian for the Issuer by holding originals of all documentation specific to the transaction; (iii) make collections on the Funding Pool by processing ACH debits against the Seller Banks on the applicable CD Payment Dates for interest and principal; (iv) make distributions on the Funding Certificates from the Collection Account; (v) be designated and act as collateral agent for the benefit of the holders of the Funding Certificates of an Issuer with respect to the Funding Pool of that Issuer and its rights in any deposit accounts maintained by it or on its behalf; and (vi) prepare and distribute periodic reports with respect to the Funding Pool (and/or regarding the Issuer and the Seller Banks). In addition, the Indenture Trustee may open and maintain in the name of the Manager for the benefit of each Issuer as designated by the Manager from time to time an Advance Reserve Account. The Indenture Trustee may debit the Advance Reserve Account on the terms provided in the Indenture if necessary to maintain liquidity for timely distributions on the Funding Certificates. See “Advance Reserve Account; Advance Reserve Account Payments.” Seller Bank: A Seller Bank may be any eligible financial institution from which the Issuer purchases one or more certificates of deposit on the Funding Date. To be eligible to be a Seller Bank, a financial institution may need to, at the time of issuance of its certificate of deposit: (i) be a federal, state or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, whether or not a member of the Federal Reserve System, the deposits of which are FDIC insured under federal law; (ii) be categorized as “well capitalized” under the FDIC Improvement Act of 1991; and (iii) have executed a Participation Agreement For Capital Market CD Program (a “Participation Agreement”) with the Manager. Under its Participation Agreement, a Seller Bank may agree, among other things, to use of a password protected internet website and email messaging for accepting or rejecting an offer for issuance of a CD and to the making of payments on its certificates of deposit via ACH credits and debits. Funding Pool: On the Funding Date, the Issuer may acquire a pool of certificates of deposit issued by Seller Banks (the “Funding Pool”), which certificates of deposit may contain the terms specified in the CD Offer Sheet prepared by the Manager and confirmed on the Funding Date. All certificates of deposit in the Funding Pool may have the same maturity date and same interest rate. The aggregate principal amount of certificates of deposit in the Funding Pool (the “Funding Pool Amount”) may equal the aggregate face amount of the Funding Certificates. Funding Certificates: Each Funding Certificate of an Issuer may represent a limited recourse obligation of that Issuer to pay to the holder thereof to its pro rata share of the proceeds collected with respect to the Funding Pool and related assets owned by the Issuer as and when due in accordance with the terms of that Funding Certificate. On or before the Funding Date of any Issuer, the Manager, in exchange for its membership interest in an Issuer, may contribute to the capital of that Issuer an amount equal to the specified amount required to be maintained as allocated to that Issuer in the Advance Reserve Account. Pursuant to the terms of the Operating Agreement, the Issuer may be prohibited from: (i) issuing any other classes of membership interest; or (ii) incurring any debt for borrowed money (other than the Funding Certificates). In addition, all anticipated fees and expenses, such as Administration Fees, Manager Fees and Escrow Fees, may be paid or funded to a reserve account (an “Expense Reserve Account”) on the Funding Date for an Issuer. Thus, 100% of the interest and principal collected on or with respect to the Funding Pool may be distributed to the holders of the Funding Certificates. Recourse for repayment of the Funding Certificates may be limited solely to the assets of the Issuer and may not necessarily represent recourse obligations of any other person. Proceeds derived from the certificates of deposit held in the Funding Pool may be substantially the only source of funds available to repay the Funding Certificates. Funding Certificate Purchase Price: The purchase price for each Funding Certificate may equal its pro rata share, by Funding Certificate balance, of 100% of the Funding Pool Amount. Funding Date; Minimum & Maximum Offering Size: The Manager may set Funding Date(s) as desired (such Funding Dates may occur from time to time (e.g., periodically)). In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), a Funding Date may be set by the Manager once the Issuer has received subscriptions for at least $10,000,000 of Funding Certificates. In another example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), the maximum amount of subscriptions for Funding Certificates that will be accepted may be $95,000,000. Payment Dates: CD Payment Dates: A Payment Date may be any date set for distributions on the Funding Certificate, including, without limitation, its Final Maturity Date. Each Payment Date may occur, for example, five (5) business days after a CD Payment Date. A CD Payment Date may be the date on which payments of interest and/or principal are due from the Seller Banks with respect to the certificates of deposit in the Funding Pool. If any CD Payment Date is not a business day, the CD Payment Date may be the next succeeding business day. The scheduled Payment Dates and CD Payment Dates may be determined on or before the Funding Date. Final Maturity Date: The Final Maturity Date for the Funding Certificates may be, for example, five (5) business days after the maturity date of the certificates of deposit in the Funding Pool. Interest Payments: Interest on the Funding Certificates may accrue at a specified rate and may be distributed in arrears on each Payment Date to the Holders of the Funding Certificates from proceeds of interest collected with respect to the Funding Pool. The amount and frequency of interest payments on the Funding Certificates may depend upon, among other things, the amount and frequency of interest payments made with respect to the certificates of deposit in the Funding Pool and the terms and aggregate amounts of any Replacement CDs or proceeds that remain on deposit in the Proceeds Account for purposes of such reinvestment. In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), no interest will accrue on or be payable with respect to any amounts deposited in the Escrow Account on behalf of a Funding Certificate prior to the Funding Date or during the five (5) business days between the a CD Payment Date and the Payment Date. Principal Repayment of the Funding Certificates: In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), on the Final Maturity Date, all amounts held in the Collection Account, including all principal and accrued and unpaid interest collected on the certificates of deposit held in the Funding Pool, plus all amounts (if any) then held in the Proceeds Account, may be distributed as a repayment of principal (and any accrued and unpaid interest) to the Holders of the Funding Certificate. If amounts held in the Collection Account and the Proceeds Account are insufficient to pay in full all principal and accrued and unpaid interest on the Funding Certificates, funds held in the Advance Reserve Account may be transferred to the Collection Account and distributed to the Funding Certificate holders to effect such payments of principal and interest. Ratings: It may be a condition to the issuance of the Funding Certificates that they be rated “AAA” by Standard & Poor's Ratings Services, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“Standard & Poor's”) and/or “Aaa” by Moody's Investors Service, Inc. (“Moody's”) (together with Standard and Poor's, each a “Rating Agency”). The rating assigned to the Funding Certificates by the Rating Agencies is not necessarily a recommendation to buy and may address only the likelihood of principal repayment by maturity and the timely payment of interest on the Funding Certificates. Net Proceeds: The net proceeds from the issuance and sale of the Funding Certificates may be used by the Issuer to purchase the Funding Pool. Such net proceeds may equal the gross proceeds to the Issuer from the sale and issuance of the Funding Certificates less the following amounts (hereinafter the “Transaction Expenses”): (i) organizational and structuring fees (including, without limitation, the legal fees and expenses of counsel to the Issuer and the Manager); (ii) expenses of offering the Funding Certificates (including, without limitation) fees payable to the Initial Purchaser in connection with the offering of the Funding Certificates); (iii) fees payable to the Rating Agencies in connection with the ratings of the Funding Certificates; (iv) a fee (e.g., one time fee) payable to the Manager in connection with its services for the Funding Date; (v) a fee (e.g., one time fee) payable to the Escrow Agent in connection with its escrow services for the Funding Date; and/or (vi) a fee (e.g., an upfront fee) payable to the Indenture Trustee on the Funding Date along with a deposit into the Reserve Account to cover future periodic fees payable to the Indenture Trustee by the Issuer. All anticipated fees and expenses of the Issuer may be expected to be paid or fully funded to a reserve account on the Funding Date. The gross proceeds, net proceeds and the Transaction Expenses may be itemized. The CDs: Each Certificate of Deposit (“CD”) may be evidenced by standard documentation utilizing forms specified by the Manager. In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), no CD may contain any call feature or other terms permitting its prepayment at the option of the Seller Bank. The Issuer may assure that the deposit account records of the Seller Bank are clear and unambiguous in showing the Issuer as the owner of the funds deposited with respect to its CD purchased by such Issuer from that Seller Bank. The Issuer may instruct each Seller Bank to remit all payments on account of CDs issued by that Seller Bank for that Issuer to the Collection Account held in the name of the Issuer with the Indenture Trustee. The Indenture Trustee may process all payments made by Seller Banks through ACH debits. See “Seller Bank Participation Agreement.” Concentration Limits: The Issuer may be prohibited from acquiring CDs in an aggregate amount (including yield to stated maturity) in excess of a certain limit (e.g., $100,000): (i) from any one Seller Bank; or (ii) from any number of different Seller Banks if such Seller Banks are not separately chartered and insured depository institutions from all other Seller Banks with CDs in that Funding Pool. The Issuer may be prohibited from holding any deposit accounts (including the Expense Reserve Account or the Advance Reserve Account) with any Seller Bank from which it has acquired a CD. If the Issuer holds funds on deposit in any institution that is or becomes a Seller Bank, all amounts owing with respect to any CD in the Funding Pool (including all interest that would have accrued in the amounts and on the dates specified in the applicable CD, whether or not, on the date for payment thereof, such amounts: (a) have been unconditionally credited to the Issuer on account of such certificate of deposit; or (b) would otherwise have been insured deposits of such Seller Bank), may be deemed to be the insured deposits entitled to recovery prior to any other funds held by the Issuer with such Seller Bank. Principal payable with respect to each certificate of deposit held in a Funding Pool, and as of any date of determination all interest accrued thereon, may be expected to be fully insured by the FDIC. CD Offers: CD Offer Dates: The Issuer, through the Manager, may solicit firm offers from potential Seller Banks to sell to it on the Funding Date CDs that: (i) meet the criteria for eligibility for inclusion in a Funding Pool; (ii) meet the specified criteria for maturity, yield, and interest payment dates, and such other criteria as the Manager specifies in the CD Offer Sheet; and (iii) will be issued in book-entry form pursuant to standard documentation presented by the Manager. Only those CDs that meet uniform specified requirements may be included in the Funding Pool on the Funding Date. Each CD Offer Sheet used for solicitation of offers from Seller Banks may specify the date by which firm offers must be received by the Manager (the “CD Offer Date”) and the date through which such offers must remain open (i.e., the proposed Funding Date). The CD Offer Date may be expected to occur, for example, at least one (1) but no more than four (4) business days prior to the Funding Date. Expected CD Maturity Dates: Under this program, the Manager may generally arrange for CDs with Final Maturity Dates that range, for example, from twenty-four to sixty months, although the Manager may from time to time request CD Offers with Final Maturity Dates shorter (or longer), depending upon its assessment of market conditions. The Final Maturity Date for the Funding may be specified by the CD Offer Date. All CDs acquired for the Issuer's Funding Pool may be expected to have the same Final Maturity Date. CD Issue Price: The Issue Price paid by the Issuer to the applicable Seller Banks for CDs in its Funding Pool may be 100% of the aggregate face amount of such CDs less such Seller Bank's allocable share of the Transaction Expenses. Other Issuer Assets: In addition to the interests of the Issuer in the CDs held in its Funding Pool, which the Issuer may pledge to the Indenture Trustee acting as collateral agent on behalf of the Funding Certificate holders, the Issuer may have: (i) rights in, to and under the Escrow Agreement; (ii) all right, title and interest in, to and under the Collection Account and all amounts from time to time held in the Collection Account; (iii) all right, title and interest in, to and under the Expense Reserve Account and all amounts from time to time held in the Expense Reserve Account (to the extent not then due and payable to the Administrative Agent as Administrative Agency Fee or to any other person entitled thereto); (iv) all right, title and interest in, to and under its allocable share of the Advance Reserve Account, any Proceeds Account and any other deposit accounts established pursuant to the Operating Agreement or otherwise in the name of or for the benefit of the Issuer; (v) all right, title and interest in, to and under any Proceeds Account and any other deposit accounts established pursuant to the Operating Agreement or otherwise in the name of or for the benefit of the Issuer; (vi) all insurance proceeds received with respect to any CD in a Funding Pool; (vii) all Eligible Reserve Investments and Eligible Proceeds Investments of the Issuer; and (viii) all proceeds of the foregoing. The Issuer may pledge some or all of the foregoing (other than the Expense Reserve Account and amounts held therein, for example) as additional collateral. Transferability: Funding Certificates may be transferable by Certificate Holders, subject to certain limitations, including (for example) the following: (i) each subsequent holder of a Funding Certificate may need to meet the eligibility requirements as a: (a) “qualified purchaser” under the Investment Company Act of 1940, as amended (“Qualified Purchasers”); and (b) “qualified institutional buyer” as defined in Rule 144A under the Securities Act (“Qualified Institutional Buyers”) and/or to other institutional “accredited investors” as defined in Rule 501(a)(1), (2), (3) or (7) of Regulation D of the Securities Act for initial Certificate Holders, and may be required to make the same representations as the initial holders; (ii) no Certificate may be transferred in part; and (iii) such other restrictions as may be necessary or advisable to provide the Issuer with a reasonable belief that any subsequent holder of the Funding Certificate qualifies as a Qualified Institutional Buyer and a Qualified Purchaser. Any purported transfer of a Certificate in violation of the requirements for transfer may be void and the holder immediately prior to such void transfer may be for all purposes be deemed to be the holder of that Certificate. In addition, the Indenture may provide the Issuer with the right to force any holder who is determined not to be a Qualified Institutional Buyer/Qualified Purchaser to sell that Funding Certificate to a Qualified Institutional Buyer/Qualified Purchaser. Tax Attributes: The Issuer may be intended to be classified as a partnership for federal income tax purposes and each Funding Certificate as indebtedness of the Issuer secured by its assets. Cash Management: If at any time after a Funding Date the Issuer receives CD Proceeds with respect to any CD in its Funding Pool, or receives any payment on account of a Manager indemnification, the Issuer may: (i) distribute on the next Payment Date such amounts to the Certificate Holders as provided in the Operating Agreement; and/or (ii) invest such amounts in Eligible Proceeds Investments. The Issuer may invest funds held in the Expense Reserve Account and the Advance Reserve Account in Eligible Reserve Investments. Eligible Proceeds Investments: Eligible Proceeds Investments may mean, with respect to amounts held in the Proceeds Account, investments that meet all of the following criteria: (i) (A) marketable direct obligations issued or unconditionally guaranteed by the United States or issued by any agency thereof and backed by the full faith and credit of the United States, or issued by any state of the United States or any political subdivision of any such state or any public instrumentality thereof and, at the time of acquisition, having the highest rating obtainable from either S&P or Moody's; or (B) FDIC insured bank deposits, that is (currently), bank deposit accounts that are in an amount less than or equal to $100,000 in the aggregate issued by any financial institution insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation other than a Seller Bank with respect to that Funding Pool (each an “Investment”); (ii) the final maturity date of any Investment is not later than the Final Maturity Date of CDs in the Funding Pool of that Issuer; and (iii) the annualized yield of such Investment is equal to or greater than the annualized yield of CDs held in the Funding Pool of that Issuer as established on the Funding Date for that Issuer. Eligible Reserve Investments: Eligible Reserve Investments may mean any and all of the following, so long as, (i) with respect to investments held in the Expense Reserve Account, the final maturity date thereof is not later than the Final Maturity Date and such Expense Reserve Account holds in immediately available funds amounts sufficient to make all scheduled Administrative Agent Fees as and when due; and (ii) with respect to investments held in the Advance Reserve Account, the average maturity date of such investments is not longer than, for example, six (6) months: (a) direct obligations of, and obligations fully guaranteed by, the United States of America, the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, the Federal National Mortgage Association, the Federal Home Loan Banks or any agency or instrumentality of the United States of America the obligations of which are backed by the full faith and credit of the United States of America (b) (i) demand and time deposits in, certificates of deposit of, banker's acceptances issued by or federal funds sold by any depository institution or trust company (including the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee or its agent acting in their respective commercial capacities) incorporated under the laws of the United States of America or any State thereof and subject to supervision and examination by federal and/or state authorities, so long as at the time of such investment or contractual commitment providing for such investment, such depository institution or trust company has a short term unsecured debt rating in one of the two highest available rating categories of S&P and the highest available rating category of Moody's and provided that each such investment has an original maturity of no more than 365 days, and (ii) any other demand or time deposit or deposit which is fully insured by the FDIC (c) repurchase obligations with a term not to exceed 30 days with respect to any security described in clause (a) above and entered into with a depository institution or trust company (acting as a principal) rated “A” or higher by S&P, rated A2 or higher by Moody's; provided, however, that collateral transferred pursuant to such repurchase obligation must be of the type described in clause (a) above and must: (i) be valued weekly at current market price plus accrued interest; (ii) pursuant to such valuation, equal, at all times, 105% of the cash transferred by the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee in exchange for such collateral; and (iii) be delivered to the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee or, if the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee is supplying the collateral, an agent for the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee, in such a manner as to accomplish perfection of a security interest in the collateral by possession of certificated securities (d) securities bearing interest or sold at a discount issued by any corporation incorporated under the laws of the United States of America or any State thereof which has a long term unsecured debt rating in the highest available rating category of each of the Rating Agencies at the time of such investment (e) commercial paper having an original maturity of less than 365 days and issued by an institution having a short term unsecured debt rating in the highest available rating category of each of the Rating Agencies at the time of such investment (f) a guaranteed investment contract approved by each of the Rating Agencies and the applicable Issuer and issued by an insurance company or other corporation having a long term unsecured debt rating in the highest available rating category of each of the Rating Agencies at the time of such investment (g) money market funds having ratings in one of the two highest available rating categories of S&P and the highest available rating category of Moody's at the time of such investment which invest only in other Eligible Investments; any such money market funds which provide for demand withdrawals being conclusively deemed to satisfy any maturity requirement for Eligible Investments set forth in this Agreement; and (h) any other investment approved by the applicable Issuer and each Rating Agency. Operating Agreement: The Issuer may be organized as a bankruptcy remote special purpose entity and operated pursuant to the terms of a limited liability company agreement, which may, among other things, designate the Manager as the manager. Indenture: The Manager may enter into an Indenture with the Indenture Trustee. The Issuer may become a party to the Indenture by execution of a Supplement to that agreement. Pursuant to the Indenture, the Issuer may issue its Funding Certificates. The proceeds of all Funding Certificates issued by any Issuer may be received by, and the payment for purchases of all CDs to be held in any Funding Pool may be made by, the Indenture Trustee, acting on behalf of the Issuer. The Issuer may grant a first priority security interest in and pledge all of the CDs held in its Funding Pool, and the proceeds thereof, to the Indenture Trustee for the benefit of the holders of the Funding Certificates of that Issuer, as collateral security for that Issuer's obligations under its Funding Certificates. All payments on the CDs may be required to be remitted to the Collection Account and disbursed pursuant to the terms of the Indenture. Seller Bank Participation Agreement: In order to facilitate the timeliness of payments to be made by any Seller Bank, each Seller Bank may be required to execute and deliver a Participation Agreement for Capital Market CD Program, pursuant to which, among other things, the Seller Bank may need to agree to Automated Clearing House (“ACH”) transfers for all amounts owing by it, as and when due. The Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee may test ACH transfer information provided by a Seller Bank prior to the purchase of any CD from that Seller Bank. Manager Duties with respect to arranging CDs for the Funding Pool: Under the Operating Agreement, the Issuer may be permitted to acquire only those CDs for the Issuer's Funding Pool which, to the best of its knowledge, meet the eligibility criteria specified therein. If a CD is determined not to have been eligible as of its Funding Date, the Manager may be required to enforce, on behalf of the Issuer, any rights it may have against such Selling Bank with respect to the grounds causing such ineligibility. Manager Indemnification: The Manager may indemnify the Issuer for any losses arising out of its gross negligence or willful misconduct in carrying out its duties to or on behalf of the Issuer under the transaction documents. Available Funds, Payments: All monies collected, received or otherwise recovered in respect of CDs held in a Funding Pool, including the proceeds of any FDIC insurance (the “Available Funds”), may be deposited in the Collection Account and distributed to Certificate Holders on the next succeeding Payment Date pursuant to the terms of the Indenture, unless held in the Proceeds Account reinvested in Eligible Proceeds Investments. All Available Funds (including, for example, all proceeds of Eligible Proceeds Investments) may need to be distributed to Certificate Holders pursuant to the terms of the Indenture not later than the Final Maturity Date for the Funding Certificates. Certificate Holders may receive distributions with respect to the Funding Certificates of interest on each Payment Date and of principal on the Final Maturity Date in accordance with their respective pro rata shares. As stated above, the Issue Price for any CD in a Funding Pool may be 100% of its face amount less its allocable share of the Transaction Expenses. Amounts to become due after the applicable Funding Date in respect of Administrative Agency Fees may be funded on the applicable Funding Date and held in the Expense Reserve Account and paid to the Administrative Agent as and when due. Thus, generally, 100% of all Available Funds received on account of CDs in a Funding Pool, both in respect of interest and principal, may be payable to Funding Certificate Holders on each Payment Date. Advance Reserve Account: Advance Reserve Account Payments: The Manager may establish with the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee a reserve account (the “Advance Reserve Account”). The Manager may at all times be required to maintain a minimum on deposit in the Advance Reserve Account (the “Advance Reserve Account Minimum Amount”). The Advance Reserve Account may be held for the benefit of each Issuer, and all amounts on deposit from time to time therein may be available to any Issuer for payment of amounts due on any Payment Date. Only one Advance Reserve Account may be established for the program. As such, amounts held in the Advance Reserve Account allocated to any one issuer may be commingled with amounts allocated to other issuers and may be available without segregation with respect to payments on account of any Delinquent CD (as described below) in any Funding Pool. If on any CD Payment Date the Indenture Trustee has not received the full amount due on such CD Payment Date from any Seller Bank (or as proceeds of FDIC Insurance or otherwise) with respect to its CD (a “Delinquent CD”), the Indenture Trustee may be authorized and instructed to transfer from the Advance Reserve Account to the Collection Account by not later than the Payment Date immediately after that CD Payment Date an amount equal to the unpaid portion then due from such Seller Bank with respect to its CD but not received and deposited in the Collection Account on or prior to the related Payment Date. Amounts from a Seller Bank, and any CD proceeds, collected on account of a Delinquent CD may be deposited into the Advance Reserve Account. Any amounts held in the Advance Reserve Account in excess of the Advance Reserve Account Minimum Amount may be released to the Manager. Collection Account: The Indenture Trustee may establish a collection account (the “Collection Account”) in the Issuer's name. The Collection Account may be established as a fully segregated account with the Indenture Trustee or another eligible domestic bank other than any Seller Bank (the “Collection Account Bank”) designated by the Manager that is satisfactory to the Rating Agencies. Payments received on the CDs may need to be remitted to the Collection Account in accordance with the terms of the Indenture. The Collection Account Bank may waive all rights of setoff and bankers' liens with respect to all liabilities and obligations (including Administrative Agency Fees) owing to it by the Issuer, other than in respect of its ordinary and customary fees in connection with maintenance of the Collection Account and for any items returned for nonpayment. Escrow Account: The Manager may cause an Escrow Account to be established with the Escrow Agent for the benefit of the Issuer under the Escrow Agreement. All funds received from purchasers of Funding Certificates may be deposited in the Escrow Account. On each Funding Date, funds held in the Escrow Account may be used to pay the Issue Price to Seller Banks in respect of CDs being acquired by the Issuer on the Funding Date and to pay the Transaction Expenses. The Escrow Agent may hold all funds in the Escrow Account for the benefit of the purchasers of the Funding Certificates until such time as CDs are purchased for the Issuer. If for any reason any Seller Bank can not or will not issue its CD, or any CD to be purchased for the Funding Pool on the Funding Date has otherwise not been purchased by the Issuer within (e.g., three (3)) business days after the proposed Funding Date for such purchase, the Escrow Agent may return to the respective purchasers of such Funding Certificates the funds so received (net of usual and customary fees and expenses of the Escrow Agent incurred in connection with the receipt, holding and return of such funds), or such portion of such funds, pro rata, remaining after the purchase of CDs on that Funding Date for a Funding Pool. Any excess amounts (i.e., on account of accrued interest, if any) may be paid to the Issuer. Optional Prepayments and Redemptions: An Issuer may, at its option prepay, for example, all but not less than all of the then outstanding the Funding Certificates in the unlikely event that the aggregate original face amount of all outstanding Funding Certificates over the aggregate amount of all payments made on account of the Funding Certificates is less than, for example, 10% of the aggregate original face amount of such outstanding Funding Certificates (“Optional Prepayment”). CD Proceeds; Proceeds Account: CD Proceeds may arise as a consequence of payment prior to maturity of a CD on account of: (i) receipt of proceeds under an FDIC insurance claim; and/or (ii) an assignment by the FDIC as conservator or receiver of an insolvent Seller Bank in which the assignee elects to terminate the CD prior to its maturity. All amounts received by an Issuer as CD Proceeds or on account of a Manager Indemnification may be deposited into an account in the name of the Issuer (the “Proceeds Account”). Amounts held in the Proceeds Account may be invested in Eligible Proceeds Investments. No Acceleration of Funding Certificates: No Certificate Holder may necessarily be entitled to require the payment of principal owing under a Funding Certificate prior to its stated Final Maturity Date. Other than an Optional Prepayment or as a result of CD Proceeds or on account of a Manager Indemnification as described above, no principal may necessarily be distributed on the Funding Certificates until the Final Maturity Date. Escrow Fees: The Escrow Agent may be entitled to a specified number of basis points (e.g., five (5) basis points) of each Funding Pool Amount as an Escrow Fee under the Escrow Agreement. The Escrow Fee may be paid in full on the Funding Date. Administrative Agency Fees: The Administrative Agent may be entitled to Administrative Agency Fees under the Indenture. The amount of the Administrative Agency Fee may be a specified number of basis points (e.g., seven and a half (7.5) basis points) per annum on the Funding Pool Amount. The Administrative Agency Fee due for the initial (e.g., six (6) months) may be payable to the Administrative Agent on the Funding Date, and the balance of the Administrative Agency Fees may be payable to the Administrative Agent (e.g., semi-annually) in equal amounts from the Expense Reserve Account. If the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee is unable or unwilling for any reason to perform its duties as Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee with respect to all or any portion of a Funding Pool, fees for any replacement Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee may be paid from funds held in the Expense Reserve Account. Custodial Fees: In addition to Administrative Fees, a fee (e.g., $500 per month) may be paid monthly by the Manager. Manager Fee: A fee (e.g., a one-time fee) may be paid to the Manager with respect to each Funding on the applicable Funding Date. Other Transaction Expenses: Other applicable transaction expenses may be applied as appropriate. Reference will now be made to certain example legal and other considerations relating to risk factors related to the purchase of Funding Certificates. Of note, these example legal and other considerations are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive (e.g., all dates, times, values, etc. are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive). Absence of Secondary Market Could Limit Ability to Resell Certificates: A holder may be unable to resell certificates due to the absence of a secondary market for them. If a secondary market for the certificates does develop, it may not continue or it may not be sufficiently liquid to allow resale of certificates. There may be no current market for the Funding Certificates. Although the Initial Purchaser may from time to time make a market in any Funding Certificates, the Initial Purchaser may be under no obligation to do so. If the Initial Purchaser commences any market-making, it may discontinue the same at any time. In addition, the Funding Certificates may be subject to certain transfer restrictions and may only be transferable to transferees that meet the requirements to be a Qualified Institutional Buyer and a Qualified Purchaser. Consequently, the certificates may need to be held for an indefinite period of time or until their final maturity. Transfer Restrictions May Limit Available Purchasers of Certificates: The number of possible purchasers of certificates may be limited as a result of transfer restrictions on the certificates. Because the offering and the certificates may not have been registered under the Securities Act, or any state securities laws, the certificates may be resalable only in transactions exempt from the Securities Act and any applicable state securities laws. The certificates may be resalable only to persons who complete and deliver an investor letter and can represent that they are both (a) “qualified purchasers” under the Investment Company Act of 1940, as amended (“Qualified Purchasers”), and (b) “qualified institutional buyers” as defined in Rule 144A under the Securities Act (“Qualified Institutional Buyers”) and/or to other institutional “accredited investors” as defined in Rule 501(a)(1), (2), (3) or (7) of Regulation D of the Securities Act. Limited-Recourse Obligations: The Funding Certificates of each Issuer may be limited-recourse obligations of that Issuer. The Funding Certificates may be payable solely from the assets owned by that Issuer. None of the security holders, members, officers, directors, managers or incorporators of the Issuer, the Manager, the Sponsor, the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee, any Rating Agency, the Initial Purchaser, any of their respective affiliates or any other person or entity may necessarily be obligated to make payments on the Funding Certificates. Consequently, the holders may need to rely solely on amounts received in respect of each Funding Pool for the payment of principal thereof and interest thereon. Although substantially all of the assets held by any Issuer may be composed of certificates of deposit that are expected to be insured by the FDIC, there can be no assurance that the distributions will be sufficient to make payment in full on any Funding Certificate. If proceeds of assets of any Issuer are insufficient to make payments on the Funding Certificates, no other assets may be available for payment of the deficiency and, following liquidation of all such assets, the obligations of the Issuer to pay such deficiencies may be extinguished. Yield Considerations: The yield to each holder of a Funding Certificate may be a function of the purchase price paid by such holder for its Funding Certificate and the timing and amount of interest and principal distributions made in respect of such Funding Certificate during the term a Funding Certificate is outstanding. Each prospective purchaser of a Funding Certificate should make its own evaluation of the yield that it expects to receive on its Certificate. Prospective investors should be aware that the timing and amount of interest and principal distributions may be affected by, among other things, the performance of the CDs held in a Funding Pool. The CDs may not be renewable at their Stated Maturity Date and interest (if any) may cease to accrue at the Stated Maturity Date for CDs held in a Funding Pool. No Right of Redemption for Funding Certificates: No certificate holder of any Funding Certificate may necessarily have the right to require any Issuer to liquidate any of its assets prior to the stated maturity date for that Funding Certificate. Unlike a time deposit held directly with a bank, which may permit a depositor to withdraw principal prior to the maturity date at a penalty, each Issuer may be contractually prohibited from withdrawing any principal of any CD held in its Funding Pool prior to the CD Maturity Date for that Funding Pool, unless required to do so by law. Thus, even if a Funding Certificate holder had some basis to demand an early redemption of its Funding Certificate, an Issuer may have no legal right to liquidate any of its assets held in its Funding Pool to enable it to redeem any Funding Certificate. Generally, other than in connection with CD Proceeds arising as a consequence of the conservatorship or receivership of a Seller Bank, there may be no events or circumstances that will trigger any prepayment of any principal on any of the Funding Certificates. Thus, holders of Funding Certificates may need to be prepared to wait until the maturity date of the Funding Certificate for repayment of principal amounts, especially because there can be no assurance of the availability of any secondary market for any Funding Certificates. See “Early Distributions on Offered Funding Certificates; Lack of Eligible Proceeds Investments.” Early Distributions on Funding Certificates: Lack of Eligible Proceeds Investments: There may be a limited number of circumstances in which an Issuer may be entitled to prepay its Funding Certificates, in whole or in part, although any partial redemption may need to be made on a pro rata basis equally among all Funding Certificates. Other than with respect to amounts held in any reserve account, any cash received by an Issuer may need to be either invested in Eligible Proceeds Investments or distributed to its Funding Certificate Holders on the next Payment Date, as provided in its Indenture. To be an Eligible Proceeds Investment, among other things, the annualized yield of such Investment may need to be equal to or greater than the annualized yield of CDs held in the Funding Pool of that Issuer as established on the Funding Date for that Issuer. There can be no assurance that any Issuer will be able to make Eligible Proceeds Investments of any funds at any time, which may require that Issuer to distribute those funds to its Certificate Holders by no later than the next Payment Date. An Issuer may receive a principal payment of any CD held in its Funding Pool prior to the final maturity date of that CD, for example as proceeds of FDIC insurance following the appointment of the FDIC as conservator or receiver for any insolvent Seller Bank. The FDIC as conservator or receiver of an insolvent Seller Bank may be entitled to transfer to another insured depository institution any of the insolvent institution's assets and liabilities, including obligations such as the CDs, without approval or consent of the holder of the CDs. Purchasers should be aware that a conservator or receiver for a federally insured institution, and depository institutions assuming a failed institution's deposits, may reduce the interest rate (or earned discount) on, or otherwise change the terms of, outstanding deposit accounts. No such action may necessarily, however, affect interest accrued or discount earned prior to the date such action is taken. In such circumstance the Issuer may be required to accept payment on account of the affected CD and would likely be unable to find any Eligible Proceeds Investment for those proceeds. Any such actions could adversely affect the yield on Funding Certificates of Issuers affected thereby. Mismatch of Payments and the Time Value of Money: The Payment Date for payment by the Indenture Trustee with respect to any proceeds of interest or principal payments received on account of CDs held in any Funding Pool may not necessarily occur until, for example, five (5) business days following the CD Payment Date, which is the date on which principal and interest is due from Seller Banks with respect to their respect CDs. During the period from the CD Payment until the Payment Date, funds held by the Indenture Trustee may not necessarily accrue interest for the benefit of the Holders of the Funding Certificates. (Any interest accrued during this period may inure to the benefit of the Indenture Trustee, which may have taken this into account in determining its fees). In addition, if the Escrow Agent is unable for any reason to purchase CDs on any date scheduled as a Funding Date, the Escrow Agent may have, for example, three (3) business days to effect that purchase before it may be obligated to return funds, pro rata, to prospective purchasers of Funding Certificates for the Funding Pool. Depending upon the frequency and amounts of interest payments on CDs held in a Funding Pool, and any delay that could occur in the purchase of all CDs to be held in a Funding Pool, a Holder of a Funding Certificate may lose the time value of money during such periods. Any such delays may need to be taken into account when determining the yield expected with respect to any Funding Certificate. Credit Ratings: Any credit ratings of any of the Funding Certificates represent that Rating Agency's opinion regarding the credit quality of those Funding Certificates and are not a guaranty of quality. Rating agencies may attempt to evaluate the safety of principal and interest payments and do not necessarily evaluate the risks of fluctuations in market value, therefore, they may not fully reflect the true risks of an investment. Also, Rating Agencies may fail to make timely changes in credit ratings in response to subsequent events, so that an Issuer's current financial condition may be better or worse than a rating indicates. FDIC Insurance and Insolvent Seller Banks: All principal and all interest amounts to the stated Final Maturity Date of each of the CDs held in any Funding Pool may be intended to be covered by federal deposit insurance provided by the Bank Insurance Fund administered by FDIC and backed by the full faith and credit of the United States Government, in the maximum amount permitted by law from time to time (currently $100,000). This insurance coverage limit may apply to the CDs issued by any Seller Bank aggregated with all other deposits maintained by an Issuer engaged in independent activity in the same legal capacity with that Seller Bank. Each Issuer may be precluded by the terms of its Operating Agreement from acquiring any CDs from or otherwise holding any funds in any deposit account with any Seller Bank in excess of the $100,000 maximum insured amount. If the FDIC is appointed as conservator or receiver for any Seller Bank, the FDIC is authorized to disaffirm or repudiate any contract or lease to which that Seller Bank is a party, the performance of which is determined to be burdensome, and the disaffirmance or repudiation of which is determined to promote the orderly administration of that Seller Bank's affairs. It appears very likely that for this purpose debt obligations, such as the CDs, are “contracts” within the meaning of the foregoing and that the CDs may be repudiated by the FDIC in its capacity as conservator or receiver of the Bank. Such repudiation may result in a claim of the holder of the CDs against the conservator or receivership for the principal of the CDs and interest accrued to the date of such repudiation. In that case, an Issuer may be required to follow the FDIC's claims procedures, which may result in a delay in receiving payment. FDIC Staff Assurances: The Manager and others may receive assurances in writing from the legal staff of the FDIC regarding the availability of FDIC insurance for CDs held by an Issuer in its name from a Seller Bank (the “FDIC Letter”). The FDIC issues formal interpretations of its rules, but only pursuant to rule-making proceedings. Unlike SEC “no-action” letters or IRS “private letter” rulings, the FDIC does not issue formal interpretations in the form of letters or rulings on specific cases. It is believed that the FDIC Letter is the strongest authority available from the FDIC for the positions expressed therein. However, in the event of any challenge to the availability of FDIC insurance to any Issuer, the FDIC Letter may not carry the force of legal precedent that would be binding on a court so as to foreclose a view by the FDIC contrary to that set forth in an FDIC Letter. Investment Company Act: No Issuer and no Funding Pool may necessarily be registered nor may any Issuer or any Funding Pool expect to register, with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (the “SEC”) as an investment company pursuant to the Investment Company Act. Each Issuer and each Funding Pool may not so registered and may not expect to so register in reliance on applicable exceptions set forth in the Investment Company Act of 1940 (the “Investment Company Act”). Section 3(c)(7) of the Investment Company Act excludes from regulation under the Investment Company Act entities whose outstanding securities are owned exclusively by persons who are, at the time they acquire the securities, Qualified Purchasers, if the issuer does not make and does not propose to make a public offering of those securities. Section 3(c)(7) and Rule 2a51-1 under the Investment Company Act require that the issuer (or a person designated by the issuer for such purpose) reasonably believes believe at all times that the holders of the issuer's securities are persons who, at the time of their acquisition of the securities, are Qualified Purchasers. Thus, each Issuer, or its Manager or other person designated by the Issuer, may be required to have a reasonable believe of compliance for the life of that Issuer's Funding Certificates, not just at the time of the initial transfer. Trading in the secondary market for Funding Certificates may settle on a book-entry basis through DTC, which may make it more difficult for an Issuer or its designee for such purpose to acquire and maintain information about the holders of the Funding Certificates. No Issuer may necessarily request a no-action letter from the SEC regarding the Investment Company Act, and it is believed that to date, the SEC has declined to confirm that procedures for resales of securities in the 144A market would be adequate for purposes of the Investment Company Act, or otherwise to provide safe harbors for issuers relying on a 3(c)(7) exemption. Each Issuer may be expected to follow procedures that it believes will provide it with a reasonable basis to conclude that the holders of its Funding Certificates are Qualified Purchasers under the Investment Company Act, including those procedures adopted by DTC with respect to 3(c)(7) securities to enable issuers to establish the requisite reasonable belief that all of the holders of the Funding Certificates are Qualified purchasers notwithstanding the deposit of those securities in DTC. Each transferee of a beneficial interest in a Funding Certificate may be required to represent at the time to purchase that: (i) the purchaser is both a Qualified Institutional Buyer and a Qualified Purchaser; (ii) the purchaser is not a dealer described in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of Rule 144A unless such purchaser owns and invests on a discretionary basis at least U.S. $25,000,000 in securities of issuers that are not affiliated persons of the dealer; and (iii) the purchaser is not a plan referred to in paragraph (a)(1)(i)(D) or (a)(1)(i)(E) of Rule 144A, or a trust fund referred to in paragraph (a)(1)(i)(F) of Rule 144A that holds the assets of such a plan, unless investment decisions with respect to the plan are made solely by the fiduciary, trustee or sponsor of such plan; and (iv) the purchaser will provide written notice of the foregoing, and of any applicable restrictions on transfer, to any transferee prior to any transfer of its Funding Certificate. The Indenture may provide that if, notwithstanding the restrictions on transfer contained therein, an Issuer determines that any beneficial owner of a Funding Certificate (or any interest therein) is not both a Qualified Purchaser and a Qualified Institutional Buyer (unless such beneficial owner is an Institutional Accredited Investor that purchased such Funding Certificate or interest therein directly from the Initial Purchaser), then the Issuer may require, by notice to such Holder, that such Holder sell all of its right, title and interest to such Funding Certificate (or any interest therein) to a person that is both a Qualified Institutional Buyer and a Qualified Purchaser, with such sale to be effected within, for example, 30 days after notice of such sale requirement is given. If such beneficial owner fails to effect the transfer required within such period, (a) upon direction from the Manager or the Issuer, the Manager, on behalf of and at the expense of the Issuer, may cause such beneficial owner's interest in such Funding Certificate to be transferred in a commercially reasonable sale (e.g., conducted by the Manager in accordance with Section 9-310(b) of the Uniform Commercial Code as in effect in the State of New York as applied to securities that are sold on a recognized market or that may decline speedily in value) to a person that certifies to the Indenture Trustee, the Issuer and the Manager, in connection with such transfer, that such person is a both (i) a Qualified Institutional Buyer and (ii) a Qualified Purchaser and (b) pending such transfer, no further payments will be made in respect of such Funding Certificate held by such beneficial owner. There can be no assurance that all of the procedures adopted by an Issuer to assure its reasonable believe regarding the status of holders of its Funding Certificates will be followed in all instances or will adequate if challenged. If the SEC or a court of competent jurisdiction were to find that an Issuer or a Funding Pool is required, but in violation of the Investment Company Act had failed, to register as an investment company, possible consequences include, but are not limited to, the following: (i) the SEC could apply to a district court to enjoin the violation; (ii) investors in the Issuer could sue the Issuer and recover any damages caused by the violation; and (iii) any contract to which the Issuer is a party that is made in, or whose performance involves a, violation of the Investment Company Act may be unenforceable by any party to the contract unless a court were to find that under the circumstances enforcement would produce a more equitable result than nonenforcement and would not be inconsistent with the purposes of the Investment Company Act. Should an Issuer or any Funding Pool be subjected to any or all of the foregoing, that Issuer and that Funding Pool may be materially and adversely affected. No Physical Delivery of Offered Funding Certificates to Holders: No individual Funding Certificate may necessarily be issued in physical form by any Issuer directly to any purchaser or owner of the Funding Certificate. Instead, the Issuer may issue a “master” Funding Certificate, evidencing all Funding Certificates of that Issuer, to, for example, a nominee of The Depository Trust Company (“DTC”), currently at 55 Water Street, New York, N.Y., which may act as custodian for, and maintain records evidencing, the aggregate amount of such Funding Certificates held for customers of, the Initial Purchaser and certain other broker-dealers. In turn, the Initial Purchaser, acting as nominee, authorized representative, agent or custodian, may maintain records evidencing ownership of the Funding Certificates are purchased in book-entry (i.e., non-physical form) only, and may provide a holder with a confirmation statement and periodic account statements reflecting such purchase, which should be retained for the holder's records. By reason of the foregoing limitations, the Funding Certificates may not be an appropriate investment for persons wishing to take possession of a physical certificate evidencing their Funding Certificate. If a holder chooses to remove the Initial Purchaser as the agent or custodian with respect to a Funding Certificate, the holder may: (i) transfer the Funding Certificate to another agent, provided that the agent is a member of DTC (most major brokerage firms are members; many banks and savings institutions are not); or (ii) request that ownership of the Funding Certificate be evidenced directly on the books of the Issuer, subject to applicable law and the Issuer's terms and conditions, including those related to the manner of evidencing Funding Certificate ownership. If a holder chooses to remove the Initial Purchaser as agent, the Initial Purchaser may have no further responsibility for payments made with respect to the Funding Certificate. A Funding Certificate established directly on the books of the Issuer may not be readily transferable. Money Laundering Prevention: The “Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001” (the “USA PATRIOT Act”), effective as of Oct. 26, 2001, requires broker-dealers registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission and the National Association of Securities Dealers (the “NASD”) to establish and maintain anti-money laundering programs. With respect to the content of those programs, the NASD has enacted a rule that requires broker-dealers to establish and maintain anti-money laundering programs similar to those currently in place at U.S. banks. On Sep. 26, 2002, the Treasury Department published proposed regulations that will, if enacted in their current form, force all “unregistered investment companies” to: (a) establish and maintain an anti-money laundering compliance program; (b) periodically “test” the required compliance program; (c) designate and train responsible personnel; and (d) file a written notice with the Treasury Department within 90 days of the effective date of the regulations that identifies certain information regarding the subject company, including the dollar amount of assets under company management and the number of interest holders in the subject company. It is believed that as the proposed rule is currently drafted, an “unregistered investment company” includes any issuer that: (i) would be an investment company but for the exclusion from registration provided for by Section 3(c)(7) of the Investment Company Act; (ii) permits an owner to redeem his or her ownership interest within two years of the purchase of that interest; (iii) has total assets over $1,000,000; and (iv) is organized in the United States or is “organized, operated, or sponsored” by a U.S. person. It may be anticipated that no Issuer will issue any Funding Certificates that will have a Final Maturity Date that is earlier than two years after the initial purchase of those Funding Certificates. No holder of a Funding Certificate may necessarily have any right of redemption with respect to any portion of its Funding Certificate prior to the Final Maturity Date. Pending further clarification by the Treasury Department, each Issuer may take the view that it does not fall under the ambit of the proposed rule under the USA PATRIOT ACT. Thus, no Issuer may necessarily comply with the requirements of the USA PATRIOT ACT. It is possible that other legislation or regulations could be promulgated that will require compliance by an Issuer with information gathering and reporting and other obligations, and as well as to require the Manager, the Administrative Agent/Indenture Trustee or other service providers to any Issuer to share information with governmental authorities with respect to investors in the Funding Certificates in connection with the establishment of anti-money laundering procedures. In addition, it is possible that such rule or regulations would require an Issuer to implement additional restrictions on the transfer of the Funding Certificates. Material and adverse consequences for any Issuer could occur if it were subject to the requirements of the USA PATRIOT ACT and either had failed to comply with it or were required to commence compliance. Similarly, application of the information sharing requirements or could increase the transaction costs. Additional transfer restrictions could further limit the marketability of Funding Certificates in the secondary market. Market Uncertainty: Many factors can create market uncertainty, including, but not limited to, the risk of terrorist action and war, which could cause significant uncertainty with respect to global markets and could have a material effect on general economic conditions, consumer confidence and market liquidity. A negative impact on economic fundamentals and consumer confidence may likely increase market volatility, cause credit spreads to widen and reduce liquidity, all of which could have a material adverse effect on the performance of the Funding Certificates. No one can predict with certainty how the market will react to any particular event, nor can anyone predict whether interest rates will rise or fall. Any market or interest rate volatility may reduce the marketability of the Funding Certificates. Projections Forecasts and Estimates: Any projections, forecasts and estimates contained herein maybe forward looking statements and may be based upon certain assumptions that the Issuers consider reasonable. Projections may be necessary speculative in nature, and it can be expected that some or all of the assumptions underlying the projections may not materialize or will vary significantly from actual results. Accordingly, the projections maybe only an estimate. Actual results may vary from the projections, and the variations may be material. Some important factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from those in any forward looking statements include changes in interest rates, market, financial or legal uncertainties, the timing of acquisitions of CDs to be held in any Funding Pool, mismatches between the timing of accrual and receipt of proceeds from the CDs to be held in any Funding Pool or payments to holders of the Funding Certificates. Consequently, the inclusions of projections herein should not necessarily be regarded as a representation by any Issuer, the Manager, the Sponsor, the Initial Purchaser or any of their respective affiliates or any other person or entity of the results that will actually be achieved by an Issuer. None of the Issuer, the Manager, the Initial Purchaser, any of their respective affiliates or any other person may have any obligation to update or otherwise revise any projections, including any revisions to reflect changes in economic conditions or other circumstances arising after the date hereof or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events, even if the underlying assumptions do not come to fruition. Reference will now be made to an example “Participation Agreement For Capital Market CD Program” (hereinafter “Participation Agreement”). Of note, this example Participation Agreement may be made and entered into by and between a Facilitator (e.g., a Applicable state (e.g. Colorado, Delaware) limited liability company), on behalf of itself and each of one or more Issuers, and the Bank signing the Participation Agreement (of course, two or more Participation Agreements may be entered into with two or more Banks). Of further note, this example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive. In any case, the example Participation agreement may include the following: Recitals The Capital Market CD Program (the “Program”) may be administered by the Facilitator (which may be, for example, a wholly owned subsidiary of another entity). The Facilitator may form a separate limited liability company (the “Issuer”) for each funding. Each Issuer may prepare and distribute to banks participating in the Program an offer (the “Offer”) to purchase certificates of deposit (“CDs”). The Offer may be sent (e.g., by e-mail and/or by being electronically posted to a Website or other appropriate mechanism) to participating banks and may contain all of the terms and conditions of the CDs to be purchased for that funding, including, but not limited to, the term and principal amount of the CD and the method for determining the interest rate. Terms and Conditions 1. Concurrent with execution of this Agreement, Bank may need to complete a “CMCD Contact Information” form containing the names, e-mail addresses and other contact information of its authorized personnel (the “Authorized Representatives”) to both receive Offer(s) from Issuer(s) under the Program and accept or reject such Offer(s) on behalf of the Bank. Each Offer from an Issuer may be sent to the appropriate e-mail addresses and/or posted as described above. The Offer may have a link to the Website where the Bank can accept or reject an Offer. To access the Website, the Bank may be issued an account number and password. If the Bank accepts an Offer on the Website, the Bank's Authorized Representatives may be sent an automatically generated e-mail acknowledgment of the Bank's acceptance of the Offer. On the settlement date (e.g., which may be one business day prior to the date the CD is issued), the Issuer may send a confirmation e-mail (the “Confirmation”) to the Authorized Representatives confirming all of the final terms of the CD to be issued (which final terms may be in accordance with the terms set forth in the Offer). The Bank's acceptance of an Offer on the Website within the time period indicated in the Offer may constitute an irrevocable, legally binding commitment from the Bank to issue a CD to the Issuer containing the final terms and conditions set forth in the Confirmation, subject only to the Bank's receipt of an ACH payment in an amount equal to the purchase price of the CD, net of any prepaid interest, all as indicated in the Confirmation (the “ACH Payment”). The Bank may be permitted to only accept or reject the Offer and may not necessarily be permitted to modify the Offer in any manner. The Bank may reject an Offer (e.g., on the Website) to create an electronic record of such rejection. However, the Offer may also be deemed rejected if the Bank does not affirmatively accept the Offer (e.g., on the Website) within the time period indicated in the Offer. 2. All CD's issued under the Program may contain all of the terms and conditions of the Confirmation and the additional terms and conditions set forth in an appropriate “CD Form” (which may be an exhibit attached to the Participation Agreement). The CD may be automatically issued at the moment the Bank receives the ACH Payment from the escrow agent, administrator and custodian for the Program (the “Administrator”). In the event the current Administrator is replaced, the Facilitator may provide notice of such replacement and the effective date by e-mail to the Authorized Representatives of the Bank and/or post such information on the Website. The CD issued by the Bank may be in book entry form only and an actual written CD document may not necessarily be issued. No later than one business day (for example) following receipt of the ACH Payment, the Bank may need to clearly mark its books and records to reflect the issuance of the CD to the Issuer (e.g., in the exact name of the Issuer indicated in the Confirmation) and that the CD has all of the terms and conditions set forth in the Confirmation and CD Form. The parties may agree that the record of the ACH Payment shall constitute a receipt issued by the Bank for the purchase of the CD and may be conclusive and binding on the parties that a CD has been issued in the name of the Issuer and that the CD incorporates all of the terms and conditions of the Confirmation and CD Form. 3. In the event that a funding is oversubscribed by banks participating in the Program, the Issuer may elect to decline to purchase CDs from banks that have accepted an Offer (including the Bank) by notifying such banks (e.g., by e-mail to the Authorized Representative) that the Issuer is electing not to purchase a CD. In such event, the Bank's commitment to issue the affected CD and the Issuer's commitment to purchase such CD may terminate without liability to either party. If oversubscribed findings become more common, the Facilitator may resolve such issue by rotating the banks who receive Offers from Issuer in order to eliminate or minimize the situation where an Issuer declines to purchase CDs from banks that have accepted Offers. 4. The Bank may authorize the Administrator for the Program to initiate ACH transfers for all interest and principal payments due on any CDs issued by the Bank to Issuer(s) under the Program. The ACH transfer may be made effective as of the due date for any interest or principal payment (or, if the due date falls on a non-banking day, on the next succeeding business day). The CMCD Contact Information may set forth the Bank's ACH information necessary for the Administrator to initiate ACH transfers from the Bank's funds. Following execution of this Agreement, the Administrator may contact an Authorized Representative of the Bank to initiate and carry out test ACH transfers between the Administrator and the Bank. The test ACH transfers may need to be successfully completed before the Bank can accept any Offers under the Program. 5. The Bank may be solely responsible for safeguarding its account number and password information to access the Website and accept or reject Offers. The Bank may need to immediately notify the Facilitator (e.g., orally followed by confirmation in writing) if any of the following shall occur: (1) the loss or theft of the Bank's account number or password; (2) the receipt of a Confirmation for an Order that the Bank's Authorized Representatives did not accept; or (3) if the Bank becomes aware of any unauthorized use of its account number or password. Following receipt of such notice, the Facilitator may cancel the Bank's account number and password and reissue a new account number and password to the Bank's Authorized Representatives (which new account number and password, and any Offers made and accepted following the issuance thereof, may be governed by all of the terms of this Agreement). Any Offers accepted through the Website prior to the Facilitator's receipt of the Bank's notice may be legally binding on the Bank. 6. The Bank may modify the information set forth in the CMCD Contact Information by providing a new, completed copy of the CMCD Contact Information to the Facilitator and Administrator, duly executed and dated by the Bank. The most recently dated copy of a completed and executed CMCD Contact Information in the Facilitator's records may be the effective and legally binding document on the parties and may supersede any CMCD Contact Information with a date prior thereto. 7. Effective upon execution of this Agreement and as of the date of each Confirmation for an Offer accepted under the Program, the Bank may need to represent and warrant to the Facilitator and each Issuer the following: Bank is: (i) a federal, state or District of Columbia chartered depository institution, whether or not a member of the Federal Reserve System, the deposits of which are FDIC insured under federal law; and (ii) categorized as “well capitalized” under the FDIC Improvement Act of 1991. Bank is duly organized, validly existing and in good standing under the laws of its jurisdiction of organization. Bank has all requisite power and authority to execute, deliver and perform this Agreement and any CD issued under the Program, and to consummate the transactions contemplated hereby and thereby. The execution, delivery and performance of this Agreement and any CD issued under the Program, and the consummation of the transactions contemplated hereby and thereby, have been duly and validly authorized by all necessary action on the part of Bank. This Agreement and any CD issued under the Program have been duly executed and delivered by Bank and constitute its legal, valid and binding obligation, enforceable against Bank in accordance with their terms. The execution, delivery and performance of this Agreement and any CD issued under the Program and the consummation by Bank of the transactions contemplated hereby and thereby will not: (a) require the consent, license, permit, waiver, approval, authorization or other action of, by or with respect to, or registration, declaration or filing with, any governmental authority or any other person; or (b) violate or conflict with any provision of the organizational documents of Bank or any agreement to which the Bank is a party. 8. The Facilitator, the Issuer(s) and the Administrator may not be responsible for the accessibility of, transmission quality, outages to, or malfunction of any telephone circuits, computer system or software, or the Internet. The Bank may be responsible for providing and maintaining the communications equipment, including personal computers and modems required for accessing the Website. The Facilitator may reserve the right to suspend service and deny access to the Website, without prior notice, during scheduled or unscheduled system maintenance, repairs or upgrades. 9. The Facilitator, the Issuer(s) and the Administrator may not be liable for loss caused directly or indirectly by any government restriction, or any “force majeure” (e.g., flood, extraordinary weather conditions, earthquake or other act of God, fire, war, insurrection, riot, communications or power failure, equipment or software malfunction) or any other cause beyond the reasonable control of the Facilitator, any Issuer or the Administrator. 10. Facilitator may reserve the right at any time to amend, change, revise, add, or modify the terms and conditions set forth in this Agreement upon 30 days prior notice (for example) to the Bank (delivered electronically or otherwise). The Bank's continued use of the Website after the amendments, changes or modifications to these terms and conditions are delivered to the Bank may constitute the Bank's agreement to be bound by such amendments, changes or modifications. Facilitator and the Issuer(s) may justifiably rely upon such use of the Website as evidence of the acceptance of any such amendments, changes or modifications. Facilitator and the Issuer(s) may not necessarily be bound by any verbal statements that seek to amend the terms and conditions set forth in this Agreement or any other written amendment that is not executed by the Facilitator. Facilitator and the Issuer(s) may further disclaim any and all implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose with regard to any aspect of the Program or Website. 11. This Agreement may be terminated by either party upon 30 days (for example) prior written notice to the other party. Upon termination under the foregoing sentence or otherwise, the following may apply: Bank may no longer be permitted to access its account or accept any Offers under the Program; and, This Agreement and all representations, warranties and other provisions contained hereunder may survive such termination and continue to apply to all Offers accepted and CD's issued by Bank prior to termination. 12. This Agreement may inure to the benefit of Facilitator and all Issuer(s) and be binding upon the Bank and its successors and assigns. 13. The Website and all content or information provided by the Facilitator or the Issuer(s) on the Website or otherwise, and the manner of the provision of the services, individually or as a whole, may be protected pursuant to U.S. patent laws, copyright laws, trade secret laws, international treaties or conventions and/or other laws, and may remain the exclusive property of the Facilitator (and/or any parent entity) and/or the Issuer(s), and no title or ownership interest may necessarily transfer to the Bank. The use of the Website may be provided to Bank for use solely with the Program in accordance with this Agreement, and Bank may agree not to modify, print, copy, publish, transmit, license, participate in the transfer or sale of, reproduce, create derivative works from, distribute, redistribute, perform, display or in any way exploit or use the Website, its content or any feature thereof. Facilitator may reserve the right at any time, in its discretion and without prior notice to Bank, to change, revise, modify, add, upgrade, remove or discontinue the Website or any content or information related thereto. Facilitator may also impose limitations or restrictions upon and may revoke Bank's access to and use of the Website or any content or information related thereto, in whole or in part, without prior notice. 14. There may be no assurance that the Facilitator or Issuer(s) will submit any minimum number of Offers in connection with the Program. The Facilitator may also discontinue making any further Offers at anytime. 15. This Agreement may be governed by and construed, for example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), in accordance with Colorado law (without reference to its conflict of law provisions). Reference will now be made to an example “Form Of CD” document which may be used in conjunction with the Participation Agreement discussed above. Of note, this example Form Of CD is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive. In any case, the example Form Of CD may include the following: This Time Certificate of Deposit (“CD”) may be issued pursuant to all of the terms and conditions of the Participation Agreement for the Capital Market CD Program, as amended from time to time (the “Participation Agreement”). Capitalized terms used herein that are not otherwise defined herein may have the meaning given such terms under the Participation Agreement. Each CD issued under the Participation Agreement may have the terms set forth in the Confirmation issued for such CD and the following additional terms and conditions: 1. The issue date of the CD may be the date stipulated on the confirmation. The principal amount of the CD may be the sum of the ACH Payment plus any prepaid interest or other amounts offset against the purchase price of the CD, all as reflected in the Confirmation. 2. The CD may be issued in the name of the Issuer set forth in the Confirmation. Bank may need to mark its books and records to reflect the issuance of the CD to the Issuer (e.g., in the exact name of the Issuer indicated in the Confirmation). 3. Interest may accrue on the principal balance of the CD at the rate set forth in the Confirmation using, for example, a 360 day year. Accrued interest may be paid (e.g., semiannually) in accordance with the schedule set forth in the Confirmation. 4. The CD may be issued in book entry form only and a written certificate of deposit may not necessarily be issued. The ACH Payment may constitute a receipt and acknowledgement issued by the Bank for the purchase of the CD. 5. All payments of accrued interest and principal may be made by ACH transfer in accordance with the Participation Agreement. 6. The CD may be non-negotiable and may be not renewable. There may be no early redemption feature. 7. Payments hereunder that are due on a non-banking day may be made on the next banking day. In another embodiment the present invention may provide an automated order entry and clearing platform (hereinafter sometimes referred to as the “Exchange”) to facilitate banking transactions (e.g., wholesale banking transactions) among participating parties (e.g., participating financial institutions). In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), the banking transactions may relate to CD's, commercial paper, municipal bonds, and/or government agencies). In another example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), the participating parties may include, but not be limited to: banks; S&L's; credit unions; brokerage firms (e.g., major brokerage firms); corporations (e.g., major corporations); state & local municipalities; other financial institutions (e.g., insurance companies, trust companies, etc.). Of note, the Exchange of the present invention may allow financial institutions to have a centralized, secure and controlled marketplace to execute, settle and clear banking transactions (e.g., wholesale banking transactions). Of further note, the Exchange of the present invention may benefit financial institutions (e.g., community-based financial institutions) as follows: Immediate access to liquidity never before available in one place; Ability to make short-term loans (purchase CP) directly (e.g., to the top corporate names in America); Automated and seamless order execution, settlement and clearing never before available; Most competitive pricing and comprehensive market coverage available in one central marketplace; Operated by a top financial transaction technology provider firm. Referring now to certain operational issues involving the Exchange of the present invention, it is noted that: Order Execution. All orders may be executed “online” through the Exchange's automated order entry platform. All transactions may be binding on both the Buyer and the Seller. Transaction Settlement. All transactions may settle in electronic format (e.g., the next day). Confirmations may be provided electronically each day at the close of the Exchange (e.g., 4PM EST). Clearing. All transactions (debts or credits as a result of purchase/sale, interest payments, maturities) may settle through the customer's clearing account (e.g., which clearing account may be administered by an appropriate entity). Referring now to FIG. 1, one specific example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive) of certain steps carried out in a transaction involving the Exchange of the present invention is shown. Of course, one or more other steps may be added, one or more identified steps may be deleted and/or the steps may be carried out in another order. In any case, as seen in this FIG. 1, the steps may include the following: Step 1: An Investor/Buyer (hereinafter simply “Buyer” for the purposes of this example) logs into the system. Step 2: Buyer enters order to purchase CD's (including, for example, rate/term/settlement date). Step 3: An Issuer/Seller (any participating financial institution but hereinafter simply “Bank” for the purposes of this example) logs into the system. Step 4: Bank chooses which issues to participate in (in one example, all orders may be for $100k). Step 5: Confirmation is created when sale is made. Step 6: Confirmation is created when purchase is made. Step 7: Transaction details forwarded to Trustee (e.g., on closing date prior to settlement date). Step 8: Underwriter sends funds (e.g., by wire) to Trustee (e.g., on settlement date). Step 9: Trustee delivers securities to DTC. Step 10: Trustee credits Bank's clearing account. Step 11: Trustee credits Exchange Operator's account (and/or the account of any other desired entity) for transaction. Referring now to FIG. 2, another specific example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive) of certain steps carried out in a transaction involving the Exchange of the present invention is shown. Of course, one or more other steps may be added, one or more identified steps may be deleted and/or the steps may be carried out in another order. In any case, as seen in this FIG. 2, the steps may include the following: Step 1: An Issuer/Seller (e.g., a Broker/Dealer, hereinafter simply “Seller” for the purposes of this example) logs into the system. Step 2: Seller posts terms of equity option agreement (for example). Step 3: An Investor/Buyer (any participating financial institution but hereinafter simply “Buyer” for the purposes of this example) logs into the system. Step 4: Buyer enters order to purchase the equity option agreement. Step 5: Confirmation is created when purchase is made. Step 6: Confirmation is created when sale is made. Step 7: Transaction details forwarded to Clearing Agent (e.g., on settlement date). Step 8: Clearing Agent debits Buyer's clearing account (e.g., for Exchange Fee and each quarterly payment). Step 9: Clearing Agent credits Exchange Operator's account (and/or the account of any other desired entity) for transaction (e.g., on settlement date). Step 10: Clearing Agent credits Seller's clearing account for each quarterly payment. Step 11: Clearing Agent debits Seller's clearing account at maturity. Step 12: Clearing Agent credits Buyer's clearing account at maturity. Referring now to FIG. 3, another specific example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive) of certain steps carried out in a transaction involving the Exchange of the present invention is shown. Of course, one or more other steps may be added, one or more identified steps may be deleted and/or the steps may be carried out in another order. In any case, as seen in this FIG. 3, the steps may include the following: Step 1: An Issuer/Seller (any participating financial institution but hereinafter simply “Bank” for the purposes of this example) logs into the system. Step 2: Bank posts rate/amount. Step 3: An Investor/Buyer (hereinafter simply “Buyer” for the purposes of this example) logs into the system. Step 4: Buyer enters order to purchase CD. Step 5: Confirmation is created when sale is made. Step 6: Confirmation is created when purchase is made. Step 7: Transaction details forwarded to Clearing Agent (e.g., at close). Step 8: Clearing Agent credits Seller's clearing account. Step 9: Clearing Agent debits Buyer's clearing account. Step 10: Clearing Agent credits Exchange Operator's account (and/or the account of any other desired entity) for transaction. Referring now to certain example exchange fees associated with the Exchange of the present invention (which example fees are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), it is noted that: Annual Subscription Fees. Annual fees may be assessed to each member of the Exchange. In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), the annual fees may be based on asset size. Transaction Fees. Transaction fees may be paid on a transaction-by-transaction basis. In one example (which example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), the transaction fees may be paid by the Buyer in each transaction (e.g., the Buyer may receive a lower rate than the rate offered by an Issuer). The fees may be recognized as prepaid interest by the Issuer. Still referring to certain example exchange fees associated with the Exchange of the present invention, the following specific example (which specific example is intended to be illustrative and not restrictive), is provided: Assume that a Bank offers a 1 year rate of 1.50% and the Exchange takes a 10BP fee. The Buyer would then receive a rate of 1.40%. The confirmation to the Bank would show that it issued a $100k CD at 1.40% to the Buyer with prepaid interest in the amount of $100 which would result in an effective rate of 1.50%. On settlement the Bank would receive $99,900 ($100,000 less the prepaid interest of $100). The effective rate to both the Buyer and the Seller are exactly what they bargained for—1.50% for the Seller and 1.40% for the Buyer. In another embodiment, the Exchange of the present invention may be a non-brokered trading network (e.g., a non-brokered CD trading network for institutional buyers and sellers of funds). In another embodiment, the Exchange of the present invention may have a regulatory focus on liquidity and/or may aid in dependable deposit acquisition. In another embodiment, the Exchange of the present invention may form a network of institutions (e.g., a national liquidity network). In another embodiment, the Exchange of the present invention may provide the following benefits for CD sellers (including, but not limited to): Diversification for liquidity; Survey competitors quickly; Publish your own rates; Meets FDIC 4 criteria for “non-brokered” core deposits; Change/delete rate offerings as desired; and/or Deposit retention In another embodiment, the Exchange of the present invention may provide the following benefits for CD buyers (including, but not limited to): Higher yields; Eliminates brokerage fees; Competitive market rates; Automated investment tracking, accrual and payment reporting; Minimal risk, CD's FDIC/NCUSIF insured; and/or Flexible, variable CD terms In another embodiment, the Exchange of the present invention may provide the following features (including, but not limited to): Unlimited transactions between buyer(s) and seller(s); No transaction fees; Ongoing training and/or conferences; Institutional clients only; Rate reports for regulatory compliance; Automated safekeeping receipts; One-touch portfolio management and tracking; Yearly subscription fee based on asset size; Quick and accurate Board reports (cash flow, maturity and accrual) Automatic insurance change notifications on portfolio; Classified as a Direct Deposit Listing Service; and/or Easy audits Another embodiment of the present invention provides a mechanism for a subscriber to raise non-brokered CD money, wherein: the rate is determined by a capital market; the CD maturity date is any desired time (e.g., 2-5 years) and is stipulated periodically (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, semi-annually, annually); the CD documents are standard for all participating institutions; the interest payment schedule is any desired time (e.g., semi-annually); the interest payment method is ACH debit; the interest rate is at or below FHLB borrowings with the same maturity; and/or the deposit classification is non-brokered. Of note, the method embodiments described herein may, of course, be implemented using any appropriate computer hardware and/or computer software. In this regard, those of ordinary skill in the art are well versed in the type of computer hardware that may be used (e.g., a mainframe, a mini-computer, a personal computer (“PC”), a network (e.g., an intranet and/or the Internet)), the type of computer programming techniques that may be used (e.g., object oriented programming), and the type of computer programming languages that may be used (e.g., C++, Basic). The aforementioned examples are, of course, illustrative and not restrictive. While a number of embodiments of the present invention have been described, it is understood that these embodiments are illustrative only, and not restrictive, and that many modifications may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, certain methods have been described herein as being “computer implementable”. In this regard it is noted that while such methods can be implemented using a computer, the methods do not necessarily have to be implemented using a computer. Also, to the extent that such methods are implemented using a computer, not every step must necessarily be implemented using a computer. Further, the various steps may be performed in any desired order. Further still, while the present invention has been described principally with respect to a methods and systems, the present invention may be used in the context of a corresponding security itself (e.g., a security associated with one or more certificates of deposit). Further still, the present invention may be used in the context of any desired number of issuers, banks, manager entities, sponsors, facilitators, funding certificates, CD's etc. Further still, one or more classes of funding certificates may be issued. Further still, as mentioned above, the specific dates, time periods, prices and the like are, of course, provided simply as examples which are intended to be illustrative and not restrictive. | <SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Various embodiments of the present invention are directed to methods and systems for securitization of certificates of deposit. More particularly, one embodiment of the present invention provides 1. A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; offering to purchase at least one CD from each of a plurality of seller banks by the funding certificate issuer; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least a portion of the CD's from the plurality of seller banks, which are recorded as acceptances, as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate, wherein the funding certificate is a note comprising either a debt, equity or a combination of debt and equity instrument; issuing the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to at least one investor; and using at least a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the funding certificate to obtain the pooled assets. Another embodiment of the present invention provides a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; collateralizing a loan with the pooled assets; purchasing the pooled assets in the name of the funding certificate issuer with the proceeds from the loan; selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor so as to generate funding certificate proceeds; and using the funding certificate proceeds to pay off the loan. A further embodiment of the present invention, A method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: purchasing at least one CD from each of a plurality of seller banks by an issuer; aggregating at least a portion of the CD's from the plurality of seller banks as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate, wherein the funding certificate is a negotiable security issued in the public capital markets; and issuing the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to at least one investor; using at least a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the funding certificate to obtain the pooled assets. For example, the issuer issues a plurality of funding certificates where each funding certificate corresponds to a specific sub-pool of CDs where each CD, in that sub-pool, has a substantially equivalent maturity date. In another example, the maturity date of the corresponding funding certificate corresponds to the CDs maturity date of that sub-pool. Another embodiment of the present invention provides a method implemented by a programmed computer system for use in connection with a financial transaction, which method comprises the steps of: forming a funding certificate issuer; providing each of a plurality of seller banks an offer to issue the funding certificate issuer a CD; providing each of the plurality of seller banks a mechanism to accept the offer; recording each acceptance; aggregating at least some of the CD's which are recorded as acceptances as pooled assets associated with a funding certificate; and selling the funding certificate from the funding certificate issuer to an investor; wherein the pooled assets are essentially the sole assets of the funding certificate issuer. For the purposes of the present application the term “entity” is intended to refer to any person, organization, or group. Further, for the purposes of the present application the term “security” is intended to refer to an instrument evidencing debt and/or ownership of asset(s). Further still, for the purposes of the present application the term “securitization” is intended to refer to providing an instrument evidencing debt and/or ownership of asset(s). Further, for purposes of the present invention, unless otherwise stated, a “certificate of deposit” or “CD” is an instrument containing an acknowledgment by a bank that a sum of money has been received by the bank and a promise by the bank to repay the sum of money upon maturity of the instrument. As such, a certificate of deposit is a note of the bank. Of note, various embodiments of the present invention may hereinafter sometimes be referred to below as the “Capital Market CD Program” or “Program”. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of certain steps carried out according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of certain steps carried out according to another embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 3 shows a block diagram of certain steps carried out according to another embodiment of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? Among those benefits and improvements that have been disclosed, other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures. The figures constitute a part of this specification and include illustrative embodiments of the present invention and illustrate various objects and features thereof. | 20041115 | 20070417 | 20050929 | 71905.0 | 1 | PATEL, JAGDISH | METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR SECURITIZATION OF CERTIFICATES OF DEPOSIT | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,990,266 | ACCEPTED | Push latch | Provided is a push-to-open latch that is selectively moveable between latched and unlatched positions. The push-to-open latch comprises a latch assembly that is reciprocatable relative to a catch assembly. The latch assembly includes a latch housing having a housing bore extending to a housing bottom wall. A pin rod shaft extends upwardly from the housing bottom wall and has a pin rod dowel extending outwardly therefrom. The catch assembly includes a catch housing with an inner and outer cam rotatably disposed therewithin and having mating ends that collectively define a cam interior. The inner and outer cam mating ends have cam bores and inner and outer cam mating end ramps that cooperate to alternately engage and release the pin rod dowel from the cam interior such that the push-to-open latch is respectively placed in the latched and unlatched positions during reciprocation of the pin rod shaft through the cam bore. | 1. A push-to-open latch selectively moveable between latched and unlatched positions along a latch axis, the push-to-open latch having opposing proximal and distal ends, the push-to-open latch comprising: a latch assembly, including: a latch housing having a housing bore open at the proximal end and extending along the latch axis to a housing bottom wall at the distal end; and a pin rod shaft extending upwardly from the housing bottom wall along the latch axis and having a pin rod dowel extending laterally outwardly from the pin rod shaft at the proximal end; and a catch assembly reciprocatively moveable relative to the latch assembly along the latch axis and including: a catch housing having a catch bore aligned with the latch axis; an inner cam axially rotatably disposed within the catch bore and having a mating end and a bearing end facing the proximal end, the mating end having inner cam mating end ramps formed thereon; and an outer cam axially rotatably disposed within the catch bore and having a mating end and a bearing end, the mating end having outer cam mating end ramps formed thereon, the bearing end facing the pin rod shaft, the inner and outer cam mating ends collectively defining a cam interior, the outer cam having a cam bore extending axially therethrough for passage of the pin rod shaft. 2. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 wherein the inner and outer cam mating end ramps cooperate to alternately engage and release the pin rod dowel from the cam interior such that the push-to-open latch is respectively placed in the latched and unlatched positions during reciprocation of the pin rod shaft through the cam bore along the latch axis. 3. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 wherein: the inner and outer cams are coupled at respective ones of the mating ends such that the inner and outer cams rotate in unison within the catch bore, the outer cam including a cam slot extending axially therethrough for passage of the pin rod dowel, the outer cam mating end ramps also including a notch formed thereon for engaging the pin rod dowel, the cam slot and notch being sized to accommodate the pin rod dowel; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate incremental rotation of the inner and outer cams relative to the pin rod dowel when the button assembly is initially reciprocated within the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel passes through the cam slot, enters the cam interior and engages the notch in order to place the push-to-open latch in the latched position; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate further incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams when the button assembly is further reciprocated within the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel disengages the notch during withdrawal of the pin rod dowel from the cam interior through the cam slot in order to place the push-to-open latch in the unlatched position. 4. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 further comprising: a biasing member disposed within the latch assembly and configured to apply a biasing force to bias the catch assembly away from the latch assembly; wherein: the outer cam includes outer cam bearing end ramps configured to rotate the outer cam about the latch axis until the cam slot is aligned with the pin rod dowel upon advancement of the pin rod shaft into the cam bore such that the pin rod dowel may enter the cam interior; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate an approximately ninety degree rotation of the inner and outer cams relative to the pin rod dowel during initial reciprocation of the catch assembly relative to the latch assembly when a compression force is applied to the catch assembly to overcome the biasing force such that the pin rod dowel passes through the cam slot, enters the cam interior, moves toward and engages the inner cam mating end ramps causing rotation of the inner and outer cams, release of the compression force allowing the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps causing further rotation of the inner and outer cams until the pin rod dowel engages the notch in order to place the push-to-open latch in the latched position; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate a further approximately ninety degree rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams when the compression force is applied to the catch assembly for further reciprocation thereof relative to the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel becomes disengaged from the notch, moves toward and engages the inner cam mating end ramp causing rotation of the inner and outer cams, release of the compression force allowing the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps causing further rotation of the inner and outer cams until the pin rod dowel is aligned with the cam slot for withdrawal of the pin rod dowel from the cam interior through the cam slot in order to place the push-to-open latch in the unlatched position. 5. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 wherein the biasing member is configured as a helical compression spring. 6. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 wherein the pin rod shaft is non-rotatably fixed to the latch housing. 7. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 wherein: the inner cam mating end includes a pair of diametrically opposed locking apertures formed in a perimeter wall of the inner cam; the outer cam mating end including a pair of diametrically opposed projections oriented and configured to be complementary to the pair of locking apertures for coupling the inner and outer cams to prevent relative rotational movement therebetween such that the inner and outer cams rotate in unison. 8. The push-to-open latch of claim 1 wherein: the inner cam mating end ramps are configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally circumferential direction; the outer cam mating end ramps being configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally direction identical to that of the inner cam mating end ramps; the set of inner cam sloping surfaces being angularly offset from the set of outer cam sloping surfaces by about forty-five degrees. 9. The push-to-open latch of claim 3 wherein the cam slot and notch are angularly offset by about ninety degrees. 10. A coat hook selectively moveable between stowed and extended positions along a latch axis and having opposing proximal and distal ends, the coat hook comprising: a latch assembly including: a cylindrically shaped latch housing having a cylindrical housing bore concentrically formed therewithin and being open at the proximal end and extending to a housing bottom wall at the distal end, the housing bottom wall having a pin rod mounting hole formed therethrough; and an elongate dowel rod assembly concentrically disposed within the housing bore and having a cylindrically shaped pin rod shaft connected to the housing bottom wall at the pin rod mounting hole and extending upwardly therefrom, the dowel rod assembly having a cylindrical pin rod dowel passing diametrically through and extending perpendicularly outwardly from opposing sides of the pin rod shaft adjacent the proximal end; a button assembly axially non-rotatably reciprocatable within the housing bore and being configured to extend partially out of the latch assembly at the proximal end when the coat hook is in the unlatched position and being generally flush with the latch assembly when the coat hook is in the stowed position, the button assembly including: a cylindrically shaped elongate button housing having a cylindrical button bore open on one end and extending to a button bottom surface on an opposing end a cylindrically shaped inner cam disposed within the button bore and being freely axially rotatable about the latch axis, the inner cam being sized complementary to the button bore and having a mating end and a bearing end disposed against the button bottom surface, the mating end including a pair of diametrically opposed locking apertures formed in a perimeter wall of the inner cam with a cam bore being formed therethrough for receiving the pin rod shaft, the inner cam further including a set of four inner cam mating end ramps equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally circumferential direction; and a cylindrically shaped outer cam disposed within the button bore and being sized complementary thereto, the outer cam having a mating end and a bearing end, the mating end of the outer cam including a pair of diametrically opposed projections configured to be engagable to the pair of locking apertures for coupling the inner and outer cams to prevent relative rotational movement therebetween, the inner and outer cam mating ends collectively defining a cam interior, the outer cam having a cam bore and a diametrically oriented cam slot formed axially through the outer cam, the outer cam including a set of opposed outer cam bearing end ramps formed thereon and sloping away from one another in opposed radial directions, the outer cam further including set of four outer cam mating end ramps equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in the a direction identical to that of the inner cam mating end ramps, the outer cam mating end ramps further including a diametrically disposed notch formed thereon and oriented generally perpendicularly to the cam slot; and a compression spring coaxially disposed about the pin rod shaft and captured between the housing bottom wall and the outer cam bearing end and being configured to apply a biasing force to bias the button assembly away from the latch assembly; wherein: the outer cam bearing end ramps are configured to cause the inner and outer cams to rotate about the latch axis until the cam slot is aligned with the pin rod dowel upon advancement of the pin rod shaft into the cam bore such that the pin rod dowel may enter the cam interior; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate an approximately ninety degree rotation of the inner and outer cams relative to the pin rod dowel when a compression force is applied to the button assembly to overcome the biasing force for initial reciprocation of the button assembly within the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel passes through the cam slot, enters the cam interior, moves toward and engages the inner cam mating end ramps causing rotation of the inner and outer cams; release of the compression force allowing the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps causing further rotation of the inner and outer cams until the pin rod dowel engages the notch in order to position the coat hook in the stowed position; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate a further approximately ninety degree incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams when the compression force is applied to the button assembly for further reciprocation of the button assembly within the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel becomes disengaged from the notch, moves toward and engages,the inner cam mating end ramps causing rotation of the inner and outer cams; release of the compression force allowing the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps causing further rotation of the inner and outer cams until the pin rod dowel is aligned with the cam slot for withdrawal of the pin rod dowel from the cam interior through the cam slot in order to position the coat hook in the extended position. 11. The coat hook of claim 9 further comprising: a plurality of ball bearings captured between the button bottom surface and the inner cam mating end and spatially distributed about a perimeter of the button bore; and a disc-shaped cam spacer disposed against the button bottom surface and being sized to concentrically nest within the ball bearings for maintaining the spatial distribution thereof, the cam spacer having a thickness that is generally less than a diameter of any one of the ball bearings and having a cam bore formed therethrough for receiving the pin rod shaft. 12. The coat hook of claim 9 wherein: the inner cam mating end ramps are configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally circumferential direction; the outer cam mating end ramps being configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally circumferential direction identical to that of the inner cam mating end ramps; the set of inner cam sloping surfaces being angularly offset from the set of outer cam sloping surfaces by about forty-five degrees. 13. The coat hook of claim 9 wherein the cam slot and notch are angularly offset by about ninety degrees. 14. The coat hook of claim 9 wherein: the latch housing includes a pair of diametrically opposed housing slots formed therein in general alignment with the latch axis; the button housing having a pair of coiled pins extending laterally outwardly therefrom and slidably engaging the housing slots to prevent rotation of the button assembly relative to the latch assembly. 15. A door latch selectively moveable between latched and unlatched positions along a latch axis, the door latch having opposing proximal and distal ends and comprising: a latch assembly, including: a latch housing having a housing bore open at the proximal end and extending to a housing bottom wall at the distal end; and a pin rod support extending upwardly from the housing bottom wall and having a rod bore formed therein and being open at the proximal end; a hollow housing sleeve mounted over the pin rod support and axially moveable relative thereto, the housing sleeve including a shaft bore formed therethrough; a rotatable pin rod shaft axially fixed within the rod bore and extending thereout through the shaft bore, the pin rod shaft having a pin rod dowel extending laterally outwardly from the pin rod shaft at the proximal end; and a catch assembly selectively engagable to the latch assembly and including: a catch housing having a catch bore open at the proximal end and extending to a catch bottom wall at the distal end; a rotatable inner cam having a mating end and a bearing end axially fixed within the catch bore adjacent the proximal end, the mating end having inner cam mating end ramps formed thereon; and a rotatable outer cam axially fixed within the catch bore adjacent the housing bottom wall, the outer cam having a bearing end and a mating end with outer cam bearing and mating end ramps being formed respectively thereon, the outer cam mating end ramps including a notch formed therewith, the inner and outer cams being coupled at respective ones of the mating ends such that the inner and outer cams rotate in unison within the catch bore, the inner and outer cam mating ends collectively defining a cam interior, the outer cam having a cam bore and a cam slot extending axially through the outer cam for passage of the pin rod shaft and pin rod dowel therethrough; a compression spring captured between the housing bottom wall and the housing sleeve and configured to apply a biasing force to bias the housing sleeve away from the latch housing; wherein: the inner and outer cam mating end ramps are configured to effectuate incremental rotation of the inner and outer cams relative to the pin rod dowel when the catch assembly is initially axially moved toward and reciprocated relative to the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel passes through the cam slot, enters the cam interior and engages the notch in order to place the door latch in the latched position; the inner and outer cam mating end ramps being configured to effectuate further incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams when the catch assembly is further reciprocated relative to the latch assembly such that the pin rod dowel disengages from the notch during withdrawal of the pin rod dowel from the cam interior through the cam slot in order to place the door latch in the unlatched position. 16. The door latch of claim 15 wherein: the inner cam mating end ramps are configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally circumferential direction; the outer cam mating end ramps are configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore and sloping in a generally circumferential direction identical to that of the inner cam mating end ramps; the set of inner cam sloping surfaces being angularly offset from the set of outer cam sloping surfaces by about forty-five degrees. 17. The door latch of claim 15 wherein the cam slot and notch are angularly offset by about ninety degrees. 18. The door latch of claim 15-wherein the catch bore further includes a retainer ring disposed therewithin at the proximal end for axially retaining the inner cam within the catch bore. 19. The door latch of claim 15 wherein the latch assembly includes at least one latch housing flange extending outwardly from the latch housing and being generally aligned with the latch axis. 20. The door latch of claim 15 wherein the catch assembly includes at least one catch housing flange extending outwardly from the catch housing, the catch housing flange being oriented generally normal to the latch axis. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Not Applicable STATEMENT RE: FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH/DEVELOPMENT Not Applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to mechanical latching mechanisms and, more particularly, to a uniquely configured push-to-open latch that may be adapted for use as a hidden door latch or a stowable coat hook which are respectively latchable or stowable in response to an external force applied thereto. In attempts to improve the appearance of interiors such as aircraft interiors as well as to reduce the hazards posed by protrusions such as cabinet handles in such interiors, several prior art latches have been developed wherein the latch is hidden from view. Such latches may be used in applications wherein a door or drawer is latchable to a cabinet or a bin, etc. Prior art latches have included both mechanical and magnetic means to maintain the door in a closed or latched position. For example, U.S. Letters Pat. No. 4,026,588 issued to Bisbing et al. discloses a push-to-open magnetic catch for a door of a cabinet. As understood, the magnetic catch of Bisbing includes a housing having a magnet mounted therein. The housing is positioned within the cabinet such that the magnet projects forwardly of the cabinet to contact the cabinet door as it closes as well as to maintain the door in the closed position. The door may be opened by initially pushing inwardly on the door which causes the magnet to separate from the door which, in turn, allows a spring-loaded plunger to push the door outwardly when the inward force is removed. Although the magnetic catch of the Bisbing reference is configured in such a manner as to avoid misalignment of the magnet during subsequent closing of the door, magnetic catches of the type disclosed in Bisbing suffer from several deficiencies that detract from their overall utility. For example, the magnetic catch as disclosed in Bisbing is comprised of bulky components that occupy a relatively large volume of the cabinet interior which may be more preferably utilized for luggage in consideration of the relatively limited storage space that is available in most aircraft interiors. Furthermore, the magnetic catch of Bisbing as well as magnetic latches in general typically can provide only a finite amount of holding force. Such holding force is particularly important in aircraft applications where the aircraft is susceptible to turbulent flight conditions. Under such conditions, magnetic catches may be incapable of withstanding opening forces acting against an inner surface of a cabinet door due to shifting contents or luggage inside the cabinet. Mechanical latches have also been developed wherein the latch is hidden from view. For example, U.S. Letters Pat. No. 6,669,250 issued to St. Louis and commercially available from St. Louis Designs, Inc. of Austin, Tex. discloses a latch system that may be mounted within a cabinet. The latch system includes a push-to-open latch mounted to the cabinet interior and a catch that is mounted to a door. The push-to-open latch is comprised of a body having an endless groove formed therein. As understood, one end of the lever has a pin which tracks through the groove and is moveable between two stable positions within the endless groove depending on whether the door is to be placed in a closed position or an open position. An opposite end of the lever has a roller which engages the catch in order selectively to move the lever between the closed and open positions by pushing inwardly on the door to alternately move the pin between the two stable positions within the endless groove. Although the latch system of the St. Louis reference provides a relatively large holding force as compared to similarly sized magnetic catches of the prior art, the latch system of the St. Louis reference may unfortunately result in asymmetric or eccentric loading on individual components which may limit the operating life of the latch system. For example, as understood, the pin is mounted to the lever and is cantilevered off to one side thereof. Such cantilevered mounting may result in the inducement of excessive bending forces within the lever at the pin attachment point should a user attempt to improperly open the door by pulling outwardly, as is more intuitive, that by pushing inwardly as is required to open the door. Even if outward pulling on the door does not initially damage the latch system, the eccentric loads induced on the lever under repeated attempts to open the door may cause the lever to bend so that, eventually, the pin may jam within the groove. As can be seen, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is mountable within a cabinet so as to be hidden from view and which provides a relatively large holding force against pressure exerted against an interior of the door such as may result from shifting luggage within a compartment of an aircraft interior. In addition, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is relatively simple in construction in order to reduce fabrication, installation and maintenance costs. Also, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is small in size so as to allow for a greater proportion of useful space in confined interiors. Furthermore, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is configured to minimize or eliminate the inducement of eccentric loads on components of the push-to-open latch in order to increase the operating life thereof. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Provided is a push-to-open latch that is adapted for use as a hidden door latch or as a stowable coat hook. Advantageously, the door latch and the coat hook are respectively latchable/unlatchable or stowable/extendable due to the cooperative engagement of a dowel rod assembly with a uniquely configured cam mechanism. In the door latch embodiment, the push-to-open latch is mountable within a cabinet such that no latch hardware is visible on exterior surfaces of the cabinet. The coat hook embodiment is selectively moveable between stowed and extended positions. In the stowed position, the coat hook is substantially flush with an exterior surface upon which it is mounted so as to eliminate hazardous protrusions. With the door latch or the coat hook embodiment in an unlatched or extended position, pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch causes the latching of the push-to-open latch or stowing of the coat hook. Subsequently, pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch causes unlatching of the push-to-open latch or extension of the coat hook. The push-to-open latch comprises a latch assembly and a catch assembly. In the door latch embodiment, the latch assembly may be mounted to a frame of a cabinet with the catch assembly being mounted on an interior side of a door. In the coat hook embodiment, the latch assembly and catch assembly may be mounted to a mounting surface such as a vertical wall of an aircraft interior compartment. The push-to-open latch has opposing proximal and distal ends and defines a latch axis along which the latch assembly and catch assembly are reciprocated relative to one another. The latch assembly includes a latch housing with a dowel rod assembly disposed therewithin. The latch housing has a housing bore open at the proximal end. The housing bore has a housing side wall that terminates in a housing bottom wall at the distal end. The dowel rod assembly extends upwardly from the distal end toward the proximal end and includes a pin rod shaft extending upwardly from the housing bottom wall. The pin rod dowel extends laterally outwardly from the pin rod shaft at the proximal end. The catch assembly is comprised of a catch housing having a catch bore within which an inner cam and an outer cam are rotatably disposed. The inner cam is disposed within the catch bore adjacent to the proximal and with the outer cam being disposed between the inner cam and the dowel rod assembly. Each of the inner and outer cams has a mating end and a bearing end. The mating ends of the inner and outer cams face one another and are placed in generally abutting contact with one another. The bearing end of the inner cam faces toward the proximal end. The bearing end of the outer cam faces toward the distal end. The inner cam mating end has inner cam mating end ramps formed thereon while the outer cam mating end has outer cam mating end ramps formed thereon. The inner and outer cams are coupled at the mating ends such that the inner and outer cams rotate in unison within the housing bore. The inner and outer cams collectively define a cam interior. The outer cam has a cam bore extending axially therethrough to allow for reciprocation of the pin rod shaft therewithin. The outer cam also includes a cam slot for passage of the pin rod dowel when the catch assembly is reciprocated relative to the latch assembly. In general, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps cooperate with the dowel rod assembly to alternately engage and release the pin rod dowel from the cam interior such that the push-to-open latch is respectively placed in the latched and unlatched positions during reciprocation of the pin rod shaft through the cam bore along the latch axis. More specifically, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps are configured to effectuate incremental rotation of the inner and outer cams relative to the pin rod dowel when the catch assembly is initially reciprocated within the latch assembly. Such initial reciprocation occurs by pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch a first time which causes the pin rod dowel to pass through the cam slot, enter the cam interior and engage the notch in order to place the push-to-open latch in the latched position. Pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch a second time effectuates further incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams. During the second inwardly pushing on the push-to-open latch, rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams allows the pin rod dowel to disengage from the notch. Once disengaged, the pin rod dowel may be withdrawn from the cam interior by exiting through the cam slot in order to place the push-to-open latch in the unlatched position. Importantly, such reciprocative movement is facilitated by a biasing member such as a helical compression spring that biases the catch assembly away from the latch assembly. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These as well as other features of the present invention will become more apparent upon reference to the drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a push-to-open latch of the present invention in a coat hook embodiment; FIG. 2 is a side view of the coat hook in an extended position; FIG. 3 is a side view of the coat hook in a stowed position; FIG. 4 is cross-sectional view of the coat hook illustrating the interconnectivity of a dowel rod assembly and a cam mechanism; FIG. 5 is a partial exploded view of the dowel rod assembly and an inner and outer cam that make up the cam mechanism; FIG. 6 is a perspective view of the outer cam illustrating outer cam mating end ramps formed therewith; FIG. 7 is a top view of the outer cam; FIG. 8 is a side view of the outer cam illustrating opposing mating and bearing ends thereof; FIG. 9 is a bottom view of the outer cam; FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the inner cam illustrating inner cam mating end ramps formed therewith; FIG. 11 is a perspective view of the inner cam illustrating inner cam bearing end ramps formed therewith; FIG. 12 is a top view of the inner cam illustrating a cam notch formed with the inner cam mating end ramps; FIG. 13 is a side view of the inner cam illustrating opposing mating and bearing ends thereof; FIG. 14 is a bottom view of the inner cam illustrating a cam slot formed therethrough; FIG. 15 is a side view of the push-to-open latch in a door latch embodiment and illustrating a catch assembly disposed in spaced relation to a latch assembly when the door latch is in an unlatched position; FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of the latch assembly taken along line 16-16 and illustrating a housing sleeve and a pin rod shaft secured to a pin rod support member using an off center pin; FIG. 17 is a side view of the door latch illustrating the catch assembly connected to the latch assembly when the door latch is in a latched position; FIG. 18 is a perspective view of the door latch in the unlatched position; FIG. 19 is a top view of the door latch in the unlatched position; and FIG. 20 is a side view of the door latch in the unlatched position. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to the drawings wherein the showings are for purposes of illustrating the present invention and not for purposes of limiting the same, shown in FIGS. 1-20 is a push-to-open latch 10 that is adapted for use as a hidden door latch 14 (FIGS. 15-20) or a stowable coat hook 12 (FIGS. 1-4) which are respectively latchable/unlatchable or stowable/extendable in response to an external force applied thereto due to the cooperative engagement of a dowel rod assembly 60 with a uniquely configured cam mechanism 158. In the door latch 14 embodiment, the push-to-open latch 10 is mountable within a cabinet such that no latch hardware is visible on exterior surfaces of the cabinet, as shown in FIGS. 19 and 20. In the coat hook 12 embodiment, the push-to-open latch 10 is selectively moveable between stowed and extended positions 104, 106 as shown in FIGS. 2-3. As best seen in FIG. 3, in the stowed position 104, the coat hook 12 may be configured to be substantially flush with an exterior surface upon which it is mounted so as to eliminate any protrusions that may present a hazard to persons or property. With the door latch 14 or the coat hook 12 embodiments in an unlatched or extended position 106, pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch 10 a first time causes the latching of the push-to-open latch 10. Pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch 10 a second time causes unlatching of the push-to-open latch 10. Due to the unique arrangement and cooperation of the cam mechanism 158 with the dowel rod assembly 60 as shown in FIG. 5, the push-to-open latch 10 may be alternately latched and unlatched by simply pushing inwardly thereon. In its broadest sense, the push-to-open latch 10 comprises a latch assembly 20 and a catch assembly 120. In the door latch 14 embodiment, the latch assembly 20 may be mounted to a frame of a cabinet or a bin with the catch assembly 120 being mounted on an interior side of a door of the cabinet or bin, as is illustrated in FIGS. 18-20. In the coat hook 12 embodiment, the latch assembly 20 and catch assembly 120 are coupleable such that this single unit may be mounted to a mounting surface such as a walled structure as shown in FIGS. 2-4. Such walled structure may include a vertical wall of an aircraft interior compartment although the coat hook 12 may be mounted to any mounting surface of any structure. Although both embodiments share a commonality in their structural arrangement as well as in their functional attributes, particularly with regard to the cam mechanism 158, the door latch 14 differs from the coat hook 12 regarding the interconnectivity of the catch assembly 120 relative to the latch assembly 20. More specifically, the catch assembly 120 is continuously coupled to the latch assembly 20 during operation of the coat hook 12 embodiment. Conversely, the catch assembly 120 is completely decouplable from the latch assembly 20 during operation of the door latch 14 embodiment, as will be described in greater detail below. Furthermore, the door latch 14 embodiment includes several additional components not included with the coat hook 12 embodiment. For example, as shown in FIGS. 15 and 17, the door latch 14 includes provisions for separate mounting of the catch assembly 120 and latch assembly 20. In addition, the door latch 14 includes a housing sleeve 210 which is axially slidable over a pin rod support member 78. The dowel rod assembly 60 is slidable through a sleeve aperture formed in the housing sleeve. The pin rod support member 78 and the housing sleeve 210 are configured to minimize hazards otherwise posed by the dowel rod assembly 60 protruding outwardly from a hemi-spherical surface 216 when the latch assembly 20 is completely decoupled from the catch assembly 120, as will be described in greater detail. Due to the difference in configurations, the structural arrangement of the push-to-open latch 10 will be first described with reference to the coat hook 12 embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-14, followed by a description of the structural arrangement of the door latch 14 embodiment shown in FIGS. 5-20. A description of the operation of both embodiments of the push-to-open latch 10 will then be provided. Referring to FIGS. 1-14, shown is the push-to-open latch 10 and basic components thereof. As can be seen, the push-to-open latch 10 generally has opposing proximal and distal ends 16, 18 and defines a latch axis A along which the latch assembly 20 and catch assembly 120 are reciprocatively moved relative to one another. The latch assembly 20 includes an elongate latch housing 22 with a generally elongate dowel rod assembly 60 disposed therewithin. The latch housing 22 has a housing bore 36 which is open at the proximal end 16. As can be seen in FIG. 4, the housing bore 36 defines a housing side wall 24 that extends along the latch axis A and which terminates in a housing bottom wall 26 at the distal end 18. Although shown as being generally cylindrically shaped in the coat hook 12 and door latch 14 embodiments, the, latch housing 22 may be configured in a variety of alternative shapes and sizes. Likewise, the housing bore 36 may be configured in a variety of shapes other than the cylindrical shape shown. Furthermore, although shown as being concentrically formed within the latch housing 22, the housing bore 36 may be positioned in any suitable location within the latch housing 22. Regarding the specific configuration of the push-to-open latch 10 in the coat hook 12 embodiment, the latch housing 22 includes an annular housing shoulder 30 extending- radially outwardly from a housing side wall 24 adjacent to the proximal end 16. To facilitate mounting of the latch housing 22 into an opening included on a mounting surface (not shown) such as a wall surface, a housing shoulder inner surface 32 and a threaded portion 48 are included with the latch housing 22. The threaded portion 48 is formed over a portion of the housing side wall 24 and extends from the housing shoulder inner surface 32 toward the distal end 18. The latch housing 22 may be inserted into the hole provided in the mounting surface and may be secured thereto by threadably engaging a hex jam nut 236 onto the threaded portion 48 to capture the wall surface between the housing shoulder inner surface 32 and the hex jam nut 236. A housing washer 238 may be provided under the hex jam nut 236 to facilitate tightening of the hex jam nut 236. Referring still to FIGS. 1-4, opposite the housing shoulder inner surface 32 is a housing shoulder outer surface 34 which may be generally beveled to enhance the aesthetics of the coat hook 12 when installed on the wall surface. A housing counterbore 38 may be concentrically formed within the housing shoulder 30 to receive the catch assembly 120 which, in the embodiment of the coat hook 12, is configured as a button assembly 90 as shown in FIG. 4 and as will be described in greater detail below. The housing counterbore 38 is preferably larger in diameter than the housing bore 36 and is preferably sized and configured to receive the button assembly 90 thereinto when the coat hook 12 is placed in a stowed position 104. In addition, the housing counterbore 38 is preferably provided at a depth sufficient to allow the button assembly 90 to nest therewithin in a substantially flush relationship with the housing shoulder outer surface 34. Referring still to FIG. 4, the dowel rod assembly 60 extends upwardly from the distal end 18 toward the proximal end 16 in alignment with the latch axis A. More specifically, the dowel rod assembly 60 includes a pin rod shaft 62 extending upwardly from the housing bottom wall 26. Although the dowel rod assembly 60 may be integrally formed within the housing assembly, in the embodiments shown, the housing bottom wall 26 includes a pin rod mounting hole 42 formed therein for mounting the pin rod hole as a separate component. If separately formed, the pin rod shaft 62 may be configured as shown in FIG. 4 wherein a cylindrical pin boss 64 may be formed at the distal end 18. A pin shoulder 66 forms a transition between the pin rod shaft 62 wherein the pin boss 64 is formed at a slightly larger diameter than that of the pin rod shaft 62. An annular rib 72 may be formed on the pin boss 64 extending about an outer circumferential surface thereof. The rib 72 provides a surface against which the housing bottom wall 26 may bear when the pin rod shaft 62 is mounted in the latch housing 22. A mounting hole countersink 44 may be included on an exterior side of the housing bottom wall 26. The pin boss 64 may include a pin rod counterbore 68 with a pin rod countersink 70 formed at the distal end 18 such that the pin rod shaft 62 may be secured to the housing bottom wall 26 by mechanically forming or splaying out an end of the pin boss 64 in a manner similar to the setting or forming of a conventional rivet. By splaying out the end of the pin boss 64, the housing bottom wall 26 is firmly captured between the splayed end and the pin shoulder 66 to rigidly secure the pin rod shaft 62 to the latch housing 22. Using such a means of attachment, the pin rod shaft 62 is non-rotatably fixed to the latch housing 22 as is preferable for the coat hook 12 embodiment. However, in the door latch 14 embodiment, the pin rod shaft 62 is preferably axially fixed but freely rotatable, as will be described in greater detail below. Referring still to FIG. 4, the pin rod dowel 76 extends laterally outwardly from the pin rod shaft 62 at the proximal end 16 and is preferably diametrically extended through a pin dowel hole 74 formed in the pin rod shaft 62 at the proximal end 16 thereof. The pin rod dowel 76 is preferably extended past opposing sides of the pin rod shaft 62 in equal lengths. In addition, the pin rod dowel 76 is preferably oriented generally perpendicularly to the latch axis A. Alternatively, the pin rod dowel 76 may be integrally formed with the pin rod shaft 62 such as by machining the dowel rod assembly 60 as a unitary structure. As shown in FIG. 4, the proximal end 16 of the pin rod shaft 62 may be spherically formed to facilitate insertion into the catch assembly 120. However, the proximal end 16 of the pin rod shaft 62 may simply be squared off or formed at an orientation that is normal or perpendicular to the latch axis A. A chamfer may be formed about a perimeter corner of the pin rod shaft 62 in order to facilitate insertion thereof into the cam mechanism 158, as shown in FIG. 5. The catch assembly 120 is reciprocatively moveable relative to the latch assembly 20 along the latch axis A. As was earlier mentioned, the catch assembly 120 of the coat hook 12 embodiment is configured to be generally continuously coupled to the latch assembly 20 in the sense that the catch assembly 120 is slidably contained within the housing bore 36 whether or not the coat hook 12 is in the stowed position 104 or the extended position 106. In contrast, the catch assembly 120 of the door latch 14 embodiment is configured to be completely decoupled from the latch assembly 20 when in the unlatched position 58. As shown in FIG. 4, the catch assembly 120 is comprised of a generally elongate catch housing 122 having an elongate catch bore 124 within which an inner cam 160 and an outer cam 180 are rotatably disposed. The catch housing 122 has a catch side wall 126 which may be generally cylindrically shaped although numerous other shapes may be suitably used. The inner cam 160 is generally disposed within the catch bore 124 adjacent to the proximal with the outer cam 180 being axially aligned therewith and disposed between the inner cam 160 and the dowel rod assembly 60. Each of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 has a mating end 164, 184 and a bearing end 166, 186. The mating ends 164, 184 of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 are oriented to face one another and may be placed in generally abutting contact with one another when installed in the catch housing 122. The bearing end 166 of the inner cam 160 is oriented to face toward the proximal end 16. The bearing end 186 of the outer cam 180 is oriented to face toward the distal end 18. Referring now to FIGS. 6-14, the inner cam 160 mating end 164 has inner cam mating end ramps 170 formed thereon while the outer cam 180 mating end 184 has outer cam mating end ramps 188 formed thereon. When installed in the catch bore 124 and placed in general abutting contact at respective ones of the mating ends 164, 184, the inner and outer cams 160, 180 collectively define a cam interior 172, as best seen in FIG. 4. The outer cam 180 has a cam bore 162 extending axially therethrough to allow for reciprocation of the pin rod shaft 62 therewithin. The inner cam 160 may also have a cam bore 162 formed therethrough to allow an extreme end of the pin rod shaft 62 to reciprocate thereinto. In general, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188 cooperate to alternately engage and release the pin rod dowel 76 from the cam interior 172 such that the push-to-open latch 10 is respectively placed in the latched and unlatched positions 56, 58 during reciprocation of the pin rod shaft 62 through the cam bore 162 along the latch axis A, as will be described in greater detail below Referring still to FIGS. 6-14, the inner and outer cams 160, 180 are coupled at respective ones of the mating ends 164, 184 such that the inner and outer cams 160, 180 rotate in unison within the catch bore 124. To facilitate such unitary rotational movement, the inner cam 160 mating end 164 may include a pair of diametrically opposed receiving apertures 170 formed in a perimeter wall of the inner cam 160. Such receiving apertures 170 may be configured to extend axially outwardly from the perimeter wall of the mating end 164 of the inner cam 160. A corresponding pair of projections 198 may be formed on the mating end 184 of the outer cam 180. Such projections 198 may be diametrically opposed and positioned relative to the receiving apertures 170 of the inner cam 160 such that the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188 are placed in proper registration with one another for latching and unlatching of the push-to-open latch 10. In addition, the projections 198 are preferably sized and configured to be complementary to the pair of receiving apertures 170 for coupling the inner and outer cams 160, 180 to prevent relative rotational movement therebetween. In this manner, the inner and outer cams 160, 180 may rotate in unison when placed in generally abutting contact with one another at their mating ends 164, 184. Although the projections 198 and receiving apertures 170 are shown as being generally square-shaped, it is recognized herein that there are an infinite variety of configurations for the projections 198 and receiving apertures 170 that may be incorporated into the inner and outer cams 160, 180 for non-rotatable coupling thereof. The outer cam 180 may further include a cam slot 194 extending axially therethrough for passage of the pin rod dowel 76 when the catch assembly 120 is reciprocated relative to the latch assembly 20. The outer cam mating end ramps 188 may also include a notch 196 formed thereon for engaging the pin rod dowel 76. The cam slot 194 and notch 196 are preferably sized to accommodate (i.e., allow passage of) the pin rod dowel 76 when the pin rod shaft 62 is inserted through the cam bore 162. In this regard, the cam slot 194 and notch 196 are each preferably diametrically oriented within the outer cam 180 and are of a length and width that accommodates a length and width of the pin rod dowel 76. The cam slot 194 may be oriented at an angular spacing of about forty-five degrees to the orientation of the projections 198 and receiving apertures 170 although it is contemplated that the cam slot 194 may be oriented at any position relative to the projections 198 and receiving apertures 170. Importantly, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188 are configured to effectuate incremental rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 when the catch assembly 120 is initially reciprocated within the latch assembly 20. Such initial reciprocation occurs by pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch 10 a first time which causes the pin rod dowel 76 to pass through the cam slot 194, enter the cam interior 172 and engage the notch 196 in order to place the push-to-open latch 10 in the latched position 56. Pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch 10 a second time causes unlatching of the push-to-open latch 10 due to the configuration of the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188. More specifically, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188 are configured to effectuate further incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the inner and outer cams 160, 180 when the catch assembly 120 is reciprocated for a second time within the latch assembly 20. During the second inward pushing on the push-to-open latch 10, rotation of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the inner and outer cams 160, 180 allows the pin rod dowel 76 to disengage from the notch 196. Once disengaged, the pin rod dowel 76 may be withdrawn from the cam interior 172 by exiting through the cam slot 194 in order to place the push-to-open latch 10 in the unlatched position 58. Such reciprocative movement is facilitated by a biasing member 230 such as a helical compression spring 232 that is disposed within the latch assembly 20. Importantly, the biasing member 230 is configured to apply a biasing force to bias the catch assembly 120 away from the latch assembly 20. Where the push-to-open latch 10 is configured in the coat hook 12 embodiment, the biasing member 230 or compression spring 232 forces the button assembly 90 (i.e., the structural equivalent of the catch assembly 120) outwardly toward the proximal end 16. Where the push-to-open latch 10 is configured in the door latch 14 embodiment, the compression spring 232 forces the pin rod dowel 76 into alignment with the cam slot 194. In addition, in the door latch 14 embodiment, the compression spring 232 also acts to fling or push the door away from the cabinet such that the door may then be grasped by the user and opened further. In each of the embodiments shown and described (i.e., the coat hook 12 and the door latch 14) as well as other potential embodiments that may incorporate the cam mechanism 158 in cooperation with the pin rod dowel 76, each reciprocative cycle or movement is comprised of an inward stroke and an outward stroke. For example, should a user desire access to an interior of the cabinet, the inward stroke may be provided by the user pushing inwardly to apply a compression force on the door of the cabinet. The outward stroke may be applied by the compression spring 232 once the user releases the compression force to complete the reciprocative cycle and unlatch the door. A subsequent reciprocative cycle comprises an additional inward stroke, applied by the user, followed by an outward stroke, applied by the compression spring 232, causing latching of the door. A similar set of reciprocative cycles would be provided to the coat hook 12 to alternately place the coat hook 12 in the stowed and extended positions 104, 106. Initial alignment of the pin rod dowel 76 with the cam slot 194 is facilitated by outer cam bearing end ramps 190 formed on the bearing end 186 of the outer cam 180. Regardless of the initial angular positions of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the slot, the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 are configured to rotate the outer cam 180 about the latch axis A until the cam slot 194 is aligned with the pin rod dowel 76 upon advancement of the pin rod shaft 62 into the cam bore 162 such that the pin rod dowel 76 may enter the cam interior 172. As shown in FIGS. 10-14, the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 may be comprised of a set of sloping surfaces 192 formed on the bearing end 186 and sloping away from one another in opposed radial directions. Each sloping surface 192 of the pair may preferably be formed at an angle in the range of from about twenty degrees to about fifty degrees relative to the latch axis A although the sloping surfaces 192 may be formed at any angle that allows for alignment of the cam slot 194 with the pin rod dowel 76. The sloping surfaces 192 of the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 preferably form an apex extending along a diameter of the bearing end of the outer cam 180. The sloping surfaces 192 of the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 are also preferably oriented at an approximate ninety-degree angle to the cam slot 194 which extends completely axially through the outer cam 180. Each sloping surface 192 defines a generally planar surface. It should be noted that the particular configuration of the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 are exemplary in nature and may be alternatively configured in any shape, size or orientation or slope angle suitable to cause alignment of the pin rod dowel 76 with the cam slot 194 during relative rotational movement between the pin rod dowel 76 and the inner and outer cams 160, 180. Referring now to the configuration of the cam interior 172 and more specifically, the configurations of the inner, and outer cam mating ends 164, 184, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 188 are configured to effectuate an approximately ninety degree rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 during an initial reciprocative cycle (i.e., an inward stroke followed by an outward stroke). As was earlier mentioned, the reciprocative cycle comprises movement of the catch assembly 120 relative to the latch assembly 20 when a compression force is applied to the catch assembly 120. The compression force may be manually applied such as by a user desiring to extend the button assembly 90 of the coat hook 12 embodiment such that the user may hang a coat thereon. Alternatively, the compression force may be applied by the user in order to open the door of a storage bin. The compression force must be large enough to overcome the biasing force such that the pin rod dowel 76 passes through the cam slot 194, enters the cam interior 172, moves toward and engages the inner cam mating end ramps 170 causing rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76. Release of the compression force allows the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel 76 to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps 188 causing further rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 until the pin rod dowel 76 engages the notch 196 in order to place the push-to-open latch 10 in the latched position 56. During a second reciprocative cycle, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188, are configured to effectuate a further approximately ninety degree rotation of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the inner and outer cams 160, 180. In the second reciprocative cycle, the compression force is applied to the catch assembly 120 to cause further reciprocation thereof relative to the latch assembly 20 such that the pin rod dowel 76 becomes disengaged from the notch 196, moves toward and engages the inner cam 160 mating end ramp 170 and causing rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76. Release of the compression force allows the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel 76 to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps 188 causing further rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 until the pin rod dowel 76 is aligned with the cam slot 194. Once aligned with the slot, the biasing force withdraws the pin rod dowel 76 from the cam interior 172 through the cam slot 194 in order to place the push-to-open latch 10 in the unlatched position 58. The rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 is facilitated by configuring the inner cam mating end ramps 170 as a set of four separate sloping surfaces 192 that are preferably, but optionally, equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore 162. The sloping surfaces 192 are also preferably oriented to slope in a generally uniform direction. For example, the sloping surfaces 192 may be oriented to slope in a helical orientation or in a generally circumferential or radial orientation. The outer cam mating end ramps 188 may likewise be similarly configured as a set of four separate sloping surfaces 192. When configured as described above, a detent is formed between each of the sloping surfaces 192. Diametrically opposed detents then cooperate to temporarily halt the rotational movement of the pin rod dowel 76 during each of the inward and outward strokes of the reciprocative cycles. When configured in this manner, the sloping surfaces 192 of the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188 are configured to cause an approximate forty-five degree rotation of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the inner and outer cams 160, 180 for each inward stroke as well as for each outward stroke for a total rotation of about ninety degrees. In order to effectuate the approximate ninety degrees of rotation occurring during each reciprocative cycle, the set of sloping surfaces 192 of the inner cam mating end ramps 170 are preferably angularly juxtapositioned or offset from the set of sloping surfaces 192 of the outer cam mating end ramps 188 by about forty-five degrees. Correspondingly, the cam slot 194 and notch 196 are preferably angularly offset by about ninety degrees from one another such that the push-to-open latch 10 may be positively latched and unlatched. The coat hook 12 embodiment will now be described with occasional reference to the above mentioned descriptions of the catch assembly 120 and latch assembly 20. The coat hook 12 is selectively moveable between stowed and extended positions 104, 106 and has opposing proximal and distal ends 16, 18 with the latch axis A extending therebetween. The latch assembly 20 of the coat hook 12 embodiment is configured similar to the latch assembly 20 of the push-to-open latch 10. FIG. 4 shows a button assembly 90 of the coat hook 12 embodiment which is the structural equivalent of the catch assembly 120 for the push-to-open latch 10. The button assembly 90 incorporates the inner and outer cams 160, 180 in the same manner as was earlier described for the catch assembly 120. The button assembly 90 is axially non-rotatably reciprocatable within the housing bore 36, as shown in FIG. 4. The button assembly 90 is configured to extend partially out of the latch assembly 20 at the proximal end 16 when the coat hook 12 is in the extended position 106 and is generally flush with the latch assembly 20 when the coat hook 12 is in the stowed position 104. The button assembly 90 includes an elongate button housing 92 within which the inner and outer cams 160, 180 are rotatably disposed. The button housing 92 is generally cylindrically shaped and having a cylindrical button bore 148 open on one end and defining a button side wall 96. The button side wall 96 extends to a button bottom surface 108 on an opposing end of the button housing 92. As was earlier described, the inner cam 160 is generally shaped so as to be freely axially rotatable about the latch axis A within the button bore 148. More specifically, the inner cam 160 is preferably cylindrically shaped and sized complementary to the button bore 148 and has the bearing end 166 disposed against the button bottom surface 108. The mating end 164 includes the pair of diametrically opposed receiving apertures 170 formed in the perimeter wall of the inner cam 160. The inner cam 160 further includes the set of four inner cam mating end ramps 170 preferably equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore 162 and sloping in a generally circumferential direction, as was also earlier described. The outer cam 180 is likewise generally cylindrically shaped within the button bore 148 and is sized complementary thereto. The mating end 184 of the outer cam 180 includes the pair of diametrically opposed projections 198 configured to be complementary to the pair of receiving apertures 170 to prevent relative rotational movement between the inner and outer cams 160, 180. The inner and outer cam 160, 180 mating ends 164, 184 collectively define the cam interior 172. The outer cam 180 has the cam bore 162 and the diametrically oriented cam slot 194 as well as the set of outer cam bearing end ramps 190 to align the pin rod dowel 76 with the slot during initial reciprocation of the dowel rod assembly 60 with the cam mechanism 158. The set of four outer cam mating end ramps 188 are preferably equi-angularly spaced about the cam bore 162 and are oriented to slope in the generally helical or circumferential direction. The outer cam mating end ramps 188 further include the notch 196 oriented generally perpendicularly to the cam slot 194. Interposed between the housing bottom wall 26 and the outer cam 180 bearing end 186 is the compression spring 232 which is coaxially disposed about the pin rod shaft 62. As was earlier mentioned, the compression spring 232 is configured to apply the biasing force to bias the button assembly 90 away from the latch assembly 20 during each reciprocative cycle. Operating in the same manner as was described above for the push-to-open latch 10, the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 are configured to rotate the inner and outer cams 160, 180 about the latch axis A until the cam slot 194 is aligned with the pin rod dowel 76 upon advancement of the pin rod shaft 62 into the cam bore 162 such that the pin rod dowel 76 may enter the cam interior 172. The inner and outer cam 160, 180 mating end ramps 168, 188 are configured to effectuate an approximately ninety degree rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 when the compression force is applied (i.e., by the user) to the button assembly 90 to overcome the biasing force. During such initial reciprocation of the button assembly 90 within the latch assembly 20, the pin rod dowel 76 passes through the cam slot 194, enters the cam interior 172, moves toward and engages the inner cam mating end ramps 170 causing rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180. Release of the compression force (i.e., by the user) allows the biasing force to cause the pin rod dowel 76 to reverse direction and move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps 188. Such reversal of movement of the pin rod dowel 76 causes further rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 when the pin rod dowel 76 bears against the outer cam mating end ramps 188. The rotation continues until the pin rod dowel 76 engages the notch 196 such that the coat hook 12 is placed in the stowed position 104. The inner and outer cam mating end ramps 188 are also configured to effectuate a further approximately ninety degree incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the inner and outer cams 160, 180. During application of the compression force (i.e., by the user) to the button assembly 90, the pin rod dowel 76 becomes disengaged from the notch 196 and moves toward and engages the inner cam mating end ramps 170. The sloping surface 192 of the inner cam mating end ramps 170 causes rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 due to the non-rotatably coupling of the inner and outer cams 160, 180. Release of the compression force allows the biasing force to reverse the direction of movement of the pin rod dowel 76 causing the pin rod dowel 76 to move toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps 188. Due to the sloping surfaces 192 of the outer cam mating end ramps 188, such movement causes further rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 until the pin rod dowel 76 is aligned with the cam slot 194. The biasing force applied by the compression spring 232 then withdraws the pin rod dowel 76 from the cam interior 172 through the cam slot 194 such that the coat hook 12 is placed in the extended position 106. Referring still to FIG. 4, the catch assembly 120 may further include a plurality of ball bearings 108 disposed adjacent to the proximal end 16. The ball bearings 108 are preferably spatially distributed about a perimeter of the button bore 148 and are captured between the button bottom surface 108 and the inner cam 160 mating end. Such ball bearings 108 may minimize friction with the bearing end 166 of the inner cam 160 during rotation thereof within the button bore 148. A disc-shaped cam spacer 106 may preferably be concentrically nested within the ball bearings 108 and disposed against the button bottom surface 108. Sized at a thickness that is generally less than a diameter of any one of the ball bearings 108, the cam spacer 106 is configured to maintain the spatial distribution of the ball bearings 102 about the button bore 148. The cam spacer 106 may have a cam bore 162 formed therethrough for receiving the pin rod shaft 62. In order to capture the inner and outer cams 160, 180 within the button bore 148, a retainer ring 140 may be inserted into a button annular groove 144 formed circumferentially about the button bore 148. A cam washer 142 may also be disposed against the cam washer 142 on a side opposite that of the outer cam 180. The cam washer 142 may provide a suitable surface against which the compression spring 232 may bear. Axial movement of the button assembly 90 within the latch assembly 20 may be limited by including a pair of diametrically opposed housing slots 46 formed within the latch housing 22. As shown in FIG. 4, the housing slots 46 are preferably aligned with the latch axis A. A corresponding pair of coiled pins 234 may be included with the button housing 92. The coiled pins 234 may extend laterally outwardly from button dowel holes 146 formed in the button housing 92. The coiled pins 234 are sized and configured to slidably engage the housing slots 46 and are preferably of a length that prevents protrusion into the button bore 148. The combination of the coiled pins 234 slidably engaged within the housing slots 46 prevents rotation of the button assembly 90 relative to the latch assembly 20 as well as limiting axial movement of the button assembly 90. The coiled pins 234 may be formed of rolled sheet material which may be frictionally fit into receiving holes in the button assembly 90. Alternatively, pins of solid material may be used. The button assembly 90 further includes a button flange 98 sized and configured to be received within the housing counterbore 38 when the coat hook 12 is in the stowed position 104. Preferably, the housing counterbore 38 of the latch housing 22 and the button flange 98 are sized and configured such that the button flange 98 is flush with the housing shoulder outer surface 34 when the coat hook 12 is in the stowed position 104. Marking indicia may be included on the button flange 98 such as in the form of a coat hanger (not shown) which may be engraved or formed on an exterior surface of the button flange 98. Referring now to FIGS. 15-20, the door latch 14 embodiment will now be described with occasional reference to the above mentioned descriptions of the catch assembly 120 and latch assembly 20. The door latch 14 embodiment is selectively moveable between latched and unlatched positions 56, 58 and has opposing proximal and distal ends 16, 18 with the latch axis A extending therebetween. The latch assembly 20 of the door latch 14 embodiment is configured similar to the latch assembly 20 of the push-to-open latch 10 with the exception of the latch assembly 20 including the pin rod support member 78 and the housing sleeve 210. As was earlier mentioned, the combination of the pin rod support member 78 and the housing sleeve 210 minimizes the hazards otherwise posed by protrusion of the dowel rod assembly 60 outwardly from the mounting surface when the latch assembly 20 is completely decoupled from the catch assembly 120 such as occurs, for example, when the door of the cabinet is opened so as to expose the latch assembly 20. Furthermore, when the door is opened, the compression spring 232 also acts to fling or push the door away from the cabinet such that the door may then be grasped by the user for further opening. Referring more particularly now to FIGS. 15-17, shown is the latch assembly 20 of the door latch 14 embodiment illustrating the latch housing 22, pin rod support member 78, a hollow housing sleeve 210 and dowel rod assembly 60 that make up the latch assembly 20. The latch housing 22 is configured similar to that described above for the push-to-open latch 10 wherein the latch housing 22 has the open housing bore 36 which extends to the housing bottom wall 26. However, as opposed to the push-to-open latch 10, the pin rod dowel 76 is indirectly secured to the latch housing 22 through the pin rod support member 78 which is shown as a generally cylindrical shaped member rigidly mounted to the housing bottom wall 26 in a manner similar to that described above for the dowel rod assembly 60 of the push-to-open latch 10. More specifically, the pin rod support member 78 includes a pin rod counterbore 68 to enable the pin rod support member 78 to be securely mounted by splaying out a portion of the pin rod support member 78 which protrudes through the pin rod mounting hole 42. The pin rod support member 78 extends upwardly from the housing bottom wall 26 and has a shaft bore 220 formed therein open at the proximal end 16. A rotatable pin rod shaft 62 is axially fixed within the shaft bore 220 by means of an off-center pin 82 that engages an annular shaft groove 80 formed circumferentially about the pin rod shaft 62. In this manner, the pin rod shaft 62 is angularly rotatable but is axially fixed relative to the pin rod support member 78 and, hence, relative to the latch housing 22. The pin rod shaft 62 extends out of the shaft bore 220 and has the pin rod dowel 76 protruding laterally outwardly from diametrically opposed sides of the pin rod shaft 62 at the proximal end 16 similar to that described above for the push-to-open latch 10. A hollow housing sleeve 210 is concentrically mounted over the pin rod support member 78 by means of a cylindrical sleeve bore 212 formed in the housing sleeve 210, as shown in FIG. 15-17. The housing sleeve 210 is axially moveable relative to the pin rod support member 78. The housing sleeve 210 includes a sleeve aperture 218 formed therein and through which the pin rod shaft 62 protrudes. Adjacent the proximal end 16, the housing sleeve 210 includes a hemi-spherical surface 216 that is engagable with the catch housing 122 in a manner as will be described below. Concentrically formed within the hemi-spherical surface 216 is a sleeve counterbore 214 within which the pin rod dowel 76 may nest when disengaged from the catch assembly 120. Nesting of the pin rod dowel 76 within the sleeve counterbore 214 further mitigates the hazards otherwise posed by the pin rod dowel 76 to nearby persons or property that may otherwise snag on the pin rod dowel 76 when the latch assembly 20 is completely decoupled from the catch assembly 120. Referring still to FIG. 15-17, shown is a catch assembly 120 of the door latch 14 embodiment which is the structural equivalent of the catch assembly 120 for the push-to-open latch 10. The door latch 14 embodiment incorporates the inner and outer cam 160, 180 in the same manner as was earlier described for the catch assembly 120 of the push-to-open latch 10 and the coat hook 12 embodiment. However, the catch assembly 120 of the door latch 14 embodiment has the catch bore 124 open at the proximal end 16. The catch housing 122 extends to catch bottom wall 128 at the distal end 18. A catch housing aperture 134 is formed within the catch bottom wall 128 and is sized such that the pin rod dowel 76 may pass therethrough and into the cam slot 194 of the outer cam 180. In order to better seat the hemi-spherical surface 216 of the housing sleeve 210 against the catch housing 122, a bevel or catch countersink 132 may be circumferentially extended about the catch housing aperture 134. The inner and outer cams 160, 180 are freely rotatable within the catch bore 124 and are confined therein by the retainer ring 140 which is engaged within an annular groove formed within the catch bore 124. A washer may be included between the retainer ring 140 and the bearing end of the inner cam 160 in order to facilitate free rotation of the inner cam 160 bearing end 166 thereagainst. The outer cam 180 is captured between the inner cam 160 and the catch bottom wall 128 and is non-rotatably coupled by means of the projections 198 and receiving apertures 170 such that the inner and outer cams 160, 180 rotate in unison when the inner and outer cam mating end ramps 168, 188 are engaged by the pin rod dowel 76 in the same manner as was earlier described for the coat hook 12 embodiment and the push-to-open latch 10. Importantly, the compression spring 232 is captured between the housing bottom wall 26 and the housing sleeve 210 and is configured to apply the biasing force to bias the housing sleeve 210 away from the latch housing 22. As was earlier mentioned, such biasing force aligns the pin rod dowel 76 with the notch 196 during the initial reciprocative cycle. In addition, the biasing force aligns the pin rod dowel 76 with the slot during the subsequent reciprocative cycle and acts to fling or push the catch assembly 120 and, hence, the door away from the cabinet so that the user may more fully open the door. In order to facilitate mounting of the door latch 14 to the cabinet, at least one, but more preferably, an opposed pair of latch housing flanges 50 may be included with the latch assembly 20 such as by integrally machining thereinto. The latch housing flanges 50 preferably extend outwardly from the latch housing 22 in general alignment with the latch axis A. The latch housing flanges 50 are preferably configured such that the latch assembly 20 may be mounted on a generally planar mounting surface such as on a cabinet frame. Each one of the latch housing flanges 50 may include a mounting hole 52 and/or a mounting slot 54 for extending mechanical fasteners such as screws through the latch housing flanges 50 and into the mounting surface. The mounting slots 54 may facilitate mounting and adjustment of the latch assembly 20 relative to the catch assembly 120. Likewise, the catch assembly 120 may includes at least one and, preferably, a pair of catch housing flanges 134 extending outwardly from the catch housing 122 such that the catch housing 122 may be mounted on a planar surface such as an interior surface of the cabinet door. Mounting holes 52 and/or mounting slots 54 may be included to facilitate mounting and adjustment of the catch assembly 120 relative to the latch assembly 20. As shown in FIG. 18-20, the catch housing flanges 134 are preferably oriented normal to the latch axis A. The operation of the coat hook 12 will now be described with reference to FIGS. 1-14. Starting in the extended position 106, the user may move the button assembly 90 inwardly into the stowed position 104 by applying a compression force sufficient to overcome the biasing force of the compression spring 232. Such compression force causes axial movement of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the dowel rod assembly 60 such that the pin rod dowel 76 is moved into direct engagement with the outer cam bearing end ramps 190. Regardless of the initial angular positions of the pin rod dowel 76 relative to the slot, initial alignment of the pin rod dowel 76 with the slot is facilitated by the sloping surfaces 192 of the outer cam bearing end ramps 190 which are configured to rotate the inner and outer cams 160, 180 until the cam slot 194 is aligned with the pin rod dowel 76 upon advancement of the pin rod shaft 62 into the cam bore 162 whereupon the pin rod dowel 76 may then enter the cam interior 172. During such initial reciprocative cycle (i.e., an inward stroke followed by an outward stroke) of the button assembly 90, the compression force is manually applied by the user to cause the pin rod dowel 76 to enter the cam interior 172 and move toward and engage the sloping surfaces 192 of the inner cam mating end ramps 170 causing an approximate forty-five degree rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76. Release of the compression force allows the biasing force to reverse direction of the button assembly 90 and move the pin rod dowel 76 toward and engage the outer cam mating end ramps 188. Such relative movement causes a further approximate forty-five degrees of rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 until the pin rod dowel 76 engages the notch 196 which then places the coat hook 12 in the stowed position 104. In the stowed position 104, the button flange 98 is preferably nested within the housing counterbore 38 so as to be substantially flush with the housing shoulder 30. The coat hook 12 can then be moved to the extended position 106 during a second reciprocative cycle wherein the user again applies the compression force to the button assembly 90. Such compression force overcomes the biasing force of the compression spring 232 in order to axially disengage the pin rod dowel 76 from the notch 196 and move the pin rod dowel 76 toward and engage with the sloping surfaces 192 of the inner cam mating end ramps 170. Such engagement causes an additional forty-five degrees of rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76. Release of the compression force allows the biasing force of the compression spring 232 to cause the button assembly 90 to again reverse direction and move toward and engage the sloping surfaces 192 of the outer cam mating end ramps 188. Such engagement causes an additional forty-five degrees of rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 until the pin rod dowel 76 is aligned with the cam slot 194. Once aligned with the cam slot 194, the biasing force of the compression spring 232 withdraws the pin rod dowel 76 from the cam interior 172 through the cam slot 194 in order to place the push-to-open latch 10 in the extended position 106. In the extended position 106, the user may hang a coat from the button assembly 90. The operation of the door latch 14 will now be described with reference to FIGS. 15-20. Starting in the unlatched position 58, the user may move the door and, hence, the catch assembly 120 inwardly toward the latch assembly 20 until the catch housing 122 contacts the hemi-spherical surface 216 of the housing sleeve 210. Applying the compression force sufficient to overcome the biasing force of the compression spring 232 causes axial movement of the housing sleeve 210 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 while simultaneously causing movement of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 such that the pin rod dowel 76 is moved into direct engagement with the outer cam bearing end ramps 190. In the same manner as was described for the coat hook 12, the pin rod dowel 76 is aligned with the cam slot 194 such that the pin rod dowel 76 may then enter the cam interior 172. Continuing application of the compression force upon the door causes the pin rod dowel 76 to enter the cam interior 172 and move toward and engage the sloping surfaces 192 of the inner cam mating end ramps 170 causing the forty-five degree rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76. Because the pin rod shaft 62 is only axially fixed within the pin rod support member 78, the pin rod dowel 76 may also rotate relative to the inner and outer cams 160, 180. Release of the compression force reverses direction of the catch assembly 120 moving the pin rod dowel 76 toward and into engagement with the outer cam mating end ramps 188 resulting in a further approximate forty-five degrees of rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76 until the pin rod dowel 76 engages the notch 196 which then places the door latch 14 in the latched position 56. In the latched position 56, the housing sleeve 210 is in contact with the catch bottom wall 128. The door latch 14 can then be moved to the unlatched position 58 during the second reciprocative cycle wherein the user again applies the compression force to the door in order to axially disengage the pin rod dowel 76 from the notch 196 and engage the inner cam mating end ramps 170 causing an additional forty-five degrees of rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180 relative to the pin rod dowel 76. Release of the compression force causes the housing sleeve 210 to push outwardly against the catch housing 122 which moves the pin rod dowel 76 toward and into engagement with the outer cam mating end ramps 188 causing an additional forty-five degrees of relative rotation of the inner and outer cams 160, 180. Such rotation continues until the pin rod dowel 76 is aligned with the cam slot 194 whereupon the pin rod dowel 76 is withdrawn from the cam interior 172 through the cam slot 194 in order to place the door latch 14 in the unlatched position 58. Simultaneously, the biasing force applied to the housing sleeve 210 forces the catch housing 122 and, hence, the door, outwardly such that the user may then grasp the door for further opening thereof. Additional modifications and improvements of the present invention may also be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. Thus, the particular combination of parts described and illustrated herein is intended to represent only certain embodiments of the present invention, and is not intended to serve as limitations of alternative devices within the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates generally to mechanical latching mechanisms and, more particularly, to a uniquely configured push-to-open latch that may be adapted for use as a hidden door latch or a stowable coat hook which are respectively latchable or stowable in response to an external force applied thereto. In attempts to improve the appearance of interiors such as aircraft interiors as well as to reduce the hazards posed by protrusions such as cabinet handles in such interiors, several prior art latches have been developed wherein the latch is hidden from view. Such latches may be used in applications wherein a door or drawer is latchable to a cabinet or a bin, etc. Prior art latches have included both mechanical and magnetic means to maintain the door in a closed or latched position. For example, U.S. Letters Pat. No. 4,026,588 issued to Bisbing et al. discloses a push-to-open magnetic catch for a door of a cabinet. As understood, the magnetic catch of Bisbing includes a housing having a magnet mounted therein. The housing is positioned within the cabinet such that the magnet projects forwardly of the cabinet to contact the cabinet door as it closes as well as to maintain the door in the closed position. The door may be opened by initially pushing inwardly on the door which causes the magnet to separate from the door which, in turn, allows a spring-loaded plunger to push the door outwardly when the inward force is removed. Although the magnetic catch of the Bisbing reference is configured in such a manner as to avoid misalignment of the magnet during subsequent closing of the door, magnetic catches of the type disclosed in Bisbing suffer from several deficiencies that detract from their overall utility. For example, the magnetic catch as disclosed in Bisbing is comprised of bulky components that occupy a relatively large volume of the cabinet interior which may be more preferably utilized for luggage in consideration of the relatively limited storage space that is available in most aircraft interiors. Furthermore, the magnetic catch of Bisbing as well as magnetic latches in general typically can provide only a finite amount of holding force. Such holding force is particularly important in aircraft applications where the aircraft is susceptible to turbulent flight conditions. Under such conditions, magnetic catches may be incapable of withstanding opening forces acting against an inner surface of a cabinet door due to shifting contents or luggage inside the cabinet. Mechanical latches have also been developed wherein the latch is hidden from view. For example, U.S. Letters Pat. No. 6,669,250 issued to St. Louis and commercially available from St. Louis Designs, Inc. of Austin, Tex. discloses a latch system that may be mounted within a cabinet. The latch system includes a push-to-open latch mounted to the cabinet interior and a catch that is mounted to a door. The push-to-open latch is comprised of a body having an endless groove formed therein. As understood, one end of the lever has a pin which tracks through the groove and is moveable between two stable positions within the endless groove depending on whether the door is to be placed in a closed position or an open position. An opposite end of the lever has a roller which engages the catch in order selectively to move the lever between the closed and open positions by pushing inwardly on the door to alternately move the pin between the two stable positions within the endless groove. Although the latch system of the St. Louis reference provides a relatively large holding force as compared to similarly sized magnetic catches of the prior art, the latch system of the St. Louis reference may unfortunately result in asymmetric or eccentric loading on individual components which may limit the operating life of the latch system. For example, as understood, the pin is mounted to the lever and is cantilevered off to one side thereof. Such cantilevered mounting may result in the inducement of excessive bending forces within the lever at the pin attachment point should a user attempt to improperly open the door by pulling outwardly, as is more intuitive, that by pushing inwardly as is required to open the door. Even if outward pulling on the door does not initially damage the latch system, the eccentric loads induced on the lever under repeated attempts to open the door may cause the lever to bend so that, eventually, the pin may jam within the groove. As can be seen, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is mountable within a cabinet so as to be hidden from view and which provides a relatively large holding force against pressure exerted against an interior of the door such as may result from shifting luggage within a compartment of an aircraft interior. In addition, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is relatively simple in construction in order to reduce fabrication, installation and maintenance costs. Also, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is small in size so as to allow for a greater proportion of useful space in confined interiors. Furthermore, there exists a need in the art for a push-to-open latch that is configured to minimize or eliminate the inducement of eccentric loads on components of the push-to-open latch in order to increase the operating life thereof. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Provided is a push-to-open latch that is adapted for use as a hidden door latch or as a stowable coat hook. Advantageously, the door latch and the coat hook are respectively latchable/unlatchable or stowable/extendable due to the cooperative engagement of a dowel rod assembly with a uniquely configured cam mechanism. In the door latch embodiment, the push-to-open latch is mountable within a cabinet such that no latch hardware is visible on exterior surfaces of the cabinet. The coat hook embodiment is selectively moveable between stowed and extended positions. In the stowed position, the coat hook is substantially flush with an exterior surface upon which it is mounted so as to eliminate hazardous protrusions. With the door latch or the coat hook embodiment in an unlatched or extended position, pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch causes the latching of the push-to-open latch or stowing of the coat hook. Subsequently, pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch causes unlatching of the push-to-open latch or extension of the coat hook. The push-to-open latch comprises a latch assembly and a catch assembly. In the door latch embodiment, the latch assembly may be mounted to a frame of a cabinet with the catch assembly being mounted on an interior side of a door. In the coat hook embodiment, the latch assembly and catch assembly may be mounted to a mounting surface such as a vertical wall of an aircraft interior compartment. The push-to-open latch has opposing proximal and distal ends and defines a latch axis along which the latch assembly and catch assembly are reciprocated relative to one another. The latch assembly includes a latch housing with a dowel rod assembly disposed therewithin. The latch housing has a housing bore open at the proximal end. The housing bore has a housing side wall that terminates in a housing bottom wall at the distal end. The dowel rod assembly extends upwardly from the distal end toward the proximal end and includes a pin rod shaft extending upwardly from the housing bottom wall. The pin rod dowel extends laterally outwardly from the pin rod shaft at the proximal end. The catch assembly is comprised of a catch housing having a catch bore within which an inner cam and an outer cam are rotatably disposed. The inner cam is disposed within the catch bore adjacent to the proximal and with the outer cam being disposed between the inner cam and the dowel rod assembly. Each of the inner and outer cams has a mating end and a bearing end. The mating ends of the inner and outer cams face one another and are placed in generally abutting contact with one another. The bearing end of the inner cam faces toward the proximal end. The bearing end of the outer cam faces toward the distal end. The inner cam mating end has inner cam mating end ramps formed thereon while the outer cam mating end has outer cam mating end ramps formed thereon. The inner and outer cams are coupled at the mating ends such that the inner and outer cams rotate in unison within the housing bore. The inner and outer cams collectively define a cam interior. The outer cam has a cam bore extending axially therethrough to allow for reciprocation of the pin rod shaft therewithin. The outer cam also includes a cam slot for passage of the pin rod dowel when the catch assembly is reciprocated relative to the latch assembly. In general, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps cooperate with the dowel rod assembly to alternately engage and release the pin rod dowel from the cam interior such that the push-to-open latch is respectively placed in the latched and unlatched positions during reciprocation of the pin rod shaft through the cam bore along the latch axis. More specifically, the inner and outer cam mating end ramps are configured to effectuate incremental rotation of the inner and outer cams relative to the pin rod dowel when the catch assembly is initially reciprocated within the latch assembly. Such initial reciprocation occurs by pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch a first time which causes the pin rod dowel to pass through the cam slot, enter the cam interior and engage the notch in order to place the push-to-open latch in the latched position. Pushing inwardly on the push-to-open latch a second time effectuates further incremental rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams. During the second inwardly pushing on the push-to-open latch, rotation of the pin rod dowel relative to the inner and outer cams allows the pin rod dowel to disengage from the notch. Once disengaged, the pin rod dowel may be withdrawn from the cam interior by exiting through the cam slot in order to place the push-to-open latch in the unlatched position. Importantly, such reciprocative movement is facilitated by a biasing member such as a helical compression spring that biases the catch assembly away from the latch assembly. | 20041116 | 20061226 | 20060518 | 64615.0 | E05C1900 | 1 | LUGO, CARLOS | PUSH LATCH | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | E05C | 2,004 |
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10,990,316 | ACCEPTED | Crystalline forms of ( 6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride | Crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, hydrates and solvates and processes for their preparation are provided. These crystal forms are either intermediates for the preparation of stable polymorphic form B or are suitable for solid formulations. | 1. A crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.5 (vs), 12.0 (m), 4.89 (m), 3.70 (s), 3.33 (s), 3.26 (s), and 3.18 (m); hereinafter designated as form A. 2. A crystalline polymorph according to claim 1, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.5 (vs), 12.0 (m), 6.7 (m), 6.5 (m), 6.3 (w), 6.1 (w), 5.96 (w), 5.49 (m), 4.89 (m), 3.79 (m), 3.70 (s), 3.48 (m), 3.45 (m), 3.33 (s), 3.26 (s), 3.22 (m), 3.18 (m), 3.08 (m), 3.02 (w), 2.95 (w), 2.87 (m), 2.79 (w), 2.70 (w). 3. A crystalline polymorph according to claim 1, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 1. 4. A process for the preparation of polymorph form A according to claim 1, comprising dissolving (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride at ambient temperatures in water, (1) cooling the solution to low temperatures for solidifying the solution, and removing water under reduced pressure, or (2) removing water from said aqueous solution. 5. A process for the preparation of a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythrotetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 8.7 (vs), 5.63 (m), 4.76 (m), 4.40 (m), 4.00 (s), 3.23 (s), 3.11 (vs), preferably 8.7 (vs), 6.9 (w), 5.90 (vw), 5.63 (m), 5.07 (m), 4.76 (m), 4.40 (m), 4.15 (w), 4.00 (s), 3.95 (m), 3.52 (m), 3.44 (w), 3.32 (m), 3.23 (s), 3.17 (w), 3.11 (vs), 3.06 (w), 2.99 (w), 2.96 (w), 2.94 (m), 2.87 (w), 2.84 (s), 2.82 (m), 2.69 (w), 2.59 (w), 2.44 (w); and which more preferably exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 2, and hereinafter designated as form B; comprising dispersion of particles of a solid form other than form B of (6R)L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a solvent that scarcely dissolves said (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride at room temperature, stirring the suspension at ambient temperatures for a time sufficient to produce polymorh form B, thereafter isolating crystalline form B and removing the solvent from the isolated form B. 6. A process for the preparation of polymorph form B as defined according to claim 5, comprising dissolution, optionally at elevated temperatures, of a solid form, preferably other than form B, of (6R-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a solvent mixture comprising acetone, acetic acid and water, addition of seeds to the solution, cooling the obtained suspension and isolation of the formed crystals of form B. 7. A process for the preparation of polymorph form B according to claim 5, comprising dissolution of a solid form, preferably other than form B, of (6R)L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in water at ambient temperatures, adding the aqueous solution to sufficient amount of a non-solvent to form a suspension, optionally stirring the suspension for a certain time, and thereafter isolation of the formed crystals. 8. A crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 17.1 (vs), 4.92 (m), 4.68 (m), 3.49 (s), 3.46 (vs), 3.39 (s), 3.21 (m), and 3.19 (m), hereinafter designated as form F. 9. A crystalline polymorph according to claim 8, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 17.1 (vs), 12.1 (w), 8.6 (w), 7.0 (w), 6.5 (w), 6.4 (w), 5.92 (w), 5.72 (w), 5.11 (w), 4.92 (m), 4.86 (w), 4.68 (m), 4.41 (w), 4.12 (w), 3.88 (w), 3.83 (w), 3.70 (m), 3.64 (w), 3.55 (m), 3.49 (s), 3.46 (vs), 3.39 (s), 3.33 (m), 3.31 (m), 3.27 (m), 3.21 (m), 3.19 (m), 3.09 (m), 3.02 (m), and 2.96 (m), hereinafter designated as form F. 10. A crystalline polymorph F according to claim 8, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 6. 11. A process for the preparation of polymorph form F according to claim 8, comprising dispersion of particles of solid form A of (6R)L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a non-aqueous solvent that scarcely dissolves said (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride below room temperature, stirring the suspension at said temperatures for a time sufficient to produce polymorph form F, thereafter isolating crystalline form F and removing the solvent from the isolated form F. 12. (canceled) 13. (canceled) 14. (canceled) 15. (canceled) 16. (canceled) 17. (canceled) 18. (canceled) 19. (canceled) 20. (canceled) 21. (canceled) 22. (canceled) 23. (canceled) 24. (canceled) 25. (canceled) 26. (canceled) 27. (canceled) 28. (canceled) 29. (canceled) 30. (canceled) 31. (canceled) 32. (canceled) 33. (canceled) 34. (canceled) 35. (canceled) 36. (canceled) 37. (canceled) 38. (canceled) 39. (canceled) 40. (canceled) 41. (canceled) 42. (canceled) 43. (canceled) 44. (canceled) 45. (canceled) 46. (canceled) 47. (canceled) 48. (canceled) 49. (canceled) 50. (canceled) 51. (canceled) 52. (canceled) 53. (canceled) 54. (canceled) 55. (canceled) 56. (canceled) 57. (canceled) 58. (canceled) 59. (canceled) 60. (canceled) 61. (canceled) 62. (canceled) 63. (canceled) 64. (canceled) | This application claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/520,377 filed Nov. 17, 2003 which is incorporated by reference herein. The present invention relates to crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride and hydrates and solvates thereof. This invention also relates to processes for preparing the crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride and hydrates and solvates thereof. This invention also relates to compositions comprising selected and stable crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride or a hydrate thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. It is known that the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitting catecholamines from phenylalanine requires tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor, (6R)-2-amino-4-oxo-6-[(1R,2S)-1,2-dihydroxypropyl]-5,6,7,8-tetrahydropteridine according to formula (I), at the monooxygenation step of phenylalanine and tyrosine. It is supposed that the catecholamine biosynthesis is regulated in a great extent by tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor, and that a decrease of the cofactor in central nerve systems causes several neurological disorders such as parkinsonism and atypical phenylketonuria. The compound of formula I is therefore an effective therapeutic agent for treatment of said disorders in mammals in need thereof. The compound of formula I is difficult to handle and it is therefore produced and offered as its dihydrochloride salt (Schircks Laboratories, CH-8645 Jona, Switzerland) even in ampoules sealed under nitrogen to prevent degradation of the substance due to its hygroscopic nature and sensitivity to oxidation. U.S. Pat. No. 4,649,197 discloses that separation of (6R)- and 6(S)L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride into its diastereomers is difficult due to the poor crystallinity of 6(R,S)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride. In EP-A1-0 079574 is described the preparation of tetrahydrobiopterin, where a solid tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride is obtained as an intermediate. S. Matsuura et al. describes in Chemistry Letters 1984, pages 735-738 and Heterocycles, Vol. 23, No. 12, 1985 pages 3115-3120 6(R)-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride as a crystalline solid in form of colourless needles, which are characterized by X-ray analysis disclosed in J. Biochem. 98, 1341-1348 (1985). An optical rotation of 6.81° was found the crystalline product, which is quite similar to the optical rotation of 6.51° reported for a crystalline solid in form of white crystals in example 6 of EP-A2-0 191 335. Results obtained during investigation and development of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride development revealed that the known crystalline solids can be designated as form B, for which was found a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 8.7 (vs), 6.9 (w), 5.90 (vw), 5.63 (m), 5.07 (m), 4.76 (m), 4.40 (m), 4.15 (w), 4.00 (s), 3.95 (m), 3.52 (m), 3.44 (w), 3.32(m), 3.23 (s), 3.17 (w), 3.11 (vs), 3.06(w), 2.99(w), 2.96 (w), 2.94 (m), 2.87 (w), 2.84 (s), 2.82 (m), 2.69 (w), 2.59 (w), 2.44 (w). A characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern is exhibited in FIG. 2. Here and in the following the abbreviations in brackets mean: (vs)=very strong intensity; (s)=strong intensity; (m)=medium intensity; (w)=weak intensity; and (vw)=very weak intensity. Polymorph B is a slightly hygroscopic anhydrate with the highest thermodynamic stability above about 20° C. Furthermore, form B can be easily processed and handled due to its thermal stability, possibility for preparation by targeted conditions, its suitable morphology and particle size. Melting point is near 260° C. (ΔHf>140 J/g), but no clear melting point can be detected due to decomposition prior and during melting. These outstanding properties renders polymorph form B especially feasible for pharmaceutical application, which are prepared at elevated temperatures. Polymorph B can be obtained as a fine powder with a particle size that may range from 0.2 μm to 500 μm. However, there is a need for other stable forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride with satisfactory chemical and physical stability for a safe handling during manufacture and formulation as well as providing a high storage stability in its pure form or in formulations. In addition, there is a strong need for processes to produce polymorph B and other crystalline forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride on a large scale in a controlled manner Results obtained during development of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride indicated that the compound may exist in different crystalline forms, including polymorphic forms and solvates. The continued interest in this area requires an efficient and reliable method for the preparation of the individual crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride and controlled crystallization conditions to provide crystal forms, that are preferably stable and easy to handle and to process in the manufacture and preparation of formulations, and that provide a high storage stability in substance form or as formulated product, or which provide less stable forms suitable as intermediates for controlled crystallisation for the manufacture of stable forms. 1. Polymorphic Forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride Polymorphic forms A, B, F, J and K are anhydrates, which absorb up to about 3% by weight of water when exposed to open air humidity at ambient temperature. A first object of the invention is crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.5 (vs), 12.0 (m), 4.89 (m), 3.70 (s), 3.33 (s), 3.26 (s), and 3.18 (m); hereinafter designated as form A. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.5 (vs), 12.0 (m), 6.7 (m), 6.5 (m), 6.3 (w), 6.1 (w), 5.96 (w), 5.49 (m), 4.89 (m), 3.79 (m), 3.70 (s), 3.48 (m), 3.45 (m), 3.33 (s), 3.26 (s), 3.22 (m), 3.18 (m), 3.08 (m), 3.02 (w), 2.95 (w), 2.87 (m), 2.79 (w), 2.70 (w); hereinafter designated as form A. In another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits characteristic Raman bands, expressed in wave numbers (cm−1) at: 2934 (w), 2880 (w), 1692 (s), 1683 (m), 1577 (w), 1462 (m), 1360 (w), 1237 (w), 1108 (w), 1005 (vw), 881 (vw), 813 (vw), 717 (m), 687 (m), 673 (m), 659 (m), 550 (w), 530 (w), 492 (m), 371 (m), 258 (w), 207 (w), 101 (s), 87 (s) cm−1, hereinafter designated as form A. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph A of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 1. The polymorph A is slightly hygroscopic and adsorbs water to a content of about 3 percent by weight, which is continuously released between 50° C. and 200° C., when heated at a rate of 10° C./minute. The polymorph A is a hygroscopic anhydrate which is a meta-stable form with respect to form B; however, it is stable over several months at ambient conditions if kept in a tightly sealed container. Form A is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form A can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 17.1 (vs), 4.92 (m), 4.68 (m), 3.49 (s), 3.46 (vs), 3.39 (s), 3.21 (m), and 3.19 (m), hereinafter designated as form F. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 17.1 (vs), 12.1 (w), 8.6 (w), 7.0 (w), 6.5 (w), 6.4 (w), 5.92 (w), 5.72 (w), 5.1.1 (w), 4.92 (m), 4.86 (w), 4.68 (m), 4.41 (w), 4.12 (w), 3.88 (w), 3.83 (w), 3.70 (m), 3.64 (w), 3.55 (m), 3.49 (s), 3.46 (vs), 3.39 (s), 3.33 (m), 3.31 (m), 3.27 (m), 3.21 (m), 3.19 (m), 3.09 (m), 3.02 (m), and 2.96 (m), hereinafter designated as form F. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph F of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 6. The polymorph F is slightly hygroscopic and adsorbs water to a content of about 3 percent by weight, which is continuously released between 50° C. and 200° C., when heated at a rate of 10° C./minute. The polymorph F is a meta-stable form and a hygroscopic anhydrate, which is more stable than form A at ambient lower temperatures and less stable than form B at higher temperatures and form F is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form F can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.6 (m), 3.29 (vs), and 3.21 (vs), hereinafter designated as form J. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.6 (m), 6.6 (w), 6.4 (w), 5.47 (w), 4.84 (w), 3.29 (vs), and 3.21 (vs), hereinafter designated as form J. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph J of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 10. The polymorph J is slightly hygroscopic and adsorbs water when handled at air humidity. The polymorph J is a meta-stable form and a hygroscopic anhydrate, and it can be transformed back into form E from which it is obtained upon exposure to high relative humidity conditions such as above 75% relative humidity. Form J is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form J can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.0 (s), 6.6 (w), 4.73 (m), 4.64 (m), 3.54 (m), 3.49 (vs), 3.39 (m), 3.33 (vs), 3.13 (s), 3.10 (m), 3.05 (m), 3.01 (m), 2.99 (m), and 2.90 (m), hereinafter designated as form K. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.0 (s), 9.4 (w), 6.6 (w), 6.4 (w), 6.3 (w), 6.1 (w), 6.0 (w), 5.66 (w), 5.33 (w), 5.13 (vw), 4.73 (m), 4.64 (m), 4.48 (w), 4.32 (vw), 4.22 (w), 4.08 (w), 3.88 (w), 3.79 (w), 3.54 (m), 3.49 (vs), 3.39 (m), 3.33 (vs), 3.13 (s), 3.10 (m), 3.05 (m), 3.01 (m), 2.99 (m), and 2.90 (m), hereinafter designated as form K. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph K of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 11. The polymorph K is slightly hygroscopic and adsorbs water to a content of about 2.0 percent by weight, which is continuously released between 50° C. and 100° C., when heated at a rate of 10° C./minute. The polymorph K is a meta-stable form and a hygroscopic anhydrate, which is less stable than form B at higher temperatures and form K is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms, in particular form B. Polymorph form K can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. 2. Hydrate Forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride forms crystalline hydrate forms C, D, E, H and O, depending from the preparation method. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 13.9 (vs), 8.8 (m), 6.8 (m), 6.05 (m), 4.25 (m), 4.00 (m), 3.88 (m), 3.80 (m), 3.59 (s), 3.50 (m), 3.44 (m), 3.26 (s), 3.19 (vs), 3.17 (s), 3.11 (m), 2.97 (m), and 2.93 (vs), hereinafter designated as form C. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 18.2 (m), 15.4 (w), 13.9 (vs), 10.4 (w), 9.6 (w), 9.1 (w), 8.8 (m), 8.2 (w), 8.0 (w), 6.8 (m), 6.5 (w), 6.05 (m), 5.77 (w), 5.64 (w), 5.44 (w), 5.19 (w), 4.89 (w), 4.76 (w), 4.70 (w), 4.41 (w), 4.25 (m), 4.00 (m), 3.88 (m), 3.80 (m), 3.59 (s), 3.50 (m), 3.44 (m), 3.37 (m), 3.26 (s), 3.19 (vs), 3.17 (s), 3.11 (m), 3.06 (m), 3.02 (m), 2.97 (vs), 2.93 (m), 2.89 (m), 2.83 (m), and 2.43 (m), hereinafter designated as form C. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate C of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 3. The hydrate form C is slightly hygroscopic and has a water content of approximately 5.5 percent by weight, which indicates that form C is a monohydrate. The hydrate C has a melting point near 94° C. (AHf is about 31 J/g) and hydrate form C is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorphic forms. Polymorph form C can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 8.6 (s), 5.56 (m), 4.99 (m), 4.67 (s), 4.32 (m), 3.93 (vs), 3.17 (m), 3.05 (s), 2.88 (m), and 2.79 (m), hereinafter designated as form D. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 8.6 (s), 6.8 (w), 5.56 (m), 4.99 (m), 4.67 (s), 4.32 (m), 3.93 (vs), 3.88 (w), 3.64 (w), 3.41 (w), 3.25 (w), 3.17 (m), 3.05 (s), 2.94 (w), 2.92 (w), 2.88 (m), 2.85 (w), 2.80 (w), 2.79 (m), 2.68 (w), 2.65 (w), 2.52 (vw), 2.35 (w), 2.34 (w), 2.30 (w), and 2.29 (w), hereinafter designated as form D. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 4. The hydrate form D is slightly hygroscopic and may have a water content of approximately 5.0 to 7.0 percent by weight, which suggests that form D is a monohydrate. The hydrate D has a melting point near 153° C. (AHf is about 111 J/g) and is of much higher stability than form C and is even stable when exposed to air humidity at ambient temperature. Hydrate form D can therefore either be used to prepare formulations or as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form D can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.4 (s), 4.87 (w), 3.69 (m), 3.33 (s), 3.26 (vs), 3.08 (m), 2.95 (m), and 2.87 (m), hereinafter designated as form E. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.4 (s), 6.6 (w), 6.5 (w), 5.95 (vw), 5.61 (vw), 5.48 (w), 5.24 (w), 4.87 (w), 4.50 (vw), 4.27 (w), 3.94 (w), 3.78 (w), 3.69 (m), 3.60 (w), 3.33 (s), 3.26 (vs), 3.16 (w), 3.08 (m), 2.98 (w), 2.95 (m), 2.91 (w), 2.87 (m), 2.79 (w), 2.74 (w), 2.69 (w), and 2.62 (w), hereinafter designated as form E. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 5. The hydrate form E has a water content of approximately 10 to 14 percent by weight, which suggests that form E is a dihydrate. The hydrate E is formed at temperatures below room temperature. Hydrate form E is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. It is especially suitable to produce the waterfree form J upon drying under nitrogen or optionally under vacuum. Form E is non-hygroscopic and stable under rather high relative humidities, i.e., at relative humidities above about 60% and up to about 85%. Polymorph form E can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.8 (vs), 3.87 (m), 3.60 (m), 3.27 (m), 3.21 (m), 2.96 (m), 2.89 (m), and 2.67 (m), hereinafter designated as form H. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.8 (vs), 10.3 (w), 8.0 (w), 6.6 (w), 6.07 (w), 4.81 (w), 4.30 (w), 3.87 (m), 3.60 (m), 3.27 (m), 3.21 (m), 3.13 (w), 3.05 (w), 2.96 (m), 2.89 (m), 2.82 (w), and 2.67 (m), hereinafter designated as form H. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate H of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 8. The hydrate form H has a water content of approximately 5.0 to 7.0 percent by weight, which suggests that form H is a hygroscopic monohydrate. The hydrate form H is formed at temperatures below room temperature. Hydrate form H is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form H can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 8.8 (m), 6.3 (m), 5.65 (m), 5.06 (m), 4.00 (m), 3.88 (m), 3.69 (s), 3.64 (s), 3.52 (vs), 3.49 (s), 3.46 (s), 3.42 (s), 3.32 (m), 3.27 (m), 3.23 (s), 3.18 (s), 3.15 (vs), 3.12 (m), and 3.04 (vs), hereinafter designated as form O. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 15.9 (w), 14.0 (w), 12.0 (w), 8.8 (m), 7.0 (w), 6.5 (w), 6.3 (m), 6.00 (w), 5.75 (w), 5.65 (m), 5.06 (m), 4.98 (m), 4.92 (m), 4.84 (w), 4.77 (w), 4.42 (w), 4.33 (w), 4.00 (m), 3.88 (m), 3.78 (w), 3.69 (s), 3.64 (s), 3.52 (vs), 3.49 (s), 3.46 (s), 3.42 (s), 3.32 (m), 3.27 (m), 3.23 (s), 3.18 (s), 3.15 (vs), 3.12 (m), 3.04 (vs), 2.95 (m), 2.81 (s), 2.72 (m), 2.67 (m), and 2.61 (m), hereinafter designated as form O. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline hydrate 0 of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 15. The hydrate form 0 is formed at temperatures near room temperature. Hydrate form 0 is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form 0 can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. 2. Solvate Forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride forms crystalline solvate forms G, I, L, M and N, depending from the solvent used in the preparation method. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline ethanol solvate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.5 (vs), 7.0 (w), 4.41 (w), 3.63 (m), 3.57 (m), 3.49 (w), 3.41 (m), 3.26 (m), 3.17 (m), 3.07 (m), 2.97 (m), 2.95 (m), 2.87 (w), and 2.61 (w), hereinafter designated as form G. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline ethanol solvate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.5 (vs), 10.9 (w), 9.8 (w), 7.0 (w), 6.3 (w), 5.74 (w), 5.24 (vw), 5.04 (vw), 4.79 (w), 4.41 (w), 4.02 (w), 3.86 (w), 3.77 (w), 3.69 (w), 3.63 (m), 3.57 (m), 3.49 (m), 3.41 (m), 3.26 (m), 3.17 (m), 3.07 (m), 2.97 (m), 2.95 (m), 2.87 (w), and 2.61 (w), hereinafter designated as form G. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline solvate G of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 7. The ethanol solvate form G has an ethanol content of approximately 8.0 to 12.5 percent by weight, which suggests that form G is a hygroscopic mono ethanol solvate. The solvate form G is formed at temperatures below room temperature. Form G is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form G can be prepared as a solid powder with a desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline acetic acid solvate of (6R)-L-erythrotetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.5 (m), 3.67 (vs), 3.61 (m), 3.44 (m), 3.11(s), and 3.00 (m), hereinafter designated as form I. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline acetic acid solvate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.5 (m), 14.0 (w), 11.0 (w), 7.0 (vw), 6.9 (vw), 6.2 (vw), 5.30 (w), 4.79 (w), 4.44 (w), 4.29 (w), 4.20 (vw), 4.02 (w), 3.84 (w), 3.80 (w), 3.67 (vs), 3.61 (m), 3.56 (w), 3.44 (m), 3.27 (w), 3.19 (w), 3.11(s), 3.00 (m), 2.94 (w), 2.87 (w), and 2.80 (w), hereinafter designated as form 1. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline acetic acid solvate I of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 9. The acetic acid solvate form I has an acetic acid content of approximately 12.7 percent by weight, which suggests that form I is a hygroscopic acetic acid mono solvate. The solvate form I is formed at temperatures below room temperature. Acetic acid solvate form I is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form I can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline mixed ethanol solvate/hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.1 (vs), 10.4 (w), 6.9 (w), 6.5 (w), 6.1 (w), 4.71 (w), 3.46 (m), 3.36 (m), and 2.82 (w), hereinafter designated as form L. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline mixed ethanol solvate/hydrate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 14.1 (vs), 10.4 (w), 9.5 (w), 9.0 (vw), 6.9 (w), 6.5 (w), 6.1 (w), 5.75 (w), 5.61 (w), 5.08 (w), 4.71 (w), 3.86 (w), 3.78 (w), 3.46 (m), 3.36 (m), 3.06 (w), 2.90 (w), and 2.82 (w), hereinafter designated as form L. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline mixed ethanol solvate/hydrate L of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 12. Form L may contain 4% but up to 13% ethanol and 0% to about 6% of water. Form L may be transformed into form G when treated in ethanol at temperatures from about 0° C. to 20° C. In addition form L may be transformed into form B when treated in an organic solvent at ambient temperatures (10° C. to 60° C.). Polymorph form L can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline ethanol solvate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 18.9 (s), 6.4 (m), and 3.22 (vs), hereinafter designated as form M. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline ethanol solvate of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 18.9 (s), 6.4 (m), 6.06 (w), 5.66 (w), 5.28 (w), 4.50 (w), 4.23 (w), and 3.22 (vs), hereinafter designated as form M. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline ethanol solvate M of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 13. Form M may contain 4% but up to 13% ethanol and 0% to about 6% of water, which suggests that form M is a slightly hygroscopic ethanol solvate. The solvate form M is formed at room temperature. Form M is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms, since form M can be transformed into form G when treated in ethanol at temperatures between about −10° to 15° C., and into form B when treated in organic solvents such as ethanol, C3 and C4 alcohols, or cyclic ethers such as THF and dioxane. Polymorph form M can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. Still another object of the invention is a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 19.5 (m), 6.7 (w), 3.56 (m), and 3.33 (vs), 3.15 (w), hereinafter designated as form N. In a more preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern with characteristic peaks expressed in d-values (Å): 19.5 (m), 9.9 (w), 6.7 (w), 5.15 (w), 4.83(w), 3.91 (w), 3.56 (m), 3.33 (vs), 3.15 (w), 2.89 (w), 2.81 (w), 2.56 (w), and 2.36 (w), hereinafter designated as form N. In still another preferred embodiment, the present invention comprises a crystalline polymorph N of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, which exhibits a characterristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern as exhibited in FIG. 14. Form N may contain in total up to 10% of isopropanol and water, which suggests that form N is a slightly hygroscopic isopropanol solvate. Form N may be obtained through washing of form D with isopropanol and subsequent drying in vacuum at about 30° C. Form N is especially suitable as intermediate and starting material to produce stable polymorph forms. Polymorph form N can be prepared as a solid powder with desired medium particle size range which is typically ranging from 1 μm to about 500 μm. For the preparation of the polymorph forms, there may be used crystallisation techniques well known in the art, such as stirring of a suspension (phase equilibration in), precipitation, re-crystallisation, evaporation, solvent like water sorption methods or decomposition of solvates. Diluted, saturated or super-saturated solutions may be used for crystallisation, with or without seeding with suitable nucleating agents. Temperatures up to 100° C. may be applied to form solutions. Cooling to initiate crystallisation and precipitation down to −100° C. and preferably down to −30° C. may be applied. Meta-stable polymorphs or pseudo-polymorphic forms can be used to prepare solutions or suspensions for the preparation of more stable forms and to achieve higher concentrations in the solutions. 4. Preparation of polymorph forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride Polymorph Form A Polymorph form A may be obtained by freeze drying or water removal of solutions of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in water. A further object of the invention is a process for the preparation of polymorph form A of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dissolving (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride at ambient temperatures in water, (1) cooling the solution to low temperatures for solidifying the solution, and removing water under reduced pressure, or (2) removing water from said aqueous solution. The crystalline form A can be isolated by filtration and then dried to evaporate absorbed water from the product. Drying conditions and methods are known and drying of the isolated product or water removal pursuant to variant (2) according to the invention may be carried out in applying elevated temperatures, for example up to 80° C., preferably in the range from 30° C. to 80° C., under vacuum or elevated temperatures and vacuum. Prior to isolation of a precipitate obtained in variant (2), the suspension may be stirred for a certain time for phase equilibration. The concentration of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in the aqueous solution may be from 5 to 40 percent by weight, referred to the solution. Ambient temperatures may mean a range from 30 to 120° C. Low temperatures may mean temperatures below −40° C. and preferably below −60° C. and to −180° C. A fast cooling is preferred to obtain solid solutions as starting material. A reduced pressure is applied until the solvent is completely removed. Freeze drying is a technology well known in the art. The time to complete solvent removal is dependent on the applied vacuum, which may be from 0.01 to 1 mbar, the solvent used and the freezing temperature. Polymorph form A is stable at room temperature or below room temperature under substantially water free conditions, which is demonstrated with phase equilibration tests of suspensions in tetrahydrofuran or tertiary-butyl methyl ether stirred for five days and 18 hours respectively under nitrogen at room temperature. Filtration and air drying at room temperature yields unchanged polymorph form A. Polymorph B All crystal forms (polymorphs, hydrates and solvates), inclusive crystal form B, can be used for the preparation of the most stable polymorph B. Polymorph B may be obtained by phase equilibration of suspensions of amorphous or other forms than polymorph form B, such as polymorph A, in suitable polar and non aqueous solvents. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dispersion of particles of a solid form, preferably other than form B, of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a solvent at room temperature, stirring the suspension at ambient temperatures for a time sufficient to produce polymorph form B, thereafter isolating crystalline form B and removing the solvent from the isolated form B. Ambient temperatures may mean temperatures in a range from 0° C. to 60° C., preferably 20° C. to 40° C. The applied temperature may be changed during treatment and stirring by decreasing the temperature stepwise or continuously. Suitable solvents are for example methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, other C3- and C4-alcohols, acetic acid, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofurane, methyl-t-butyl ether, 1,4-dioxane, ethyl acetate, isopropyl acetate, other C3-C6-acetates, methyl ethyl ketone and other methyl-C3-C5alkyl-ketones. The time to complete phase equilibration may be up to 30 hours and preferably up to 20 hours or less than 20 hours. Polymorph B may also be obtained by crystallisation from solvent mixtures containing up to about 5% water, especially from mixtures of ethanol, acetic acid and water. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythrotetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dissolution, optionally at elevated temperatures, preferably of a solid lower energy form than form B or of form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a solvent mixture comprising ethanol, acetic acid and water, addition of seeds to the solution, cooling the obtained suspension and isolation of the formed crystals. Dissolution may be carried out at room temperature or up to 70° C., preferably up to 50° C. There may be used the final solvent mixture for dissolution or the starting material may be first dissolved in water and the other solvents may than be added both or one after the other solvent. The composition of the solvent mixture may comprise a volume ratio of water: acetic acid:tetrahydrofurane of 1:3:2 to 1:9:4 and preferably 1:5:4. The solution is preferably stirred. Cooling may mean temperatures down to −40° C. to 0° C., preferably down to 10° C. to 30° C. Suitable seeds are polymorph form B from another batch or crystals having a similar or identical morphology. After isolation, the crystalline form B can be washed with a non-solvent such as acetone or tetrahydrofurane and dried in usual manner. Polymorph B may also be obtained by crystallisation from aqueous solutions through the addition of non-solvents such as methanol, ethanol and acetic acid. The crystallisation and isolation procedure can be advantageously carried out at room temperature without cooling the solution. This process is therefore very suitable to be carried out at an industrial scale. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention refers to a process for the preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dissolution of a solid form other than form B or of form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in water at ambient temperatures, adding a non-solvent in an amount sufficient to form a suspension, optionally stirring the suspension for a certain time, and thereafter isolation of the formed crystals. A crystallization experiment from solution can be followed by a subsequent suspension equilibration under ambient conditions. Ambient temperatures may mean a temperature in the range of 10 to 40° C., and most preferably room temperature. The concentration of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in the aqueous solution may be from 10 to 80 percent by weight, more preferably from 20 to 60 percent by weight, referred to the solution. Preferred non-solvents are methanol, ethanol and acetic acid. The non-solvent may be added to the aqueous solution. More preferably, the aqueous solution is added to the non-solvent. The stirring time after formation of the suspension may be up to 30 hours and preferably up to 20 hours or less than 20 hours. Isolation by filtration and drying is carried out in known manner as described before. Polymorph form B is a very stable crystalline form, that can be easily filtered off, dried and ground to particle sizes desired for pharmaceutical formulations. These outstanding properties renders polymorph form B especially feasible for pharmaceutical application. Polymorph F Polymorph F may be obtained by phase equilibration of suspensions of polymorph form A in suitable polar and non-aqueous solvents, which scarcely dissolve said lower energy forms, especially alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, propanol and isopropanol. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of polymorph form F of (6R)-L-erythrotetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dispersion of particles of solid form A of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a non-aqueous solvent that scarcely dissolves said (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride below room temperature, stirring the suspension at said temperatures for a time sufficient to produce polymorph form F, thereafter isolating crystalline form F and removing the solvent from the isolated form F. Removing of solvent and drying may be carried out under air, dry air or a dry protection gas such as nitrogen or noble gases and at or below room temperature, for example down to 0° C. The temperature during phase equilibration is preferably from 5 to 15° C. and most preferably about 10° C. Polymorph J Polymorph J may be obtained by dehydration of form E at moderate temperatures under vacuum. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of polymorph form J of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising preparation of form E and removing the water from form E by treating form E in a vacuum drier to obtain form J at moderate temperatures which may mean a temperature in the range of 25 to 70° C., and most preferably 30 to 50° C. Polymorph K Polymorph K may be obtained by crystallization from mixtures of polar solvents containing small amounts of water and in the presence of small amounts of ascorbic acid. Solvents for the solvent mixture may be selected from acetic acid and an alcohol such as methanol, ethanol, n- or isopropanol. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of polymorph form K of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dissolving (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a mixture of acetic acid and an alcohol or tetrahydrofurane containing small amounts of water and a small amount of ascorbic acid at elevated temperatures, lowering temperature below room temperature to crystallise said dihydrochloride, isolating the precipitate and drying the isolated precipitate at elevated temperature optionally under vacuum. Suitable alcohols are for example methanol, ethanol, propanol and isopropanol, whereby ethanol is preferred. The ratio of acetic acid to alcohol or tetrahydrofurane may be from 2:1 to 1:2 and preferably about 1:1. Dissolution of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride can be carried out in presence of a higher water content and more of the antisolvent mixture can be added to obtain complete precipitation. The amount of water in the final composition may be from 0.5 to 5 percent by weight and the amount of ascorbic acid may be from 0.01 to 0.5 percent by weight, both referred to the solvent mixture. The temperature for dissolution may be in the range from 30 to 100 and preferably 35 to 70° C. and the drying temperature may be in the range from 30 to 50° C. The precipitate may be washed with an alcohol such as ethanol after isolation, e.g. filtration. The polymorph K can easily be converted in the most stable form B by phase equilibration in e.g. isopropanol and optionally seeding with form B crystals at above room temperature such as temperatures from 30 to 40° C. 5. Preparation of hydrate forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride Form C Hydrate form C may be obtained by phase equilibration at ambient temperatures of a polymorph form such as polymorph B suspension in a non-solvent which contains water in an amount of preferably about 5 percent by weight, referred to the solvent. The present inventtion also refers to a process for the preparation of hydrate form C of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising suspending (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a non-solvent such as heptane, C1-C4-alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, 1- or 2-propanol, acetates, such as ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, acetic acid or ethers such as terahydrofuran, dioxane, tertiary-butyl methyl ether, or binary or ternary mixtures of such non-solvents, to which sufficient water is added to form a monohydrate, and stirring the suspension at or below ambient temperatures (e.g. 0 to 30° C.) for a time sufficient to form a monohydrate. Sufficient water may mean from 1 to 10 and preferably from 3 to 8 percent by weight of water, referred to the amount of solvent. The solids may be filtered off and dried in air at about room temperature. The solid can absorb some water and therefore possess a higher water content than the theoretical value of 5.5 percent by weight. Hydrate form C is unstable with respect to forms D and B, and easily converted to polymorph form B at temperatures of about 40° C. in air and lower relative humidity. Form C can be transformed into the more stable hydrate D by suspension equilibration at room temperature. Form D Hydrate form D may be obtained by adding at about room temperature concentrated aqueous solutions of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride to an excess of a non-solvent such as hexane, heptane, dichloromethane, 1- or 2-propanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, acetonitril, acetic acid or ethers such as terahydrofuran, dioxane, tertiary-butyl methyl ether, or mixtures of such non-solvents, and stirring the suspension at ambient temperatures. The crystalline solid can be filtered off and then dried under dry nitrogen at ambient temperatures. A preferred non-solvent is isopropanol. The addition of the aqueous solution may carried out drop-wise to avoid a sudden precipitation. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of hydrate form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising adding at about room temperature a concentrated aqueous solutions of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride to an excess of a non-solvent and stirring the suspension at ambient temperatures. Excess of non-solvent may mean a ratio of aqueous to the non solvent from 1:10 to 1:1000. Form D contains a small excess of water, related to the monohydrate, and it is believed that it is absorbed water due to the slightly hygroscopic nature of this crystalline hydrate. Hydrate form D is deemed to be the most stable one under the known hydrates at ambient temperatures and a relative humidity of less than 70%. Hydrate form D may be used for formulations prepared under conditions, where this hydrate is stable. Ambient temperature may mean 20 to 30° C. Hydrate form E Hydrate form E may be obtained by adding concentrated aqueous solutions of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride to an excess of a non-solvent cooled to temperatures from about 10 to −10° C. and preferably between 0 to 10° C. and stirring the suspension at said temperatures. The crystalline solid can be filtered off and then dried under dry nitrogen at ambient temperatures. Non-solvents are for example such as hexane, heptane, di-chloromethane, 1- or 2-propanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, acetic acid or ethers such as terahydrofuran, dioxane, tertiary-butyl methyl ether, or mixtures of such non-solvents. A preferred non-solvent is isopropanol. The addition of the aqueous solution may carried out drop-wise to avoid a sudden precipitation. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of hydrate form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising adding a concentrated aqueous solutions of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride to an excess of a non-solvent which is cooled to temperatures from about 10 to −10° C., and stirring the suspension at ambient temperatures. Excess of non-solvent may mean a ratio of aqueous to the non solvent from 1:10 to 1:1000. A preferred non-solvent is tetrahydrofuran. Another preparation process comprises exposing polymorph form B to an air atmosphere with a relative humidity of 70 to 90%, preferably about 80%. Hydrate form E is deemed to be a dihydrate, whereby some additional water may be absorbed. Polymorph form E can be transformed into polymorph J upon drying under vacuum at moderate temperatures, which may mean between 20° C. and 50° C. at pressures between 0 and 100 mbar. Form E is especially suitable for formulations in semi solid forms because of its stability at high relative humidities. Form H Hydrate form H may be obtained by dissolving at ambient temperatures (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a mixture of acetic acid and water, adding then a non-solvent to precipitate a crystalline solid, cooling the obtained suspension and stirring the cooled suspension for a certain time. The crystalline solid is filtered off and then dried under vacuum at ambient temperatures. Non-solvents are for example such as hexane, heptane, di-chloromethane, 1- or 2-propanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, acetic acid or ethers such as terahydrofuran, dioxane, tertiary-butyl methyl ether, or mixtures of such non-solvents. A preferred non-solvent is tetrahydrofuran. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of hydrate form H of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dissolving at ambient temperatures (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a mixture of acetic acid and a less amount than that of acetic acid of water, adding a non-solvent and cooling the obtained suspension to temperatures in the range of 10 to 10° C., and preferably −5 to 5° C., and stirring the suspension at said temperature for a certain time. Certain time may mean 1 to 20 hours. The weight ratio of acetic acid to water may be from 2:1 to 25:1 and preferably 5:1 to 15:1. The weight ratio of acetic acid/water to the non-solvent may be from 1:2 to 1:5. Hydrate form H seems to be a monohydrate with a slight excess of water absorbed due to the hygroscopic nature. Form O Hydrate form 0 can be prepared by exposure of polymorphic form F to a nitrogen atmosphere containing water vapour with a resulting relative humidity of about 52% for about 24 hours. The fact that form F, which is a slightly hygroscopic anhydrate, can be used to prepare form 0 under 52% relative humidity suggests that form 0 is a hydrate, which is more stable than form F under ambient temperature and humidity conditions. 6. Preparation of solvate forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride Form G Ethanol solvate form G may be obtained by crystallisation of L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride dissolved in water and adding a large excess of ethanol, stirring the obtained suspension at or below ambient temperatures and drying the isolated solid under air or nitrogen at about room temperature. Here, a large excess of ethanol means a resulting mixture of ethanol and water with less than 10% water, preferably about 3 to 6%. The present invention also refers to a process for the preparation of ethanolate form G of (6R)-L-erythrotetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, comprising dissolving at about room temperature to temperatures of 75° C. (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in water or in a mixture of water and ethanol, cooling a heated solution to room temperature and down to 5 to 10° C., adding optionally ethanol to complete precipitation, stirring the obtained suspension at temperatures of 20 to 5° C., filtering off the white, crystalline solid and drying the solid under air or a protection gas such as nitrogen at temperatures about room temperature. The process may be carried out in a first variant in dissolving (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride at about room temperature in a lower amount of water and then adding an excess of ethanol and then stirring the obtained suspension for a time sufficient for phase equilibration. In a second variant, (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride may be suspended in ethanol, optionally adding a lower amount of water, and heating the suspension and dissolute (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride, cooling down the solution to temperatures of about 5 to 15° C., adding additional ethanol to the suspension and then stirring the obtained suspension for a time sufficient for phase equilibration. Form I Acetic acid solvate form I may be obtained by dissolution of L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in a mixture of acetic acid and water at elevated temperature, adding further acetic acid to the solution, cooling down to a temperature of about 10° C., then warming up the formed suspension to about 15° C., and then stirring the obtained suspension for a time sufficient for phase equilibration, which may last up to 3 days. The crystalline solid is then filtered off and dried under air or a protection gas such as nitrogen at temperatures about room temperature. Form L Form L may be obtained by suspending hydrate form E at room temperature in ethanol and stirring the suspension at temperatures from 0 to 10° C., preferably about 5° C., for a time sufficient for phase equilibration, which may be 10 to 20 hours. The crystalline solid is then filtered off and dried preferably under reduced pressure at 30° C. or under nitrogen. Analysis by TG-FTIR suggests that form L may contain variable amounts of ethanol and water, i.e. it can exist as an polymorph (anhydrate), as a mixed ethanol solvate/hydrate, or even as a hydrate. Form M Ethanol solvate form M may be obtained by dissolution of L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in ethanol and evaporation of the solution under nitrogen at ambient temperature, i.e., between 10° C. and 40° C. Form M may also be obtained by drying of form G under a slight flow of dry nitrogen at a rate of about 20 to 100 ml/min. Depending on the extent of drying under nitrogen, the remaining amount of ethanol may be variable, i.e. from about 3% to 13%. Form N The isopropanol form N may be obtained by dissolution of L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in 4.0 ml of a mixture of isopropanol and water (mixing volume ratio for example 4:1). To this solution is slowly added isopropanol (IPA, for example about 4.0 ml) and the resulting suspension is cooled to 0° C. and stirred for several hours (e.g. about 10 to 18 hours) at this temperature. The suspension is filtered and the solid residue washed with isopropanol at room temperature. The obtained crystalline material is then dried at ambient temperature (e.g. about 20 to 30° C.) and reduced pressure (about 2 to 10 mbar) for several hours (e.g. about 5 to 20 hours). TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 9.0% between 25 to 200° C., which is attributed to both isopropanol and water. This result suggests that form N can exist either in form of an isopropanol solvate, or in form of mixed isopropanol solvate/hydrate, or as an non-solvated form containing a small amount of water. A further object of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition comprising solid crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride selected from the group consisting of forms A, B, D, E, F, J, K, L and 0 or a combination thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. As mentioned above, it was found that crystal form B is the most stable form of all found crystal forms. Crystal form B is especially suitable for various types and a broad range of formulations, even in presence of humid components without formation of hydrates. Accordingly, this invention is also directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a pure polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. In principle, also forms A, D, E, F, J, K, L and 0 are suitable for use in pharmaceutical formulations and accordingly, this invention is also directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising forms A, D, E, F, J, K, L and 0 of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. For forms A, F, J, K and L are preferably used dry formulation components and products may be kept in sealed containers, mainly to avoid formation of hydrates. Hydrate forms D, E and 0 can be used directly in presence of humid components for the formulation and air humidity must not be excluded. It was surprisingly found that hydrate form D is the most stable form under the hydrates and forms B and D are especially suitable to be used in pharmaceutical formulations. Forms B and D presents some advantages like an aimed manufacture, good handling due to convenient crystal size and morphology, very good stability under production conditions of various types of formulation, storage stability, higher solubility, and high bio-availability. Accordingly, this invention is particularly directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising polymorph form B or hydrate form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. In the following, crystal form is meaning A, B, D, E, F, J, K, L and O. The amount of crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride substantially depends on type of formulation and desired dosages during administration time periods. The amount in an oral formulation may be from 0.1 to 50 mg, preferably from 0.5 to 30 mg, and more preferably from 1 to 15 mg. The crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride may be used together with folates such as, folic acid, or tetrahydrofolates. Examples of tetrahydrofolates are tetrahydrofolic acid, 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolic acid, 10-formyltetrahydrofolic acid, 5-formyltetrahydrofolic acid or preferably 5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid, their polyglutamates, their optically pure diastereoisomers, but also mixtures of diastereoisomers, especially the racemic mixture, pharmaceutically acceptable salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium or ammonium salts, each alone, in combination with an other folate or additionally with arginine. The weight ratio of crystal forms:folic acids or salts thereof: arginine may be from 1:10:10 to 10:1:1. Oral formulations may be solid formulations such as capsules, tablets, pills and troches, or liquid formulations such as aqueous suspensions, elixirs and syrups. Solid and liquid formulations encompass also incorporation of crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride according to the invention into liquid or solid food. Liquids also encompass solutions of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride for parenteral applications such as infusion or injection. The crystal form according to the invention may be directly used as powder (micronized particles), granules, suspensions or solutions, or it may be combined together with other pharmaceutically acceptable ingredients in admixing the components and optionally finely divide them, and then filling capsules, composed for example from hard or soft gelatine, compressing tablets, pills or troches, or suspend or dissolve them in carriers for suspensions, elixirs and syrups. Coatings may be applied after compression to form pills. Pharmaceutically acceptable ingredients are well known for the various types of formulation and may be for example binders such as natural or synthetic polymers, excipients, lubricants, surfactants, sweetening and flavouring agents, coating materials, preservatives, dyes, thickeners, adjuvants, antimicrobial agents, antioxidants and carriers for the various formulation types. Examples for binders are gum tragacanth, acacia, starch, gelatine, and biological degradable polymers such as homo- or co-polyesters of dicarboxylic acids, alkylene glycols, polyalkylene glycols and/or aliphatic hydroxylcarboxylic acids; homo- or co-polyamides of dicarboxylic acids, alkylene diamines, and/or aliphatic amino carboxylic acids; corresponding polyester-polyamide-co-polymers, polyanhydrides, polyorthoesters, polyphosphazene and polycarbonates. The biological degradable polymers may be linear, branched or crosslinked. Specific examples are poly-glycolic acid, poly-lactic acid, and poly-d,l-lactide/glycolide. Other examples for polymers are water-soluble polymers such as polyoxaalkylenes (polyoxaethylene, polyoxapropylene and mixed polymers thereof, poly-acrylamides and hydroxylalkylated polyacrylamides, poly-maleic acid and esters or -amides thereof, poly-acrylic acid and esters or -amides thereof, poly-vinylalcohol und esters or -ethers thereof, poly-vinylimidazole, polyvinylpyrrolidon, und natural polymers like chitosan. Examples for excipients are phosphates such as dicalcium phosphate. Examples for lubricants are natural or synthetic oils, fats, waxes, or fatty acid salts like magnesium stearate. Surfactants may be anionic, anionic, amphoteric or neutral. Examples for surfactants are lecithin, phospholipids, octyl sulfate, decyl sulfate, dodecyl sulfate, tetradecyl sulfate, hexadecyl sulfate and octadecyl sulfate, Na oleate or Na caprate, 1-acylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acids, such as 1-octanoylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acid, 1-decanoylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acid, 1-dodecanoylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acid, 1-tetradecanoylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acid, 1-hexadecanoylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acid, and 1-octadecanoylaminoethane-2-sulfonic acid, and taurocholic acid and taurodeoxycholic acid, bile acids and their salts, such as cholic acid, deoxycholic acid and sodium glycocholates, sodium caprate or sodium laurate, sodium oleate, sodium lauryl sulphate, sodium cetyl sulphate, sulfated castor oil and sodium dioctylsulfosuccinate, cocamidopropylbetaine and laurylbetaine, fatty alcohols, cholesterols, glycerol mono- or -distearate, glycerol mono- or -dioleate and glycerol mono- or -dipalmitate, and polyoxyethylene stearate. Examples for sweetening agents are sucrose, fructose, lactose or aspartam. Examples for flavouring agents are peppermint, oil of wintergreen or fruit flavours like cherry or orange flavour. Examples for coating materials are gelatine, wax, shellac, sugar or biological degradable polymers. Examples for preservatives are methyl or propylparabens, sorbic acid, chlorobutanol, phenol and thimerosal. Examples for adjuvants are fragrances. Examples for thickeners are synthetic polymers, fatty acids and fatty acid salts and esters and fatty alcohols. Examples for antioxidants are vitamins, such as vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D or vitamin E, vegetable extracts or fish oils. Examples for liquid carriers are water, alcohols such as ethanol, glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethylene glycols, triacetin and oils. Examples for solid carriers are talc, clay, microcrystalline cellulose, silica, alumina and the like. The formulation according to the invention may also contain isotonic agents, such as sugars, buffers or sodium chloride. The hydrate form D according to the invention may also be formulated as effervescent tablet or powder, which disintegrate in an aqueous environment to provide a drinking solution. A syrup or elixir may contain the polymorph of the invention, sucrose or fructose as sweetening agent a preservative like methylparaben, a dye and a flavouring agent. Slow release formulations may also be prepared from the polymorph according to the invention in order to achieve a controlled release of the active agent in contact with the body fluids in the gastro intestinal tract, and to provide a substantial constant and effective level of the active agent in the blood plasma. The crystal form may be embedded for this purpose in a polymer matrix of a biological degradable polymer, a water-soluble polymer or a mixture of both, and optionally suitable surfactants. Embedding can mean in this context the incorporation of micro-particles in a matrix of polymers. Controlled release formulations are also obtained through encapsulation of dispersed micro-particles or emulsified micro-droplets via known dispersion or emulsion coating technologies. The crystal form of this invention is also useful for administering a combination of therapeutic effective agents to an animal. Such a combination therapy can be carried out in using at least one further therapeutic agent which can be additionally dispersed or dissolved in a formulation. The crystal form of this invention and its formulations respectively can be also administered in combination with other therapeutic agents that are effective to treat a given condition to provide a combination therapy. The crystal form and the pharmaceutical composition according to the invention are highly suitable for effective treatment of neurological disorders. Another object of the invention is a method of delivering crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride according to the invention to a host, comprising administering to a host an effective amount of a polymorph according to the invention. A further object of the invention is the use of crystal forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride for the manufacture of a medicament useful in the treatment of neurological disorders. The following examples illustrate the invention without limiting the scope. A) Preparation of Polymorph Forms Within the Examples A1, A5, A6 and A7 (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Schircks Laboratories, CH-8645 Jona, Switzerland was used as starting material. EXAMPLE A1 Preparation of Polymorph Form A of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride 1.05 gram of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride are dissolved in 4.0 ml of bi-distilled water at 23±2° C. The solution is filtrated through a 0.22 μm millipore filtration unit and the filtrate is transferred into a 250 ml round flask. The solution in this flask is frozen by placing the flask into a bed with solid carbon dioxide at −78° C. The flask with the frozen content is then connected to a laboratory freeze dryer operating at a starting pressure of about 0.05 mbar. After about 20 hours the freeze drying is complete and the vacuum flask is disconnected from the freeze dryer and about 1.0 g of white, crystalline solid material is obtained. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals form A, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 1 and FIG. 1. Further investigation of the obtained solid by thermogravimetry coupled with infrared spectroscopy at a heating rate of 10° C./minute reveals a water content of about 3% with a nearly continuous release of the water between 50° C. and 200° C. The sample begins to decompose above 200 oc. TABLE 1 D-Spacing for form A Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 5.7 15.5 vs 7.4 12.0 m 13.3 6.7 m 13.6 6.5 m 14.0 6.3 w 14.4 6.1 w 14.9 5.96 w 16.1 5.49 m 18.1 4.89 m 23.5 3.79 m 24.0 3.70 s 25.6 3.48 m 25.8 3.45 m 26.8 3.33 s 27.3 3.26 s 27.7 3.22 m 28.1 3.18 m 28.9 3.08 m 29.6 3.02 w 30.3 2.95 w 31.1 2.87 m 32.1 2.79 w 33.2 2.70 w EXAMPLE A2 Stability of Polymorph form A 105 mg of polymorph A according to example A1 are suspended in 1.0 ml tertiary butyl methyl ether (TBME). The suspension is stirred under nitrogen atmosphere for about 18 hours at room temperature, filtrated and the white solid residue is then dried under air. Yield: 103 mg of crystalline white solid, which essentially still corresponds to form A according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A3 Stability of Polymorph form A 90 mg of polymorph A according to example A1 are suspended in 2.0 ml tetrahydrofuran (THF) and the resulting suspension is stirred in air for five days at room temperature, filtrated and the white solid residue is then dried under air. Yield: 85 mg of crystalline white solid, which still corresponds to form A according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A4 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form A 94 mg of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride as polymorph form A according to example A1 are suspended in 1.0 ml of ethanol in a 4.0 ml glass vial under nitrogen. The obtained suspension is stirred at a temperature of 23° C. for about 18 hours. After that time the white suspension is filtrated and the obtained crystalline solid is dried at 23° C. under nitrogen atmosphere for about 1 hour. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form B, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 2 and in FIG. 2. TABLE 2 D-Spacing for form B Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 10.1 8.7 vs 12.9 6.9 w 15.0 5.90 vw 15.7 5.63 m 17.5 5.07 m 18.6 4.76 m 20.1 4.40 m 21.4 4.15 w 22.2 4.00 s 22.5 3.95 m 25.3 3.52 m 25.8 3.44 w 26.8 3.32 m 27.6 3.23 s 28.1 3.17 w 28.7 3.11 vs 29.2 3.06 w 29.9 2.99 w 30.1 2.96 w 30.4 2.94 m 31.2 2.87 w 31.5 2.84 s 31.7 2.82 m 33.3 2.69 w 34.7 2.59 w 36.9 2.44 w EXAMPLE A5 Preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride 337 mg of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride are dissolved in 0.5 ml of bi-distilled water. 300 μl of this aqueous solution are added drop wise into a 22 ml glass vial containing 10.0 ml of ethanol. Upon addition of the aqueous solution to the ethanol, a white suspension is formed that is further stirred at 23° C. for about 15 hours. Thereafter a white, crystalline material is obtained by filtration and drying under nitrogen at 23° C. for about 1 hour. Yield is 74 mg. Investigation of the obtained solid reveals a powder X-ray diffraction pattern and Raman spectrum, which are identical to those described in example A4. EXAMPLE A6 Preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride 337 mg of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride are dissolved in 0.5 ml of bi distilled water. 300 μl of this aqueous solution are added drop-wise into a 22 ml glass vial containing 10.0 ml of acetic acid. Upon addition of the aqueous solution to the acetic acid, a white suspension is formed that is further stirred at 23° C. for about 15 hours. Thereafter a white crystalline material is obtained by filtration and drying under nitrogen for about 2 hours and 23° C. Yield is 118 mg. Investigation of the obtained solid by Raman spectroscopy reveals an identical spectrum as described in example A4. EXAMPLE A7 Preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride 1.0 g of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride are added to 4 ml bi-distilled water in a test-tube. This aqueous solution is added to 20 ml 100% acetic acid in a glass vial at room temperature. A gelatine-like precipitate is formed that dissolves within several minutes. Then 16 ml tetrahydrofurane are added and the solution is seeded with polymorph B crystals. A suspension is formed during stirring for 10 minutes at room temperature. This suspension is cooled to 0° C. and stands then for 1 hour at this temperature. The precipitate is filtered off, washed with tetrahydrofurane and then dried under vacuum for 17 hours at 20° C. and 10 mbar. There are obtained 0.74 g of beige crystals in the polymorph form B, that reveals a powder X-ray diffraction pattern and Raman spectrum, which are identical to those described in example A4. EXAMPLE A8 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from a Mixture of Hydrate Form C and Ethanol Solvate Form G 60.5 mg hydrate form C according to example B1 and 60.6 mg ethanol solvate form G according to example C1 are suspended in 1.0 ml ethanol (EtOH) under nitrogen. The slurry is stirred over night at room temperature, filtrated and dried in air. Yield: 96.4 mg white crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A9 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from a Mixture of Polymorph Form B and Ethanol Solvate Form G 60.4 mg ethanol solvate form G according to example C1 and 60.3 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 are suspended under nitrogen atmosphere in 1.0 ml ethanol, stirred over night at room temperature, filtrated and then dried in air. Yield: 86.4 mg white crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A10 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from a Mixture of Hydrate form C and Polymorph Form B 60.7 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 and 60.5 mg hydrate form C according to example B1 are suspended under nitrogen in 1.0 ml EtOH. The resulting suspension is stirred over night at room temperature, filtrated and dried in air. Yield: 86.6 mg white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A11 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form A According to Example A1 105 mg of polymorph form A according to example A1 are suspended in 2.0 ml THF containning 2.5% by weight of water. The suspension is stirred at room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere for about 48 hours, filtrated and dried under nitrogen for 20 hours at room temperature. Yield: 91 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A12 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Hydrate form E according to Example B8 115 mg of hydrate form E according to example B8 are suspended in 1.5 ml EtOH. The suspension is stirred at room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere for about 22 hours, filtrated and dried under nitrogen. Yield: 75 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A13 Preparation of Polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 205 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are suspended in 2.0 ml isopropanol (IPA) containing 5% by weight of water. The suspension is stirred for 24 hours at room temperature, and then filtered and dried under 53% relative humidity in air. Yield: 116 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A14 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph form B According to Example A4 205 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are suspended in 2.0 ml IPA containing 5% by weight of water. The suspension is stirred for 24 hours at 3° C., then filtered and dried under 53% relative humidity in air. Yield: 145 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A15 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form A According to Example A1 203 mg polymorph form A according to example A1 are suspended in 2.0 ml IPA and the suspension is stirred at 40° C. for 18 hours, filtered and then dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 192 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A16 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 200 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 800 μl water. 4.0 ml acetic acid and then 3.0 ml THF added and the resulting suspension is stirred at room temperature for 19 hours. The solid is filtered off and dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 133 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A17 Preparation of polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from polymorph form B according to example A4 256 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 4.0 ml acetic acid/H2O (4:1) and 4.0 ml acetic acid are added then. The formed suspension is stirred at 20° C. for about 20 hours, filtered and then dried in air for 4 hours. Yield: 173 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A18 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Acetic Acid Solvate form I According to Example C7 51 mg of acetic acid solvate form I according to example C7 is suspended in 1.0 ml EtOH and seeded with 7 mg of form B. The suspension is stirred for 20 hours at room temperature, filtered and dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 52 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A19 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph form B According to Example A4 304 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are suspended in 10.0 ml acetic acid and 100 μl water are added. The suspension is cooled to 13° C., seeded with 5 mg form B, stirred at 13° C. for 16 hours, filtered and then dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 276 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A20 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 304 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are suspended in 5.0 ml IPA and 100 μl water are added. The suspension is cooled to 3° C., stirred at 3° C. for 16 hours, filtered and dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 272 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A21 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 296 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 15 ml methanol at 50° C. The solution is cooled to 5° C. and about 9 ml solvent are evaporated. Stirring of the obtained suspension is then continued at 10° C. for 30 minutes. The suspension is filtered and the solid residue is then dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 122 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A22 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form K According to Example A28 116 mg of polymorph form K according to example A28 and 7 mg of polymorph form B are suspended in 2.0 ml IPA. The suspension is stirred at 35° C. for about 20 hours, filtered and then dried in air at 40° C. for about 1 hour. Yield: 98 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A23 Preparation of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Hydrate Form E According to Example B8 120 mg hydrate form E according to example B8 are suspended in 10 ml EtOH. The obtained suspension is stirred at room temperature for 15 hours, filtered and then dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 98 mg of white, crystalline solid, which corresponds to form B according to FT Raman spectrum and X-ray diffraction pattern. EXAMPLE A24 Stability Test of Polymorph Form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride a) Storage Stability Polymorph form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride is stored during 8 months in a minigrip bag at 40° C. and 75% relative humidity. Purity of the product is determined in different intervals by HPLC. The result is given in table 3. TABLE 3 Starting After After material After 1 week After 1 month 3 months 8 months HPLC 98.4 99.4 98.3 99.1 98.1 (5 area) The result demonstrates the unusual and unexpected high storage stability of polymorph form B, which makes it especially suitable for preparation of a stable active substance and processing in the manufacture of formulations and storage stable medicaments. b) Treatment of Polymorph Form B Under the Following Various Conditions Does Not Effect the Polymorph Form B, Which is Recovered After the Test: 128.2 mg polymorph form B are suspended under nitrogen in 1.0 ml methanol (MeOH). Thje white suspension is stirred for 5 hours at room temperature, filtrated and dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 123.4 mg white crystalline solid, polymorph form B. 123.2 mg polymorph form B are suspended under nitrogen in 2.0 ml EtOH. The white suspension is stirred over night at room temperature, filtrated and then dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 118.6 mg white crystalline solid, polymorph form B. 117.5 mg polymorph form B are suspended under nitrogen in 2.0 ml acetone. The white suspension is stirred over night at room temperature, filtrated and dried under nitrogen room temperature. Yield: 100.3 mg white crystalline solid, polymorph form B. 124.4 mg polymorph form B are suspended under nitrogen in 2.0 ml 2-Propanol. The white suspension is stirred over night at room temperature, filtrated and dried under nitrogen room temperature. Yield: 116.1 mg white crystalline solid, polymorph form B. 100.2 mg polymorph form B are suspended in 2.0 ml EtOH in air. The white suspension is stirred in air over a weekend at room temperature, filtrated and then dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 94.2 mg of slightly yellow crystalline solid, polymorph form B. 119.1 mg of this slightly yellow crystalline solid, polymorph form B are suspended under nitrogen in 1.0 ml THF. The white suspension is stirred for about 20 hours at room temperature, filtrated and dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 114.5 mg of slightly yellow crystalline solid, polymorph form B. 126 mg of polymorph form B are suspended in 2.0 ml acetonitrile containing 2% by weight of water. The suspension is stirred for about 20 hours at room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere, filtrated and then drying under nitrogen. Yield: 116 mg of crystalline white solid, polymorph form B. 122 mg of polymorph form B are suspended in 2.0 ml ethyl acetate containing 2% by weight of water. The suspension is stirred at room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere for about 23 hours, filtrated and dried in air. Yield: 92 mg of crystalline white solid, polymorph form B. 366 mg of polymorph form B are stored in an open container under air at 75% relative humidity at 40° C. for 5 days. The solid is after this storage time at elevated temperature still polymorph form B. EXAMPLE A25 Preparation of Polymorph Form F of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form A According to Example A1 102 mg of polymorph form A according to example A1 are suspended in 1.0 ml IPA. The suspension is stirred at room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere for about 19 hours, filtrated and dried in air. Yield: 102 mg of a crystalline white solid. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy reveals a crystalline form F. TG-FTIR: weight loss between 25-200° C. of 1.3% is attributed to water. EXAMPLE A26 Preparation of Polymorph Form F of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form A According to Example A1 97 mg of polymorph form A according to example A1 are suspended in 2.0 ml IPA. The suspension is stirred at 10° C. for 22 hours, filtered and then dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 58 mg. The crystalline, white solid is polymorph form F, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 4 and in FIG. 6. TABLE 4 D-Spacings for form F Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 5.2 17.1 vs 7.3 12.1 w 10.3 8.6 w 12.7 7.0 w 13.6 6.5 w 13.9 6.4 w 15.0 5.92 w 15.5 5.72 w 17.4 5.11 w 18.0 4.92 m 18.3 4.86 w 19.0 4.68 m 20.1 4.41 w 21.6 4.12 w 22.9 3.88 w 23.2 3.83 w 24.1 3.70 m 24.5 3.64 w 25.1 3.55 m 25.5 3.49 s 25.8 3.46 s 26.3 3.39 s 26.8 3.33 m 27.0 3.31 m 27.3 3.27 m 27.8 3.21 s 28.0 3.19 m 28.9 3.09 m 29.6 3.02 m 30.2 2.96 m 30.9 2.89 w 31.3 2.86 w 32.0 2.80 m 33.6 2.69 m EXAMPLE A27 Preparation of Polymorph Form J of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph form E According to Example B8 250 mg of form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride are dissolved in 5.0 ml acetic acid and 1.0 ml water. To this solution 4.0 ml THF are added and the resulting suspension is slowly cooled to 5° C. Stirring is continued for about 16 hours before the suspension is filtered and obtained crystalline solid is dried under vacuum at ambient temperature. Yield: 179 mg mg of a crystalline white solid. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form J, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 5 and in FIG. 10. TG-FTIR: weight loss between 25-200° C. of 0.6% is attributed to water. TABLE 5 D-Spacing for form J Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 6.0 14.6 m 13.4 6.6 w 13.9 6.4 w 16.2 5.47 w 18.3 4.84 w 20.5 4.34 vw 21.2 4.20 vw 21.7 4.10 vw 24.3 3.67 w 25.2 3.54 w 27.1 3.29 vs 27.8 3.21 vs 30.3 2.95 w 31.5 2.84 vw 32.8 2.73 vw EXAMPLE A28 Preparation of Polymorph Form K of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 2.00 g of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride form B and 0.2 g of ascorbic acid are dissolved in 8.0 ml water. Subsequently, 40 ml acetic acid are added to this solution and then 30 ml of THF are slowly added to induce the crystallization. The resulting suspension is cooled to 0° C. and stirring is continued at 0° C. for about one hour before the solid is separated by filtration and washed with about 5 ml of ethanol of 0° C. The obtained crystalline solid is then again suspended in 30 ml ethanol at 0° C. resulting suspension is stirred at 0° C. for about 2 hours before the suspension is filtered and the obtained crystals are washed with 5 ml of ethanol of 0° C. The obtained crystals are dried at 30° C. under reduced pressure (8 mbar) for about 16 hours. Yield: 1.36 g of white crystalline solid. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy reveals a crystalline form K, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 6 and in FIG. 11. TG-FTIR: weight loss between 25-200° C. of 0.6% which % is attributed to water. TABLE 6 D-Spacing for form K Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 6.3 14.0 s 9.4 9.4 w 13.3 6.6 w 13.8 6.4 w 14.0 6.3 w 14.6 6.1 w 14.8 6.0 w 15.7 5.66 w 16.6 5.33 w 17.3 5.13 vw 18.8 4.73 m 19.1 4.64 m 19.8 4.48 w 20.5 4.32 vw 21.1 4.22 w 21.8 4.08 w 22.9 3.88 w 23.5 3.79 w 25.2 3.54 m 25.5 3.49 vs 26.3 3.39 m 26.8 3.33 vs 28.5 3.13 s 28.8 3.10 m 29.3 3.05 m 29.7 3.01 m 29.9 2.99 m 30.8 2.90 m B) Preparation of hydrate forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride EXAMPLE B1 Preparation of Hydrate Form C of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 116 mg of polymorph form B are suspended in 1.0 ml acetonitrile containing 50 μl water. This suspension is stirred at room temperature for about 22 hours, filtrated and then dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 140 mg of a crystalline white solid, designated as form C. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 5.3% between 25 to 200° C., attributed to water and indicating a monohydrate. DSC: melting point near 94° C., ΔH˜31 J/g. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form C, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 7 and in FIG. 3. TABLE 7 D-Spacing for form C Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 4.9 18.2 m 5.7 15.4 w 6.3 13.9 vs 8.5 10.4 w 9.2 9.6 w 9.4 9.4 vw 9.7 9.1 w 10.1 8.8 m 10.8 8.2 w 11.0 8.0 w 12.9 6.8 m 13.5 6.5 w 14.6 6.05 m 15.4 5.77 w 15.7 5.64 w 16.3 5.44 w 17.1 5.19 w 18.2 4.89 w 18.6 4.76 w 18.9 4.70 w 20.1 4.41 w 20.9 4.25 m 22.2 4.00 m 22.9 3.88 m 23.4 3.80 m 24.8 3.59 s 25.5 3.50 m 25.9 3.44 m 26.4 3.37 m 27.3 3.26 s 28.0 3.19 vs 28.1 3.17 s 28.7 3.11 m 29.2 3.06 m 29.6 3.02 m 30.1 2.97 vs 30.6 2.93 m 30.9 2.89 m 31.6 2.83 m 32.6 2.75 w 33.6 2.67 w 34.3 2.62 w 35.0 2.56 w 36.9 2.43 m EXAMPLE B2 Stability of hydrate form C of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride 71 mg of hydrate form C according to example B1 are stored under 52% relative humidity and at room temperature for 17 days. Hydrate form C is retained. EXAMPLE B3 Preparation of Hydrate Form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 A solution of 330 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 in 1.0 ml water is prepared. 600 μl of this solution are added drop-wise to 10.0 ml 2-propanol at room temperature and stirred for about 2 hours. The precipitated solid is filtered off and dried at room temperature in air. Yield: 180 mg of a crystalline, white solid, designated as form D. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 4.8% between 25 to 200° C., attributed to water. Karl Fischer titration results in a water content of 6%. DSC: melting point near 153° C., ΔH˜111 J/g. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy reveals a crystalline form D, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 8 and in FIG. 4. TABLE 8 D-Spacing for form D Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 9.1 9.8 vw 10.3 8.6 s 13.0 6.8 w 15.2 5.84 vw 16.0 5.56 m 17.8 4.99 m 18.1 4.90 vw 19.0 4.67 s 20.6 4.32 m 21.8 4.08 vw 22.6 3.93 vs 22.9 3.88 w 24.5 3.64 w 26.1 3.41 w 26.6 3.36 vw 27.4 3.25 w 28.2 3.17 m 29.3 3.05 s 30.4 2.94 w 30.6 2.92 w 31.0 2.88 m 31.4 2.85 w 31.9 2.80 m 32.1 2.79 m 33.1 2.71 vw 33.4 2.68 w 33.8 2.65 w 34.9 2.57 vw 35.6 2.52 vw 36.13 2.49 vw 37.58 2.39 vw 38.24 2.35 w 38.48 2.34 w 39.12 2.30 w 39.33 2.29 w EXAMPLE B4 Preparation of Hydrate Form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 246 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 4.0 ml IPA/H2O (4:1) at 40° C. 4.0 ml IPA are then added and the solution is cooled to 20° C. The formed suspension is stirred for about 20 hours at 20° C. The solid is filtered off and dried in air at room temperature for about 4 hours. A comparison with the crystalline solid of example B3 reveals formation of hydrate form D. EXAMPLE B5 Preparation of Hydrate Form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 252 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 4.0 ml IPA/H2O (4:1) at 40° C. 4.0 ml IPA are added and the solution is slowly cooled to 5° C. At 25° C. 5 mg of seed crystals of form D are added. The temperature is changed to room temperature. The suspension is stirred for 40 hours, filtered and then dried in air for 5 hours at room temperature. A comparison with the crystalline solid of example B3 reveals formation of hydrate form D. EXAMPLE B6 Preparation of Hydrate Form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Hydrate Form C According to Example B1 700 mg of from hydrate form C according to example B1 are suspended in IPA/H2O (9:1). The suspension is stirred for 5 hours at room temperature, filtered and the solid dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 470 mg of white, crystalline solid, corresponding to hydrate form D. EXAMPLE B7 Treatment of Hydrate Form D of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride in Isopropanol 105 mg of hydrate form D according to example B3 are suspended in 2.0 ml IPA. The suspension is stirred at room temperature for about 18 hours, filtered and the solid then dried in air at room temperature for about 4 hours. The obtained solid is the unchanged hydrate form D. EXAMPLE B8 Preparation of Hydrate Form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 489 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 1.0 ml water. The aqueous solution is added at 5° C. to 20 ml THF. The formed suspension is stirred for about 20 hours at 5° C., filtrated and dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 486 mg of a crystalline, pale yellow solid, designated as form E. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 10.8% between 25 to 200° C., attributed to water. Karl Fischer titration results in a water content of 11.0%, which suggests a dihydrate. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form E, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 9 and in FIG. 5. TABLE 9 D-Spacing for form E Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 5.7 15.4 s 13.3 6.6 w 13.7 6.5 w 14.9 5.95 vw 15.8 5.61 vw 16.2 5.48 w 16.9 5.24 w 18.2 4.87 w 19.7 4.50 vw 20.8 4.27 w 22.6 3.94 w 23.6 3.78 w 24.1 3.69 m 24.8 3.60 w 26.0 3.43 w 26.8 3.33 s 27.4 3.26 vs 28.3 3.16 w 29.0 3.08 m 29.6 3.02 w 29.9 2.98 w 30.3 2.95 m 30.7 2.91 w 31.1 2.87 m 32.0 2.79 w 32.7 2.74 w 33.2 2.69 w 34.2 2.62 w EXAMPLE B9 Preparation of Hydrate Form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 10 ml THF are cooled to 5° C. and then 40011 of a concentrated aqueous solution containing about 160 mg polymorph form B according to example A4 is added drop-wise under stirring. The resulting suspension is stirred at 5° C. for about 2 hours at 5° C., then the precipitated solid is filtered off and dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 123.2 mg pale yellow crystalline solid, corresponding to hydrate form E. EXAMPLE B10 Preparation of Hydrate Form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 306 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 1.5 ml water. The water is evaporated from the aqueous solution under nitrogen at room temperature to dryness. The pale yellow crystalline residue corresponds to hydrate form E. EXAMPLE B11 Preparation of Hydrate form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph form A According to Example A1 71 mg of polymorph form A according to example A1 are stored in air under 52% relative humidity at room temperature for 17 days. The obtained pale yellow crystalline solid corresponds to hydrate form E. Hydrate form E is retained, when this solid is are stored in air under 52% relative humidity at room temperature for 17 days. EXAMPLE B12 Preparation of Hydrate Form E of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 200 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 800 μl water. 4.0 ml acetic acid and then 3.0 ml THF are added the solution. The suspension is stirred at 0° C. for 19 hours, the solid filtered off and dried in air at room temperature. Yield: 159 mg pale yellow crystalline solid corresponding to hydrate form E. EXAMPLE B13 Preparation of Hydrate Form H of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 250 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in a mixture of 5.0 ml acetic acid and 1.0 ml water. To this solution are added 10 ml of THF as non-solvent. The obtained suspension is cooled to 0° C. and then stirred for 18 hours at 0° C. After addition of THF the void volume of the glass vial is purged with nitrogen and the cap is closed. The solid is filtered off and dried 24 hours room temperature under vacuum. Yield: 231 mg of a crystalline, pale yellow solid, designated as form H. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 6.5% between 25 to 200° C., attributed to water. Karl Fischer titration results in a water content of 6.34%. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form H, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 10 and in FIG. 8. TABLE 10 D-Spacing for form H Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 5.6 15.8 vs 8.6 10.3 vw 11.0 8.0 vw 13.4 6.6 vw 14.6 6.07 vw 18.5 4.81 vw 20.6 4.30 vw 23.0 3.87 w 24.7 3.60 w 27.3 3.27 w 27.8 3.21 m 28.5 3.13 vw 29.3 3.05 vw 30.2 2.96 w 31.0 2.89 w 31.8 2.82 vw 33.5 2.67 m EXAMPLE B14 Preparation of Hydrate Form O of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form F According to Example A26 About 50 mg of polymorph form F according to example A26 are placed on an powder X-ray diffraction sample holder of 0.8 mm thickness (TTK type, obtained form Anton Paar GmbH, Graz, Austria). The prepared sample holder is placed in the closed sample chamber of a Philips X'Pert powder X-ray diffractometer and the sample chamber is purged with nitrogen and partially saturated with water vapour to a resulting relative humidity of about 52%. After an exposure time of about 24 hour a powder X-ray diffraction pattern is recorded. Investigation of the obtained solid sample by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form 0, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 11 and in FIG. 15. TABLE 11 D-Spacing for form O Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 5.5 15.9 w 6.3 14.0 w 7.4 12.0 w 10.0 8.8 m 12.6 7.0 w 13.6 6.5 w 14.1 6.3 m 14.8 6.00 w 15.4 5.75 w 15.7 5.65 m 17.5 5.06 m 17.8 4.98 m 18.0 4.92 m 18.3 4.84 w 18.6 4.77 w 20.1 4.42 w 20.5 4.33 w 22.2 4.00 m 22.9 3.88 m 23.5 3.78 w 24.1 3.69 s 24.5 3.64 s 25.3 3.52 vs 25.5 3.49 s 25.8 3.46 s 26.1 3.42 s 26.8 3.32 m 27.3 3.27 m 27.6 3.23 s 28.0 3.18 s 28.3 3.15 vs 28.6 3.12 m 29.4 3.04 vs 30.3 2.95 m 31.8 2.81 s 32.9 2.72 m 33.6 2.67 m 34.3 2.61 m C) Preparation of Solvate Forms of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride EXAMPLE C1 Preparation of Form G of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 245 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are suspended in 4.0 ml ethanol. 0.5 ml water are added and the mixture is heated to 70° C. to dissolve form B. The solution is cooled to 10° C. 2 ml of ethanol are added and the formed suspension is stirred for about 4 hours at 10° C. The solid is filtered off and dried for about 30 minutes under a slight flow of nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 190 mg of crystalline white solid designated as form G. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 11.5% between 25 to 200° C., which is attributed to loss of ethanol and suggests an ethanol solvate. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form G, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 12 and in FIG. 7. TABLE 12 D-Spacing for form G Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 6.1 14.5 vs 8.1 10.9 w 9.0 9.8 w 12.7 7.0 w 14.1 6.3 w 15.4 5.74 w 16.9 5.24 vw 17.6 5.04 vw 18.5 4.79 w 20.1 4.41 w 22.1 4.02 w 23.0 3.86 w 23.6 3.77 w 24.1 3.69 w 24.6 3.63 m 25.0 3.57 m 25.5 3.49 m 26.2 3.41 m 27.3 3.26 m 28.1 3.17 m 29.0 3.07 m 30.1 2.97 m 30.3 2.95 m 31.2 2.87 w 34.3 2.61 w EXAMPLE C2 Preparation of Form G of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph form B According to Example A4 200 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 400 μwater then precipitated with the addition of 10 ml ethanol. A precipitate is formed and the suspension is stirred for 17 hours at 0° C. The solid is filtered off and dried in air at room temperature for about 1 hour. Yield: 161 mg of crystalline white solid corresponding to ethanol solvate G according to example C1. EXAMPLE C3 Preparation of Form L of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Hydrate Form E According to Example B8 104 mg of hydrate form E according to example B8 are suspended in ethanol and the suspension is stirred at 4° C. for about 16 hours. The solid is filtered off and dried under nitrogen at room temperature. Yield: 100 mg of crystalline white solid designated as form L. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 9.1% between 25 to 200° C., which is attributed to ethanol and water. This weight loss suggests a mixed water/ethanol solvate. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form L, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 13 and in FIG. 12. TABLE 13 D-Spacing for form L Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 6.3 14.1 vs 8.5 10.4 w 9.3 9.5 w 9.8 9.0 vw 12.9 6.9 w 13.6 6.5 w 14.4 6.1 w 15.4 5.75 w 15.8 5.61 w 17.5 5.08 w 18.9 4.71 w 23.1 3.86 w 23.5 3.78 w 25.7 3.46 m 26.5 3.36 m 29.2 3.06 w 30.8 2.90 w 31.8 2.82 w EXAMPLE C4 Preparation of Form L of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Form B According to Example A4 2.0 g of form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 3.0 ml of water. This solution is slowly added to 70 ml absolute ethanol (not denaturated) at room temperature. Approximately 300 mg of ascorbic acid are added to the aqueous solution and the void volume of the suspension is purged with nitrogen to prevent oxidation. The resulting suspension is cooled to 0° C. and stirred at this temperature for about three hours. Thereafter the suspension is filtered and the solid residue is washed with 6.0 g ethanol and dried for 18 hours at 35° C. under reduced pressure (8 mbar). Yield: 1.41 g. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 3.0% between 25 to 200° C., attributed to water. This results suggests that form L can exist either in form of an ethanol solvate, or in form of mixed ethanol solvate/hydrate, or as an non-solvated form containing as small amount of water. The solid residue comprises form L as shown by a comparison of powder X-ray diffraction pattern with that in example. EXAMPLE C5 Preparation of Form M of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 120 mg of form B of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride according to example A4 are dissolved in 100 ml of absolute ethanol at 40° C. This solution is evaporated to dryness under a slight flow of nitrogen. The obtained crystalline white solid is designated as form M. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 9.1% between 25 to 200° C., attributed to ethanol and water, suggesting a mixed water/ethanol solvate. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form M, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 14 and in FIG. 13. TABLE 14 D-Spacing for form M Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 4.7 18.9 s 13.9 6.4 m 14.6 6.06 w 15.7 5.66 w 16.8 5.28 w 19.7 4.50 w 21.0 4.23 w 27.7 3.22 vs EXAMPLE C6 Preparation of Form N of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Ethanol Solvate form B According to Example A4 250 mg of form B according to example A4 are dissolved in 4.0 ml of a mixture of isopropanol and water (4:1). To this solution 4.0 ml of IPA are slowly added and the resulting suspension is cooled to 0° C. and stirred for about 18 hours at this temperature. The suspension is filtered and the solid residue washed with 4 ml of isopropanol at room temperature. The obtained crystalline material is then dried at 30° C. und reduced pressure (8 mbar) for about 18 hours. Yield: 150 mg. TG-FTIR shows a weight loss of 9.0% between 25 to 200° C., which is attributed to both isopropanol and water. This result suggests that form N can exist either in form of an isopropanol solvate, or in form of mixed isopropanol solvate/hydrate, or as an non-solvated form containing a small amount of water. Investigation by powder X-ray diffraction shows that the solid residue comprises form N, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 15 and in FIG. 14. TABLE 15 D-Spacing for form N Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 4.5 19.5 m 8.9 9.9 w 13.3 6.7 w 17.2 5.15 w 18.4 4.83 w 22.7 3.91 w 25.0 3.56 m 26.8 3.33 vs 28.3 3.15 w 30.9 2.89 w 31.9 2.81 w 35.1 2.56 w 38.2 2.36 w EXAMPLE C7 Preparation of Acetic Acid Solvate Form I of (6R)-L-erythro-tetrahydrobiopterin dihydrochloride from Polymorph Form B According to Example A4 252 mg of polymorph form B according to example A4 are dissolved at 40° C. in 4.0 ml acetic acid/water (4:1). 4.0 ml acetic are then added acid and the solution is cooled to 5° C. The resulting suspension is stirred for 66 hours. The solid is filtered off and dried in air for 5 hours at room temperature. Yield: 190 mg of crystalline white solid designated as form 1. TG-FTIR reveals that form I contains about 12.7% by weight of acetic acid, which suggests an acetic acid solvate. Investigation of the obtained solid by powder X-ray diffraction reveals a crystalline form 1, which shows the powder X-ray diffraction pattern as exhibited in table 16 and in FIG. 9. TABLE 16 D-Spacing for form I Angle [°2θ] d-spacings [Å] Intensity (qualitative) 6.1 14.5 m 6.3 14.0 w 8.1 11.0 w 12.7 7.0 vw 12.9 6.9 vw 14.3 6.2 vw 16.7 5.30 w 18.5 4.79 w 20.0 4.44 w 20.7 4.29 w 21.2 4.20 vw 21.8 4.07 vw 22.1 4.02 w 23.2 3.84 w 23.4 3.80 w 24.2 3.67 vs 24.7 3.61 m 25.0 3.56 w 25.9 3.44 m 27.3 3.27 w 27.9 3.19 w 28.8 3.11 s 29.8 3.00 m 30.4 2.94 w 31.2 2.87 w 32.0 2.80 w Experimental: Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD): PXRD is performed either on a Philips 1710 or on a Philips X'Pert powder X-ray diffractometer using CUKα radiation. D-spacings are calculated from the 2θ using the wavelength of the CUKα1 radiation of 1.54060 A. The X-ray tube was operated at a Voltage of 45 kV (or 40 kV with X'Pert Instrument), and a current of 45 mA (or 40 mA with X'Pert Instrument). A step size of 0.02°, and a counting time of 2.4 s per step is applied. Generally, 2θ values are within an error of ±0.1-0.2°. The experimental error on the d-spacing values is therefore dependent on the peak location. TG-FTIR: Thermogravimetric measurements are carried out with a Netzsch Thermo-Microbalance TG 209 coupled to a Bruker FTIR Spectrometer Vector 22 (sample pans with a pinhole, N2 atmosphere, heating rate 10 K/min). Raman spectroscopy: FT-Raman spectra are recorded on a Bruker RFS 100 FT-Raman system with a near infrared Nd:YAG laser operating at 1064 nm and a liquid nitrogen-cooled germanium detector. For each sample, 64 scans with a resolution of 2 cm−1 are accumulated. Generally, 300 mW laser power is used. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form A FIG. 2 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form B FIG. 3 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form C FIG. 4 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form D FIG. 5 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form E FIG. 6 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form F FIG. 7 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form G FIG. 8 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form H FIG. 9 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form I FIG. 10 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form J FIG. 11 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form K FIG. 12 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form L FIG. 13 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form M FIG. 14 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form N FIG. 15 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form 0 Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, using the preceding description, utilize the present invention to its fullest extent. The following preferred specific embodiments are, therefore, to be construed as merely illustrative, and not limitative of the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever. In the foregoing and in the following examples, all temperatures are set forth uncorrected in degrees Celsius and, all parts and percentages are by weight, unless otherwise indicated. The entire disclosure of all applications, patents and publications, cited herein and of corresponding U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/520,377, filed Nov. 17, 2003 is incorporated by reference herein. The preceding examples can be repeated with similar success by substituting the generically or specifically described reactants and/or operating conditions of this invention for those used in the preceding examples. From the foregoing description, one skilled in the art can easily ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention and, without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form A FIG. 2 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form B FIG. 3 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form C FIG. 4 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form D FIG. 5 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form E FIG. 6 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form F FIG. 7 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form G FIG. 8 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form H FIG. 9 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form I FIG. 10 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form J FIG. 11 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form K FIG. 12 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form L FIG. 13 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form M FIG. 14 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form N FIG. 15 is a characteristic X-ray powder diffraction pattern for form 0 Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, using the preceding description, utilize the present invention to its fullest extent. The following preferred specific embodiments are, therefore, to be construed as merely illustrative, and not limitative of the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever. In the foregoing and in the following examples, all temperatures are set forth uncorrected in degrees Celsius and, all parts and percentages are by weight, unless otherwise indicated. The entire disclosure of all applications, patents and publications, cited herein and of corresponding U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/520,377, filed Nov. 17, 2003 is incorporated by reference herein. The preceding examples can be repeated with similar success by substituting the generically or specifically described reactants and/or operating conditions of this invention for those used in the preceding examples. From the foregoing description, one skilled in the art can easily ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention and, without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="tail"? | 20041117 | 20100601 | 20060216 | 65153.0 | A61K31525 | 3 | JAISLE, CECILIA M | CRYSTALLINE FORMS OF ( 6R)-L-ERYTHRO-TETRAHYDROBIOPTERIN DIHYDROCHLORIDE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,004 |
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10,990,595 | ACCEPTED | User-specific dispensing system | The invention provides a system to physically dispense an item on-site from a dispenser whereby the item to be dispensed is selected by the system based on user-specific or item-specific information. In an embodiment, the system selects the dispensed item based on both user-specific and item-specific information. In another embodiment the invention comprises a system that activates gaming features in a gaming device based on user-specific information. | 1. A system to dispense at least one user-appropriate sample on-site, said system comprising: a. a user-identifier associated with a user comprising user-specific information; b. a reader capable of reading said user-specific information; c. coded instructions to dispense an item based on predetermined criteria and said user-specific information; d. at least one storage means, said means capable of storing a plurality of tiems; e. a dispensing means coupled with respective at least one storage means; and f. a processor coupled to said dispensing means and to said reader, said processor capable of executing said instructions to actuate at least one dispensing means to dispense at least one item based on said user-specific information and said predetermined criteria. 2. The system of claim 1 wherein said processor further actuates said dispensing means based on information associated with said items. 3. The system of claim 1 wherein said system is a vending machine. 4. The system of claim 1 further comprising a means to reading item-specific information, said means to read item specific information coupled with the processor, and said processor further capable of executing said instructions to actuate at least one dispensing means to dispense at least one item based on said item-specific information. 5. The system of claim 1 wherein each of said dispensing means comprises a flange coupled with a solenoid, said solenoid coupled with said processor. 6. The system of claim 1 wherein each of said dispensing means comprises a shooting solenoid operable to accelerate said items out of the system. 7. The system of claim 4 wherein said item-specific information is a number of said items dispensed by the system. 8. The system of claim 4 wherein said item-specific information is a number of said items remaining in the system. 9. The system of claim 4 wherein said item-specific information is a weight of said items remaining in the system. 10. A gaming system having user-specific gaming features, said system comprising: a. a user-identifier associated with a user comprising user-specific information; b. a reader capable of reading said user-specific information; c. coded instructions to dispense an item based on predetermined criteria and said user-specific information; d. a gaming feature; and e. a processor coupled to said dispensing means and to said reader, said processor capable of executing said instructions to actuate said gaming feature based on said user-specific information and said predetermined criteria. 11. The system of claim 10 wherein said activation is deactivation of said gaming feature. 12. The system of claim 10 wherein said gaming system is a pinball machine. 13. The system of claim 1044 wherein said gaming system is a video game. 14. The system of claim 10 wherein said gaming system is a slot machine. 15. The system of claim 1 or 10 wherein said information is said user's name. 16. The system of claim 1 or 10 wherein said information is said user's addresss. 17. The system of claim 1 or 10 wherein said information is said user's age. 18. The system of claim 1 or 10 wherein said information is said user's gender. 19. The system of claim 1 or 10 wherein said information is said user's usage history. 20. The system of claim 1 or 10 wherein said information is said user's personal characteristics. 21. The system of claim 1 or 10 further comprising a currency accepting means coupled with said processor, and said instructions further comprising instructions to actuate dispensing means upon the user inserting an appropriate amount of currency into the system. 22. The system of claim 1 of 10, wherein said item is a service. 23. The system of claim 1 or 10, wherein said item is a music clip. 24. The system of claim 1 or 10, wherein said item is a multi-media clip. 25. The system of claim 1 or 11, wherein said item is a multi-media clip. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention This invention relates in general to systems and methods for on-site, automated dispensing of items to users based on user-specific information. The system and methods can also be applied to gaming devices in which a special feature is actuated and/or an item is dispensed based on user-specific information. 2. Description of the Prior Art In general, the retail market continues to become more competitive. There are an increasing number of options for consumers in terms of where to shop and which items to purchase. At the same time, providing targeted samples to consumers is an effective method of marketing. Therefore, there exists a powerful need to direct consumers into appropriate store locations and/or to direct samples of products into the hands of a targeted consumer. While promotional methods have existed for ages, e.g., sales coupons, targeted discounts, free items with purchase, no system or method has attempted an automated approach to targeted on-site sampling. To do so would require (1) pre-knowledge of the targeted consumer, also referred to as the “user” of the system, and (2) the actual dispensation of samples to said user based on that pre-knowledge. Such a system would differ from one that issues a coupon or other redeemable, such as a token, to a user based on user-specific information, in that said system would actually physically dispense the item to the user on-site, thereby removing the necessity of a redemption step. Such a system would provide a novel method and system to provide automated, on-site sampling based on user-specific information. The system and method could incorporate RFID, bar code, or any other reader technology into an automated system that can be kept and maintained on a target site or maintained from a central site. Reader systems such as RFID tags, bar codes, and other conventional data reading methods are incorporated into a variety of devices ranging from monitoring systems to gaming devices. One example would be a grocery store chain issuing discounts to holders of a preferred customer card. The card may have information on it that is readable by a bar code reader. The system identifies the user by the information contained on the card and issues a discount, or tracks the consumers purchase history, and issues coupons based on said history. Another example is Bam et al.'s U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/691,459 (Publication No. US 2004/0128197), which discloses an electronic promotion system that sends coupons to targeted consumers, the coupons tailored to the specific consumer's profile. The consumer then may redeem said coupons at some future time. Another example of the prior art is Meyer's U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/245,149 (Publication No. US 2003/0061098 A1), which discloses a system that encourages consumers to patronize a particular business by awarding a prize or a discount to randomly selected consumers. But the system disclosed in Meyer's patent application does not physically dispense a sample. Another drawback of this system is that a dispensed item may not meet the needs or desires of the actual user because the dispensed item is not customized to that user's individual characteristics or preferences. Such a system is not necessarily based on user-specific information but rather simply rewards consumers that have a card. Thus, there is a need for a system that both physically provides the item on-site from the dispenser unit itself and one that dispenses an item that is user-specific based on the particular user's characteristics. SUMMARY AND OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION In general, the dispensing system of the present invention comprises a user-identifier, such as an RFID tag or a bar code, containing information associated with a user. The system also comprises a reader that is capable of reading the user-identifier. The system has a processor that is capable of executing instructions to actuate dispensing means that in turn dispenses an item to the user. In this way, the system is designed to dispense an item that is appropriate for the user based on user-specific information. In an alternate embodiment, the system is capable of conveying information associated with the items. In this alternate embodiment, the processor is capable of instructing an actuator to dispense items based on item-specific information. Item-specific information includes, but is not limited to, the number of items dispensed from at least one storage compartment or the weight of items remaining in at least one storage compartment. In another embodiment, the invention comprises a system incorporated into a gaming device. Instead of dispensing a sample, the system will actuate at least one gaming feature based on the information associated with the identified user. This embodiment is designed to actuate a gaming feature that is appropriate for the user based on the user-specific information. All embodiments may be optimally coupled with any device that dispenses a service or item in exchange for currency or other monetary means, such as a credit card. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a system to physically dispense a sample item on-site to a user based on user-specific information. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a system that physically dispenses an item on-site to a user based on information related to the items remaining in the system. It is also an object of the invention to provide a gaming system that activates gaming features based on user-specific information. It is a further object of the invention to provide a system that activates features within an existing gaming machine based on user-specific information. It is still a further object of the invention to provide targeted automated sampling of items. It is another object of the invention to provide a system to encourage consumer traffic to a location. Other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become better understood or apparent from the following detailed description, drawings, and appended claims of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic depiction of the user-specific dispensing system in an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic of another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 is depiction of one embodiment of the invention incorporated into a gaming device. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 shows a schematic depiction of an embodiment of the process and system for on-site dispensing of items based on user-specific information. In this embodiment, the system is schematically represented as a vending-type machine dispensing cylindrical items to a user. The skilled artisan will appreciate, of course, that there are a multitude of types of vending machines, many of which have differing mechanical or electrical configurations and capabilities. Thus, this embodiment of the invention is in no way limited to vending-type machines represented in this schematic. The skilled artisan will also appreciate, of course, that the dispensed items need not be cylindrical or be limited to any shape. The items could be intangible, such as a music clip. Thus, an item can be a physical sample or a service. Another example of an item as a service would be the system dispensing multi-media clip. Some of the other applications of the invention will become apparent from the schematic figures discussed below. As shown in FIG. 1, a user 100 receives a user identifier 200. That step is represented as 1000. The way in which a user receives a card varies, but an example would be as follows: A vendor stationed at an event, for example, a sporting event, would solicit interested consumers and would gather information from the interested consumers. Such information could include the consumer's age, gender, sporting team or apparel preferences, location of residence, etc. The vendor would issue the user a card that could be used with the system. In this example, the card would be a user-identifier 200. Skilled artisans will appreciate that the user-identifier 200 need not be a card, for example, the user-identifier 200 could be any physical holder of information and need not be limited to any size or shape. Further, the user-identifier 200 could be any information that is specific to a user 100, which is inputted into the system, for example, the user 100 could enter the user's phone number into the system. Still further, the issuer of the user-identifier 200 need not necessarily be a vendor as is currently understood by the ordinary and accustomed meaning of “vendor.” The user-identifier 200 comprises readable information that is specific to or is associated with the user. As stated above, said user-specific information may include gender, name, address, age, athletic preference, food preferences, music preferences, etc. FIG. 1 schematically represents such preferences as 210, 220, and 230. User-specific information 210, 220, and 230 on the user-identifier 200 may be in the form of a bar code or RFID information, but is not limited as such. User-specific information also includes information that a user is simply authorized to receive a sample. Therefore, information on a user-identifier that instructs the system to simply dispense an item is user-specific information. Another step of the invention is represented by 2000. In this step, the user 100 presents the user-identifier 200 to the system. The system comprises a reader 300 capable of reading the coded information off of the user-identifier 200. In one example of an embodiment, the reader 300 is an RFID reader capable of reading data on a card that corresponds to the user's 100 age 210, gender 220, and soft drink preference 230. The reader 300 sends the user-specific data to a processor, the step being represented by 3000. In step 4000, the processor 400 is capable of processing the inputted user-specific data in order to instruct the system to dispense an item to a user, that item being selected based upon the user-specific data. The step of dispensing is represented by 5000. FIG. 1 depicts the item being dispensed as 508. In some of the embodiments of the invention where the instructions are software, the software contains coded instructions, which translate the user-specific data into mechanical action of the system, specifically, mechanical actions of the dispensing means 501, 503, 505, 507, or 509. Software can also log the activities in a file. The software can validate whether the user-identifier 200 is authorized for activity. It can determine, for example, whether the user history warrants an item to be dispensed. The software can determine which type of item will be dispensed and log a tag number along with a time stamp and activity type to a file. A control code tag is able to retrieve the file and reset the system. Skilled artisans will appreciate that the invention is not limited or dependent upon any type of computer system, operating environment, architecture, or required to have a conventional computer to operate. As referred to above, in other embodiments of the invention, it is possible to reduce the software routine to a dedicated chip, and remove the typical computer components from the invention completely. The step of the reader 300 being provided with the user-specific information 210, 220, and 230 of the user-identifier 200 to the processor 400 is represented by 3000. Once the processor accepts the user-specific data 210, 220, and 230, it executes an instruction to actuate a dispensing means 500, 502, 504, 506, 508 based on set instructions. In this embodiment, the system has at least one compartment 600, 602, 604, 606 and 608, each of which stores a plurality of items to dispense. One such item is represented as 508. The invention is not limited to a type of item so long as the item is dispensed based upon user-specific data. However, presently such items may include toys, prizes, candy, soda, athletic gear, towels, etc. In the example shown in FIG. 1, each item is schematically represented, and each item is stored in its respective storage compartments 600, 602, 604, 606, and 608. In the preferred embodiment, the items meet a pre-selected set of characteristics appropriate for a user. That is, for example, if the user-specific information includes soda or candy preference, a soda or a candy item would be dispensed that corresponds to the preference. Related to this aspect of the invention, other embodiments of the invention comprise dispensing an item based on whether the user 100 meets the pre-selected criteria selected by an entity wishing to promote certain goods. For example, the system could be located in a retail area such as a grocery store. The system may contain samples of after-shave, samples of a skin-toning product, and samples of vitamin supplements respectively. The pre-selected criteria may define that (1) males under forty five years of age are to receive after-shave samples; (2) females under forty-five years of age are to receive samples of the skin toning product; and that (3) all individuals over forty-five years of age will receive the sample of vitamin supplements. A twenty-nine year old male presenting his user-identifier to the system will cause the system to dispense to him a sample of after shave. In this way, the invention can provide for focused automated sampling, which is an important marketing tool. The invention also can drive consumer traffic to a location, which in this example, is a grocery store. In this embodiment, the steps of presenting 2000 the user identifier, reading the user-specific information 3000, and processing 4000 are the same as described above. Dispensing 5000 is another aspect of the invention. The skilled artisan will appreciate that any conventional dispensing means can be used. Since the invention is not limited to any particular mechanical or electrical specifications, the dispensing means will depend largely on the type of unit the system is embodied within. In one embodiment, the dispensing means is a flange that is activated by a solenoid. The reader reads information contained on the user-identifier and sends the information to the processor, which processes instructions to send an electrical signal to the solenoid. This electrical signal charges a coil in the solenoid, which in turn pushes a rod mechanism in the solenoid to open the flange to dispense an item from the respective storage compartment—, for example into a dispensing chute 800, out of the opening 810, and on to the user 100. Alternate embodiments will use shooting solenoids to drive the sample into a dispensing chute ultimately accessible by the user. In other embodiments, the invention has dimensions that are suitable for a retail shelf, for example, on the confectionery shelf of a convenience store; however, the size dimensions of the units are variable and could easily be adapted to any environment whether it be retail or service. The system could also be freestanding in a public place. In another embodiment, the system could be installed or made a part of a jukebox type machine, or a machine that otherwise dispenses music or multimedia presentation. In such a system, the user-identifier would be presented to a reader on the system. The user-specific information would be sent to the processor. The processor would instruct the system to “dispense” or otherwise play a multimedia or music clip based on the user-specific information. In an alternate embodiments shown in FIG. 2, the invention could be a dispensing or vending type system of the conventional type where the system is configured to accept currency and to dispense an item paid for by the user. A typical example of this would be a soda vending machine. In this alternate embodiment, the system contains a currency accepting means 900. The processor can contain and/or execute instructions to only activate the system if currency accepting means indicator to the process that the user 100 has paid for one of the items 508. For example, a user could purchase a soda by inserting currency into the currency acceptor 900 (the step represented as 6000), which would be communicated to the processor 400, represented by step 7000. In some embodiments, the processor 400 executes instructions to output a prompt to the user. In a preferred embodiment, the prompt would be a graphical display indicating to the user to present his or her user-identifier 200. The system then reads the user-specific information 210, 220, and 230, and optionally, the user's 100 immediately previous purchase choice, and instructs the dispensing means (508 for example) to dispense a separate item to the user 100 based on the selected criteria for that user type and/or the user's 100 selection. Other embodiments of the invention include a system to distribute items to a member of a health club, where the distributed items are chosen based on pre-selected athletic interests of the member, such as providing tennis balls to a member who has previously indicated an interest in playing tennis. Alternatively, the member of the athletic club may have purchased a premium service. The information regarding the premium service would be contained on the user-identifier and the system would dispense items based on the member's status and/or preferences. Another embodiment comprises a system to distribute meals to school students based on pre-selected menu preferences. The skilled artisan will appreciate that the components of the system can be used with any vending machine, amusement machine, slot machine, or any device that dispenses an item or service. In another embodiment, the system dispenses items based on said user-specific information and item-specific information. In this embodiment, the system dispenses at least one item based on information associated with the items in at least one of the storage compartments. This item-specific information includes, but is not limited to, the number of items dispensed from at least one storage compartment, the number of items remaining in at least one storage compartment, or the weight of items remaining in at least one storage compartment. This sample-specific information is conveyed to the processor, which in conjunction with the programmed instructions is capable of translating the information into mechanical actions of the dispensing means as described above. Another embodiment of the invention is utilized in a gaming device. A gaming device according to the present invention incorporates all or some of the elements described in the embodiments above, except that the primary “item” being “dispensed” is a gaming feature. Therefore, in this embodiment of the invention, the “dispense” is to be understood as the activation of a gaming feature. The user-identifier, reader, and processor are the same as those described above in FIG. 1 except that in this example system, the processor executes programmed instructions to translate the user-specific information to activate at least one gaming feature based on user-specific information stored on user-identifier and read by reader. Activated gaming feature is appropriate for user based on user-associated information. Activation of gaming feature includes deactivation of the gaming feature. The instructions, which can be encoded in software or embedded in a chip in the processor, are capable of validating whether the user-identifier is authorized for activity, determining history of use of the gaming system by user, and determining if and which gaming feature 575 should be activated. The instructions in conjunction with computer memory means also maintains a log of information, including the user-identifier and user's usage history, such as time, points scored, and what gaming feature was activated. Any processor known to those skilled in the art may be used in the present invention without departing from the scope of the invention. In FIG. 3, the system is shown in conjunction with a pinball machine. A close-up view of the activated gaming feature 575, which is a gate in this example, is shown. Gaming feature 575 may be a feature that is not typically activated until user completes a sequence of flipper lane and ramp spinner switches. By activating gaming feature 575, the system provides easier play for a new or young user by blocking the outlane 577 where the pinball 576 could be lost. Another example of the system involves video games. In this example, a user of the system may present her card to a video game having the system incorporated therein. The user could then be awarded specific advantages in the video game based on the user-specific information contained on her card. In some embodiments, the gaming feature that is activated is a free game on the system. The gaming feature could also be an adjustment of the threshold necessary to reach a new level of the game or to obtain a re-play of the game. While the foregoing has been set forth in considerable detail, it is to be understood that the drawings and detailed embodiments are presented for elucidation and not limitation. Design variations, especially in matters of shape, size and arrangements of parts may be made but are within the principles of the invention. Those skilled in the art will realize that such changes or modifications of the invention or combinations of elements, variations, equivalents or improvements therein are still within the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of Invention This invention relates in general to systems and methods for on-site, automated dispensing of items to users based on user-specific information. The system and methods can also be applied to gaming devices in which a special feature is actuated and/or an item is dispensed based on user-specific information. 2. Description of the Prior Art In general, the retail market continues to become more competitive. There are an increasing number of options for consumers in terms of where to shop and which items to purchase. At the same time, providing targeted samples to consumers is an effective method of marketing. Therefore, there exists a powerful need to direct consumers into appropriate store locations and/or to direct samples of products into the hands of a targeted consumer. While promotional methods have existed for ages, e.g., sales coupons, targeted discounts, free items with purchase, no system or method has attempted an automated approach to targeted on-site sampling. To do so would require (1) pre-knowledge of the targeted consumer, also referred to as the “user” of the system, and (2) the actual dispensation of samples to said user based on that pre-knowledge. Such a system would differ from one that issues a coupon or other redeemable, such as a token, to a user based on user-specific information, in that said system would actually physically dispense the item to the user on-site, thereby removing the necessity of a redemption step. Such a system would provide a novel method and system to provide automated, on-site sampling based on user-specific information. The system and method could incorporate RFID, bar code, or any other reader technology into an automated system that can be kept and maintained on a target site or maintained from a central site. Reader systems such as RFID tags, bar codes, and other conventional data reading methods are incorporated into a variety of devices ranging from monitoring systems to gaming devices. One example would be a grocery store chain issuing discounts to holders of a preferred customer card. The card may have information on it that is readable by a bar code reader. The system identifies the user by the information contained on the card and issues a discount, or tracks the consumers purchase history, and issues coupons based on said history. Another example is Bam et al.'s U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/691,459 (Publication No. US 2004/0128197), which discloses an electronic promotion system that sends coupons to targeted consumers, the coupons tailored to the specific consumer's profile. The consumer then may redeem said coupons at some future time. Another example of the prior art is Meyer's U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/245,149 (Publication No. US 2003/0061098 A1), which discloses a system that encourages consumers to patronize a particular business by awarding a prize or a discount to randomly selected consumers. But the system disclosed in Meyer's patent application does not physically dispense a sample. Another drawback of this system is that a dispensed item may not meet the needs or desires of the actual user because the dispensed item is not customized to that user's individual characteristics or preferences. Such a system is not necessarily based on user-specific information but rather simply rewards consumers that have a card. Thus, there is a need for a system that both physically provides the item on-site from the dispenser unit itself and one that dispenses an item that is user-specific based on the particular user's characteristics. | <SOH> SUMMARY AND OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In general, the dispensing system of the present invention comprises a user-identifier, such as an RFID tag or a bar code, containing information associated with a user. The system also comprises a reader that is capable of reading the user-identifier. The system has a processor that is capable of executing instructions to actuate dispensing means that in turn dispenses an item to the user. In this way, the system is designed to dispense an item that is appropriate for the user based on user-specific information. In an alternate embodiment, the system is capable of conveying information associated with the items. In this alternate embodiment, the processor is capable of instructing an actuator to dispense items based on item-specific information. Item-specific information includes, but is not limited to, the number of items dispensed from at least one storage compartment or the weight of items remaining in at least one storage compartment. In another embodiment, the invention comprises a system incorporated into a gaming device. Instead of dispensing a sample, the system will actuate at least one gaming feature based on the information associated with the identified user. This embodiment is designed to actuate a gaming feature that is appropriate for the user based on the user-specific information. All embodiments may be optimally coupled with any device that dispenses a service or item in exchange for currency or other monetary means, such as a credit card. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a system to physically dispense a sample item on-site to a user based on user-specific information. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a system that physically dispenses an item on-site to a user based on information related to the items remaining in the system. It is also an object of the invention to provide a gaming system that activates gaming features based on user-specific information. It is a further object of the invention to provide a system that activates features within an existing gaming machine based on user-specific information. It is still a further object of the invention to provide targeted automated sampling of items. It is another object of the invention to provide a system to encourage consumer traffic to a location. Other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become better understood or apparent from the following detailed description, drawings, and appended claims of the invention. | 20041117 | 20080715 | 20060518 | 61459.0 | G06F1700 | 2 | LE, UYEN CHAU N | USER-SPECIFIC DISPENSING SYSTEM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,004 |
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10,990,858 | ACCEPTED | Thermocautery block | A thermocautery block is formed by mixing alumina, zirconium silicate, feldspar, pottery stone, siliceous limestone, kaolin, Gairome clay (Japan), and black soil with water; evenly stirring the mixture; compressing, dehydrating, and extruding the mixture into polygonal blocks; and drying, kilning, and cooling the blocks. The thermocautery block has a high density and a hardness higher than 6.0, and could store thermal energy after being heated for a short time. The stored thermal energy is progressively released via superficial areas of the block other than corners thereof to produce the effect of progressive temperature rise. | 1. A thermocautery block, comprising a rectangular block formed by mixing different materials, including alumina 15-50 wt %, zirconium silicate 5 wt %, feldspar 26 wt %, pottery stone 8 wt %, siliceous limestone 4 wt %, kaolin 20 wt %, Gairome clay (Japan) 7 wt %, and black soil 5 wt %, with water and evenly stirring the mixture; compressing and dehydrating the mixture into lump; stirring the compressed and dehydrated lump again and then vacuum extruding the lump into bars, which are then compressed into polygonal blocks; putting the polygonal blocks in an airy environment for air drying; kilning the air-dried polygonal blocks through slow combustion at a temperature up to 1200˜1300° C.; and allowing the kilned blocks to cool at room temperature naturally to provide a finished product that has a high density and a hardness of more than 6.0, and is able to store thermal energy after being heated for a short time and progressively release the stored thermal energy via superficial areas of the finished block other than corners thereof to create a progressive temperature rise. 2. The thermocautery block as claimed in claim 1, wherein said finished block is enclosed in a bag, which is provided at least at an end with a string or the like for holding by a user. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a thermocautery block, and more particularly a thermocautery block that provides an effect of progressive temperature rise and is convenient for use. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In traditional Chinese medicine, there are several ways for reducing flatulency and hematoma that cause discomfort at different body areas. These ways are generally divided into warm moxibustion, thermocautery stick, acupuncture with moxibustion, and heated suction cup, and are normally therapeutically effective in rehabilitation. In warm moxibustion, sliced ginger is positioned over a patient's skin at an uncomfortable area, and moxa is positioned on the sliced ginger and ignited to produce heat, which advantageously reduces hematoma or waste gas inside the patient's body to achieve therapeutic effect in rehabilitation. The warm moxibustion must be handled and controlled by a doctor of Chinese medicine or a professional person to avoid burning of skin by the ignited moxa. Thermocautery stick is frequently used in Chinese medicine to reduce hematoma. In doing so, the thermocautery stick is ignited and located over a patient's skin at an uncomfortable area with a proper distance left between the stick and the patient's skin. The ignited thermocautery stick must not contact with the patient's skin during the therapy. Again, the thermocautery stick must be handled and controlled by a doctor of Chinese medicine or a professional person to avoid burning of skin by the ignited thermocautery stick that is too closely positioned over the patient's skin. In acupuncture with moxibustion, a needle is directly inserted into a patient's skin at an acupuncture point, so that energy is concentrated at the needle tip corresponding to the acupuncture point to thereby reduce the hematoma or waste gas. The acupuncture with moxibustion must absolutely be handled by a certified doctor of Chinese medicine. And, time control is also an important factor in acupuncture with moxibustion to achieve good therapeutic effect. Suction cups used in Chinese medicine may be bamboo or wood suction cups, which are heated by roasting and then directly covered on a patient's skin at specific areas to diffuse or reduce hematoma thereof. Since the heated suction cup involves complicate operating procedures, it must be handled by a professional person, too. All the above-described traditional therapies for rehabilitation in Chinese medicine employ heat transfer to expel waste gas and reduce hematoma from the patient's body. And, to obtain good therapeutic effect and avoid burning of skin or other undesired sequelae, it is a must these therapies be handled by a doctor or a professional person, particularly when the area to be treated is not easily accessible by the patient, such as the patient's back. It is therefore tried by the inventor to develop a large-area and repeatedly usable thermocautery block that is able to store thermal energy after being roasted for a short time, and progressively release the stored thermal energy to produce progressive temperature rise and long-lasting thermocautery action, so that a user may conveniently handle the thermocautery block by himself in rehabilitation without the help of a professional person or a doctor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A primary object of the present invention is to provide a repeatedly usable thermocautery block that is able to store thermal energy after being roasted for a short time, and progressively release the stored thermal energy to produce progressive temperature rise and long-lasting thermocautery action in rehabilitation. Another object of the present invention is to provide a thermocautery block that could be conveniently handled by a user himself for use at different places on the user's body to achieve improved therapeutic effect in rehabilitation. To achieve the above and other objects, the thermocautery block of the present invention is produced by blending alumina, zirconium silicate, feldspar, pottery stone, siliceous limestone, kaolin, Gairome clay (Japan), and black soil to form a high-density polygonal block having a hardness of more than 6.0, so that thermal energy could be stored in the block after the latter is heated for a short time and then progressively released from superficial areas of the block other than corners thereof. The thermocautery block of the present invention is enclosed in a suitable bag, which is provided at least at an end with a string for holding by the user to facilitate convenient moving of the block over the user's skin. The thermocautery block of the present invention is formed through the following steps: mixing alumina, zirconium silicate, feldspar, pottery stone, siliceous limestone, kaolin, Gairome clay (Japan), and black soil with water; evenly stirring the mixture; squeezing and dehydrating the mixture to form a lump; extruding the lump into shaped pieces; stirring and compressing the shaped pieces into polygonal blocks; drying the polygonal blocks; kilning the blocks by slow combustion up to 1200˜1300° C.; and cooling the blocks to obtain a finished product of the thermocautery block each. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The structure and the technical means adopted by the present invention to achieve the above and other objects can be best understood by referring to the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments and the accompanying drawings, wherein FIG. 1 schematically shows a thermocautery block according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 schematically shows an example of application of the thermocautery block of the present invention; and FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing the steps of producing the thermocautery block of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Please refer to FIG. 1 that is a schematic view showing a thermocautery block 1 according to an embodiment of the present invention and an application thereof. The thermocautery block 1 is a high-density polygonal block formed from a plurality of blended materials, including alumina 15˜50 wt %, zirconium silicate 5 wt %, feldspar 26 wt %, pottery stone 8 wt %, siliceous limestone 4 wt %, kaolin 20 wt %, Gairome clay (Japan) 7 wt %, and black soil 5 wt %. In the illustrated embodiment, the thermocautery block 1 is in the form of a rectangular block. The thermocautery block 1 of the present invention has a hardness higher than 6.0, and could have thermal energy stored therein after it is heated for a short time. The stored thermal energy is progressively released from superficial areas of the block other than corners thereof, so as to provide an effect of progressive temperature rise. The thermocautery block 1 may be enclosed in a bag 2, which is provided at an open end with a string 3 or the like for holding by a user. The purpose of forming the thermocautery block 1 into a rectangular block is to provide multiple corners on the block and accordingly, an effect of insulation at the corners. The corners on the thermocautery block 1 divide the superficial areas of the block 1 into several separated heat diffusing areas, so that the stored thermal energy is released from the block 1 at a reduced speed. Moreover, the high density and high hardness of the thermocautery block 1 also allow the block 1 to have a slowed heat dissipation speed to facilitate the progressive release of stored thermal energy from the block 1. When the thermocautery block 1 of the present invention is heated by roasting for about seven minutes at a half hour before using of it, it is able to release thermal energy for about one and a half hours. A user may put the roasted thermocautery block 1 in the bag 2 and then position it at a desired location on the skin, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Since the thermocautery block 1 of the present invention provides large contact areas, it is more convenient for use in reducing hematoma or waste gas from the user's body. Moreover, the user may freely move the thermocautery block 1 over different areas on the skin in rehabilitation to avoid undesired burning of skin due to progressively increased temperature of the block 1. When the stored thermal energy is completely released, the block 1 could be roasted again for a short time and then used repeatedly. That is, the thermocautery block 1 of the present invention provides long-lasting effect and could be repeatedly used. FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing the steps of producing the thermocautery block 1 of the present invention. In Step 11, different materials, including alumina 15˜50 wt %, zirconium silicate 5 wt %, feldspar 26 wt %, pottery stone 8 wt %, siliceous limestone 4 wt %, kaolin 20 wt %, Gairome clay (Japan) 7 wt %, and black soil 5 wt %, are mixed with water and evenly stirred for about four hours until all the materials are completely blended. In Step 12, the blended materials are compressed into lump and dehydrated by squeezing water from the lump. In Step 13, the compressed and dehydrated materials are stirred again and then vacuum extruded into bars, which are then compressed into polygonal blocks, such as rectangular blocks. In Step 14, the polygonal blocks are positioned in an airy environment and air-dried for about two days. In Step 15, the air-dried polygonal blocks are subjected to kilning through slow combustion at a temperature up to 1200˜1300° C. In Step 16, the kilned blocks are positioned at room temperature for cooling naturally. In Step 17, the cooled blocks provide finished products of the thermocautery blocks of the present invention. In summary, the thermocautery block 1 of the present invention has the following advantages: (a) it needs only a short time of roasting to provide a long-lasting effect in use; (b) it provides a moderate thermocautery effect through progressive temperature rise; (c) it could be operated and freely moved in the process of rehabilitation without the need of being handled by a professional person or a doctor; (d) it allows repeated and convenient use thereof; and (e) it is able to store and progressively release the stored thermal energy to enable improved therapeutic effect in rehabilitation. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In traditional Chinese medicine, there are several ways for reducing flatulency and hematoma that cause discomfort at different body areas. These ways are generally divided into warm moxibustion, thermocautery stick, acupuncture with moxibustion, and heated suction cup, and are normally therapeutically effective in rehabilitation. In warm moxibustion, sliced ginger is positioned over a patient's skin at an uncomfortable area, and moxa is positioned on the sliced ginger and ignited to produce heat, which advantageously reduces hematoma or waste gas inside the patient's body to achieve therapeutic effect in rehabilitation. The warm moxibustion must be handled and controlled by a doctor of Chinese medicine or a professional person to avoid burning of skin by the ignited moxa. Thermocautery stick is frequently used in Chinese medicine to reduce hematoma. In doing so, the thermocautery stick is ignited and located over a patient's skin at an uncomfortable area with a proper distance left between the stick and the patient's skin. The ignited thermocautery stick must not contact with the patient's skin during the therapy. Again, the thermocautery stick must be handled and controlled by a doctor of Chinese medicine or a professional person to avoid burning of skin by the ignited thermocautery stick that is too closely positioned over the patient's skin. In acupuncture with moxibustion, a needle is directly inserted into a patient's skin at an acupuncture point, so that energy is concentrated at the needle tip corresponding to the acupuncture point to thereby reduce the hematoma or waste gas. The acupuncture with moxibustion must absolutely be handled by a certified doctor of Chinese medicine. And, time control is also an important factor in acupuncture with moxibustion to achieve good therapeutic effect. Suction cups used in Chinese medicine may be bamboo or wood suction cups, which are heated by roasting and then directly covered on a patient's skin at specific areas to diffuse or reduce hematoma thereof. Since the heated suction cup involves complicate operating procedures, it must be handled by a professional person, too. All the above-described traditional therapies for rehabilitation in Chinese medicine employ heat transfer to expel waste gas and reduce hematoma from the patient's body. And, to obtain good therapeutic effect and avoid burning of skin or other undesired sequelae, it is a must these therapies be handled by a doctor or a professional person, particularly when the area to be treated is not easily accessible by the patient, such as the patient's back. It is therefore tried by the inventor to develop a large-area and repeatedly usable thermocautery block that is able to store thermal energy after being roasted for a short time, and progressively release the stored thermal energy to produce progressive temperature rise and long-lasting thermocautery action, so that a user may conveniently handle the thermocautery block by himself in rehabilitation without the help of a professional person or a doctor. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A primary object of the present invention is to provide a repeatedly usable thermocautery block that is able to store thermal energy after being roasted for a short time, and progressively release the stored thermal energy to produce progressive temperature rise and long-lasting thermocautery action in rehabilitation. Another object of the present invention is to provide a thermocautery block that could be conveniently handled by a user himself for use at different places on the user's body to achieve improved therapeutic effect in rehabilitation. To achieve the above and other objects, the thermocautery block of the present invention is produced by blending alumina, zirconium silicate, feldspar, pottery stone, siliceous limestone, kaolin, Gairome clay (Japan), and black soil to form a high-density polygonal block having a hardness of more than 6.0, so that thermal energy could be stored in the block after the latter is heated for a short time and then progressively released from superficial areas of the block other than corners thereof. The thermocautery block of the present invention is enclosed in a suitable bag, which is provided at least at an end with a string for holding by the user to facilitate convenient moving of the block over the user's skin. The thermocautery block of the present invention is formed through the following steps: mixing alumina, zirconium silicate, feldspar, pottery stone, siliceous limestone, kaolin, Gairome clay (Japan), and black soil with water; evenly stirring the mixture; squeezing and dehydrating the mixture to form a lump; extruding the lump into shaped pieces; stirring and compressing the shaped pieces into polygonal blocks; drying the polygonal blocks; kilning the blocks by slow combustion up to 1200˜1300° C.; and cooling the blocks to obtain a finished product of the thermocautery block each. | 20041118 | 20071016 | 20060518 | 83183.0 | A61F700 | 0 | GROUP, KARL E | THERMOCAUTERY BLOCK | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61F | 2,004 |
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10,990,907 | ACCEPTED | Portal system for a controlled space | Systems, devices, and methods are provided for monitoring and tracking an item in a controlled space. In one embodiment, a portal system that monitors the controlled space includes a radio frequency tag that is attached to inventory and a portal device, which includes a computing device, a receiver and a locking door. The receiver is configured to receive a signal from radio frequency tag, and send the signal to the computing device. The locking door is coupled to the computing device. The computing device is configured to verify whether the user is authorized to be taking inventory in and out of the controlled space through the locking door based on the received signal, and to unlock the locking door based on the received signal. The computing device has a database that includes the total value of the inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The computing device determines whether the user have exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, and provides a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory. | 1. A portal device associated with a controlled space comprising: a computing device having a user database that includes the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, the computing device being capable of receiving signals from a user; and a locking door being coupled to the computing device, the computing device being configured to unlock the locking door based on the received signals from the user, wherein the computing device determines whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, wherein computing device provides a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. 2. The portal device as defined in claim 1, wherein the computing device comprises a cost centers database that includes the total value of the inventory assessed to one of cost centers, wherein the cost centers database facilitates the computing device to determine whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, wherein the cost centers database facilitates the computing device to provide a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. 3. The portal device as defined in claim 1, wherein the computing device comprises a graphical user interface, the graphical user interface being located outside the controlled space; and wherein the computing device is configured to unlock the locking door based on code inputted by a user through the graphical user interface upon entering and exiting the controlled space. 4. The portal device as defined in claim 3, wherein the computing device determines whether the user is authorized to enter the controlled space based on the first signal and/or code entered by the user through the graphical user interface. 5. The portal device as defined in claim 1, wherein the controlled space contains inventory, the portal device further comprising: a receiver being configured to receive a first signal from a first radio frequency tag and a second signal from a second radio frequency tag, the receiver being configured to send the first and second signals to the computing device, the first radio frequency tag being attached to the user and the second radio frequency tag being attached to the inventory; and wherein the computing device is configured to lock and unlock the locking door based on the first signal from the first radio frequency tag, the computing device being configured to link the inventory to the user and track the inventory and the user via the first and second signals as the user takes the inventory in and out of the controlled space through the locking door. 6. The portal device as defined in claim 5, wherein the computing device comprises a user database that facilitates the computing device to determine whether the user is authorized to enter the controlled space based on the first signal. 7. The portal device as defined in claim 1, further comprising a presence sensing mat that detects the user exiting and entering the controlled space, the presence sensing mat being coupled to the computing device and configured to transmit a motion signal indicating whether the user is exiting or entering the controlled space. 8. The portal device as defined in claim 1, further comprising an unlock button that automatically unlocks the locking door, wherein the unlock button is located inside the controlled space. 9. A portal system for use in connection with a controlled space comprising: inventory; a portal device comprising: a computing device having a user database that includes the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, the computing device being capable of receiving signals from a user; and a locking door being coupled to the computing device, the computing device being configured to unlock the locking door based on the received signals from the user, wherein the computing device determines whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, wherein computing device provides a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space 10. The portal system of claim 9, wherein the computing device comprises a cost centers database that includes the total value of the inventory assessed to one of cost centers, wherein the cost center database facilitates the computing device to determine whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, wherein the cost centers database facilitates the computing device to provide a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory associated to the one of the cost centers. 11. The portal system of claim 9, wherein the portal device comprises: a receiver being configured to receive a signal from a first radio frequency tag, and send the signal to the computing device; and an inventory manager linking the first radio frequency tag to a specific inventory item in the inventory. 12. The portal system as defined in claim 11, further comprising a second radio frequency tag that is attached to a user, wherein the receiver is configured to receive a signal from the second radio frequency tag and send the signal to the computing device, wherein the computing device is configured to unlock the locking door based on the signal from the second radio frequency tag, the computing device being configured to link the inventory to the user and track the user and inventory via the signals as the user takes the inventory in and out of the controlled space through the locking door. 13. The portal system as defined in claim 9, further comprising a presence sensing mat that monitors the user exiting and entering the controlled space, the presence sensing mat being coupled to the computing device and configured to transmit a motion signal indicating whether the user is exiting or entering the controlled space. 14. The portal system as defined in claim 13, wherein the portal device further comprises a user database that facilitates the computing device to determine whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, wherein the user database-facilitates the computing device to provide a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. 15. The portal system as defined in claim 13, wherein the portal device further comprises the computing device that determines whether the user is authorized to enter the controlled space based on the second signal and/or code entered by the user through a graphical user interface. 16. The portal system as defined in claim 9, wherein the portal device further comprises an unlock button that automatically unlocks the locking door, wherein the unlock button is located inside the controlled space. 17. A method of monitoring a controlled space, the method comprising the steps of: receiving data from a user that identifies the user; associating the user with a total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space; determining whether the user is authorized to unlock a locking door based on the received data; determining whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory; unlocking the locking door based on the received data; and providing a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory. 18. The method of claim 17, further comprising: associating the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space to a cost center; determining whether the cost center has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory; and providing a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory associated to the cost center. 19. The method of claim 17, further comprising receiving data from the user via a graphical user interface located outside of the controlled space. 20. The method of claim 17, further comprising tracking inventory based on the received data when the user enters and exits the controlled space. 21. The method as defined in claim 17, further comprising: receiving signals from multiple radio frequency tags, respectively; a radio frequency tag being attached to a user and a radio frequency tag being attached to the inventory; locking and unlocking the locking door based on the signal from the radio frequency tag that is attached to the user; linking the inventory to the user; and tracking the inventory and the user as the user takes the inventory in and out of the controlled space through the locking door. 22. The method as defined in claim 17, further comprising monitoring the user exiting and entering the controlled space via a presence sensing mat, the presence sensing mat being configured to transmit a motion signal indicating whether the user is exiting or entering the controlled space. 23. The method as defined in claim 17, further comprising determining whether provide a notification signal based on a cost centers database. 24. The method as defined in claim 17, further comprising determining whether the user is authorized to enter the controlled space based on the signal and/or code entered by the user through the graphical user interface. 25. The method as defined in claim 17, further comprising automatically unlocking the locking door via an unlock button, wherein the unlock button is located inside the controlled space. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is related to copending U.S. provisional patent application entitled “A System for Tracking Inventory” filed on Apr. 23, 2004 and accorded Ser. No. 60/565,089, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention is generally related to monitoring and tracking objects and items, and more particularly, to systems, devices and methods for monitoring and tracking objects and items in a controlled space. BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE Companies typically have difficulties tracking inventory items and their usage within their facilities. Many inventory items are misused, misplaced, and improperly tracked and replenished by the employees of the companies. Therefore, companies have incentives to track the items, hold employees responsible for missing items, properly account costs, and replenish the missing items based on demand. Typically items of the inventory are kept in a controlled space that is monitored. Some companies have used locking doors with keypads that allow only employees with authorized code to enter the controlled space. In addition, computers and bar code tags have been used to track the items in and out of the controlled space. However, these systems still lack tracking information, cost accounting information, security methods, and replenishment information in the process of tracking and monitoring the items stored in the controlled space and linking the responsible employee with the items being taken in and out of the controlled space. Therefore, from the above, it can be appreciated that it would be desirable to have a system, device and method for monitoring and tracking items stored in a controlled space. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides systems, devices and methods for monitoring and tracking an item in the controlled space. Briefly described, in architecture, one embodiment of the system, among others, can be implemented as follows. A portal system that monitors a controlled space includes a radio frequency tag that is attached to an item in inventory and a portal device, which includes a computing device, a receiver and a locking door. The item is typically material that is used to make or maintain a product (e.g., aircraft, automotive parts, facilities, etc.). The item can be, for example but not limited to, a rivet gun, screwdriver, gage, spare part, fluids, etc. The receiver is configured to receive signals from the radio frequency tag, and send the signal to the computing device. The locking door is coupled to the computing device. The computing device is configured to verify whether the user is authorized to be taking inventory in and out of the controlled space through the locking door based on the received signals. The computing device is configured to lock and unlock the locking door based on the determination that the user is authorized. In another embodiment, the computing device has a user database in memory. The user database includes a total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The computing device determines whether the user and/or the cost center have exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The computing device is configured to provide a notification signal, such as an electronic reporting, to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The notification signal indicates that the budget usage of the inventory has exceeded a threshold value. In another embodiment, a portal device that monitors a controlled space includes a computing device and a locking door. The computing device is electrically coupled to a graphical user interface, which is located outside the controlled space. The locking door is coupled to the computing device, which is configured to lock and unlock the locking door based on code inputted by a user through the graphical user interface upon entering and exiting the controlled space. In another embodiment, a method of monitoring a controlled space includes the steps of receiving data from a user via a graphical user interface located outside of the controlled space; determining whether the user is authorized to unlock a locking door based on the received data; unlocking the locking door based on the received data; and tracking inventory based on the received data when the user enters and exits the controlled space. In another embodiment, a method of monitoring a controlled space includes the steps of receiving data from a user that identifies the user; associating the user with a total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space; determining whether the user is authorized to unlock a locking door based on the received data; determining whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory; unlocking the locking door based on the received data; and providing a notification signal based on the total value of inventory associated to the user. In another embodiment, a method of monitoring a controlled space includes the steps of receiving a signal from a radio frequency tag, the radio frequency tag being attached to a user; determining whether the signal from the radio frequency tag authorizes the user to be taking inventory in and out of the controlled space; and unlocking a locking door based on the signal from the radio frequency tag that is attached to the user. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the present invention will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many aspects of the invention can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present invention. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a portal system. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the portal system shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the computing device shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an embodiment of a database maintained in the memory of the computing device shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of an embodiment of the database shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a flow diagram that illustrates an embodiment of operation of the portal system shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 7 is a flow diagram that illustrates an embodiment of operation of the portal system shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 8 is a flow diagram that illustrates an embodiment of operation of an inventory manager of the computing device shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 9 is a flow diagram that illustrates an embodiment of operation of an inventory manager of the computing device shown in FIG. 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE Disclosed herein are systems, devices, and methods that monitor a controlled space and track materials or items in inventory carried or otherwise transported in and out of the controlled space. Referring now in more detail to the figures in which like reference numerals identify corresponding parts, FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of a portal system that tracks and monitors the items in a controlled space. The portal system 1 includes a portal device 12 and radio frequency tag 14, 16. The portal device 12 includes a left section 7, a top section 8, and a right section 9. The ends of the top section 8 are fixedly coupled to the top ends of the left and right sections 7, 9. The portal device 12 is placed at an entrance or exit of the controlled space (not shown), typically outside of the entrance or exit of the controlled space. The portal device 12 is coupled to a locking door 3, typically between the portal device 12 and the controlled space. The locking door 3 prevents a user that is not authorized from entering and exiting the controlled space. The portal device 12 forms a portal area 17 that the user enters and interacts with the portal device 12 to unlock the locking door 3. The portal area 17 is typically between the left section 7 and right section 9 of the portal device 12. The portal area 17 is an area that the portal device 12 can receive data from the user either wirelessly via radio frequency tag 14 or mechanically via a graphical user interface 4. The portal device 12 includes an electromagnetic lock 10 that is fixedly coupled to the portal device 12. More particularly, the electromagnetic lock 10 is fixedly coupled to the back of the left section 7 of the portal device 12 to engage the locking door 3 such that the lock 10 can lock or unlock the locking door 3. It should be noted that the electro-mangetic lock 10 can be fixedly coupled anywhere on the portal device 12 so long that the electro-magnetic lock 10 engages the locking door 3. The portal device 12 includes two presence sensing mats 6A-B that are placed at or near the portal area 17. One presence sensing mat 6A is fixedly coupled to the floor between the left section 7 and right section 9 of the portal device 12. Another presence sensing mat 6B is fixedly coupled to the floor behind the locking door 3 and in the controlled space. The presence sensing mat 6 determines whether the user and inventory are entering or exiting the controlled space. For example, when the user enters the controlled space, the presence sensing mat 6A on the floor between sections 7, 9 detects the user entering the portal area 17. When the user is verified by the portal device 12 that the user is authorized to enter, the presence sensing mat 6B located behind the locking door 3 and in the controlled space verifies that the user has entered the controlled space. When the user exits the controlled space, the presence sensing mat 6A located between the sections 7, 9 of the portal device 12 detects the user exiting the controlled space and verifies that the user has exited the portal area 17 of the portal device 12 and out of the controlled space. The left section 7 of the portal device 12 includes a computing device 2, antenna 5A, and user graphical interface 4. The computing device 2 is located inside the left section 7 of the portal device 12. The antenna 5A and user interface 4 are fixedly coupled on the right of the section 7. The right section 9 of the portal device 12 includes antenna 5B that is fixedly coupled on the left of the section 9 and an unlock button 54 that is fixedly coupled on the back of the section 9. The top section 8 of the portal device 12 includes an antenna 5C that is fixedly coupled to the bottom of the top section 8. The antennas 5A-C, presence sensing mats 6A-B, and the user interface 4 are positioned in the portal area 17 so that the user can interact with these components as the user enters the portal device 12. The portal area 17 is the area that the antennas 5A-C and presence sensing mats 6A-B can detect the user and radio frequency tags 14, 16, typically between the left section 7 and right section 9 of the portal device 12. The portal system 1 also includes radio frequency tags, particularly user tag 14 and inventory tag 16. The user tag 14 is typically attached to a user and the inventory tag 16 is typically attached to inventory, which is stored in the controlled space. When the user brings the inventory into the controlled space, the user goes into the portal area 17 to interact with the portal device 12. The user tag 14 attached to the user transmits a signal that indicates the identification of the user and the inventory tag 16 attached to the inventory transmits a signal that indicates the identification of the inventory. The portal device 12 wirelessly receives signals from the user tag 14 and the inventory tag 16 via antennas 5A-C of sections 7, 8, 9 of the portal device 12. It should be noted that the electrical components, such as the antennas 5A-C, presence sensing mats 6A-B, computing device 2, electromagnetic lock 10, antennas 5A-C and user interface 4 can be rearranged and positioned anywhere on the portal device 12 other than the location shown in FIG. 1 and described above. For example, the user interface can be rearranged to be positioned in front of left section 7 of the portal device or on the left side of the right section 9 of the portal device. In an alternative embodiment, the computing device 2 can be located in a remote location away from the portal device 12. In another alternative embodiment, the portal system 1 can include a second user interface that is located inside the controlled space so that the user can interact with the second user interface before the user exits the controlled space. In yet another alternative embodiment, the portal system 1 can include a second portal area inside the controlled space in which the second portal area is monitored by antennas 5 and presence sensing mat 6. FIG. 2 is an exemplary schematic view of a portal device 12 that communicates with a user tag 14 and an inventory tag 16 as shown in FIG. 1. The portal device 12 includes a computing device 2 that is electrically coupled to one or more graphical user interfaces 4, one or more receivers 22, one or more presence sensing mats 6A-B, door 3 and lock 10. The receiver 22 is electrically coupled to one or more antennas 5A-C that wirelessly receive signals from radio frequency tags 14, 16 that are attached to the user and to the inventory. The computing device 2 receives the radio frequency signals from the receiver 22. The computing device 2 tracks and monitors the user and inventory based on the radio frequency signals. The computing device 2 is configured to lock or unlock the door 3 via the lock 10 based on data entered by a user through the graphical user interface 4 upon entering the controlled space. In an alternative embodiment, the computing device is configured to lock or unlock the door 3 via the lock 10 based on data received from the signals received from the user tag 14, the inventory tag 16, and the presence sensing mat 6. The computing device 2 can determine from the radio frequency signal of the user radio frequency tag whether the user is authorized to enter and exit the controlled space. Further, the user may be required to enter a code through the graphical user interface along with having a user radio frequency tag to determine whether the user is authorized to enter or exit the controlled space. The computing device 2 can determine whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The computing device 2 can provide a notification signal to an administrator based on the total value of inventory. The presence sensing mat 6 detects the user exiting and entering the controlled space. The presence sensing mat 6 is configured to transmit a motion signal to the computing device 2 indicating whether the user and the inventory are exiting or entering the controlled space. Based on the motion signal of the presence sensing mat 6 and the signals from the radio frequency tags 14, 16, the computing device 2 can monitor and track which inventory the user has taken in and out of the controlled space. In an alternative embodiment, the portal device 12 can be connected to a remote computing device 28 via a network 26 so that the portal device 12 can communicate with the remote computing device 28. The remote computing device 28 can transmit new or updated user information, cost account information, security information, replenishment information, and inventory information to the portal device 12. The computing device 2 can transmit monitored and tracked information to the remote computing device 28 so that the information can be stored at a second location. FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating an examplary architecture for the computing device 2 shown in FIG. 1. As indicated in FIG. 3, the computing device 2 comprises a processing device 18, memory 11, one or more user interface devices 30, one or more I/O devices 19, and one or more networking devices 21, each of which is connected to a local interface 20. The processing device 18 can include any custom made or commercially available processor, a central processing unit (CPU) or an auxiliary processor among several processors associated with the computing device 2, a semiconductor based microprocessor (in the form of a microchip), or a macroprocessor. The memory 11 can include any one or a combination of volatile memory elements (e.g., random access memory (RAM, such as DRAM, SRAM, etc.)) and nonvolatile memory elements (e.g., ROM, hard drive, tape, CDROM, etc.). The one or more user interface devices 30 comprise those components with which the user (e.g., administrator) can interact with the computing device 2. Where the computing device 2 comprises a server computer or similar device, these components can comprise those typically used in conjunction with a PC such as a keyboard and mouse. The one or more I/O devices 19 comprise components used to facilitate connection of the computing device 2 to other devices and therefore, for instance, comprise one or more serial, parallel, small system interface (SCSI), universal serial bus (USB), or IEEE 1394 (e.g., Firewire™) connection elements. The networking devices 21 comprise the various components used to transmit and/or receive data over a network 26, where provided. By way of example, the networking devices 21 include a device that can communicate both inputs and outputs, for instance, a modulator/demodulator (e.g., modem), a radio frequency (RF) or infrared (IR) transceiver, a telephonic interface, a bridge, a router, as well as a network card, etc. The memory 11 normally comprises various programs (in software and/or firmware) including an operating system (O/S) 13 and an inventory manager 15. The O/S 13 controls the execution of programs, including the inventory manager 15, and provides scheduling, input-output control, file and data management, memory management, and communication control and related services. The inventory manager 15 facilitates the process for monitoring and tracking of inventory and a user. Operation of the inventory manager 15 is described in relation to FIGS. 8 and 9. The memory 11 further includes user database 53, cost center database 59, and inventory database 61. The databases 53, 59, 61 facilitate the computing device 2 to determine whether the user are authorized to enter or exit the controlled space. The databases 53, 59, 61 further facilitates the computing device 2 to associate the inventory and cost of the inventory with the cost centers and the user as the user takes the inventory into and out of the controlled space. The databases 53, 59, 61 are described in relation to FIGS. 4 and 5. FIG. 4 is high-level example of databases stored in memory shown in FIG. 3. The databases in memory 11 (FIG. 3) include user database 53, cost center database 59, and inventory database 61. Each database is linked to each other. For example, the user database 53 is linked to center database 59 and inventory database 61. The cost center database 59 is linked to user database 53 and inventory 61. The inventory database 61 is linked to cost center database 59 and user database 53. The databases 53, 59, 61 provide information about the user, inventory, departments, work cells, shifts, costs, etc. For example, the user database 53 has information about the user, the department that the user is in, the shift the user works, the work cell the user is in, the total charged value of the inventory that the user takes out of the controlled space, the total credited value of the inventory that the user returns to the controlled space, the cost threshold that the user is allowed to take from the controlled space, the time and date the user enters or exits the controlled space, etc. The cost center database 59 has cost information about the departments, shifts, work cells, job, etc. The cost information includes, but is not limited to, the total charged value of the inventory associated to the departments, shifts, work cells, job, etc., the total credited value of the inventory associated to the departments, shifts, work cells, job, etc., the cost threshold of the inventory associated to the departments, shifts, work cells, job, etc. The inventory database 61 has information about the inventory, the cost of the inventory, the time and date that the inventory enters or exits the controlled space, etc. The databases facilitate the portal system 1 to monitor and track the user, cost centers, and inventory. For example, if the user enters the portal area 17 of the portal system 1, the portal system 1 records the date and time that the user and inventory enters and exits into the portal device 12. The portal system 1 also records the value of the inventory to credit or charge the user and/or cost centers. The portal system 1 links the detected inventory and the value of the inventory to the user and cost centers. FIG. 5 illustrates an examplary database of the memory 11. The portal system can be used in the airplane industry. For example, John Doe 53A works for an airline company and maintains the wings of airplanes as his job 59A. John Doe 53A works in the maintenance department 59B of the airline. Therefore, the user database 53 includes John Doe 53A. John Doe 53A is linked to job 59A and department 59B of the cost centers database 59, and to the inventory 61A-C of the inventory database 61 that he took from the controlled space. If John Doe 53A exits a controlled space with a screwdriver 61A, drill bits 61B, and powerdrill 61C, the portal system links the inventory 61A-C to John Doe 53A. The portal system further charges the total value (e.g, $150) of the inventory 61A-C to John Doe 53A and to the cost centers 59A-B that the user is associated with. John Doe 53A can be assigned a cost threshold of $500, the job 59A can be assigned a cost threshold of $1,000 and the maintenance department 59B can be assigned a cost threshold of $10,000. John Doe 53A can take inventory (individually and in combination) not exceeding $500. Many users can be assigned to job 59A and maintenance department 59B. Thus, the users (individually and in combination) associated to the job 59A and maintenance department 59B can take inventory (individually and in combination) not exceeding $1,000 and $10,000, respectively. FIG. 6 illustrates an example of operation of the portal system that monitors and tracks inventory and user entering in a controlled space. In block 23, the user is detected entering the portal area 17 of the portal system 1 via the presence sensing mat 6. The computing device 2 determines whether there is a user radio frequency tag 14 in the portal area 17 of the portal device 12, as indicated in block 25. If there is no radio frequency signals, the user is requested to input a code via graphical user interface 4, as indicated in block 27. The code can be any numerical, alphabetical, alphanumerical, and/or symbols that can be entered into the graphical user interface 4. If the computing device 2 determines that a user radio frequency tag is detected, the receiver 22 receives a signal from the user radio frequency tag, as indicated in block 29. The receiver 22 sends the radio frequency signal to the computing device 2, as indicated in block 31. In block 33, once the code or the radio frequency signal is received by the computing device 2, the computing device 2 verifies whether the user is authorized to enter the controlled space. In an alternative embodiment, the computing device 2 can require the user to input a code via graphical user interface 4 even when the computing device 2 detects a radio frequency tag. The computing device 2 can verify whether the user is authorized based on both the radio frequency signal and the code. If the user is not authorized to enter the controlled space, the computing device 2 does not unlock the door 3, as indicated in block 35. If the user is authorized to enter the controlled space, the computing device 2 unlocks the door 3 via the electro-magnetic lock 10, as indicated in block 37. The computing device 2 then detects for any radio frequency signal related to inventory that is with the user in the portal area 17, as shown in block 39. If the computing device 2 detects inventory in the portal area 17, the computing device 2 links the detected inventory to the user entering the portal area 17, as indicated in block 41. The computing device 2 then credits the accounts of the user and/or cost centers the value of the inventory that the user returns inventory to the controlled space, as indicated in block 43. For example, when the user returns a screwdriver and rivet gun that are both worth $100, the user, the user's work cell, and the user's department are credited $100. If the computing device 2 does not detect inventory in the portal area 17, the computing device 2 does not link or credit the user and/or cost centers. FIG. 7 illustrates an example of operation of the portal system 1 that monitors and tracks inventory and user exiting a controlled space. In block 47, the user is detected exiting the portal area 17 of the portal system 1 via the presence sensing mat 6. The user presses an unlock button 54 and unlocks the door for the user to exit the controlled space, as indicated in block 49. The computing device 2 determines whether there is a user radio frequency tag in the portal area 17 of the portal device 12, as indicated in block 51. If there is no radio frequency signal, the user is requested to select a user identification code via graphical user interface located inside the portal area 17, as indicated in block 55. If the computing device 2 determines that a user radio frequency tag 14 is detected, the receiver 22 receives a signal from the user radio frequency tag 14, as indicated in block 57. The receiver 22 sends the radio frequency signal to the computing device 2, as indicated in block 60. In block 63, the computing device 2 then detects for any radio frequency signal related to inventory that are with the user in the portal area 17. If the computing device 2 detects inventory in the portal area 17, the computing device 2 links the detected inventory to the user exiting the portal area 17, as indicated in block 65. The computing device 2 can further charge the account of the user and/or the cost centers the value of the inventory that the user takes out of the controlled space, as indicated in block 67. For example, when the user takes a screwdriver and rivet gun that are both worth $100 out of the controlled space, the user, the user's work cell, and the user's department are charged $100. If the computing device 2 does not detect inventory in the portal area 17, the computing device 2 does not link or charge the user and/or cost centers. In the case where the user enters the controlled space with a first inventory item(s) and exits with a second inventory item(s), the computing device 2 unlinks the user from the first inventory item(s) and links the user to the inventory item(s). The computing device credits the user (or the work cell, department, etc.) the value of the first inventory item(s) and then charges the user (or the work cell, department, etc.) the value of the second inventory item(s). The computing device 2 can determine whether the user and/or the cost center have exceeded the budget usage or threshold value of inventory, as indicated in block 69. The computing device can provide a notification signal, such as an electronic reporting, to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space, as indicated in block 71. The notification signal indicates that the budget usage of the inventory has exceeded a threshold value. For example, the user has a limit of $100 value of inventory, the work cell has a $1,000 value of inventory and the department has a $10,000 value of inventory. If the user takes inventory exceeding the $100 value, the computing device 2 can provide an electronic reporting to administrator that supervises the user. If one or more users that works in the same work cell takes inventory exceeding the $1,000 value, the computing device 2 can provide an electronic reporting to an administrator that supervises the work cell. If one or more users that works in the same department takes inventory exceeding the $10,000 value, the computing device 2 can provide an electronic reporting to an administrator that supervises the department. FIG. 8 illustrates an example of operation of the inventory manager 15 of the portal device 12 that facilitates monitoring and tracking inventory entering a controlled space. In block 75, the inventory manager 15 receives data from the user in a portal area 17 either a signal from a user radio frequency tag 14 or code that is entered by the user via a graphical user interface 4. The inventory manager 15 determines whether the user is authorized to enter the controlled space based on the received data, as indicated in block 77. If the user is not authorized to enter the controlled space, the inventory manager 15 sends no signal to unlock the door preventing the user from entering the controlled space, as indicated in block 79. If the user is authorized to enter the controlled space, the inventory manager 15 unlocks the door via the electromagnetic lock 10, as indicated in block 81. The inventory manager 15, in block 83, determines whether any inventory is detected in the portal area 17. The inventory manager 15 detects for any radio frequency signal related to inventory that is with the user in the portal area 17. If the inventory manager 15 detects any inventory in the portal area 17, the inventory manager 15 links the detected inventory to the user exiting the portal area 17, as indicated in block 85. In block 87, the inventory manager 15 credits the accounts of the user and/or the cost centers the value of the inventory that the user returns to the controlled space. For example, when the user returns a screwdriver and rivet gun that are both worth $100, the user, the user's work cell, and the user's department are credited $100. If the inventory manager 15 does not detect inventory in the portal area 17, the inventory manager 15 does not link or credit the user or cost centers. FIG. 9 illustrates an example of operation of the inventory manager 15 of the portal device 12 that facilitates monitoring and tracking inventory exiting a controlled space. In block 91, the inventory manager 15 detects the user unlocking the door at the exit of the controlled space by pressing an unlock button 54. The unlock button 54 sends signal to the locking door 3 to unlock, as indicated in block 93. The inventory manager 15, in block 95, determines whether any inventory is detected in the portal area 17. The inventory manager 15 detects for any radio frequency signal related to inventory that is with the user in the portal area 17. In block 97, if the inventory manager 15 detects inventory in the portal area 17, the inventory manager 15 links any detected inventory tags with the user when exiting through the portal area 17. The inventory manager 15 charges the accounts of the user and/or cost centers the value of the inventory that the user takes out of the controlled space, as indicated in block 99. If no inventory is detected, the inventory manager 15 does not link the user to any inventory nor charge the user, work cell, department, etc. In the case where the user enters the controlled space with a first inventory item and exits with a second inventory item, the inventory manager 15 unlinks the user from the first inventory item and links the user to the second inventory item. The inventory manager 15 further credits the user (or work cell, department, etc.) the value of the first inventory and charges the user (or work cell, department, etc.) the value of the second inventory. The inventory manager 15 can determine whether the user and/or the cost center have exceeded the budget usage or threshold value of inventory, as indicated in block 101. The inventory manager 15, as indicated in block 103, can provide a notification signal, such as an electronic reporting, to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of the present invention, particularly, any “preferred” embodiments, are merely possible examples of implementations, merely set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of the invention. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiment(s) of the invention without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the invention. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and the present invention and protected by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE <EOH>Companies typically have difficulties tracking inventory items and their usage within their facilities. Many inventory items are misused, misplaced, and improperly tracked and replenished by the employees of the companies. Therefore, companies have incentives to track the items, hold employees responsible for missing items, properly account costs, and replenish the missing items based on demand. Typically items of the inventory are kept in a controlled space that is monitored. Some companies have used locking doors with keypads that allow only employees with authorized code to enter the controlled space. In addition, computers and bar code tags have been used to track the items in and out of the controlled space. However, these systems still lack tracking information, cost accounting information, security methods, and replenishment information in the process of tracking and monitoring the items stored in the controlled space and linking the responsible employee with the items being taken in and out of the controlled space. Therefore, from the above, it can be appreciated that it would be desirable to have a system, device and method for monitoring and tracking items stored in a controlled space. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides systems, devices and methods for monitoring and tracking an item in the controlled space. Briefly described, in architecture, one embodiment of the system, among others, can be implemented as follows. A portal system that monitors a controlled space includes a radio frequency tag that is attached to an item in inventory and a portal device, which includes a computing device, a receiver and a locking door. The item is typically material that is used to make or maintain a product (e.g., aircraft, automotive parts, facilities, etc.). The item can be, for example but not limited to, a rivet gun, screwdriver, gage, spare part, fluids, etc. The receiver is configured to receive signals from the radio frequency tag, and send the signal to the computing device. The locking door is coupled to the computing device. The computing device is configured to verify whether the user is authorized to be taking inventory in and out of the controlled space through the locking door based on the received signals. The computing device is configured to lock and unlock the locking door based on the determination that the user is authorized. In another embodiment, the computing device has a user database in memory. The user database includes a total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The computing device determines whether the user and/or the cost center have exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The computing device is configured to provide a notification signal, such as an electronic reporting, to an administrator based on the total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space. The notification signal indicates that the budget usage of the inventory has exceeded a threshold value. In another embodiment, a portal device that monitors a controlled space includes a computing device and a locking door. The computing device is electrically coupled to a graphical user interface, which is located outside the controlled space. The locking door is coupled to the computing device, which is configured to lock and unlock the locking door based on code inputted by a user through the graphical user interface upon entering and exiting the controlled space. In another embodiment, a method of monitoring a controlled space includes the steps of receiving data from a user via a graphical user interface located outside of the controlled space; determining whether the user is authorized to unlock a locking door based on the received data; unlocking the locking door based on the received data; and tracking inventory based on the received data when the user enters and exits the controlled space. In another embodiment, a method of monitoring a controlled space includes the steps of receiving data from a user that identifies the user; associating the user with a total value of inventory that the user has taken out of the controlled space; determining whether the user is authorized to unlock a locking door based on the received data; determining whether the user has exceeded a threshold value of inventory based on the total value of inventory; unlocking the locking door based on the received data; and providing a notification signal based on the total value of inventory associated to the user. In another embodiment, a method of monitoring a controlled space includes the steps of receiving a signal from a radio frequency tag, the radio frequency tag being attached to a user; determining whether the signal from the radio frequency tag authorizes the user to be taking inventory in and out of the controlled space; and unlocking a locking door based on the signal from the radio frequency tag that is attached to the user. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the present invention will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims. | 20041117 | 20080304 | 20051027 | 61459.0 | 1 | LE, UYEN CHAU N | PORTAL SYSTEM FOR A CONTROLLED SPACE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,007 | ACCEPTED | Solid-state imaging device and method for manufacturing the same | A solid-state imaging device of the present invention is provided with a plurality of photodiodes arranged in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement, inorganic dielectric films that are made of a translucent inorganic substance, formed on the photodiode, and a hollow layer that is formed within the inorganic dielectric film and sandwiched between an inner lateral wall and an outer lateral wall formed with the inorganic dielectric film, wherein the hollow layer has a funnel shape whose aperture widens from an end portion near an upper portion of the photodiode with increasing distance from the photodiode. Light that is incident on a region above the photodiode area can be focused effectively onto the photodiode over a wide range. | 1. A solid-state imaging device comprising: a plurality of photodiodes arranged in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement; an inorganic dielectric film made of a translucent inorganic substance formed on the photodiode; and a hollow layer that is formed within the inorganic dielectric film and sandwiched between an inner lateral wall and an outer lateral wall formed with the inorganic dielectric film; wherein the hollow layer has a funnel shape whose aperture widens from an end portion near an upper portion of the photodiode with increasing distance from the photodiode. 2. The solid-state imaging device according to claim 1, further comprising: a CCD that is disposed adjacent to the photodiode and that transfers charge that has been photoelectrically converted and held by the photodiode; and a light-blocking film that is formed below the hollow layer and covers the CCD, and that has an aperture portion above the photodiode; wherein the end portion of the hollow layer is positioned inward of the aperture portion of the light-blocking film. 3. The solid-state imaging device according to claim 2, wherein the aperture of the hollow layer at a position that is located a predetermined distance away from the photodiode is larger than the aperture portion of the light-blocking film. 4. The solid-state imaging device according to claims 1, wherein the inner lateral wall and the outer lateral wall made of the inorganic dielectric film that form the hollow layer are formed substantially parallel. 5. The solid-state imaging device according to claim 2, wherein an end portion of the light-blocking film in the vicinity of the photodiode is positioned higher than the lowest portion of the hollow layer. 6. The solid-state imaging device according to claim 3, wherein an end portion of the light-blocking film in the vicinity of the photodiode is positioned higher than the lowest portion of the hollow layer. 7. The solid-state imaging device according to claims 1, wherein the hollow layer has a step portion. 8. A method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device, comprising: forming an outer wall dielectric film made of an inorganic substance at least above a peripheral area of each of a plurality of photodiodes formed in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement on a semiconductor substrate; forming a hollow forming dielectric film made of an inorganic substance that is different from that of the outer wall dielectric film on the outer wall dielectric film; removing by etching an area of the hollow forming dielectric film that corresponds to the photodiode aperture portion; forming an inner wall dielectric film, made of an inorganic substance that is different from the hollow forming dielectric film, above the hollow forming dielectric film and the photodiode aperture portion; etching the inner wall dielectric film at the border outer peripheral portion of a unit cell that includes a single photodiode, down to the hollow forming dielectric film; and forming a hollow layer by selectively etching the hollow forming dielectric film sandwiched between the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film, using the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film as masks. 9. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, further comprising: forming a light-blocking film that has an aperture portion that is above the photodiode, above the area near the plurality of photodiodes, before the step of forming the outer wall dielectric film; wherein in the step of forming the outer wall dielectric film, the outer wall dielectric film is formed above the light-blocking film and the photodiode. 10. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, further comprising: etching the outer wall dielectric film to a predetermined depth in a region that is larger than the aperture portion of the photodiode and smaller than the border portion of the unit cell, which is provided with a single photodiode, before the step of forming the hollow forming dielectric film on the outer wall dielectric film. 11. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 9, wherein an end portion of the light-blocking film in the photodiode vicinity is formed higher than the lowest portion of the hollow layer. 12. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, wherein the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film are formed by films having SiO2 as a main component, and the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having SiN as a main component. 13. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 12, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is etched using a gas having Cl, F, or both, as a main component. 14. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 12, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is etched using a gas having an active species of Cl, an active species of F, or both, as a main component, and during that etching process, a temperature of a stage on which a wafer is placed is set to at least 50° C. 15. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, wherein the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film are formed by films having SiN as a main component, and the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having SiO2 as a main component. 16. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 15, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is etched using a solution having HF as a main component. 17. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 15, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is etched using a gas having an active species of CxHy as a main component. 18. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, wherein the outer wall dielectric film is formed by a film having SiO2 as a main component, the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having SiN as a main component, and the inner wall dielectric film is formed by a SiON film. 19. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, wherein the inner wall dielectric film is silica glass, and the manufacturing method includes a step of applying and annealing the silica glass. 20. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, further comprising: performing planarization through CMP (chemical mechanical polishing) after the inner wall dielectric film is formed. 21. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is a conducting film. 22. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 21, wherein the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film are formed by films having SiO2 as a main component, and the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having Si as a main component. 23. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 22, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is etched using a gas having a halogen element as a main component. 24. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 8, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having a high melting point metal component. 25. The method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device according to claim 21, wherein the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having a high melting point metal component. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to solid-state imaging devices that can be employed in digital still cameras, composite video cameras, and the like, and methods for manufacturing the same. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, solid-state imaging devices have come to be employed widely in the imaging portion of, for example, composite video cameras and digital still cameras. Of these, interline-transfer type CCD solid-state imaging devices (hereinafter, referred to as IT-CCDs) are particularly popular because of their low noise properties. FIG. 8 is a diagram that schematically shows the configuration of an ordinary IT-CCD. In FIG. 8, reference numeral 1 denotes photodiodes having a photoelectric conversion function, 2 denotes vertical transfer portions that have a buried channel structure and that are for transferring signal charges in the vertical direction, 3 denotes vertical transfer gates that control vertical transfer, 4 denotes a horizontal transfer portion for transferring signal charges in the horizontal direction, and 5 denotes an output portion. FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating a unit pixel P, which includes a photodiode 1, a vertical transfer portion 2, and a vertical transfer gate 3 of FIG. 8. FIG. 10 schematically shows a cross-section taken along the line A-A in FIG. 9. In FIG. 10, the photodiode 1 and the vertical transfer portion 2 are formed within a silicon substrate 11. The vertical transfer gate 3 is formed on the silicon substrate 11. Reference numeral 6 denotes a light-blocking film that has been provided such that incident light is kept from being incident on regions other than the photodiode 1, such as on the vertical transfer portion 2. 8a and 8b are a first and a second dielectric film, respectively, having SiO2 as a main component, and 10 is a protective film. An organic dielectric film 12 is formed on the protective film 10 and planarized. A lens 7 made of an organic film is formed on the organic dielectric film 12, and focuses incident light into the photodiode 1. The dielectric film 12 functions both as a planarizer and as a color filter. FIGS. 11A and 11B show the process steps in producing the above conventional solid-state imaging device. FIG. 11A shows a cross-section at a state where the light-blocking film 6, the second dielectric film 8b, and then the protective film 10 have been formed. It should be noted that after the second dielectric film 8b is formed, it is subjected to a thermal flow process to provide it in the shape illustrated here. After the protective film 10 is formed, as shown in FIG. 11B, the organic dielectric film 12 and then the lens 7 are formed. However, the solid-state imaging device of the above structure has the problem that it cannot effectively utilize the incident light when focusing by the lens 7 is not sufficient. That is, when light is perpendicularly incident on the solid-state imaging device, it is effectively focused by the lens 7 and usefully incident on the photodiode 1, but when the angle of incidence has deviated from the perpendicular direction, the incident light is not focused onto the photodiode 1 and is diffusely reflected by the surface of the light-blocking film 6, and this did not allow the incident light to be effectively utilized. In particular, as cameras have become more compact, the miniaturization of the unit pixels of solid-state imaging devices and the shortening of the exit pupil length of the lens used in cameras have become remarkable, and thus the problem mentioned above has become even more pronounced. For example, although more compact unit pixels have led to a shrinking of the photodiode aperture width W, which is the aperture of the light-blocking film 6, the film thickness of the vertical transfer gates 3 cannot be provided thin proportional to the extent to which the aperture width is reduced. This has resulted in a structure having a pit shape with a narrow aperture, making focusing of the incident light difficult. Further, shorter exit pupil distances in the camera lens are one cause for the increase in the ratio of light incident on the solid-state imaging device whose angle has deviated from the perpendicular direction, and this, too, makes it difficult to achieve effective focusing of incident light onto the photodiode 1. In response to the above problems, Japanese Patent No. 2869280 discloses a structure for increasing the sensitivity, resolution, and image quality by providing a low refraction region layer in the lateral wall of the light path formation portion positioned above the photoelectric conversion portion, so as to cause light that is incident into the lateral area of the transfer electrode or light that is diffused to adjacent pixels to be incident on the photoelectric conversion portion. Japanese Patent No. 2869280 discloses a method for forming a gas layer as the low refraction region layer by applying a soluble resin, covering that resin with another resin, and then dissolving the soluble resin to form the gas layer (paragraphs 0008 and 0014; see FIG. 1). The structure of the low refraction region layer disclosed in Japanese Patent No. 2869280, however, is not sufficient for focusing the light that is incident on the area above the photodiode area onto the photodiode over a wide range. In other words, that light that is incident on an intermediate region between the photodiode 1 and other surrounding photodiodes is incident on the light-blocking film 6 at an angle close to a right angle, and thus reflection occurs at the surface of the light-blocking film 6 and it was not possible to focus the light that is incident on this region onto the photodiode 1. Also, with the manufacturing method disclosed in Japanese Patent No. 2869280, it was difficult to uniformly apply a thin soluble resin onto the surface of a solid-state imaging device that has severe unevenness, because liquid pools are formed in the recessed portions, entire recessed portions are buried with the resin, or bubbles without resin are formed in some of the recessed portions. Thus it was not easy to obtain a low refraction region layer with uniform properties. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a solid-state imaging device with which light that is incident on the area above the photodiode vicinity can be effectively focused onto the photodiode over a wide range. It is a further object to provide a method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device with which a low refraction region layer having uniform properties can be formed with ease. A solid-state imaging device of the present invention is provided with a plurality of photodiodes arranged in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement, an inorganic dielectric film made of a translucent inorganic substance, formed on the photodiode, and a hollow layer that is formed within the inorganic dielectric film and sandwiched between an inner lateral wall and an outer lateral wall formed with the inorganic dielectric film, wherein the hollow layer has a funnel shape whose aperture widens from an end portion near an upper portion of the photodiode with increasing distance from the photodiode. A method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device of the present invention includes: forming an outer wall dielectric film made of an inorganic substance at least above a peripheral area of each of a plurality of photodiodes formed arranged in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement on a semiconductor substrate; forming a hollow forming dielectric film made of an inorganic substance that is different from the outer wall dielectric film on the outer wall dielectric film; removing by etching an area of the hollow forming dielectric film that corresponds to a photodiode aperture portion; forming an inner wall dielectric film, made of an inorganic substance that is different from the hollow forming dielectric film, on the outer wall dielectric film and the hollow forming dielectric film; planarizing the inner wall dielectric film; etching the inner wall dielectric film at the outer peripheral portion of a border of a unit cell that includes a single photodiode, up to the hollow forming dielectric film; and forming a hollow layer by selectively etching the hollow forming dielectric film sandwiched between the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film, using the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film as masks. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view showing the cross-sectional structure of a solid-state imaging device according to the first embodiment. FIGS. 2A to 2F are cross sectional views showing the method for manufacturing that solid-state imaging device. FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view showing the cross-sectional structure of a solid-state imaging device according to the second embodiment. FIGS. 4A to 4C are cross sectional views showing the method for manufacturing that solid-state imaging device. FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view showing another example of a cross-sectional structure of the solid-state imaging device according to the second embodiment. FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view showing yet another example of a cross-sectional structure of a solid-state imaging device according to the second embodiment. FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view showing the cross-sectional structure of a solid-state imaging device according to the third embodiment. FIG. 8 is a plan view showing an overview of the configuration of a conventional solid-state imaging device. FIG. 9 is a plan view showing an overview of the configuration of a unit pixel of the conventional solid-state imaging device. FIG. 10 is a cross sectional view showing the cross-sectional structure along the line A-A in FIG. 9. FIGS. 11A and 11B are cross sectional views showing the method for manufacturing the conventional solid-state imaging device. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS According to the solid-state imaging device of the present invention having the above structure, a hollow layer is provided to maximize the refractive index difference between the dielectric films, and by utilizing total reflection, it is possible to effectively focus incident light onto the photodiode. Moreover, because the hollow layer has a funnel shape, the light that is incident on an area above the photodiode can be effectively focused onto the photodiode over a wide range. Therefore, the problem of the photodiode coming to have a deep shaft shape in conjunction with the unit pixels of the solid-state imaging device becoming smaller in size and the problem of changes in the incident light angle due to shorter ejection pupil distances of the camera lens are solved, allowing good image-capturing properties to be obtained. Also, according to the manufacturing method of the present invention discussed above, the hollow layer can be formed uniformly. It is preferable that the solid-state imaging device of the present invention further includes a CCD that is disposed adjacent to the photodiode and that transfers charge that has been photoelectrically converted and held by the photodiode, and a light-blocking film that is formed below the hollow layer and covers the CCD, and that has an aperture portion above the photodiode, and that the end portion of the hollow layer is positioned inward of the aperture portion of the light-blocking film. It is further preferable to adopt a configuration in which the aperture of the hollow layer at a position that is located a predetermined distance away from the photodiode is larger than the aperture portion of the light-blocking film. Thus, guiding of the incident light utilizing total reflection can be achieved over a wider range. It is also preferable that the inner lateral wall and the outer lateral wall made of the inorganic dielectric film that form the hollow layer are formed substantially parallel. Thus, the widest possible area for the inner region of the hollow layer can be secured according to the shape of the primer, and therefore the light focusing region can be maximized. It is also preferable that an end portion of the light-blocking film in the vicinity of the photodiode is positioned higher than the lowest portion of the hollow layer. Thus, guiding of the incident light is utilized to widen the aperture of the photodiode, allowing the sensitivity to be increased. Also, by adopting a configuration in which the hollow layer has a step portion, it is possible to further increase the region over which total reflection is possible to a region wider than the aperture portion of the light-blocking film. When unit pixels have become smaller in size and the photodiode surface is located in a deep portion, the hollow layer can have a shape that rises upward substantially perpendicular to the origin of the photodiode upper portion in a deep portion or some of whose aperture narrows near the photodiode center and widens at a sufficiently upper portion. In this case as well, the light that has been focused at an upper portion is efficiently guided to the photodiode, which is in a deep portion, due to guiding by total reflection. Even if the hollow layer does not have a shape that rises upward substantially perpendicular to the origin of the photodiode upper portion in a deep portion or some of whose aperture narrows near the photodiode center and widens at a sufficiently upper portion, the light that is focused at the upper portion hollow layer aperture is efficiently guided to the photodiode, which is in a deep portion, due to guiding by total reflection, allowing the effect of utilizing the hollow layer to guide the incident light by total reflection to be sufficiently obtained. It preferable that the method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device of the present invention further includes: etching the outer wall dielectric film to a predetermined depth in a region that is larger than the aperture portion of the photodiode and smaller than the border portion of the unit cell, which is provided with a single photodiode, before the step of forming the hollow forming dielectric film on the outer wall dielectric film. It is also preferable that an end portion of the light-blocking film in the photodiode vicinity is formed higher than the lowest portion of the hollow layer. It is also possible that the method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device of the present invention further includes: forming a light-blocking film having an aperture portion above the photodiode, above the area around the plurality of photodiodes before the step of forming the outer wall dielectric film, and that in the step of forming the outer wall dielectric film, the outer wall dielectric film, which is made of an inorganic substance, is formed above the light-blocking film and the photodiode. It is also possible that the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film are formed by films having SiO2 as a main component, and that the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having SiN as a main component. In this case, it is possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be etched using a gas having Cl, F, or both, as a main component. Alternatively, it is also possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be etched using a gas having an active species of Cl, an active species of F, or both, as a main component, and that during the etching process, the temperature of the stage on which a wafer is placed is set to at least 50° C. It is also possible that the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film are formed by films having SiN as a main component, and the hollow forming dielectric film is formed by a film having SiO2 as a main component. In this case, it is possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be etched using a solution having HF as a main component. Alternatively, it is also possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be etched using a gas having an active species of CxHy as a main component. It is also possible for the outer wall dielectric film to be formed by a film having SiO2 as a main component, the hollow forming dielectric film to be formed by a film having SiN as a main component, and the inner wall dielectric film to be formed by a SiON film. It is also possible for the inner wall dielectric film to be silica glass, and for the manufacturing method to include applying and annealing the silica glass. Alternatively, it is also possible to include planarization through CMP (chemical mechanical polishing) after the inner wall dielectric film is formed. It is also possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be a conducting film. For example, the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film can be formed by films having SiO2 as a main component, and the hollow forming dielectric film can be formed by a film having Si as a main component. In this case, it is possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be etched using a gas having a halogen element as a main component. It is also possible for the hollow forming dielectric film to be formed by a film having a high melting point metal component. It should be noted that the present invention is not limited to CCD solid-state imaging devices, and the same effects can be achieved when the present invention is applied to MOS-type solid-state imaging devices. The present invention can be adopted for solid-state imaging devices that are provided with a photodiode capable of photoelectric conversion, regardless of the manner in which the device is structured. Hereinafter, embodiments of the present invention are described in detail with reference to the drawings. It should be noted that the solid-state imaging devices of the various embodiments have the same overall structure as the conventional example shown in FIG. 8. In the following reference drawings and description, the configuration of the same region as the region of the unit pixel shown in FIG. 9 is described. First Embodiment FIG. 1 shows the cross-sectional structure of the solid-state imaging device according to a first embodiment of the present invention, and is a cross-sectional view taken along the line A-A of FIG. 9. In FIG. 1 the reference numeral 1 denotes a photodiode and 2 denotes a vertical transfer portion having a buried channel structure, both formed within a silicon substrate 11. A vertical transfer gate 3 is formed above the silicon substrate 11. Reference numeral 6 denotes a light-blocking film that is provided such that it blocks regions other than the photodiode 1, such as the vertical transfer portion 2, from the incident light. Dielectric films 8a, 8b, and & having an inorganic substance such as SiO2 as their main component are formed above the vertical transfer gate 3 and sandwich the light-blocking film 6. The dielectric films 8b and & allow light to pass and respectively form the outer wall and the inner wall of a hollow layer 9. For this reason, in the description that follows, the dielectric films 8b and & are referred to as the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film, respectively. The hollow layer 9 is formed in the shape of the lateral wall of a funnel whose aperture originates at the area around the photodiode 1 and widens with increased distance from the photodiode 1. A protective film 10 is formed on the upper surface of the inner wall dielectric film &. An organic dielectric film 12 is formed on the protective film 10 and has been planarized. A lens 7 made of an organic film is provided on the organic dielectric film 12, and focuses incident light onto the photodiode 1. The dielectric film 12 functions as both a planarizer and a color filter. In the solid-state imaging device of the first embodiment described above, at the border portion between the hollow layer 9 and the inner wall dielectric film &, the refractive index of the inner wall dielectric film 8c is larger than that of the hollow layer 9 which has a vacuum dielectric constant of 1, so that the refractive index difference is at a maximum. Consequently, total reflection occurs from the inner wall dielectric film 8c at its interface with the hollow layer 9 in accordance with that refractive index difference. When n is the refractive index of the inner wall dielectric film 8c, then the total reflection angle θ is the angle expressed by: cos θ=1/n (Formula 1) When n is 1.5, then θ is 48.1° according to Formula 1. This means that total reflection occurs at the border between the inner wall dielectric film 8c and the hollow layer 9 in a range from a direction tangential to that border surface up to a direction with an angle of 48.1°. As a result, light can be effectively focused onto the photodiode 1 due to the guiding of incident light by total reflection along the interface with the hollow layer 9, even if the incident light is not focused directly onto the aperture portion of the photodiode 1 by the lens 7. Also, with the technology of Japanese Patent No. 2869280, the hollow layer is above the vertical transfer gate (transfer electrode), and is near perpendicular to the incident light, but in the present embodiment the hollow layer 9 is formed in the shape of the inner wall of a funnel. Thus, light can be focused onto the photodiode 1 over a wide range, even in a case of light that is incident above the vertical transfer gate 3. Further, in this embodiment, the hollow layer 9 is formed substantially parallel to the shape of the outer wall dielectric film 8b (the thickness of the hollow layer 9 remains uniform). Consequently, at the section where the shape of the outer wall dielectric film widens outward, the hollow layer 9 is formed so that it also widens along the outer wall dielectric film 8b. It is thus possible to maximize the inner wall region of the hollow layer 9 that is for focusing light, and this further increases the ability to focus light onto the photodiode 1. It should be noted that according to the present embodiment, incident light is efficiently guided to the photodiode 1 and unnecessary light can be kept from entering the vertical transfer portion 2, and thus the light-blocking film 6 is not absolutely necessary. As a method for manufacturing the hollow layer 9, it is possible to adopt a method in which a dielectric film that is sandwiched between two dielectric films is removed by etching through isotropic etching. A method for manufacturing the solid-state imaging device having the above structure is described below with reference to FIGS. 2A to 2E FIG. 2A shows a state in which the light-blocking film 6 and then the outer wall dielectric film 8b are formed, after which a hollow forming dielectric film 13, which is a dielectric film having SiN as a main component, has been formed. The processes up to forming the outer wall dielectric film 8b are identical to those of the method for manufacturing the conventional solid-state imaging device. The outer wall dielectric film 8b is provided in the shape that is shown in the diagram by executing thermal flow processing after the film is formed. The hollow forming dielectric film 13 is formed using CVD or the like in which the formation temperature of the film has been lowered, utilizing plasma or UV light, for example. Next, as shown in FIG. 2B, a photoresist 14 is patterned such that it is open above the photodiode 1, thereby etching the hollow forming dielectric film 13. Next, the photoresist 14 is removed and the inner wall dielectric film 8c is formed and subjected to planarization, producing the state shown in FIG. 2C. Then, as shown in FIG. 2D, the pattern of a photoresist 15 is formed, and the inner wall dielectric film 8c is etched at the border portion with adjacent unit cells, forming an exposed portion 13a of the hollow forming dielectric film 13. Next, as shown in FIG. 2E, the photoresist 15 is removed and the hollow forming dielectric film 13 is removed from the exposed portion 13a by etching. As a result, the hollow layer 9 is formed. By dry etching using a gas having either F (fluorine) or Cl (chlorine), such as CF4 or CCl4, as its primary etching component to etch the hollow forming dielectric film 13, only the hollow forming dielectric film 13, which has SiN as a main component, is removed selectively. Next, as shown in FIG. 2F, the entire structure is covered by the protective layer 10, and then the organic film 12 and the organic film lens 7 are formed. In the manufacturing processes described above, an SiN film, that is, the hollow forming dielectric film 13, is etched with plasma whose active species is F or Cl and thus isotropism and sufficient selectivity with respect to SiO2 films can be obtained, and this allows the hollow layer to be formed favorably. Further, because the SiN film is formed using a film formation method such as CVD, the problem of nonuniform film formation, which is a problem when employing a method of applying a soluble resin, such as in Japanese Patent No. 2869280, is completely absent. Also, when a Si film is used in place of the above SiN film as the hollow forming dielectric film 13, the Si readily reacts with the active species F or Cl and even better etching properties are obtained. The same applies when etching using a HF solution or an active species of a CxHy gas when the SiO2 film is sandwiched between SiN films. Also, when etching the hollow forming dielectric film 13, it is also possible to not use an organic photoresist and instead use the inner wall dielectric film 8c that has been patterned as a photoresist. This is because when the photoresist is used during dry etching, products generated from the photoresist during etching become etching active species, lowering the selectivity. With the technology of the present embodiment, a photoresist is not used when etching the hollow forming dielectric film 13, and thus good selectivity can be obtained. Moreover, even when performing wet etching with HF, it is possible to prevent photoresist peeling or the like that may occur during long-duration etching, and this allows the manufacturing processes to be carried out stably. When dry etching is used to form the hollow layer 9 described above, wafer temperature control is crucial. When the wafer temperature becomes low, the reaction products that are generated by etching readhere to the lateral wall of the hollow layer 9 and the lateral wall of the etching chamber. When the reaction products adhere to the lateral wall of the hollow layer 9, the etching for hollowing stops before it reaches a predetermined depth. When the reaction products adhere to the lateral wall of the etching chamber, these become dust and fall onto the water surface, interfering with etching and requiring the inside of the etching chamber to be cleaned frequently. To prevent either of these from occurring, a significant effect is obtained by maintaining a wafer stage temperature within the etching chamber of at least 50° C. In particular, CxHy-based gas is prone to readhering, making temperature management essential. It is also possible to use silica gas as the inner wall dielectric film &, applying silica glass and then annealing the silica glass to form the inner wall dielectric film 8c. Also, after forming the inner wall dielectric film 8c, it can be planarized by CMP (Chemical Mechanical Polishing). Second Embodiment The solid-state imaging device according to a second embodiment is described with reference to FIG. 3. FIG. 3 shows the cross-sectional structure of a solid-state imaging device according to the second embodiment, and corresponds to the section taken along the line A-A of FIG. 9. The structural elements in FIG. 3 that are identical to the structural elements shown in FIG. 1, which shows the first embodiment, are assigned identical reference numerals and the description thereof is omitted. In the present embodiment, the shape of an outer wall dielectric film 17a and an inner wall dielectric film 17b, which form a hollow layer 16, is different from the hollow layer 9 of the first embodiment. The outer wall dielectric film 17a has curved portions 18a and 18b in regions outside the aperture portion of the photodiode 1 but inward from the border portion of the unit cell, which includes one photodiode 1, and a step portion 19 is formed between the curved portions 18a and 18b. The shape of the hollow layer 16 maintains a constant angle at the step portion 19, which is the upper aperture portion of a funnel-shaped lateral wall. The formation of the curved portions 18a and 18b allows this shape to be obtained easily. In the above structure, the refractive index difference that is obtained at the border between the hollow layer 16 and the inner wall dielectric film 17b causes total reflection to occur at that border, and thus, like in the first embodiment, the above structure has the function of effectively guiding incident light to the photodiode 1. Moreover, in the present embodiment, the funnel upper aperture shape of the hollow layer 16 stays at a constant angle up to the border portion of the unit photodiode, and thus incident light from the lens 7 can be guided to the photodiode 1 over a wider range. More specifically, light that is outside of focusing by the lens 7 above the photodiode 1 is incident at a near right angle on border portions in a line with the photodiode 1. To counter this, the region of the hollow layer 16 that is formed at an angle that results in total reflection (for example, in the case of the first embodiment, 48.1°) has been expanded to include more surrounding regions. Light that is totally reflected by such surrounding regions is again totally reflected by the hollow layer 16 near the area directly above the aperture portion of the photodiode 1 and becomes incident on the photodiode 1. In other words, light from the lens 7, as well as light that passes through regions outside the lens 7, such as the border region of the lens 7, can be guided to the photodiode 1 over a wide range. In a shape where the step portion 19 is not present, the hollow layer approaches a parallel state with the substrate at portions higher than the portion corresponding to the curved portion 18a, which is the lower border of the step portion 19, and total reflection does not occur for the angle of the incident light, and its function of guiding the incident light is lost. However, because the step portion 19 is present, the hollow layer 16 can maintain an angle at which total reflection occurs over a wider range, and the incident light from the lens 7 can be guided to the photodiode 1 over an even wider range than the aperture portion of the light-blocking film 6. In particular, in CCD solid-state imaging devices, the surface area of the aperture portion of the photodiode 1 is small compared to the surface area of the repeated unit pixels, and thus the ability to effectively guide peripheral incident light to the photodiode 1 has an extremely large effect on increasing sensitivity. The method for manufacturing the solid-state imaging device of the present embodiment is described with reference to FIGS. 4A to 4C. FIG. 4A shows a state in which the pattern for a photoresist 20 has been formed after forming the light-blocking film 6 and then forming the outer wall dielectric film 17a. The processes up to forming the outer wall dielectric film 17a are identical to those of the method for manufacturing the conventional solid-state imaging device. The pattern of the photoresist 20 is formed such that it has an aperture in a region that is larger than the aperture portion of the photodiode 1 and smaller than the border portion of the unit cell. Next, as shown in FIG. 4B, the outer wall dielectric film 17a is etched down to a predetermined depth with the photoresist 20 serving as a mask. The photoresist 20 is then removed, and a hollow forming dielectric film 13 having SiN as a main component is formed. The hollow forming dielectric film 13 is formed using a method for forming a SiN film in which the formation temperature of the film is lowered using plasma or UV light, for example. Thereafter, the same processes as those of the manufacturing method of the solid-state imaging device of the first embodiment are executed to provide the product shown in FIG. 4C, in which the processes up to forming the organic film lens 7 have been completed. That is, from the state shown in FIG. 4B, the hollow forming dielectric film 13 is etched so that it is open above the photodiode 1, next the inner wall dielectric film 17b is formed and planarized, and then the inner wall dielectric film 17b is etched at the border portion with adjacent unit cells, forming the exposed portion. Then, the hollow forming dielectric film 13, which has SiN as a main component, is etched from the exposed portion of the inner wall dielectric film 17b, forming the hollow layer 16. The entire structure is then covered by the protective film 10, after which the organic film 12 and the organic film lens 7 are formed. In the above example, the step portion 19 is provided only at a single location, but by performing the steps of FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B a plurality of times, it is also possible to form a structure provided with a plurality of step portions. FIG. 5 shows the cross-sectional structure of an example of the present embodiment in which a plurality of step portions 19a and 19b have been formed. In this example, a plurality of step portions 19a and 19b are provided, thereby allowing light that is incident over a wider surrounding region to be guided to the photodiode 1 due to total reflection. FIG. 6 shows the cross-sectional structure of an example of the present embodiment in which the photodiode 1 is formed deep with respect to the surrounding outer wall dielectric film 17a, and a large step portion 21 is formed. As a structure in which the photodiode 1 has been formed deep with respect to the outer wall dielectric film 17a, a case in which multiple wiring layers, for example, have been formed within the outer wall dielectric film 17a and the insulating film between the wiring layers is formed high with respect to the photodiode 1 is possible, and it is also possible simply to form a thick dielectric film. With this embodiment, light can be effectively guided to the photodiode 1, even if the photodiode 1 is formed in a deep portion, by providing the step 21 and setting it to an angle that results in total reflection even for peripheral incident light. It should be noted that in the drawings showing the present embodiment, the vertical transfer portion 2 is formed adjacent to the photodiode 1 and the light-blocking film 6 is formed above the vertical transfer portion 2, but in the present invention the incident light can be guided efficiently to the photodiode by total reflection, keeping unnecessary light from entering the vertical transfer portion 2, and thus the light-blocking film 6 is not absolutely necessary. Even if there is an adjacent transistor for charge detection like in MOS sensors, or the light-blocking film is not formed, it should be obvious that the same effects as in the embodiment described are obtained. Third Embodiment A solid-state imaging device according to a third embodiment is described with reference to FIG. 7. FIG. 7 shows the cross-sectional structure of a solid-state imaging device according to the present embodiment, and corresponds to the section taken along the line A-A of FIG. 9. The structural elements in FIG. 7 that are identical to the structural elements shown in FIG. 1 that shows the first embodiment are assigned identical reference numerals and description thereof is omitted. In the present embodiment, the shape of a light-blocking film 22 is different from that of the light-blocking film 6 of the first embodiment. In the present embodiment, the light-blocking film 22 does not cover the lateral surface of the vertical transfer gate 3, leaving a large aperture for the photodiode 1. With the conventional technology, useless light is incident from the lateral surface of the vertical transfer gate 3 unless a light-blocking film is present there, and thus the smear properties were poor. In contrast to this, in the present embodiment the incident light is guided by the hollow layer 9, and thus useless incident light from this portion is inhibited. Consequently, a large aperture for the photodiode 1 can be obtained without causing a drop in the smear properties, and this allows the sensitivity properties to be increased significantly. This results in a synergistic effect between the technologies for forming the hollow layer 9 and widening the aperture. The invention may be embodied in other forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The embodiments disclosed in this application are to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not limiting. The scope of the invention is indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description, and all changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are intended to be embraced therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In recent years, solid-state imaging devices have come to be employed widely in the imaging portion of, for example, composite video cameras and digital still cameras. Of these, interline-transfer type CCD solid-state imaging devices (hereinafter, referred to as IT-CCDs) are particularly popular because of their low noise properties. FIG. 8 is a diagram that schematically shows the configuration of an ordinary IT-CCD. In FIG. 8 , reference numeral 1 denotes photodiodes having a photoelectric conversion function, 2 denotes vertical transfer portions that have a buried channel structure and that are for transferring signal charges in the vertical direction, 3 denotes vertical transfer gates that control vertical transfer, 4 denotes a horizontal transfer portion for transferring signal charges in the horizontal direction, and 5 denotes an output portion. FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating a unit pixel P, which includes a photodiode 1 , a vertical transfer portion 2 , and a vertical transfer gate 3 of FIG. 8 . FIG. 10 schematically shows a cross-section taken along the line A-A in FIG. 9 . In FIG. 10 , the photodiode 1 and the vertical transfer portion 2 are formed within a silicon substrate 11 . The vertical transfer gate 3 is formed on the silicon substrate 11 . Reference numeral 6 denotes a light-blocking film that has been provided such that incident light is kept from being incident on regions other than the photodiode 1 , such as on the vertical transfer portion 2 . 8 a and 8 b are a first and a second dielectric film, respectively, having SiO 2 as a main component, and 10 is a protective film. An organic dielectric film 12 is formed on the protective film 10 and planarized. A lens 7 made of an organic film is formed on the organic dielectric film 12 , and focuses incident light into the photodiode 1 . The dielectric film 12 functions both as a planarizer and as a color filter. FIGS. 11A and 11B show the process steps in producing the above conventional solid-state imaging device. FIG. 11A shows a cross-section at a state where the light-blocking film 6 , the second dielectric film 8 b , and then the protective film 10 have been formed. It should be noted that after the second dielectric film 8 b is formed, it is subjected to a thermal flow process to provide it in the shape illustrated here. After the protective film 10 is formed, as shown in FIG. 11B , the organic dielectric film 12 and then the lens 7 are formed. However, the solid-state imaging device of the above structure has the problem that it cannot effectively utilize the incident light when focusing by the lens 7 is not sufficient. That is, when light is perpendicularly incident on the solid-state imaging device, it is effectively focused by the lens 7 and usefully incident on the photodiode 1 , but when the angle of incidence has deviated from the perpendicular direction, the incident light is not focused onto the photodiode 1 and is diffusely reflected by the surface of the light-blocking film 6 , and this did not allow the incident light to be effectively utilized. In particular, as cameras have become more compact, the miniaturization of the unit pixels of solid-state imaging devices and the shortening of the exit pupil length of the lens used in cameras have become remarkable, and thus the problem mentioned above has become even more pronounced. For example, although more compact unit pixels have led to a shrinking of the photodiode aperture width W, which is the aperture of the light-blocking film 6 , the film thickness of the vertical transfer gates 3 cannot be provided thin proportional to the extent to which the aperture width is reduced. This has resulted in a structure having a pit shape with a narrow aperture, making focusing of the incident light difficult. Further, shorter exit pupil distances in the camera lens are one cause for the increase in the ratio of light incident on the solid-state imaging device whose angle has deviated from the perpendicular direction, and this, too, makes it difficult to achieve effective focusing of incident light onto the photodiode 1 . In response to the above problems, Japanese Patent No. 2869280 discloses a structure for increasing the sensitivity, resolution, and image quality by providing a low refraction region layer in the lateral wall of the light path formation portion positioned above the photoelectric conversion portion, so as to cause light that is incident into the lateral area of the transfer electrode or light that is diffused to adjacent pixels to be incident on the photoelectric conversion portion. Japanese Patent No. 2869280 discloses a method for forming a gas layer as the low refraction region layer by applying a soluble resin, covering that resin with another resin, and then dissolving the soluble resin to form the gas layer (paragraphs 0008 and 0014; see FIG. 1 ). The structure of the low refraction region layer disclosed in Japanese Patent No. 2869280, however, is not sufficient for focusing the light that is incident on the area above the photodiode area onto the photodiode over a wide range. In other words, that light that is incident on an intermediate region between the photodiode 1 and other surrounding photodiodes is incident on the light-blocking film 6 at an angle close to a right angle, and thus reflection occurs at the surface of the light-blocking film 6 and it was not possible to focus the light that is incident on this region onto the photodiode 1 . Also, with the manufacturing method disclosed in Japanese Patent No. 2869280, it was difficult to uniformly apply a thin soluble resin onto the surface of a solid-state imaging device that has severe unevenness, because liquid pools are formed in the recessed portions, entire recessed portions are buried with the resin, or bubbles without resin are formed in some of the recessed portions. Thus it was not easy to obtain a low refraction region layer with uniform properties. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to provide a solid-state imaging device with which light that is incident on the area above the photodiode vicinity can be effectively focused onto the photodiode over a wide range. It is a further object to provide a method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device with which a low refraction region layer having uniform properties can be formed with ease. A solid-state imaging device of the present invention is provided with a plurality of photodiodes arranged in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement, an inorganic dielectric film made of a translucent inorganic substance, formed on the photodiode, and a hollow layer that is formed within the inorganic dielectric film and sandwiched between an inner lateral wall and an outer lateral wall formed with the inorganic dielectric film, wherein the hollow layer has a funnel shape whose aperture widens from an end portion near an upper portion of the photodiode with increasing distance from the photodiode. A method for manufacturing a solid-state imaging device of the present invention includes: forming an outer wall dielectric film made of an inorganic substance at least above a peripheral area of each of a plurality of photodiodes formed arranged in a one-dimensional or a two-dimensional arrangement on a semiconductor substrate; forming a hollow forming dielectric film made of an inorganic substance that is different from the outer wall dielectric film on the outer wall dielectric film; removing by etching an area of the hollow forming dielectric film that corresponds to a photodiode aperture portion; forming an inner wall dielectric film, made of an inorganic substance that is different from the hollow forming dielectric film, on the outer wall dielectric film and the hollow forming dielectric film; planarizing the inner wall dielectric film; etching the inner wall dielectric film at the outer peripheral portion of a border of a unit cell that includes a single photodiode, up to the hollow forming dielectric film; and forming a hollow layer by selectively etching the hollow forming dielectric film sandwiched between the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film, using the outer wall dielectric film and the inner wall dielectric film as masks. | 20041116 | 20061114 | 20050526 | 91791.0 | 1 | PRENTY, MARK V | SOLID-STATE IMAGING DEVICE AND METHOD FOR MANUFACTURING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,033 | ACCEPTED | Internet controlled telephone system | An Internet controlled telephony system employing a host services processor connected to a subscriber via the Internet and further connected to the public switched telephone system (PSTN). The subscriber employs a web interface to populate a database with preference data which is used by the host services processor to handle incoming calls and establish outgoing telephone connections in accordance with the preference data provided by the subscriber. Incoming calls to a telephone number assigned to the subscriber may be automatically forwarded to any telephone number specified by the preference data. The subscriber may also use the web interface to specify whether call waiting is to be activated, to screen or reroute calls from designated numbers, for recording voice mail messages in designated voice mailboxes, for selectively playing back voice mail messages via the web interface or for forwarding voice mail as an email attachment, for handling incoming fax transmissions using character recognition and email attachment functions, and for automatically paging the subscriber when incoming voice mail, fax or email messages are received, all in accordance with the preference data supplied by the subscriber using the web interface. Outgoing connections and conference calls may be initiated using the web interface, and the subscriber may block the operation of caller identification functions. Call progress information may be visually displayed to the subscriber during calls by transmitting web pages from the host services computer to the subscriber's web browser. | 1. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet comprising, in combination, a host services computer connected to the Internet, a subscriber computer accessible to said subscriber connected to the Internet at a location remote from said host services computer, call processing apparatus connected to said host services computer, a plurality of telephone lines connecting said call processing apparatus to the public switched telephone network, a particular one of said lines being associated with a particular telephone number assigned to said subscriber, a gateway connectable between at least said particular one of said telephone lines and the Internet for transforming voice signals from said public switched telephone into packetized signals for transmission via the Internet using the Internet Protocol and for transforming packetized signals received from the Internet using the Internet Protocol into voice signals for transmission via the public switched telephone network, said call processing apparatus including means for receiving an incoming telephone call directed to said particular telephone number via said particular subscriber line and connecting said incoming call to said subscriber via said particular one of said lines, said gateway and the Internet to said subscriber computer. 2. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 1 wherein said host services computer further includes data storage means for storing preference values which are accessed by said call processing apparatus to customize the manner in which telephone calls are handled on behalf of said subscriber. 3. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 2 further including a web server coupled to said data storage means and accessible to said subscriber via the Internet for displaying said preference data to said subscriber and for modifying said preference data at the request of said subscriber. 4. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 3 further including a voice mail storage facility coupled to said call processing apparatus for storing voice mail messages transmitted to said subscriber. 5. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 4 wherein said web server provides a voice mail web interface to said subscriber for displaying information from said voice mail storage facility to said subscriber and for accepting commands from said subscriber for controlling said voice mail storage facility using a web browser program executed by said subscriber computer. 6. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 5 wherein said voice mail web interface accepts voice mail playback commands from said subscriber to control the playback of voice mail messages for said subscriber via the Internet. 7. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 5 wherein said voice mail web interface displays information describing at least selected ones of said voice mail messages transmitted to said subscriber. 8. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 5 wherein said voice mail storage facility stores said voice mail messages as recorded audio files. 9. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 8 wherein said voice mail web interface accepts commands from said subscriber for transmitting at least a selected one of said audio recording files via the Internet for storage at said subscriber computer. 10. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 8 wherein said voice mail web interface accepts commands from said subscriber for transmitting at least a selected one of said audio recording files as an email attachment or link address to a destination email address designated by said subscriber. 11. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 8 wherein said voice mail web interface accepts commands from said subscriber for altering the greeting message played to a caller who is connected to said voice mail storage facility. 12. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 5 wherein said voice mail web interface accepts commands from said subscriber for displaying a listing of undeleted voice mail messages stored in said voice mail storage facility. 13. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 12 wherein said listing displays the date and time each of said undeleted voice mail message was recorded and the identification of the caller. 14. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 5 wherein said voice mail web interface includes means for establishing a plurality of different voice mailboxes. 15. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 14 wherein each of said voice mailboxes is designated by a name specified by said subscriber. 16. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 2 wherein said host services computer further provides an Internet server interface to said subscriber which enables said subscriber to display and edit said preference values via the Internet using a program executed by said subscriber computer to thereby customize the manner in which telephone calls are handled on behalf of said subscriber. 17. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 2 further comprising the step of employing said call processing apparatus to forward said incoming calls via said public switched telephone network to an alternative destination telephone number as specified by said preference data. 18. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 1 further including a voice mail storage facility coupled to said call processing apparatus for storing voice mail messages transmitted to said subscriber via said public switched telephone network or via the Internet. 19. A telephone communications system for providing telephone services to a subscriber via the Internet as set forth in claim 18 wherein said voice mail storage facility may be accessed by said subscriber via either said public switched telephone network or the Internet. 20. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber which comprises, in combination, the steps of: employing a cable modem or other network connection to connecting a subscriber computer to a digital Internet Protocol transmission network at an Internet Protocol address assigned to said subscriber computer, at a host services location remote from said subscriber location, connecting call processing apparatus to the public switched telephone network via a plurality of subscriber lines, including a specific subscriber line for receiving an incoming call directed to a specific telephone number assigned for the exclusive use of said subscriber, employing a gateway connected between said specific subscriber line and said Internet Protocol transmission network for establishing an Internet Protocol voice connection using IP telephony between said specific subscriber line and said subscriber computer via said Internet Protocol transmission network, and employing said call processing apparatus and said gateway to forward said incoming call to said subscriber computer via said Internet Protocol voice connection to establish a working two-way voice connection via said Internet Protocol voice connection and said specific subscriber line. 21. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 20 further including the step of employing a client program that executes on said subscriber computer to display, edit and store preference data in a network server accessible to said call processing apparatus, said preference data defining the manner in which said subscriber desires to have telephone calls processed by said call processing apparatus. 22. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 21 further comprising the step of employing said call processing apparatus to forward said incoming calls via said public switched telephone network to an alternative destination telephone number as specified by said preference data. 23. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 21 wherein said gateway digitizes voice signals from said specific subscriber line to form digital voice signals, compresses and packetizes said digital voice signals to form Internet Protocol packets, and transmits said packets via said Internet Protocol transmission network to said subscriber computer. 24. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 23 wherein said gateway receives Internet Protocol packet signals from said subscriber computer via said Internet Protocol transmission network and transforms said packet signals into voice signals which are transmitted via said specific subscriber line to the public switched telephone network 25. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 24 further including a voice mail storage facility coupled to said call processing apparatus for storing voice mail messages transmitted to said subscriber. 26. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 25 wherein said client program displays information describing at least selected ones of said voice mail messages transmitted to said subscriber. 27. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 21 wherein said preference data includes phone book data entries at least some of which identify a specific party by name and further specify the phone number of said specific party. 28. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 27 wherein said web server further stores phone book data which identify a particular party by name and further specify a network address on said Internet Protocol transmission network for said particular party. 29. The method of processing telephone calls on behalf of a subscriber as set forth in claim 28 wherein said network address for said particular party is an email address. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/914,652 filed Aug. 9, 2004, which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/228,596 filed on Aug. 27, 2002 which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,785,266 on August 31, 2004 and which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/033,287 filed on Mar. 2, 1998 which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,445,694 on Sep. 3, 2002 and which was a non-provisional of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/040,046 filed on Mar. 7, 1997. This application claims the benefit of the filing dates of each of the above-noted applications. The disclosures of each of the above-noted applications and patents are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to computer controlled telephone systems and more particularly to a telephone system which may be controlled using commands transmitted from a subscriber location over the Internet to a host computer which provides telephone services. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing an illustrative arrangement of hardware components which provide the infrastructure for implementing a preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 shows the screen display of a main menu giving options available to the subscriber; FIG. 3 illustrates a screen displayed to enable the subscriber to place a call and request a conference call; FIG. 4 depicts an illustrative screen display which enables the subscriber to control a call in progress; FIG. 5 is a screen display presented to enable the subscriber to review and select particular persons or firms listed in a phone book database; FIG. 6 shows a screen displayed when a form is presented to enable the subscriber to add or edit information in a phone book entry and to take place calls and the like to the person listed; FIG. 7 illustrates a screen which is displayed to enable call forwarding and “follow me” calling; FIG. 8 illustrates a further screen display which enables the subscriber to select and change a variety of call and message forwarding options; FIG. 9 is a screen display which enables the subscriber to create and specify features of a voice mailbox; FIG. 10 is a screen display which is allows the subscriber to view and control the playback of voice messages left in a voice mailbox; and FIG. 11 is a screen display which enables the user to select various options and control the operation of an automatic paging system implemented by the disclosed embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The infrastructure used to implement the present invention may consist entirely of conventional and readily available hardware and software components. As will be seen from the discussion that follows, the hardware and software used at the subscriber (client) location is already present and in use in many well equipped home and small office computer installations. Similarly, the principal hardware and software components needed by the host services computer (server) are similarly readily available, as are the software development tools needed to prepare the limited amount of special purpose programs required for execution at the server. FIG. 1 of the drawings shows the manner in which various conventional hardware components may be interconnected to provide an illustrative hardware infrastructure for implementing the invention. The arrangement seen in FIG. 1 provides the facilities needed for controlling a variety of communications services, including telephone, email, fax and paging services provided by a host services computer operating under the control of either or both (1) a World Wide Web interface and (2) a telephone interface. A typical subscriber location seen at 30 includes, by way of example, a personal computer 31, a monitor 32 for displaying text and images, a keyboard 33 for entering data and commands from the user, a printer 34, a digital scanner 35, a modem 36 and a microphone and headset/speaker represented in FIG. 1 by the handset 37. The modem 36 is used to establish a dialup telephone connection via the conventional telephone network 40 to a remote computer 50 which operates as an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP computer 50 provides the connected computer 31 with access to the Internet, enabling the subscriber computer 31 to exchange data via the Internet seen at 70 in FIG. 1 with other computers, such as the computer 41 at the host services location 40 and a computer 60 which is representative of a selected one of the millions of remote computers connected to the Internet. The dialup connection between computers 31 and 50 seen in FIG. 1 is merely illustrative of one common method for connecting a subscriber location to the Internet. Alternatively, the conventional modem 36 may be replaced by a cable modem, satellite connection, local area network gateway, proxy server or a connected router. All such communications facilities and the components for providing Internet access are conventional. The host services computer 41 is connected to the Internet 70 and employs a multi-port input/output (I/O) unit 43 to permit a number of outside callers to be concurrently connected via the dialup telephone system 40. The dialup telephone system 40 also provides conventional connections to a conventional telephone stationset 38 and a conventional facsimile machine 39, both of which are provided with separate assigned lines and telephone numbers for use at the subscriber location 30. In addition, the telephone system 40 may also interconnect any other connected telephone or facsimile machine, as illustrated at 81 and 83 respectively, as well as other services, such as a remote radio transmission facility 85 used to provide communication to a pager 87 which is assigned to and used by the subscriber. Similarly, the subscriber may utilize a cellular phone (not shown) when traveling to remote locations. As discussed below, the subscriber controls and uses the host service computer using these conventional instrumentalities. Importantly, conventional web browser software running on the computer 31 may be employed, along with voice commands and DTMF (dialtone) signaling via the conventional telephone hookup, to control the state and function of the host services computer 41. The host services computer may alternatively take the form of an Intranet server which is connected to a plurality of client (subscriber) computers by means of a local area network and/or a wide area network. In addition, the host services computer may be connected via a multiport I/O device to serve a number of telephone stationsets. In this arrangement, the host services computer operates as both a shared computer resource for the connected client computers and provides PBX services to the connected subscriber telephone stationsets. Internet connections are provided via an Internet gateway on the LAN/WAN such that both the host services computer and the connected subscriber computers have Internet access. Note further that, with the host services computer operating as a PBS, a direct telephone voice line connection may be established between host services computer and individual telephone subscriber stationsets. In this way, incoming calls may be directly connected to the called subscriber stationset without forwarding the incoming call through the dialup telephone facility. A multiplexed telephone line, such as a leased T1 carrier line, may be used to connect a plurality of subscriber phones to the host services computer, enabling the servicing of branch offices. By concentrating traffic in a shared wideband leased line, branch locations can be served through a central PBX provided by the host services computer at less cost by eliminating individual lines. The host services computer 41 may employ conventional server operating system software, such as the SCO OpenServer operating system sold by The Santa Cruz Operation, Inc. (SCO), Santa Cruz, Calif. 95061. This client/server UNIX operating system for Intel processor-based platforms includes graphical system administration and software management facilities for managing both local and remote systems. The program's Motif GUI provides the look and feel of Microsoft Windows and includes TCP/IP communication gateway services for local and network access external information services. The computer 41 may advantageously equipped with an enhanced audio input/output facilities, such as the Dialogic D/240SC 24 channel digital interface board which provides a voice channel interface between the computer 41 and incoming audio channels from the connected telephone lines as well as call management functions. The D/240SC is marketed by Dialogic Corp. of Parsippany, N.J. 07054. As discussed below, it is the principal function of the host services computer 41 to receive and respond to data and commands received from the subscriber location 30, either in the form of HTML form submissions or in the form of voice and/or dialtone commands, and to perform requested functions in response to those commands. Web Interface A wide variety of available interface mechanisms can be utilized to facilitate communications and control between the subscriber and the host services computer. As described in more detail below, a highly effective interface may be readily implemented using a conventional HTML web pages which are sent to the subscriber computer from the host services computer, including HTML forms which are transmitted to request and accept specific information from the subscriber using as “fill-in-the-blanks” input boxes, memo boxes, check boxes, and radio buttons. Javascript may be advantageously included in the HTML pages to provide validity checking of entered data by the subscriber computer. Alternatively, these and other interface functions and “client-side” operations may be implemented special purpose “plug-in” programs which work with a conventional browser program, or by Java and/or Active-X applets which are transmitted from the host services computer for execution on the subscriber computer using facilities provided by the browser. If desired, special-purpose client application programs may be used to directly communicate with the host services computer without using a general purpose browser. In one particularly useful form, the functions performed at the subscriber location as contemplated by the present invention can advantageously be implemented by routines stored as dynamic link libraries which make telephone subscriber functions available through an open application program interface (API). By way of example, the widely used Microsoft Windows 95 operating system provides specifications for a robust computer/telephone interface named “TAPI” which is fully documented in the Microsoft Win32 Software Development Kit (SDK) which includes documentation, tools, and sample code to assist application programmers in adapting programs to be compatible with TAPI. Two documents, the Microsoft Telephony Programmer's Reference and the Microsoft Telephony Service Provider Interface (TSPI) for Telephony, are also available from Microsoft Corp. to provide additional development guidance. The programmer's reference is intended to document the functionality that an application using TAPI will need. The service provider documentation assists developers and telephone equipment vendors in writing their own TAPI services. Telephone services are integrated into Windows using the Windows Open Systems Architecture (“WOSA”). WOSA uses a Windows dynamic-link library (DLL) that allows software components to be linked at runtime. In this way, applications are able to connect to services dynamically. An application needs to know only the definition of the interface, not its implementation. Telephony services under Windows follow the WOSA model. This means that there exists a Telephony API, which is the application programmers access to telephony services, a Telephony SPI (Service Provider Interface) which is implemented by telephony service vendors, and a Telephony Dynamic Link Library (the TAPI DDL) which is part of the Windows operating system. Applications are presented with a uniform set of devices accessed uniformly via the API without needing to know which service provider actually ends up controlling which device. Similarly, service providers just execute requests on behalf of the Windows Telephony DLL; they are unaware that these requests are the result of multiple applications using the API. The SPI definition reflects this single user model at the service provider level. All this multiplexing demultiplexing of requests and replies is confined to the Telephony DLL. In an environment with multiple PCs on a local area network, it is possible to develop applications and/or service providers that are distributed in nature. With a distributed service provider, a service provider instance on one client PC is able to communicate with its peers on other client PCs, providing potentially a more powerful model as it can combine knowledge about multiple client PCs that may be involved with the same call. The services provided by the line and phone abstractions of the Telephony SPI can be partitioned into three classes: (1) Basic Services are a minimal subset of core services. They must be provided by all service providers. The functions contained in basic telephony roughly correspond to that of POTS. Phone device services are not part of basic telephony. (2) Supplementary Services are the collection of all the services defined by the SPI, but not included in the basic telephony subset. It includes all so-called supplementary features found on modem PBXs including hold, transfer, conference, park, etc. All supplementary features are optional. This means that a service provider decides which of these services it does or does not provide. The TAPI DLL can query a line or phone device for the set of supplementary services it provides. Note that a single supplementary service may consist of multiple function calls and messages. It is important to point out that the Telephony SPI defines the meaning (i.e., behavior) for each of these supplementary features. (3) Extended Services (or Device Specific Services) include all service provider defined extensions to the SPI. A mechanism is defined in the SPI, and reflected in the API, that allows service provider vendors to extend the Telephony SPI using device-specific extensions. Since the SPI only defines the extension mechanism, definition of the extended service behavior must be completely specified by the service provider. The extension mechanism allows a service provider to define new values to enumeration types and bit flags, as well as to add fields to data structures. The interpretation of extensions is keyed off of the service provider's manufacturer ID. Special function and callbacks are provided in the SPI that allow an application to directly communicate with a service provider. Many of the control functions contemplated by the present invention which are controlled through the TAPI interface by the SPI DLL are in fact executed, as will be described, by the host services computer in ways that are invisible to the user or the application program which is executing on the subscriber computer. As an alternative to the TAPI implementation noted above, the host services computer may present an API to programs which execute on the subscriber computers and communicate with the host computer over the Internet or an equivalent data pathway. With the remote host services computer providing an API which makes available a set of telephony functions, application programmers may implement a rich and expandable set collection of special purpose programs which execute on the subscriber computer to implement the features and functions such as those described below in the example HTML/CGI implementation of the invention. When these application programs take the form of Java applets or Active-X applets that are down-loadable from the host services computer to the subscriber computer, the necessity for resident special purpose software at the subscriber location is eliminated and the cost savings associated with “thin client” network computer architectures are preserved. HTTP/CGI Control While such special purpose programs of the type noted above provide a high degree of interoperability with other application programs, they must be especially loaded for execution into each subscriber computer. By using the capabilities found in existing web browser software, it is possible to provide the desired functionality with no new software of any kind being required at the subscriber location. Thus, in perhaps its simplest form, the present invention can be readily implemented by using a conventional web browser program (e.g. Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Explorer) which executes on the subscriber computer 31 seen in FIG. 1, and conventional web server software (e.g. BSD Unix 2.2, Apache 1.1.1) or an SQL server which interoperates with a relational database (such as the Sybase SQL Server V.11). On the server side, web page requests or form submission from the subscriber computer's web browser are sent to the host services computer 41 using the HTTP protocol. At the host services computer 41, the received transmissions from the subscriber location may be handled by Common Gateway Interface (CGI) programs which typically process information from the subscriber and return HTML pages for display on the subscriber's web browser. The HTTP/CGI interface infrastructure is conventional and is described, for example, in Developing CGI Applications with PERL, by John Deep and Peter Holfelder, John Wiley & Sons (1966), ISBN 0-471-14158-5. To establish a working relationship between the host services computer and the subscriber, the host services computer makes available to the public at large a “home page” at a predetermined URL (Universal Resource Locator). The home page, when displayed, identifies and makes available descriptive information about the system, inviting members of the public to subscribe to the offered services by displaying, completing and submitting a subscription form. The HTML subscription form enables user to establish an account with the operator of the host services computer. When the subscription form is submitted, the host services computer stores the descriptive information entered on the submitted form in persistent storage (typically a database on a local magnetic disk drive) accessible to the host computer. As is conventional, the subscription process may advantageously employ conventional secure encrypted communications protocols for obtaining the subscriber's credit card number and authorization to facilitate billing. As will be understood, the subscriber may be billed for services based on monthly fees or measured use of the system at rates which, because of economies achieved by the system, may be significantly lower than the costs associated with such services when provided by conventional means. When the subscription form is received and accepted, the new subscriber may be sent a user ID and password (which may be done by conventional mail at the same time user manuals or other information is supplied to the subscriber). In accordance with an important feature of the invention, the subscriber can access his or her personalized phone services and database from any computer having access to the Internet, and need not be limited to a particular computer on which special programs or data are stored. At the same time, the password protection afforded by the system assures the security of the information stored for access by the subscriber. The host services may be advantageously provided by an existing services provider, such as an Internet Services Provider (ISP), a cable modem company, a telephone access provider, a telephone answering service, a paging services company, or the like. At the same time the new subscription account is established, the host service assigns a telephone number to the new subscriber service and informs the subscriber of that assigned number (which may conveniently be an 800 or 888 number, eliminating the need for the subscriber to independently obtain 800 or 888 number service). This telephone number will be referred to hereafter as the “assigned subscriber number”. Any call to the assigned subscriber number is answered by and handled by the host services computer 41 in the manner determined in part by preference data provided by the subscriber using HTML forms as described in more detail below, or by transmitting voice or DTMF commands over the conventional telephone system. Using the web browser software running on the subscriber computer 31, the subscriber accesses a predetermined (and typically bookmarked) web page at a predetermined URL. The host services computer responds with a request to the subscriber to enter his or her assigned user ID and password, and if that step is performed satisfactorily, the host services computer transmits a main menu webpage of the type illustrated in by FIG. 2. The main menu page seen in FIG. 2 provides hypertext links to six different web pages, each of which is also illustrated in the drawings as shown by the table below: Menu Anchor Text Drawing Place Outgoing Call FIG. 3 Phone Book FIG. 5 “Follow Me” Calling FIG. 7 Mail, Message & Fax FIG. 8 Forwarding Voice Mail FIG. 9 Paging Services Place Outgoing Call When the subscriber “clicks on” the anchor text “Place Outgoing Call” at 201 on the main menu webpage seen in FIG. 2, the browser sends a request for a further webpage specified by a URL associated with the anchor text in the HTML text which created the main menu. Note that, in general, the value of a URL sent when a hyperlink is activated is the file location of web page or a predetermined CGI script, along with parameters passed to the server for execution by that script. Note that, in general, because the hypertext links (URL's) that are sent to the server are formed from text on pages written by the server, the URL may contain state information, either in the form of a file designation or in the form of CGI parameters, which identify the subscriber as well as the context in which the subscriber is making a request, and the specific request or data being sent to the server. The selection by the subscriber of the main menu option represented by the hypertext anchor text “Place Outgoing Call” causes the HTML for displaying the form seen in FIG. 3 to be displayed by the browser. This form allows the user to enter a phone number to be called in the input line form control at 203. In addition, by clicking on the checkbox at 205 and entering one or more numbers in the input line boxes arrayed in a table at 207, the subscriber may specify the telephone numbers of additional parties to be included in a conference call. The conference call may be implemented directly by the host services computer 41 which places all calls to all of the numbers specified in the form seen in FIG. 3, or the conference call may be requested from the dial up telephone system. Control of Telephone Central Office Services Most public telephone services offer a variety of service functions which can be advantageously implemented using the user interface features of the present invention. To use many of these functions, the user must normally know and key-in control key sequences on the telephone keypad. In accordance with a feature of the present invention, these functions may be advantageously automated by the host services computer in response to easily understood menu selections made by the subscriber using the webpage interface or voice command interface. The conventional telephone system functions which can be advantageously implemented in this way include those shown in the following illustrative examples, described using the control dialtone key sequence command codes employed by the Bell Atlantic telephone service. These functions include the activation and deactivation of call waiting services under the control of the HTML checkbox form control seen at 211 in FIG. 3, the blocking and unblocking of caller ID displays in response to the checkbox entry at 209 in FIG. 3, and the activation of call tracing. As an alternative to the use of DTMF key sequences to control telephone central offices, the SS7 call management protocol may be used. AT&T developed and made available a set of 1A ESS features called LASS (Local Area Signaling Services). As expanded by customized software enhancements originating with Pacific Bell, these functions are also available under the name CLASS (Custom Local Area Signaling Services). These services allow increased customer control of phone calls. Existing customer lines can be used provide call management and security services. A key feature of CLASS resides in the ability of the terminating office to obtain the identity of the calling party. Special terminating treatment based on the identity of the calling party can then be provided. The CLASS features are dependent upon an SS/CCS (Signaling System 7/Common Channel Signaling) network and use the SS7 Call Management Mode of operation. SS7 is an advanced signaling system that features flexible message formatting, high speed data transmission (56/64 kbps) and digital technology. CCS is defined as a private network for transporting signaling messages. In the existing voice and signaling network, signaling and voice use the same path but cannot use it at the same time. With SS7, signaling and voice have been separated. Signaling (SS7) is over a high-speed data link which carries signaling for more than one trunk. In the context of the present invention, the SS7 protocol provides a more direct and effective way for the host services computer to control the functions of the connected dialup telephone system than the conventional DTMF signaling mechanisms which are set forth here for simplicity. If the subscriber wishes to prevent the called parties caller ID system from displaying the subscribers number on the next call, the box at 209 is checked and the host services computer requests the central office to perform per call blocking by sending the dialtone sequence “*67” to the central office. If the telephone company has been requested to block caller ID display on all outgoing calls, the line associated with checkbox 209 would instead read “Unblock display of your number by caller ID for next call only” and the host services computer would instead sends the sequence “*82” to remove perform line blocking for the next call only. The host services computer can interrogate the central office to determine whether or not line blocking has been requested by dialing a predetermined number which will provide an announcement indicating line blocking status for the calling number. The functions noted above may be performed by the telephone central office in response to command codes sent from the host services computer to the central office. Call waiting is activated when the checkbox at 211 is checked by sending the key sequence “*70” to the central office, and is deactivated by the sending same code when the box on line 211 is unchecked. If only one additional party is to be conferenced in, the commonly available “three way calling” service offered by telephone system may be used. When the user enters the telephone number of the third party to be added to an existing call at 207 and checks at 205, the host services first dials the number entered in input line 203 and, when that connection is established, the computer flashes the line (i.e., places the line on-hook momentarily), waits for three beeps and a dial tone from the central office, dials the number previously entered at 207, and when the added party answers, again flashes the line to bring all three parties together for the desired conference call. If the third party line does not answer or is busy, the subscriber is notified of that condition and the line is flashed twice to reconnect the first call. When the button 213 on the form seen in FIG. 3 is pressed, a command is sent to the host services computer request a trace of the last incoming call. In response, the host services computer returns a form (dialog box) advising the subscriber of a service charge will be incurred and requesting confirmation that the requested function should nonetheless be performed. If confirmed by the subscriber, the host services computer transmits the dialtone key sequence “*57” to the central office, which thereafter provides announcements to the subscriber indicating that the call was traced and providing further instructions. After the information in the input line 203 identifying the number to be entered is completed, and optionally the conferenced-in numbers are entered at 207, the user presses the button labeled “Place Call” at 217. In response, the server dials the call to establish a voice connection with the called party or parties, and displays the call-in-progress form seen in FIG. 4. As the call progresses, the normal audible signals (busy signals, ringing signals, etc.) are sent to the subscriber over the telephone voice connection, and may be supplemented by additional voice status announcements. Typically, such notifications to the subscriber may be sent by sent by both voice announcement and audible signals over the voice connection or by sending status displays in the form of revised HTML pages for display on the subscriber's monitor. In accordance with the invention, notification messages displayed on the monitor are frequently less disruptive; accordingly, by checking the checkbox seen at 223 on the form of FIG. 4, the subscriber may disable the supplemental voice announcements. The full identification of the incoming party is displayed on the call-in-progress form as indicated at 224. To provide this complete display, the host services computer matches the telephone number of the calling telephone, provided by the telephone system's automatic number identification (ANI) service, against a “phone book” database (to be discussed later) of frequently used phone numbers to obtain, in addition to the ANI information, other descriptive information about the calling party. The name or number of the calling party may form the anchor text for a hyperlink to even more detailed phonebook information about the party of the type to be discussed later in connection with FIGS. 5 and 6. When the subscriber places a call to a busy line, or if there is no answer before a time out period expires, the host services computer presents a dialog box form to the subscriber showing the status (“No Answer” or “Busy”) and displaying a request prompt “Continue automatic redialing?” [Yes, No]. If redialing is requested, it may be performed by the host services computer or, in the alternative, the central office may be requested to perform repeat dialing by sending the key sequence “*66”. Repeat dialing by the central office may be deactivated on the request of the subscriber by notifying the host services computer which, in turn, transmits the dialtone sequence “*68” to deactivate central office repeat dialing. Other call in progress controls which are provided by the call-in-progress form of FIG. 4. The button 225 labeled “Record” may be pressed to create a recording of the conversation, preferably by first generating a confirming dialog box and, if desired, informing the called party by voice announcement or signal, as appropriate, that the conversation is being recorded. By pressing the “Hold” button 227, the call in progress may be placed on hold in the normal way so that, for example, an incoming call signaled by the “call waiting” function can be handled. So that more important calls or data connections are not interrupted, call waiting may be deactivated by checking the checkbox at 229. By pressing the button 232 labeled “Conference,” the subscriber may request to have additional parties included in a conference call, which is accomplished by again displaying the outgoing call specification form seen in FIG. 3. The subscriber may terminate a call by simply placing the handset on hook in the usual fashion, or by pressing the “Hang up” button 234 which has the same effect. It is frequently desired to send a predetermined DTMF key sequence after a connection is established in order to perform specialized functions. In addition, it may be desirable to play a predetermined audio file so that it can be heard by the party with whom a connection has been established. To send a DTMF key sequence, it may be entered in text in on the input line at 242 and then sent by pressing the form button 246 labeled “Send.” Similarly, the filename or other designation of an audio file recorded at the server computer 41, or the URL of an audio file available on the Internet, may be entered in the input line at 252. The designated audio file is sent over the voice telephone connection under the control of the buttons at 257 labeled “Play,” “Pause,” “Stop” and “Rewind.” For the convenience of the subscriber, notes on the call in progress may be entered in the memo box seen at 262 in FIG. 2. Pressing the “Save” form button at 264 causes the entered notes to be saved as a file at the server at a location accessible by accessing the phone book entry for the party as discussed in connection with FIG. 6. Alternatively, by pressing the “Save As” button, the subscriber is presented with a form that enables the notes to be saved at a named location on persistent storage accessible to the host services computer. Note that such information is saved at the host services computer 41 and not at the subscriber computer 31 so that the information saved is available to the subscriber regardless of the particular client computer used to access the system. It is an important feature of this aspect of the invention that subscriber may access his or her personal information from any location using any web browser and/or telephone subscriber station, such as a public telephone at an airport. Phone Book Frequently called numbers may be accessed and dialed using a phone book database of information. By clicking on the hyperlink anchor text “Phone Book” seen at 270 on the main menu of FIG. 2, a phone book listing page illustrated in FIG. 5 may be displayed. This listing displays an alphabetical list of persons and firms previously stored by the subscriber. Using the page designating navigation bar listing seen at 272 in FIG. 5, the subscriber may go to any desired subsection of the phone book to find an existing listing. By clicking on the name of the person or firm of interest, a form containing more detailed information is presented as shown in FIG. 6. If the person of interest is not found on the listing of FIG. 5, the hyperlink anchor text “Add New” at 274 at the right side of the navigation bar 272 may be clicked on to display a blank for of the type shown in FIG. 5 to enable a new entry to be created. The form seen at FIG. 6 accepts and, when submitted, stores information about frequently called numbers and is the source of database information displayable at 224 in the call-in-progress form. Notes saved during previous conversations with the person identified on the form may be viewed by pressing the button labeled “See Notes” at 276 in FIG. 6. Note that this button will only be present when notes have been previously recorded for that person or firm; otherwise, the CGI script which generates the form in response to the activation of the associate hyperlink on the form of FIG. 5 will not include the button on the generated form. The phone book data itself may be advantageously stored using a conventional SQL server which interoperates with a relational database (such as the Sybase SQL Server V.11). The database for each called number potentially includes not only the phone number for that party, but also fax and pager numbers and email addresses. Phone calls, fax transmissions, paging transmissions and email messages may be initiated immediately from the form seen in FIG. 6 by pressing the appropriate one of the activation buttons seen at 280. In addition, by checking the checkbox at 282, calls originating from this caller may be screened and blocked altogether, or may be routed to voice mail according to the instructions provided by the subscriber selectable radio button options indicated at 286. The drop-down list box at 289 permits the subscriber to designate the voice mailbox to which voice mail from this caller is directed. Similarly, the drop-down list boxes at 292 and 294 respectively allow the subscriber to designate the mailbox locations for fax transmission files and email messages received from this caller. When the form is completed to the subscriber's satisfaction, the information it contains is saved for future use in the database maintained by the host services computer when the subscriber presses the “Save as Shown” button 299 at the bottom of the form of FIG. 6. Call Forwarding When hypertext option 300 is clicked on the main menu form seen in FIG. 2, the form seen in FIG. 7 is displayed on the subscriber's monitor. This form allows the subscriber to specify the manner in which incoming calls are forwarded and implements “Follow me” call forwarding to enable calls to be automatically forwarded to one of plurality of different numbers in accordance with a predetermined time schedule. First, at the times when the subscriber is using a particular computer, he or she may place a checkbox at 302 to instruct the host services computer to attempt to establish a voice connection via the Internet using IP telephony to the IP (Internet Protocol) address being used (during this session) by the subscriber computer. IP telephony uses the Internet to send audio between two or more computer users in real time, so the users can converse, and offers the ability to combine voice and data on one network. IP telephony also offers low-cost long distance “telephone” service (assuming the user already has a multimedia PC and a fixed-rate Internet service provider [ISP] account). IP gateways bridge the traditional circuit-switched telephony world with the Internet and offer the advantages of IP telephony to the most common, cheapest, most mobile, and easiest-to-use terminal in the world: the standard telephone. The gateway takes the standard telephone signal, digitizes it (if it is not already digital), significantly compresses it, packetizes it for the Internet using Internet Protocol (IP), and routes it to a destination over the Internet. The gateway reverses the operation for packets coming in from the network and going out the phone. Both operations (coming from and going to the phone network) take place at the same time, allowing a full-duplex (two-way) conversation. Gateway products which may be used at the host services computer 41 are conventional and may be obtained from Dialogic and other vendors, and are compatible with client (subscriber) software which enables the connected subscriber computer to receive and send voice signals over the IP connection. When IP telephony is used, the subscriber uses the handset 37 for voice communications with the handset 37 being connected to the soundcard of the subscriber PC; otherwise, the handset is connected to the telephone subscriber line (which may be shared with the modem 36 for data). If the checkbox 302 is not checked, the host services computer uses the Internet connection for control functions, but establishes a voice connection via the conventional dialup telephone line. Normally, the host services computer is directed to forward calls to the number entered in the input box at 305 in FIG. 7 except when a time period specified by the four leftmost columns in the table at 310 is satisfied, in which case incoming calls are instead forwarded to the number in the associated right hand column. The host services computer activates call forwarding by taking the line carrying the incoming call off-hook, sending the key sequence “#72” to the central office and, when dial tone is received from the central office, dialing the forwarding number previously entered by the subscriber on line 2. When the called number answers, call forwarding is activated; otherwise, if there is no answer or a busy signal, a dialog box (not shown in the drawings) is displayed on the subscriber's monitor (if active), asking the subscriber if the attempt to activate call forwarding should be attempted by redialing until canceled. Message Routing The subscriber may control the manner in which Email, voicemail and fax transmissions are handled using the form seen in FIG. 8. To affect email handling, the host services computer operates as a POP mailbox and SMTP server for receiving and sending email respectively. In order to coordinate email, voicemail and fax transmission, the host services computer may advantageously employ a set of conventional format conversion functions including: voice to text speech recognition for converting voice mail into text form suitable for transmission via email as well as by voice file MIME attachments to email; optical character recognition for translating fax transmissions into text form for email transmission as well as by MIME fax file attachments to email. The information provided on the form of FIG. 8, which is self explanatory, allows email, fax and voice mail messages to be forwarded, stored, and redirected in a variety of ways in response to option selections made by the subscriber as shown. Similarly, the form seen in FIG. 9 provides a mechanism for establishing voice mail mailboxes and governing special functions performed by each. As seen at 286 in FIG. 6, incoming calls from persons or firms identified in the phone book database may be automatically routed to voice mailboxes designated using the form of FIG. 9. This form allows the subscriber to set a password or pin number (set and reset by pressing the button at 321), to automatically save and/or forward voice mail routed to this mailbox to specific directories or recipients, and to change the voice mailbox greeting text (recreated by speech synthesis). The voice mailbox form seen in FIG. 9 further displays a listing of all undeleted voicemail received by this mailbox, along with the date and time recorded and the identification of the caller. By pressing the hypertext link “Review” seen at 333 in FIG. 9, the host services computer sends the HTML page seen in FIG. 10 which displays the voice recognized text of the selected message at 340 and enables the subscriber to control the audio playback of the message using the HTML buttons seen at 342. In addition, the form seen in FIG. 10 enables the subscriber to save the voice mail message as an audio file or send it to as a voice file MIME attachment to email. Similarly, the voice recognized text may be edited by the user using the memo form at 340, and saved or sent as an email attachment. Paging Services The subscriber may select the hypertext link option 400 seen on the main menu of FIG. 2 to display a form as seen in FIG. 11 to control paging services. The subscriber enters the phone number of his or her paging service (see 85 in FIG. 1) in the input line box at 422. Using the checkboxes and radio buttons provided on the form of FIG. 11, the subscriber may designate the conditions under which automatic paging is to occur when incoming voice, fax and email messages are received. The form of FIG. 11 also displays a history list of prior automatically generated paging messages for review by the subscriber using the web connection. Voice and DTMF Controls In order to control the host services computer using nothing but a conventional telephone stationset, such as the telephone 38 or 81 seen in FIG. 1, conventional voice command interpreters and dialtone control mechanisms may be employed. These techniques, now in common use in voice mail systems, may be implemented using voice command interpretation and speech recognition software components available from Pure Speech Corp. One widely used voice controlled telephone systems which has enjoyed considerable success is the Wildfire System. In addition to the hardware interface products offered by Dialogic, the Generations TSP system marketed by Voicetek Corp., 19 Alpha Rd., Chelmsford, Mass. provides a telephony server platform that bridges telecommunications and mixed-media information processing networks, linking different communications tools including telephones, computers, faxes, speech recognition and speech synthesis components, and providing services for telephony sequencing, physical interfacing activities and telephony functions. Speech synthesis programs which may be employed to convert text to speech for replay over the telephone voice connection include: ProVoice (V.2.1)/PrimoVox marketed by First Byte (subsidiary of CUC International, Inc.), 19840 Pioneer Ave. Torrance, Calif. 90503, which enables programmers to add synthesized speech to applications, analyzes and translates text into sound descriptors, phonetic language with pitch, duration and amplitude codes needed to produce stress patterns in phrases and sentences. A second speech synthesis product which may be employed is VoxFonts (V.1.0) sold by Voice Information Systems, Inc., 2118 Wilshire Blvd., Ste. 973, Santa Monica, Calif. 90403, which provides a text-to-speech synthesis library of programs that translates ASCII text into digital audio file, supporting Dialogic and other industry standard formats and uses concatenated human speech for natural sound, and allows the user to add translation rules or specify pronunciations for difficult or foreign words. Software components for handling Fax-to-Voice translation are available from Malibu Software Group, Inc., 23852 Pacific Coast Hwy., Ste. 909, Malibu, Calif., which faxed document to be converted into spoken words. This fax to voice system provides the ability to receive and store fax documents in user's mailbox similar to regular voice mail messages, and incorporates mechanisms for providing security and control of information. Can be integrated with other voice mail systems. In general, using conventional speech and command recognition, DTMF tone signaling detection, and speech synthesis techniques for sending voice prompts and information to the user, all of the control functions discussed in detail above using the HTML/CGI interface may be replicated using voice controls via the telephone line, permitting the host services computer to be controlled using either the website or the voice interface. Nonetheless, because voice prompts must be presented sequentially and voice response interpretation is similarly cumbersome in many cases, the web interface contemplated by the present invention provides a preferred control mechanism for many functions. It is to be understood that the embodiment of the invention which has been described is merely illustrative on one application of the principles of the invention. Numerous modifications may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to computer controlled telephone systems and more particularly to a telephone system which may be controlled using commands transmitted from a subscriber location over the Internet to a host computer which provides telephone services. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing an illustrative arrangement of hardware components which provide the infrastructure for implementing a preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 shows the screen display of a main menu giving options available to the subscriber; FIG. 3 illustrates a screen displayed to enable the subscriber to place a call and request a conference call; FIG. 4 depicts an illustrative screen display which enables the subscriber to control a call in progress; FIG. 5 is a screen display presented to enable the subscriber to review and select particular persons or firms listed in a phone book database; FIG. 6 shows a screen displayed when a form is presented to enable the subscriber to add or edit information in a phone book entry and to take place calls and the like to the person listed; FIG. 7 illustrates a screen which is displayed to enable call forwarding and “follow me” calling; FIG. 8 illustrates a further screen display which enables the subscriber to select and change a variety of call and message forwarding options; FIG. 9 is a screen display which enables the subscriber to create and specify features of a voice mailbox; FIG. 10 is a screen display which is allows the subscriber to view and control the playback of voice messages left in a voice mailbox; and FIG. 11 is a screen display which enables the user to select various options and control the operation of an automatic paging system implemented by the disclosed embodiment of the invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041117 | 20090203 | 20050407 | 60337.0 | 1 | SAM, PHIRIN | INTERNET CONTROLLED TELEPHONE SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,190 | ACCEPTED | Programmable thermostat incorporating air quality protection | The invention is directed to programmable temperature control in which a controller may be programmed to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device, and to operate an air circulating system independently of the temperature-modifying device. The apparatus may incorporate a user input for entering air handling information to program the air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. The controller may be further programmed to receive air filtration information from the user input and to generate air filtration output information. The system may also be programmed to receive information regarding a characteristic of the air circulating system from an sensor for use in calculating the air filtration output information. | 1-17. (canceled) 18. A programmable temperature control apparatus for the control of temperature in communication with a temperature-modifying device and an air circulating system, said programmable temperature control apparatus comprising: a user-operable input connected for entering air filter information; a controller programmed to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature, and to generate air filter output information based upon said air filter information inputted at said user-operable input; and a display for displaying said air filter output information during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device. 19. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said air filter information comprises a usage period that is one or more selected from the group consisting of 0 days, 30 days, 60 days, 90 days, and 120 days. 20. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said air filter output information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of how much time remains in said air filter usage period, what percentage of said air filter usage period remains, and whether said air filter should be checked. 21. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said time is represented in days. 22. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said percentage is represented using a bar indicator. 23. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said user-operable input is connected for entering air handling information to program said air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. 24. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein said air handling information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of operating periods and ON time during said operating periods. 25. The apparatus of claim 24, wherein said ON time may be set between 9 and 60 minutes. 26. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said ON time may be set in increments of 3 minutes. 27. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein said air filtration output information is calculated using a formula based upon a air filter information and operation of said air circulating system. 28. The apparatus of claim 18, further comprising at least one sensor for sensing at least one characteristic of said air circulating system and communicating characteristic information based thereon to said controller; and wherein said controller is further programmed to generate said air filtration output information using said characteristic information. 29. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said characteristic of said air circulating system comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of air pressure, air flow, air heat loss, fan usage, fan current draw, and fan power usage. 30. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said sensor includes a reset button for resetting said characteristic information. 31. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said sensor is located proximate said filter. 32. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said sensor communicates with said controller using one or more selected from the group consisting of radio frequency communication, infrared communication, low voltage cabling, and household power lines. 33. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said sensor is configured to determine at least a portion of said air filtration output information from said characteristic of said air circulating system. 34. A programmable temperature control apparatus for the control of temperature in communication with a temperature-modifying device and an air circulating system, said programmable temperature control apparatus comprising: a user-operable input connected for entering air filter information; a controller programmed to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature, and to generate air filter output information based upon said air filter information inputted at said user-operable input; a display for displaying said air filter output information during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device; and at least one sensor for sensing at least one characteristic of said air circulating system and communicating characteristic information based thereon to said controller to be used in generating said air filtration output information. 35. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said air filter information comprises a usage period that is one or more selected from the group consisting of 0 days, 30 days, 60 days, 90 days, and 120 days. 36. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said air filter output information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of how much time remains in said air filter usage period, what percentage of said air filter usage period remains, and whether said air filter should be checked. 37. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein said time is represented in days. 38. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein said percentage is represented using a bar indicator. 39. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said user-operable input is connected for entering air handling information to program said air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein said air handling information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of operating periods and ON time during said operating periods. 41. The apparatus of claim 40, wherein said ON time may be set between 9 and 60 minutes. 42. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein said ON time may be set in increments of 3 minutes. 43. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said air filtration output information is calculated using a formula based upon said air filter information and operation of said air circulating system. 44. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said characteristic of said air circulating system comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of air pressure, air flow, air heat loss, fan usage, fan current draw, and fan power usage. 45. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said sensor includes a reset button for resetting said characteristic information. 46. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said sensors is located proximate said filter. 47. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said sensor communicates with said controller using one or more selected from the group consisting of radio frequency communication, infrared communication, low voltage cabling, and household power lines. 48. The apparatus of claim 34, wherein said sensor is configured to determine at least a portion of said air filtration output information from said characteristic of said air circulating system. 49. (canceled) 50. A method of monitoring an air filter used in a programmable temperature control system, said method comprising the steps of: entering air filter information to a controller programmable to control a thermal output of a temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature; generating air filtration output information using said air filter information; and displaying said air filtration output information on a display during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device. 51. A method of monitoring an air filter used in a programmable temperature control system, said method comprising the steps of: entering air filter information to a controller programmable to control a thermal output of a temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature; receiving characteristic information regarding at least one characteristic of said air circulating system; generating air filtration output information using said air filter information and said characteristic information; and displaying said air filtration output information on a display during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device. 52. A temperature control apparatus for the control of temperature in communication with a temperature-modifying device and an air circulating system, said temperature control apparatus comprising: a user-operable input connected for entering air filter information; an electronic controller to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature, and to generate air filter output information based upon said air filter information inputted at said user-operable input; and a display for displaying said air filter output information during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device. 53. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein said air filter information comprises a usage period that is one or more selected from the group consisting of 0 days, 30 days, 60 days, 90 days, and 120 days. 54. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein said air filter output information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of how much time remains in said air filter usage period, what percentage of said air filter usage period remains, and whether said air filter should be checked. 55. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein said user-operable input is connected for entering air handling information to program said air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. 56. The apparatus of claim 55, wherein said air handling information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of operating periods and ON time during said operating periods set between 9 and 60 minutes. 57. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein said air filtration output information is calculated using a formula based upon a air filter information and operation of said air circulating system. 58. The apparatus of claim 52, further comprising at least one sensor for sensing at least one characteristic of said air circulating system and communicating characteristic information based thereon to said controller; and wherein said controller is further programmed to generate said air filtration output information using said characteristic information. 59. A temperature control apparatus for the control of temperature in communication with a temperature-modifying device and an air circulating system, said temperature control apparatus comprising: a user-operable input connected for entering air filter information; an electronic controller to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature, and to generate air filter output information based upon said air filter information inputted at said user-operable input; a display for displaying said air filter output information during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device; and at least one sensor for sensing at least one characteristic of said air circulating system and communicating characteristic information based thereon to said controller to be used in generating said air filtration output information. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein said air filter information comprises a usage period that is one or more selected from the group consisting of 0 days, 30 days, 60 days, 90 days, and 120 days. 61. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein said air filter output information comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of how much time remains in said air filter usage period, what percentage of said air filter usage period remains, and whether said air filter should be checked. 62. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein said user-operable input is connected for entering air handling information to program said air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. 63. A method of monitoring an air filter used in a temperature control system, said method comprising the steps of: entering air filter information to a controller to control a thermal output of a temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature; generating air filtration output information using said air filter information; and displaying said air filtration output information on a display during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device. 64. A method of monitoring an air filter used in a temperature control system, said method comprising the steps of: entering air filter information to a controller to control a thermal output of a temperature-modifying device to achieve a desired temperature; receiving characteristic information regarding at least one characteristic of said air circulating system; generating air filtration output information using said air filter information and said characteristic information; and displaying said air filtration output information on a display during said control of said thermal output of said temperature-modifying device. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims the priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/467,492 filed on May 5, 2003, which is herein incorporated in its entirety by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The field of the invention is that of programmable thermostats for controlling a heating and/or cooling system to maintain predetermined set point temperatures, and more particularly to programmable thermostats that incorporate air quality protection features. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It has been a longstanding problem in the heating and cooling of homes and offices to efficiently regulate the ambient temperature to maintain the desired comfort level, while minimizing the amount of energy expended by the heating/cooling apparatus. The heating/cooling needs of a home or office are not constant over time and may, in fact, vary substantially depending on the time of day or day of the week. Conventional thermostats have been highly inefficient in this regard due to the fact that only one set temperature could be maintained. In response to this, programmable thermostats were developed in the prior art that allowed for the programming of set points for the thermostat based upon the time of day or day of the week. These programmable thermostats utilize a microprocessor into which the user inputs the desired temperature setting information by way of a keypad or some other arrangement of buttons and switches. Air handling systems for use in temperature control, such as in residential or commercial heating ventilation and air conditioning (“HVAC”) systems, typically utilize an air filtration system, typically incorporating a furnace or air conditioning filter, to collect airborne particles that may be circulating in the system. The use of a filtration system helps to reduce the build up of allergens (such as pollen, mold, spores, dander, etc.) and other material within the ductwork that circulates air through the system, and helps to remove these particulates from the air. The presence of such material may greatly reduce the efficiency of the temperature control system itself, in addition to posing health risks to those inhabiting the environmentally controlled space. Maintaining the efficiency of the filter through proper changing or cleaning of the filter is particularly important in some systems, such as those incorporating the use of heat pumps. In the past, some programmable thermostats have included a filter counter that works in background while the thermostat is in operation. When the designated usage period for the filter has elapsed, a “FILTER” message then appears on the thermostat display. No information about the filter usage is available to the user during normal operation of the thermostat. Instead, the user must switch the thermostat to a filter mode for setting or resetting the filter usage period (typically from 0 to 500 hours) and viewing the time remaining in the filter usage period. Moreover, the amount of allergens and other particulates present in the ductwork for the air circulating system may be reduced by operating the fan that circulates the air on a regular basis. Operating the fan at independent regular intervals (as opposed to continuously or only when then the furnace or cooling system are operating) can more effectively clean the air used in the system, while also conserving energy usage and extending the life of the air handling unit. However, this is not done in the systems of the prior art. Accordingly, a temperature control system is needed that further enhances the cleaning of air circulating through an environmental control system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the invention may include a system for programmable temperature control in which a controller may be programmed to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device, and to operate an air circulating system independently of the temperature-modifying device. The apparatus may incorporate a user-operable input for entering air handling information to program the air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. The air handling information may include one or more operating periods and/or ON time for the air circulating system during the operating periods. The controller may be further programmed to receive air filtration information from the user-operable input and to generate air filtration output information displayed during the control of the thermal output of the temperature-modifying device. The filter output information may comprise how much time remains in a air filter usage period, what percentage of the air filter usage period remains, and/or whether the air filter should be checked. The system may also be programmed to receive information regarding a characteristic of the air circulating system from an sensor for use in calculating the air filtration output information. The characteristic may comprises, for example, one or more selected from the group consisting of air pressure, air flow, air heat loss, fan usage, fan current draw, and fan power usage. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and other aspects and advantages will be better understood from the following detailed description of the invention with reference to the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a programmable thermostat. FIG. 2 is a front elevation of a programmable thermostat. FIGS. 3(a)-(d) are illustrations of a programmable thermostat display. FIGS. 4(a)-(b) are a schematic of a programmable thermostat. FIGS. 5(a)-(b) are illustrations of a programmable thermostat display for setting a filter usage counter. FIG. 6 is an illustration of an air handling system of an environmental control system in accordance with aspects of the invention. DETAIL DESCRIPTION The invention will be understood more fully from the detailed description given below and from the accompanying drawings of the preferred embodiments of the invention; which, however, should not be taken to limit the invention to a specific embodiment, but are for explanation and understanding only. FIG. 1 contains a block diagram of an embodiment of a programmable thermostat. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the invention is not limited thereto and may comprise any device or configuration of components capable of operating in the manner of the invention. In the embodiment disclosed herein, information regarding the desired set point temperature, date, or time for each program may be inputted to thermostat 101 by the user through input device 102 in interface 103. Interface 103 may be connected to a programming device 104 of controller 105 in such a way that programming device 104 receives information inputted at input device 102, and may display this information on display device 106. Programming device 104 may also control the operation of a temperature-modifying device 107, which is typically a heating/cooling system for the medium whose temperature is being controlled, such as HVAC systems, geothermal systems, gas, natural gas, or electric furnaces or water heaters, etc. Programmable device 104 may store the information received from input device 102 in memory 108, along with an algorithm or program for operating temperature-modifying device 107 in accordance with this information. Programming device 104 may comprise any device capable of operating in the manner of the invention, such as a logic circuit on a logic board, a microprocessor, or other integrated circuit. Similarly, memory 108 may comprise electronic memory, such as RAM, SRAM, or DRAM, and the like, in an integrated circuit, such as a PROM, EPROM, or EEPROM and the like. Memory 108 may also form part of programming device 104. Display device 106 is also not particularly limited and may comprise, for example, an electronic display, such as an LCD, LED, and the like. Input device 102 may include pressure sensitive buttons, keypads, or any other device or arrangement of devices that are capable of entering the appropriate information. The operation of such devices is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. A comparison device 109 may be used to compare ambient temperature of the medium to be controlled with the desired control temperature, as determined by programming device 104 and stored in memory 108. Comparison device 109 may detect the current ambient temperature by using a conventional temperature-sensing device, such as a thermistor, thermocouple, or other type of temperature transducer. A clock 110 may be connected with programming device 104 in order to provide time related information thereto for use in connection with the operation of programming device 104 and its program of temperature control. Time related information from clock 110 may also be stored in memory 108 and shown on display 106. Clock 110 may comprise any device for providing time related information, such as a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), crystal oscillator, and the like, along with associated circuitry. The time related information provided by clock 110 is not limited and may comprise, for example, chronological time information, such as year, month, day, hour, minutes, and/or seconds, or synchronization information for programming device 104 (which may be used to calculate this information). Clock 110 may also form a part of programming device 104. One or more remote sensors 112 may be used in communication with controller 105 such as to provide feedback information to programming device 104. For example, sensors may be used about the air filter to detect air pressure, air flow, or heat loss. In another example, sensors may also be used to detect fan operation, such as by detecting fan current draw. Information may be transmitted to and from the sensor using any number of mechanisms, such as wireless systems (e.g., radio frequency or infrared), low voltage communication cabling, or even using household wiring. The invention is not limited in this regard. The use of such sensors is discussed in more detail below in regard to monitoring fan and filter usage. The operation of controller 105 and/or interface 103 may be powered by power supply 111. Power supply 111 is not particularly limited, but may comprise any source of power capable of operating controller 105 and interface 103, such as household current (e.g., 120v AC at 60 Hz), or one or more batteries (e.g., 9v DC). FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a programmable thermostat. As shown in FIG. 2, thermostat 200 may include an outer casing 202 to house the aforementioned components. Display window 204 maybe used for housing display 106 (FIG. 1) for interaction with the user. Switches 206 maybe used for switching between heating and cooling modes, or for switching an air handling fan from automatic mode to a constant “on” mode. Buttons 213 may further be used for inputting information into the thermostat, with information being presented through display window 204. Switches 206 and buttons 213 may be in communication with input device 102 (FIG. 1) for inputting information into the programmable thermostat. Of course, these aspects of programmable thermostats temperature control are well known in the art and will not be further elaborated upon here. Thermostat 200 may also include rotary dial 212, or some other mechanism, for switching between operation modes of the thermostat, such as the setting of the day and time, setting weekday and weekend functions, setting the filter, and running, and may also be in communication with input device 102. Of course, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that it is not necessary to use a rotary dial and that any other mechanism, such as a combination of switches and buttons may be used to achieve the functionality described herein. As previously noted, air handling systems for use in temperature control, such as in residential or commercial HVAC systems, typically utilize one or more filters, such as High Efficiency Particulate Air (or “HEPA”) filter, electrostatic filters, etc., for collecting airborne particulates that may be circulating in the system. These filters typically comprise a tight web or fine mesh of material that is placed within an air register or ductwork through which air is passed by the air handling fan, or blower. As the air is passed through the filter, airborne particles are trapped with the fibers of the filter weave. Such filter systems are highly beneficial in reducing the spread of allergens, such as pollen, mold, spores, dander, etc. throughout a home or office. However, if a air handling system is not properly maintained, the efficiency of the temperature control system may be greatly reduced, reducing its ability to adequately clean the circulated air. For example, a filter that is not changed or cleaned regularly may become clogged from a build up of particulate matter, reducing airflow through the system and increasing the amount of allergens within the ductwork. These additional allergens may consequently be circulated through the system even once a filter is replaced. Also, reduced or inconsistent airflow may allow allergens to collect in the system ductwork. In order to further enhance the cleaning of air circulating through the system, the thermostat may be programmed to operating the air handler in a cleaning cycle, which circulates air through the system at determined intervals to prevent the buildup and growth of allergens within the ductwork of the temperature control system. In one embodiment, an air clean time control program may be operating as part of programming device 104. To set user-definable parameters for the program, the user may rotate the dial (or equivalent) to the SET FAN PROGRAMS position. FAN slide switch (206) may be set to the FAN CLEAN position and MODE slide switch (206) may be set to the HEAT or COOL positions. In one embodiment, the air clean time control program may incorporate one or more default program periods, during which the fan may be operated for a set duration, such as 15 minutes of ON time per each hour. Thus, for example, each day may have one or more periods during which the fan is turned on for a set amount of time to circulate air through the system and help prevent the buildup and growth of allergens—regardless of the operation of the temperature modifying device itself. Several examples of such periods are listed in Table 1 below. TABLE 1 Default Monday Through Sunday PERIODS START TIME MORN 6:00 AM (6:00) DAY 8.00 AM (8:00) EVE 6:00 PM (18:00) NIGHT 10:00 PM (22:00) While the manner of programming of the air cleaning cycles is not particularly limited, in one embodiment, programming may be performed in the following order: Mon Morn Start Time, Mon Morn Minimum ON Time, Mon Day Start Time, Mon Day Minimum ON Time, and so on until Sun Night is fully programmed. At this point, pressing [NEXT] again may begin the list at Mon Mom Start Time. During the programming process, information may be display on display 106 for the user. For example, “PROGRAM”, “FAN”, “START AT” icons may go solid along with appropriate “MO” (Monday) day and “MORN” period icons. The current period of start time being programmed may flash in the time section. [Are there any screen shots of the display for setting these programs?] To change a default setting, a user may press and release the [UP] button to increment time in intervals, e.g., 15 minutes. The user could also press and release [DOWN] button to decrements time intervals. Alternatively, the user may press and hold the [UP] or the [DOWN] button to change the time at a preset rate, such as 60 minutes/second. The user may press and release the [NEXT] button to advance to set minimum fan ON time (e.g., in hours). On display 106, the “PROGRAM” and “FAN” icons may go solid along with the appropriate “MO” day and “MORN” period to indicate the change to the user. The current set minimum time may flash with an icon such as “MIN/HR”. The user may then adjust the value of minimum on time per hour (in minutes or seconds, for example). In one embodiment, the value may be changed from 9 minutes to 60 minutes in increments of 3 minutes. The user may then press and release the [UP] or the [DOWN] button to alter the minimum ON Time setting by 3 minutes. The user may press [NEXT] to go to the next program period, and after all 4 programs period of a day have been programmed, pressing next may go to the next day “MORN”. The user may also copy programs of previous day into the current day and then advance to the next day's Morning program. For example, the user may copy the Friday's Morning program setting to Saturday's Morning program setting. When the user is finished programming the air cleaning program cycle, they may rotate the dial (or equivalent) away from the SET FAN PROGRAMS position. A filter counter may also be used in the invention to help ensure proper maintenance of the system filters. In one embodiment of the invention, a filter counter may be programmed into programming device 104 utilizing clock 110 and display 106. In one embodiment, the filter counter may comprise a three-digit counter, which may count from 000 to 999 days for example. The period of the count may be set by the user, as described in more detail below. The filter counter may increment, for example, by one day at 12:00 midnight each day. The filter counter may even include a default period, such as 90 days, although the invention is not limited thereto. FIGS. 3(a)-(d) incorporate samples of display 106 (FIG. 1) that illustrate the operation of a filter counter in accordance with the invention. As illustrated in FIGS. 3(a)-(d), in run mode, display 106 may show the number of days left before the filter needs to be changed at numerical indicator 302. The amount of the filter period spent may also be graphically illustrated, such as with bar indicator 304. Indicator 306 shows the user that the filter counter is in operation. A CURRENT TIME/TEMPERATURE section 308 may display current time and/or temperature information. A PROGRAM section 310 and TEMP section 312 may also be included, which show the currently operating program information and set point temperature. As shown in FIG. 3(a), the filter usage may start at 100% on bar indicator 304. In this example, the filter usage has been set to thirty days, as indicated by numerical indicator 302. As the counter counts down, the number of days maybe decremented on numerical indicator 302, as shown in FIG. 3(b). Bar indicator 304 may likewise indicate the percentage of filter life remaining. When the filter counter has decremented to zero (indicating the end of the set filter period), Indicator 306 may now flash a “change filter” message, which demonstrates to the user that the filter should be changed or cleaned. In one embodiment, the filter counter may continue to count beyond the end of the filter usage period. One example of this is illustrated in FIG. 3(d). Numerical indicated 302 may now increment the number days that have elapsed since the end of the filter usage period (e.g., “DAYS OVER”). Indicator 306 may also continue to flash the “CHANGE FILTER” message. A schematic an embodiment of a controller 105 of the invention for use with the aforementioned temperature control, fan control, and filter usage counter is illustrated in FIGS. 4(a)-(b). As shown in FIGS. 4(a)-(b), a microprocessor may be powered by a DC power board, and, in turn, power an LCD display. The microprocessor may have a plurality of outputs to individual segments on the LCD display for outputting information thereto to be viewed by the user. The microprocessor may also include the plurality of inputs/outputs to a temperature modifying device and to a series of switches (e.g., next, hold, down, and up). One of these switches SW2, may be selectable in this example, between a weekday program, a weekend program, date and time selection, setting the fan control information, setting the filter control information, and running or operating the thermostat. By selecting one of these positions in SW2, the user may designate which aspect of the programming (e.g., temperature control, fan control, filter usage, etc.) setting may be inputted into the microprocessor using the remaining switches. Of course, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this is only one possible embodiment of the invention and is not limited thereto. In order to set the filter usage period in controller 105, the user may rotate dial 212 (or whatever equivalent mechanism is being used) to the SET AIR FILTER position. Programmable device 104 of controller 105 is now in the air filter setting mode of its programming. Display 106 may show the information indicated in FIG. 5(a), although the invention is not limited to this example. As shown in FIG. 5(a), indicator 306 may show that the thermostat is now in filter setting mode. The current time/temperature portion of the display may now be replaced with a SET LIMIT display 308 that indicates with the current FILTER USAGE LIMIT in days. The percentage of filter life remaining may be shown in bar indicator 304 and the number of days left shown at numerical indicator 302. PROGRAM section 310 and TEMP section 312 may be set blank in this mode to minimize any confusion of the user. In this example, the default usage value is 90 days, but the invention is not limited thereto. The user may press and release [UP] or [DOWN] buttons 213 to scroll through a pre-set selection of choices. These selections may be displayed on numerical indicator 302 and SET LIMIT display 308, for example. Selecting a usage period may also reset bar indicator 304 to show 0% used. Standard pre-set choices may include, for example, 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days, although the invention is not limited thereto. Of course, the programming of controller 105 may allow for the user to select a custom usage period as well (e.g., 45 days), such as by depressing and holding a combination of button to incremented the usage counter to the desired number of days. Setting the filter usage limit to 0 days may be used to disable the filter usage counter. The system of the invention may also be programmed to determine the filter usage time using a predetermined usage formula. In this embodiment for example, the user may enter the rating of the filter (such as determined by the American Society of Healthcare Engineering, or ASHE). This rating is usually given in days or months. The system may then calculate the filter usage time (e.g., in days or fan running time) using a formula such the following: Filter Usage = Filter rating ( days ) × 24 hrs × ( Fan Daily Run Time ( hrs ) / 24 hrs ) 100 Dividing by 100 allows a rounded number to be used. In this example, the fan run time may be as programmed by the user, or may be a default estimated run time (e.g., 20 minutes per hour). The system may also be programmed to determine the rating of the filter from the filter model number, such as by using a look-up table of model information or determining the rating directly from the model number itself. The usage meter may also thus reflect the filter usage in a user selected number of days, as discussed above, or based upon the programmed or estimated running time of the fan. The user may also reset the counter to its default value or to restore a previous count using a combination of buttons 213. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the invention is not particularly limited in this manner. Once the user is finished setting the usage counter, he or she may then switch the thermostat to another mode, such as RUN mode for operation, or one of the time or temperature setting modes. The filter usage may also be programmed based upon a direct or indirect measurement of the actual use of the filter. This may be further explained in connection with FIG. 6, which illustrates one sample embodiment of an air handling portion of an environmental control system. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this example is for purposes of illustration only and that the system of the invention may be used with any temperature control system or configuration. In this example, environmental control system 600 may include thermostat 602, which is used to detect and control the temperature in one or more rooms throughout the structure. Air is circulated around the system by blower (fan) 616. Thermostat 602 and fan 616 may also be in communication with one or more heating/cooling apparatus, as is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Fan 616 circulates air through supply duct 618, which is vented into each room through one or more registers 620, 622. In the embodiment shown, air is circulated back to fan 616 using a common return 604. The returning air passes through an a filter 608 and return duct 612 back to fan 616. One or more sensors 606, 610, and/or 614 may be used to sense various characteristics of the system. For example, sensors 610 and 606 may be used to measure changes in air pressure on either side of air filter 608. In such an embodiment, the system of the invention may be programmed to sample an actual pressure differential when a filter is first changed or installed. Alternatively, a single sensor 610 may be used with its value compared against standard air pressure. In this embodiment sensors 606 and/or 610 may comprise any sensing element capable of detecting changes in air pressure, such as diaphragms and the like. Information from the sensors may be communicated back to thermostat 602, where programming device 104 (FIG. 1) may use this information to determine the usage time left for the filter for display 106 (FIG. 1). For example, programming device 104 may include a formula for estimating the usage life of a filter based upon changes to air pressure on the downstream side of the filter due to the buildup of particulates in the filter, in a manner similar to the formula discussed above. The usage period may change based upon the rating or model of the filter (as may be inputted by the user). Alternatively, the sensor may incorporate a go/no-go switch or other mechanism that determines the usage period left and communicates this information back to the thermostat. The sensor may also contain a reset switch for resetting the characteristic information for the air circulating system back to a default value, such as when the filter is changed. In another embodiment, sensors 606 and/or 610 may measure airflow in the system and programming device 104 (FIG. 1) may calculate the filter usage from the airflow measurements. As with the air pressure calculation, a formula may be used to determine the usage period of the filter. Also as with the air pressure sensor, any sensor capable of measuring air flow may be used. For example, the air flow sensor may comprise mechanical sensors (e.g., “pin wheel” type sensors) or electronic heat loss sensing elements. The invention is not limited. In yet another embodiment, the filter usage may be measured indirectly as well, such as by measuring the fan usage. This may be accomplished, for example, by incorporating sensor 614 to sense the operation of fan 616 and communicating this information back to thermostat 602. For example, sensor 614 may sense the current draw and/or power usage of fan 616. This may be accomplished using any number of well known current/power sensors. Programming device 104 (FIG. 1) may use the information received from sensor 614, along with the fan programming information and filter rating/model information, to calculate the usage period of the filter using a formula similar to the one discussed above. While the invention as disclosed herein has been described in relation to specific embodiments thereof, it is understood that the invention is not limited to the particular embodiment disclosed herein, but only as set forth in the appended claims. It will be appreciated that various components known to those of skill in the art may be substituted for those described herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. For example, the input device may include a pressure keypad or a series of contact switches instead of the pressure switches disclosed herein. The display device may also include an LED display or other illuminated display mechanisms, or any of a number of conventional mechanical display mechanisms such as gauges or the like. The invention may be used in connection with any device that controls temperature. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It has been a longstanding problem in the heating and cooling of homes and offices to efficiently regulate the ambient temperature to maintain the desired comfort level, while minimizing the amount of energy expended by the heating/cooling apparatus. The heating/cooling needs of a home or office are not constant over time and may, in fact, vary substantially depending on the time of day or day of the week. Conventional thermostats have been highly inefficient in this regard due to the fact that only one set temperature could be maintained. In response to this, programmable thermostats were developed in the prior art that allowed for the programming of set points for the thermostat based upon the time of day or day of the week. These programmable thermostats utilize a microprocessor into which the user inputs the desired temperature setting information by way of a keypad or some other arrangement of buttons and switches. Air handling systems for use in temperature control, such as in residential or commercial heating ventilation and air conditioning (“HVAC”) systems, typically utilize an air filtration system, typically incorporating a furnace or air conditioning filter, to collect airborne particles that may be circulating in the system. The use of a filtration system helps to reduce the build up of allergens (such as pollen, mold, spores, dander, etc.) and other material within the ductwork that circulates air through the system, and helps to remove these particulates from the air. The presence of such material may greatly reduce the efficiency of the temperature control system itself, in addition to posing health risks to those inhabiting the environmentally controlled space. Maintaining the efficiency of the filter through proper changing or cleaning of the filter is particularly important in some systems, such as those incorporating the use of heat pumps. In the past, some programmable thermostats have included a filter counter that works in background while the thermostat is in operation. When the designated usage period for the filter has elapsed, a “FILTER” message then appears on the thermostat display. No information about the filter usage is available to the user during normal operation of the thermostat. Instead, the user must switch the thermostat to a filter mode for setting or resetting the filter usage period (typically from 0 to 500 hours) and viewing the time remaining in the filter usage period. Moreover, the amount of allergens and other particulates present in the ductwork for the air circulating system may be reduced by operating the fan that circulates the air on a regular basis. Operating the fan at independent regular intervals (as opposed to continuously or only when then the furnace or cooling system are operating) can more effectively clean the air used in the system, while also conserving energy usage and extending the life of the air handling unit. However, this is not done in the systems of the prior art. Accordingly, a temperature control system is needed that further enhances the cleaning of air circulating through an environmental control system. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Embodiments of the invention may include a system for programmable temperature control in which a controller may be programmed to control a thermal output of said temperature-modifying device, and to operate an air circulating system independently of the temperature-modifying device. The apparatus may incorporate a user-operable input for entering air handling information to program the air circulating system to operate at predetermined intervals. The air handling information may include one or more operating periods and/or ON time for the air circulating system during the operating periods. The controller may be further programmed to receive air filtration information from the user-operable input and to generate air filtration output information displayed during the control of the thermal output of the temperature-modifying device. The filter output information may comprise how much time remains in a air filter usage period, what percentage of the air filter usage period remains, and/or whether the air filter should be checked. The system may also be programmed to receive information regarding a characteristic of the air circulating system from an sensor for use in calculating the air filtration output information. The characteristic may comprises, for example, one or more selected from the group consisting of air pressure, air flow, air heat loss, fan usage, fan current draw, and fan power usage. | 20041117 | 20060411 | 20050428 | 98236.0 | 2 | NORMAN, MARC E | PROGRAMMABLE THERMOSTAT INCORPORATING AIR QUALITY PROTECTION | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,340 | ACCEPTED | Polycosanols from Ericerus pela wax | The present invention provides a novel method for the preparation of a unique profile of primary aliphatic alcohols, having 24 to 30 carbon atoms, from the wax secreted by the insect Ericerus pela. Included in the present invention is the composition of matter, referred to herein as “polycosanol” produced by the method of this invention. The polycosanol composition is comprised primarily of the four primary aliphatic alcohols, tetracosanol, hexacosanol, octacosanol and triacontanol. Further included in this invention is the use of said composition of matter for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. | 1. A polycosanol composition of matter comprised of long chain aliphatic alcohols, wherein said long chain alcohols comprise 1-hexacosanol (20%-50%), 1-octacosanol (15%-45%), 1-triacontanol (2%-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (1%-9%). 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein said composition is derived from the wax of the insect Ericerus pela. 3. The composition of claim 1 wherein said long chain aliphatic alcohols comprise 35%-100% of said composition. 4. The composition of claim 1 wherein said long chain aliphatic alcohols comprise 35%-55% of said composition. 5. The composition of claim 1 wherein said long chain aliphatic alcohols comprise 75%-100% of said composition. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation in part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/658,881, filed Sep. 9, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,822,004, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/356,676, filed Jan. 31, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,683,116 each of which is entitled “Polycosanols from Ericertis Pela Wax,” and each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to a method for the generation of a composition of matter comprised of a unique profile of primary aliphatic alcohols, having 24 to 30 carbon atoms, from a novel natural source—a wax secreted by the Chinese wax soft scale insect, Ericerus pela, which belongs to the family Coccidae. The present invention includes the composition of matter, referred to herein as “polycosanol(s)” produced by the method of the invention. The polycosanol composition produced according to the method of this invention is comprised of primarily four primary aliphatic alcohols, tetracosanol, hexacosanol, octacosanol and triacontanol. The invention also includes the use of this composition of matter for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Polycosanols are a class of primary aliphatic alcohols having 20 to 40 (C20-C40) carbon atoms. They are widely distributed in germs, kernels and other components of nuts, seeds, fruits and cereals (Kawanishi et al. (1991) J. Amer. Oil Chemist Soc. 68:869-872), in Greek olive oils (Dimitrios et al. (1983) Grasas Aceites 34:402-404) and in apple wax (Belding et al. (1993) Hertscience 28:90). Polycosanols are also present, in very small amounts (less than 0.1%), in wheat grain, in the form of the long chain alkyl esters of fatty acids. The major compounds present in wheat grain include, palmitoyl hexacosanol and arachidoyl, palmitoyl and behenoyl tetracosanol (Ohnishi et al. (1986) Cereal Chem 63:193-196). Polycosanols, both as the free alcohols and the esters of fatty acids, have been isolated from many different genera and species of plants, including from the species Achillea biebersteinii (Oskay and Yeslada (1984) J. Nat. Prod. 47:742), Calamagrostis arundinacea (Solberg (1976) Acta Chem. Scand Ser. B. Org. Chem. Bioche. 30:786-787), Emilia sonchifolia (Srinivasan and Subramanian, (1980) Fitoterapia 51:241-244), Heliotropium digynum (Ismail et al. (1984) Fitoterapia 55:110-112), Hypericum perforatum (Brondze (1983) J. Nat. Prod. 46:940-941), Tragopogon orientalis (Krzaczek et al. (1988) Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 57:85-92), and from the genera of Triceae (Tulloch (1981) Can. J. Bot. 58:2602-2615). Polycosanols have also been isolated from various parts of many different genera and species of plants, including from the bark of various Acacia species (Banerji and Nigram (1980) J. Indian Chem. Soc. 57:1043-1044); from the stem of Anisomeles indica (Dobhal et al. (1988) Fitoterapia 59:155); from the leaves of Cordia rothii (Behari et al. (1980) Acta Cienc. Indica Chem. 6:226-228), Hibiscus cannabinus (Makhsudova (1979) Chem. Nat. Compd. 15:186) and Holigarna arnottiana (Prakash and Banerji (1979) Fitoterapia 50:265-266); from the roots of Talinum paniculatum (Komatsu et al. (1982) Yakugaku Zasshi 102:499-502); from the leaves and roots of Gymnosporia Montana (Kumar and Srimannarayana (1981) J. Nat. Prod. 44:625-628); from the aerial parts of Cymbopogon citrates (Olaniyi et al. (1975) Planta Medica 28:186-189), E. merifolia (Baslas and Agarwal (1980) Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 42:66-67) and E. Peplus (Rizk et al. (1980) Fitoterapia 51:223-228), Portulaca suffruticosa L. (Joshi et al. (1987) Herba Pol. 33:71-74) and Youngia denticulate (Arai et al. (1982) J. Pharm. Soc. Jp. 102:1089-1091); and from the heartwood of Melia birmanica (Banerji and Nigam, (1981) Fitoterapia 52:3-4). Polycosanols have also been isolated from carnauba wax from exudates of the leaves of the palm tree Copernicia cerifera (Pinto and Bento (1986) Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 19:243-5), from the leaf wax of Euphorbia helioscopia (Nazir et al. (1993) Xeischrift fur Naturforschung. Section C Biosciences 48:5-9), from epicuticular waxes of genera of Gramineae (Tulloch (1981) Can. J. Bot. 59:1213-1221), and from and the latex of Euphorbia pseusocactus (Awad et al. (1993) Fitoterapia 64:553) and Euphorbia thymifolia (Agarwal and Maslas (1981) Indian J. Pharma. Sci. 43:182-183). Finally, polycosanols have been isolated from the Korean indigenous plant Echinosophora koreensis (Kang and Kim (1987) Arch Pharmacal Res. 10:67-68). Bertholet has described a method for preparing polycosanol compositions by means of the saponification of plant wax from rice bran wax, carnauba wax and jojoba oil. (Bertholet, U.S. Pat. No. 5,159,124 (1991)). In the method described by Bertholet, the plant wax was first dissolved in an organic water immiscible solvent, such as butanol or pentanol, and then hydrolyzed using an aqueous solution of an alkaline earth metal hydroxide. The fatty acid by products of the saponification reaction are soluble in the alkaline aqueous layer and the polycosanol alcohol product remains in the organic layer, which contains <10% fatty acids and >90% alcohols. The overall yield of the reaction was approximately 50%. The composition of the polycosanol product is dependent on the origin of the plant wax. N-hexacosanol has been isolated from wool wax hydrosylate mixtures using gel permeation chromatography (Steel et al. (1999) International Publication No. WO 99/48853). Polycosanol compositions isolated from rice bran wax have been formulated with phytosterol from vegetable oil and used for reducing cholesterol levels. The aliphatic alcohol profile of this material is approximately 23-33% total polycosanol. Triacontanol is the major compound (8-9%), followed by octacosanol (5-6%) and tetracontanol, hexacosanol, dotriacontanol and tetratriacosanol (2-5% each). (Sorkin Jr. (1999) U.S. Pat. No. 6,197,832, and Sorkin Jr. (1998) U.S. Pat. No. 5,952,393). Octacosanol isolated from Sinach has been formulated with other ingredients as a nutritional powder for boosting energy. (Gaynor U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,187 (1996)). Sugar cane provides a major natural source of commercial polycosanol products (Ali et al. (1979) Egypt J. Pharm. Sci. 18:93-99). The long chain aliphatic alcohols are located primarily in the wax layer of sugar cane, with octacosanol being the predominant compound (Nagata et al. (1994) Breeding Sci. 44:427-429) (See Table 1, below). Aliphatic alcohols from sugar cane wax can be extracted directly with a supercritical fluid, an organic solvent or an alcohol to obtain a mixture with octacosanol (7-10%) and triacontanol (0.4-1%) as the major components (Inada et al. (1986) U.S. Pat. No. 4,714,791). A mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols, having from 24 to 34 carbon atoms has been obtained by saponification of sugar cane wax. (Laguna et al. (1996) U.S. Pat. No. 5,856,316). The saponification reaction described included melting the sugar cane wax, forming a homogeneous phase with an alkaline earth hydroxide (5-30%), extracting with an organic solvent and recrystallizing from an organic solvent. The profile of the material included octacosanol as the major component (60-70% content), followed by triacontanol (10-15%), hexacosanol (5.5-8.5%), dotriacontanol (4-6%), heptacosanol (2-3.5%), tetratriacontanol (0.4-2.0%), nonacontanol (0.4-1.2%) and tetracosanol (0.5-1.0%). This material has been formulated with acetylsalicylic acid and used for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, gastric ulcers and to improve male sexual activity. (Laguna et al. (1996) U.S. Pat. No. 5,856,316). Ericerus pela, which belongs to the family Coccidae (Ben-Dov and Hodgson, (1997) Soft scale insects; their biology, natural enemies and control. Vol. 7A. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam), is an insect indigenous to southern China, having the common name white wax scale. (Zhang (1987) Scientia Silvae Sinica 23:383-385, Cen and Ji (1988) Insect Knowledge 25:230-232). This insect has a high economic value in China (Chen (1999) World Forest Res. 12:46-52), due to its ability to produce wax and its high nutritional value (Zhao et al. (2001) Entomological Knowledge 38:216-218). The female lays over 7000 eggs on average (Park et al. (1998) Korea J. Applied Entomology 37:137-142) and egg hatching is directly related to wax production (Chen et al. (1997) Forest Res. 10:149-153). The reproductive capability of Ericerus pela can be impacted by sex ratio, lifespan, habitat and other ecological conditions. (Zhang et al. (1993) Entomological Knowledge 30:297-299). The eggs from this insect contain a high percentage of proteins (40-55%) and amino acids (30-50%) and are nutritious and safe for human consumption. (Ye et al. (2001) Forest Res. 14:322-327). The insect can be raised on 200 different species of host plants belonging to 98 genera and 36 families. (Chen and Li (2001) Forest Res. Beijing 14:100-105). The host plants provide not only their habitat and reproductive sites, but also serve as their food source. (Chen et al. (1997) Forest Res. 10:415-419). The average amount of wax production is affected by the host plant species (Chen et al. Forest Res. 11:285-288), geographic varieties of the insect (Chen et al. (1998) Forest Res. 11:34-38) and climate conditions, particularly temperature, dryness and intense sunshine. (Liu et al. (1998) Forest Res. 11:508-512). Ericerus pela has been produced in commercial forest plantations and the conditions and value of crop production have been reported. (Liu et al. (1996) Forest Res. 9:296-299). The wax from Ericerus pela is secreted from the wax gland of both male and female insects. (Tan and Zhong (1992) Zoological Res. 13:217-222). The composition of the insect wax has been analyzed by GC/MS and determined to be hexacosyl hexacosanoate (55.16%), hexacosyl tetracosanoate (22.36%) and hexacosyl octacosanol (16.65%). (Takahashi and Nomura (1982) Entomol. Gen. 7:313-316). The wax has traditionally been used for bleeding, pain relief, wound healing, coughing and diarrhea. (Li (1985) World Animal Review 55:26-33). Saturated long chain fatty alcohols have also been found in other insects, including Drosicha corpulenta (Hashimoto and Kitaoka (1983) Appl. Entomol Zool. 17:453-459). Bee wax also contains a significant quantity of long chain primary alcohols in both the free and esterified forms. Polycosanol compositions isolated from bee wax contain 24 to 34 carbon atoms (C24-C34) comprised of tetracosanol (9-15%), hexacosanol (12-18%), octacosanol (13-20%), triacontanol (20-30%) and dotriacontanol (13-21%). (Hernandez et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,795 (1994)). Bee wax, formulated with olive oil, β-sitosterol and an extract from Coptis chinensis, has been used for the treatment of diaper rash (Niazi, U.S. Pat. No. 6,419,963 (2001)) and as a pharmaceutical and cosmetic carrier (Xu, U.S. Pat. No. 5,817,322 (1996)). Polycosanols isolated from bee wax also show anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activity. (Mas (2001) Drugs of the Future, 26:731-744; Carbajal et al. (1996) J. Pharmacy and Pharmacol. 48:858-860; Hernandez et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,795 (1994)). Polycosanol compositions isolated from bee wax upon saponification contain primarily octacosanol (13.0-20.0%), triacontanol (20-30%), dotriacontanol (13-21%), hexacosanol (12-18%), tetracosanol (9-15%) and tetratriacontanol (1.5-3.5%). (Hernandez et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,465,526 (2000)). In the method reported by Hernandez et al., the saponification reaction was performed in the homogeneous phase using a 4-7:1 wax:base ratio. After hydrolysis, the polycosanols were extracted with organic solvents to produce a product that contained 80-98% total polycosanols in a yield of approximately 30% from bee wax. (Hernandez et al., (1994) U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,795). As noted above, this material showed both anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activity. Polycosanol compositions obtained from the saponification of bee wax have also been formulated with acetyl salicylic acid for use in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, gastric ulcers and to improve male sexual activity (Granja et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,663,156 (1994)). The polycosanols in bee wax have also been extracted directly with organic solvent without saponification. (Perez, U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,354 (1999)). This material contained octacosanol (30-60%), triacosanol (16-26%), dotriacontanol (13-22%) and hexacosanol (7-12%) as the major components and has been shown to be effective in the treatment and prevention of hypercholesterolemia related diseases. (Perez, U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,354 (1999)). Polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane have been shown to lower cholesterol levels in both animal and human models. (Menedez et al. (2000) Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 50:255-262; Arruzazabala et al. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 33:835-840; Crespo et al. (1999) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 19:117-127; Gouni-Berthold and Berthold (2002) Am. Heart J. 143:356-365; Alcocer et al. (1999) Int. J. Tissue React 21:85-92). Modulation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase was observed in a celline model, but not in a pure enzyme inhibition assay. (Menendez et al. (2001) Arch. Med. Res. 32:8-12). Instead of inhibiting of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, as most cholesterol lowering drugs, polycosanol may have different mechanism of action, such as the down regulation of HMG-CoA reductase production in gene expression and/or at the proteomic level. (McCarty (2002) Med. Hypotheses 59:268). Older patients with hypertension and Type II hypercholesterolemia, treated with polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane at a dosage of 20 mg/day for twelve months, showed significantly decreased TC, LDL, LDL/HDL and TC/HDL levels, and increases HDL levels. (Castano et al. (2002) Drug R D. 3:159-172; Castano et al. (2001) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21:43-57). Even at a dosage of 5-10 mg, polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane showed a significant benefit in hypercholesterolemia postmenopausal women (Mirkin et al. (2001) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21:31-41; Castano et al. (2000) Gynecol. Endocrinol. 14:187-195) and in high coronary risk older patients (Castano et al. (2001) J. Geontol A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 56:M186-192; Castano et al. (1999) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 19:105-116). In summary, it has been proposed that polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane could potentially provide a new treatment for cardiovascular disease with equal or better clinical output than simvastatin, pravastatin, lovastatin, probucol and acipimox. (Janikula (2002) Altern. Med. Rev. 7:203-217). Polycosanol compositions have also been shown to exhibit anti-thrombic effects (Carbajal et al. (1998) Pharmacol. Res. 38:89-91), with significant inhibition of platelet aggregation (Arruzazabala et al. (1993) Thromb Res. 69:321). Additionally, unlike aspirin polycosanol did not affect the platelet anti-aggregating enzyme PGI2, but rather inhibited platelet aggregating enzyme thromboxane B2 (TXB2). (Carbajal et al. (1998) Prostaglangins Leukot. Essent Fatty Acids 58:61-64). This makes a combination therapy of polycosanol with aspirin an attractive option. (Arruzazabala et al. (1997) Pharmacol. Res. 36293-297). For other reports on the anti-thrombic effects of polycosanol compositions see Arruzazabala et al. (2002) Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. 29:891-7; Janikula (2002) Alternative Medicine Review 7:203-217; and Stusser et al. (1998) Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 36(9):469-73). For reports on other cardiovascular benefits of polycosanol compositions see Noa et al. (1997) J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 49:999-1002; Noa et al. (2001) Pharmacolo. Res. 43:31-37; Molina et al. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 32:1269-1276; Janikula (2002) Alternative Medicine Review 7:203-217; and Menendez et al. (2002) Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 80:13-21. Polycosanol(s) and polycosanolic acids have also been reported to be effective as nutritional and therapeutic preparations for the prevention and treatment of aging and related conditions, such as, atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, tumors, obesity, overweight, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, as well as other conditions. (Pistolesi, WO 02/052955 (2001)). There are a numerous other reported uses of individual polycosanols and mixtures thereof in the literature. This provides a significant incentive to develop new sources containing novel polycosanol compositions of matter, which would be expected to have different pharmacological effects and strengths. The multitude of uses for the individual alcohols and mixtures thereof, also provides a significant incentive to develop improved methods for isolating these compounds. Polycosanol has been determined to be safe at a dosage of up to 500 mg/kg/day, which is 1500 times greater than the standard human dosage of 20 mg/day. Rats treated with a dosage of 500 mg/kg/day for 12 to 24 months exhibited no signs of toxicity or carcinogenesis resulting from treatment with polycosanols. (Aleman et al. (1995) Food Chem. Toxicol. 33:573-578). Dogs given 180 mg/kg/day for one year showed no side effects resulting from the composition (Mesa et al. (1994) Toxicol. Lett. 73:81-90) and monkeys given 25 mg/kg/day for 54 months showed no signs of adverse effects (Rodrigurz et al. (1994) Food Che. Toxicol. 32:565-575). In reproductive and fertility studies, polycosanol compositions exhibited no adverse effects on fertility, reproduction and development in rats fed up to 500 mg/kg/day for two weeks before mating, throughout pregnancy, and 21 days into lactation, and in male rats given 500 mg/kg/day for 60 days prior mating (Rodriguez and Garcia (1998) Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen. 18:1-7). Rabbits treated with a dosage of 1000 mg/kg/day during pregnancy showed no evidence of teratogenic and embryonic toxicity. The tissue distribution of polycosanol in animal models has been reported by Kabir and Kimura. ((1995) Ann. Nutr. Metab. 39:279-284 and (1993) 37:33-38). Polycosanol has been shown to be stable in 10 mg tablets for up to nine months (Cabrera et al. (2002) Boll. Chim. Farm. 141:223-229) with no interaction with excipients (Cabrera et al. (2002) Boll. Chim. Farm. 141:138-142). Cholestin™, a dietary supplement from Pharmanex, contains octacosanol isolated from the wax of honey bees. This product has been shown to promote healthy cholesterol levels by inhibiting the production of cholesterol in the liver. LesstanoL™ brand from Garuda International, Inc. contains natural octacosanol (95%) isolated from sugar cane or vegetable waxes. TwinLab Octacosanol Plus is derived from spinach, a superior and all natural source of octacosanol. Octacosanol in Nature's Way's products is a naturally occurring substance found in sugar cane, wheat germ oil, spinach, and other natural sources. Octacosanol from Viable Herbal Solutions is the active ingredient in wheat germ oil and is used to increase endurance, stamina and vigor. Applicant is not aware of any reports regarding the production polycosanol compositions from Ericerus pela wax. Sierra et al. has developed a gas chromatographic (GC) method for determining the fatty alcohol content of film-coated tablets. (Sierra et al. (2002) J. AOAC Int. 85:563-566). 1-Octacosanol in rat plasma has been quantified after solid phase extraction and derivatization using a capillary GC method developed by Marrero and Gonzalez ((2001) J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. 762:43-49). The polycosanols were derivatized with N-methyl-N-trimethylsilyltrifluoroacetamide. The general physical characteristics of sugar cane polycosanols have been reported by Uribarri et al. ((2002) Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 28:89-93). It is an objective of this invention to provide a mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols, referred to herein as “polycosanol(s)” having a unique chemical composition profile. It is another objective of this invention to provide an improved method for obtaining a highly pure mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention includes a novel method for the preparation of a unique profile of primary aliphatic alcohols, having 24 to 30 carbon atoms, from the wax secreted by the insect Ericerus pela. Included in the present invention is the composition of matter, referred to herein as “polycosanol” produced by the method of this invention. The polycosanol composition produced by the method of this invention is comprised primarily of two major components, the primary aliphatic alcohols, hexacosanol and octacosanol, with two minor components, the primary aliphatic alcohols, tetracosanol and triacontanol. Further included in this invention is the use of said composition of matter for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. The method of the present invention is comprised of the steps of (a) hydrolyzing the melted wax obtained from the insect with a base; (b) neutralizing the basic hydrosylate obtained from step (a) to yield a lower purity composition of matter comprised of polycosanols; and (c) optionally extracting the hydrosylate without neutralization with an organic solvent to obtain a higher purity polycosanol composition. In another embodiment of the instant invention, the method further comprises the step of (d) purifying the hydrolyzed product obtained in step (c) by recrystallization. The method of this invention can be extended to the isolation and purification of polycosanol compositions from any source of wax, in particular from any source of insect wax. The present invention includes the novel mixtures of primary long chain aliphatic alcohols (referred to herein as “polycosanol”) prepared and isolated by the methods of this invention. The long chain aliphatic alcohol portions of the polycosanol compositions prepared and isolated by the methods of this invention comprise 1-hexacosanol (20%-50%), 1-octacosanol (15%-45%), 1-triacontanol (2%-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (approximately 1%-9%). The total amount of long chain aliphatic alcohols in these compositions can be anywhere in the range of 35% to 100%, depending on the level of purification of the crude extract obtained from step (b) of the described method. In one embodiment, the composition of matter is isolated following hydrolysis of the wax and neutralization with no further purification. This composition is comprised of approximately 35-55% of the long chain primary aliphatic alcohols of interest. The major components of this composition are: 1-hexacosanol (˜20-30%) and 1-octacosanol (˜15-25%) and the minor components are: 1-triacontanol (˜2-4%) and 1-tetracosanol (˜1-3%). In another embodiment, the composition of matter is isolated following hydrolysis of the wax and further purification via extraction of the polycosanols under basic conditions with an organic solvent. In this embodiment the composition of matter is comprised of approximately 75-100% of the long chain primary aliphatic alcohols. The major components of this composition are 1-hexacosanol (˜30-50%), 1-octacosanol (˜25-45%), 1-triacontanol (˜4-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (˜3-9%). In yet another embodiment, the composition can be even further purified by recrystallization. As noted above, the alcoholic mixtures obtained from Ericerus pela wax in accordance with the present invention can be distinguished from all other currently known sources of polycosanols. Table 1, below highlights the differences between the compositions isolated from sugar cane and bee wax, which are currently the major commercially available sources of polycosanols, with the composition isolated according to the method of this invention. The present invention also includes the use of the polycosanol compositions isolated by the method of this invention for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. These novel compositions are expected to have different pharmacological effects and strengths. The compositions can be formulated in a pharmaceutical composition, foodstuff or dietary supplement and administered to humans and other animals. The present invention provides not only a novel source of polycosanols and the resulting novel compositions of matter, but also provides an improved method for extracting these compounds from a wax. Preferred levels of certain operational parameters in the extraction and purification process have been discovered which lead to further enhancement of the purity level of the isolated alcohols and enhancement of the percent recovery of the alcohols from Ericerus pela wax. These operational parameters include optimized solvent volume and quantity of basic solution in the hydrolysis process; and extraction of the basic powder of crude polycosanol with lower polarity organic solvents than those used in current methods, which is critical to obtaining higher quality insect polycosanol. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 depicts the chemical structure of a representative long chain (C22) aliphatic alcohol and a representative structure of an esterified fatty acid. FIG. 2 illustrates the gas chromatographic (GC) profile of eight polycosanol standards. FIG. 3 illustrates the gas chromatographic profile of wax from the insect Ericerus pela before hydrolysis with no polycosanol present. FIG. 4 depicts the gas chromatographic profile of wax from the insect Ericerus pela after hydrolysis. The hydrosylate contains tetracosanol (7.7 min.), hexacosanol (8.7 min.), octacosanol (10 min.) and triacontanol (11.6 min.). FIG. 5 depicts the linear range of tetracosanol in the GC analysis. FIG. 6 illustrates the linear range of hexacosanol in the GC analysis. FIG. 7 depicts the linear range of triacontanol in the GC analysis. FIG. 8 depicts the linear range of octacosanol in the GC analysis. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention includes a method for the preparation of a unique profile of primary aliphatic alcohols, having 24 to 30 carbon atoms, from the wax secreted by the insect Ericerus pela. Included in the present invention is the composition of matter, referred to herein as “polycosanol” produced by the method of this invention. The polycosanol composition produced by the method of this invention is comprised primarily of only four primary aliphatic alcohols, tetracosanol, hexacosanol, octacosanol and triacontanol. Further included in this invention is the use of said composition of matter for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. Various terms are used herein to refer to aspects of the present invention. To aid in the clarification of the description of the components of this invention, the following definitions are provided. It is to be noted that the term “a” or “an” entity refers to one or more of that entity. As such, the terms “a” or “an,” “one or more” and “at least one” are used interchangeably herein. As used herein the term “higher primary aliphatic alcohols” refers to primary aliphatic alcohols having 24 to 30 carbon atoms (C24-C30). More specifically, the term higher primary aliphatic alcohols refers to the four alcohols—tetracosanol, hexacosanol, octacosanol and triacontanol. As used herein the term “polycosanol” refers to the mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols derived from the hydrolysis of the wax of the insect Ericerus pela. “Therapeutic” as used herein, includes treatment and/or prophylaxis. When used, therapeutic refers to humans, as well as, other animals. “Pharmaceutically or therapeutically effective dose or amount” refers to a dosage level sufficient to induce a desired biological result. That result may be the delivery of a pharmaceutical agent, alleviation of the signs, symptoms or causes of a disease or any other desired alteration of a biological system. A “host” is a living subject, human or animal, into which the compositions described herein are administered. Note, that throughout this application various citations are provided. Each citation is specifically incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. The method of the present invention for preparing a unique profile of primary aliphatic alcohols is comprised of the steps of (a) hydrolyzing the melted wax obtained from the insect Ericerus pela with a base solution; (b) neutralizing the basic hydrosylate obtained from step (a) to yield a composition of matter comprised of polycosanols; and (c) optionally extracting the hydrosylate without neutralization with an organic solvent to obtain a higher purity polycosanol composition. In another embodiment of the instant invention, the method of the invention further comprises the step of (d) purifying the hydrolyzed product obtained in step (c) by recrystallization. The method of the present invention is based on the homogeneous phase hydrolysis/saponification of the wax isolated from the insect Ericerus pela. The wax is first melted at a temperature of between 80° C. to 100° C. and then treated with a base in either an aqueous or an alcoholic solution. The ratio of the amount of wax to the volume of solvent is very critical to ensure the completion of the hydrolysis reaction. In stead of less than a 1:1 ratio of wax:solvent, the current invention uses at least a 1:1 and up to a 1:12 ratio of wax:solvent. In the absence of sufficient solvent, the free polycosanols will begin to solidify during the middle of the reaction and will trap a significant amount of the non-hydrolyzed esters in the solid. This will result in a low yield of highly impure final product, due to the high solubility of these non-hydrolyzed esters in organic solvents. Any base used by those of skill in the art can be used to perform the hydrolysis. In a preferred embodiment, the base is selected from an alkaline earth hydroxide including, but not limited to NaOH, KOH or CaOH. As noted above, the hydrolysis can be performed in an aqueous solution or an alcoholic solution. In a preferred embodiment, the hydrolysis is performed in an alcoholic solution because the wax is more soluble in alcohol than in water. Any primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol having from one to ten carbon atoms can be used as the solvent including, but not limited to methanol, ethanol, propanol and n-butanol. The concentration of the hydroxide solution must be selected such that the ratio in weight of the corresponding hydroxide to that of the wax to be processed is greater than 5%. In a preferred embodiment, the weight ratio of hydroxide to wax is from about 8% to 40%, most preferably the weight ratio of hydroxide to wax is about 25%. The use of a greater percentage of hydroxide to perform the hydrolysis reaction is novel to the current application. It will not only maintain higher pH value that leads to the completion of the hydrolysis reaction, but also plays a very critical role in obtaining high purity polycosanol products. The saponification reaction is allowed to proceed for a time period of at least 30 minutes to 40 hours. Preferably, the reaction is allowed to proceed for a time period of about 2 to 6 hours. The hydrolysis/saponification process is facilitated by mechanic agitation and heating both with and without pressurization. The reaction temperature range is between 50° C. to 200° C. In a preferred embodiment, the reaction is performed at 100° C. and ambient pressure for approximately six hours. Upon completion of the hydrolysis the hydrosylate is neutralized and the residual solvent is removed to provide a solid residue comprised of a composition of matter of low purity polycosanols. The hydrosylate can be neutralized using any organic or inorganic acid known to one of skill in the art to perform such a neutralization. In one embodiment, the acid is selected from the group including, but not limited to acetic acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, choleric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. In one embodiment of the invention, the hydrosylate reaction mixture is adjusted to a pH of about 1 to 6. After neutralization, the residual solvent is removed using a method including, but not limited to filtration, centrifugation, decanting, evaporation, concentration, crystallization or a combination thereof. The solid residue comprised of a composition of matter of low purity polycosanols obtained without neutralization can optionally be further purified by extraction with an organic solvent. Contrary to reported methods, which extract the polycosanol compositions subsequent to neutralization of the reaction mixture, the current invention intentionally maintains the strongly basic conditions by significantly increasing the amount of base used in the hydrolysis reaction and extracting without neutralization. The excess base remaining after completion of the hydrolysis, keeps the higher primary aliphatic fatty acids, mainly hexacosanic acid in the form of their sodium salts. Since the water solubility of hexacosanic acid sodium salt is much higher than its solubility in organic solvents, this will prevent hexacosanic acid from extracting into the organic solvent. This results in a polycosanol product that has a much greater purity. The extraction can be performed using any method of extraction known to those of skill in the art. In one embodiment the extraction is performed by liquid-liquid partition or solid-liquid extraction. The extraction solvent is selected from the group of organic solvents including, but not limited to hydrocarbons having 6 to 9 carbon atoms, such as, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane or a mixture of hydrocarbons such as petroleum ether; ketones having 3 to 8 carbon atoms, such as, acetone, pentanone, 2-methyl pentanone hexanone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl butyl ketone and/or heptanone; alcohols having 1 to 5 carbon atoms, such as methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, 2-propanol, n-butanol, 2-butanol, n-pentanol and tert-butanol; halogenated solvents, such as dichloromethane, 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, tricholoroethane, 1,2-dichloropropane or 1,2,3-trichloropropane or aromatic solvents, such as benzene, phenyl, toluene and p-methyl toluene as well as mixtures thereof. The polycosanols are selectively extracted with the organic solvent to provide a polycosanol composition of higher purity. In one embodiment of the present invention, the polycosanol product obtained from the extraction is further purified by means of recrystallization. Included in the present invention are the polycosanol compositions of matter prepared and isolated by the method of this invention. The long chain aliphatic alcohol portions of the polycosanol compositions prepared and isolated by the methods of this invention are comprised primarily of the four primary aliphatic alcohols 1-hexacosanol (20%-50%), 1-octacosanol (15%-45%), 1-triacontanol (2%-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (approximately 1%-9%). The total amount of long chain aliphatic alcohols in these compositions can be anywhere in the range of 35% to 100%, depending on the level of purification of the crude extract obtained from step (b) of the described method. In one embodiment, the composition of matter is isolated following hydrolysis of the wax and neutralization with no further purification. This composition is comprised of approximately 35-55% of the long chain primary aliphatic alcohols of interest. The major components of this composition are: 1-hexacosanol (˜20-30%), 1-octacosanol (˜15-25%), with two minor compounds: 1-triacontanol (˜2-4%) and 1-tetracosanol (˜1-3%). In another embodiment, the composition of matter is isolated following hydrolysis of the wax, without neutralization and further purification via extraction with an organic solvent. In this embodiment the composition of matter is comprised of approximately 75-100% of the long chain primary aliphatic alcohols. The major components of this composition are 1-hexacosanol (˜30-50%), 1-octacosanol (˜25-45%), with two minor polycosanols: 1-triacontanol (˜4-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (˜3-9%). As noted above, the alcoholic mixtures obtained from Ericerus pela wax in accordance with the present invention can be distinguished from all other currently known sources of polycosanols. Table 1, below highlights the differences between the compositions isolated from sugar cane and bee wax, which are currently the major commercially available sources of polycosanols, with the composition isolated according to the method of this invention. With reference to Table 1, it can be seen that the composition of matter isolated from E. pela has a much greater percentage of hexacosanol (C26) (˜45%) than either sugar cane (˜6-9%) or bee wax (˜7-12%). The polycosanol isolated from E. pela also has a somewhat lower percentage of triacontanol (C30). Further included in this invention is the use of the compositions of matter produced for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. Various delivery systems are known in the art and can be used to administer the therapeutic compositions of the invention, e.g., aqueous solution, encapsulation in liposomes, microparticles, and microcapsules. Therapeutic compositions of the invention may be administered parenterally by injection, although other effective administration forms, such as intraarticular injection, inhalant mists, orally active formulations, transdermal iontophoresis or suppositories are also envisioned. One preferred carrier is physiological saline solution, but it is contemplated that other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers may also be used. In one preferred embodiment, it is envisioned that the carrier and polycosanol composition constitute a physiologically-compatible, slow release formulation. The primary solvent in such a carrier may be either aqueous or non-aqueous in nature. In addition, the carrier may contain other pharmacologically-acceptable excipients for modifying or maintaining the pH, osmolarity, viscosity, clarity, color, sterility, stability, rate of dissolution, or odor of the formulation. Similarly, the carrier may contain still other pharmacologically-acceptable excipients for modifying or maintaining the stability, rate of dissolution, release or absorption of the ligand. Such excipients are those substances usually and customarily employed to formulate dosages for parental administration in either unit dose or multi-dose form. Once the therapeutic composition has been formulated, it may be stored in sterile vials as a solution, suspension, gel, emulsion, solid, or dehydrated or lyophilized powder; or directly capsulated and/or tableted with other inert carriers for oral administration. Such formulations may be stored either in a ready to use form or requiring reconstitution immediately prior to administration. The manner of administering formulations containing the compositions for systemic delivery may be via enteral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intranasal or vaginal or rectal suppository. The amount of the composition that will be effective in the treatment of a particular disorder or condition will depend on the nature of the disorder of condition, which can be determined by standard clinical techniques. In addition, in vitro or in vivo assays may optionally be employed to help identify optimal dosage ranges. The precise dose to be employed in the formulation will also depend on the route of administration, and the seriousness or advancement of the disease or condition, and should be decided according to the practitioner and each patient's circumstances. Effective doses may be extrapolated from dose-response curved derived from in vitro or animal model test systems. For example, an effective amount of the composition of the invention is readily determined by administering graded doses of the composition of the invention and observing the desired effect. The method of treatment according to this invention comprises administering internally or topically to a host in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of the polycosanol composition isolated according to the method of this invention. The purity of the polycosanol composition administered includes, but is not limited to 0.01% to 100%, depending on the methodology used to obtain the compound(s). In a preferred embodiment doses of the polycosanol and pharmaceutical compositions containing that same are an efficacious, nontoxic quantity generally selected from the range of 0.01 to 200 mg/kg of body weight. Persons skilled in the art using routine clinical testing are able to determine optimum doses for the particular ailment being treated. This invention includes an improved method for isolating and purifying polycosanol compositions from a novel source, the wax of the insect E. pela. 1 describes gas chromatographic (GC) method used to quantify the various polycosanols present in the compositions isolated. Examples 2-6 describe various methods used to hydrolyze/saponify the wax and the profile of the composition obtained using each method. Examples 7-12 describe various methods for further purifying the initial hydrolyzed extract isolated and the profile of the composition obtained using each method. Example 13 describes an experiment performed to determine the effect of the composition of this invention on lipid levels. With reference to Table 13, it can be seen that HDL levels were raised significantly in the mice treated with both 2.7 mg/kg/day (15 mg equivalent human dose, p<0.05) and 5.5 mg/kg/day (30 mg equivalent human dose, p<0.01) over a six month period. The data also shows that total cholesterol and LDL levels were reduced. TABLE 1 Composition of polycosanol from different natural sources Sugar Cane Wax Bee Wax Insect Wax Existing Form Primarily esters Free alcohols and esters Esters Hydrolysis Required Not necessarily required Required Alcohol Percentage (w/w %) Percentage (w/w %) Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 0.5-1 1-4 3-5 1-hexacosanol 5.5-8.5 7-12 44-46 1-heptacosanol 2-3.5 1-4 0 1-octacosanol 60-70 30-60 35-40 1-nonacosanol 0.4-1.2 2-5 0 1-triacontanol 10-15 16-26 4-8 1-dotriacontanol 4-6 13-22 Trace 1-tetratriacontanol 0.4-2 2-6 0 The following examples are provided for illustrative purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. EXAMPLES Example 1 Quantification of Polycosanol using Gas Chromatography The method for quantifying polycosanol was developed using a Shimazu Gas Chromatograph (GC-17A). The separation was carried out on one of the following GC columns: XTI-5 (bonded 5% phenyl, 30 meters, 0.25 mm ID and 0.5 μm thick) or DB-5HT (fused silica gel, 30 meters, 0.25 mm ID and 0.1 μm film). The carrying gas was helium at a flow rate 3.0 mL/min. The temperature settings were as follows: injector 375° C., detector 375° C., column oven starting at 190° C. (1 minute) and increasing to 315° C. at the rate of 35° C./minute. The column oven temperature was then kept at 315° C. for 10 minutes. Sample and standards were dissolved in THF at a concentration between 50 to 200 ng/μL and directly injected onto the top of column without splitting at a volume of 2 μL per injection. The eluted alcohols were detected with a FID detector. Compound identification was based on retention time derived from individual alcohol standards. A calibration curve was measured for each standard at seven different concentrations (50, 100, 150, 250, 400, 600 and 800 ng). For wax sample quantification, hexacosanol was utilized as an external standard and response factors were calculated based on the concentrations and GC peak area as 0.62/0.94/1.0/1.25/1.98 (C24/C26/C27/C28/C30). Example 2 Hydrolysis of Ericerus pela Insect Wax in Ethanol Ericerus pela insect wax (25 g) was melted at a temperature between 80 to 100° C. Sodium hydroxide solution (5 g dissolved in 5 mL of water) was added to the wax with 95 mL of 30% ethanol. The mixture was stirred and refluxed for 4 hours and then allowed to cool to room temperature. The white solid obtained was filtered and washed twice with water (500 mL), then neutralized with glacial acetic acid (5 mL) and washed with water (3×) until neutral. As much as 22.5 g of crude polycosanol was obtained at a yield of 90%, containing four major fatty alcohols (1-tetracosanol, 1-hexacosanol, 1-octacosanol and 1-triaconsanol) having a purity of 62.2%. The alcohol profile of the product is set forth in Table 2 below. TABLE 2 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (hydrolysis in EtOH) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 2.7 1-hexacosanol 30.1 1-octacosanol 24.5 1-triacontanol 4.9 Example 3 Hydrolysis of Ericerus pela Insect Wax in Methanol Ericerus pela insect wax (100 g) was melted at a temperature between 80 to 100° C. Sodium hydroxide solution (25 g dissolved in 30 mL of water) was added into the wax with 290 mL of 52.5% methanol. The saponification reaction was allowed to proceed for a period of five hours with heating and stirring. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and filtered to obtain a white solid. The solid was washed with water (2×), neutralized with sulfuric acid (50 mL, 20%, w/w) and washed with water (3×). The polycosanol product (91 g) was obtained at a yield 91% having a purity of 59.0% based on four major fatty alcohols (1-tetracosanol, 1-hexacosanol, 1-octacosanol and 1-triaconsanol). The alcohol profile of the product is set forth in Table 3 below. TABLE 3 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (hydrolysis in MeOH) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 2.5 1-hexacosanol 28.3 1-octacosanol 24.1 1-triacontanol 4.1 Example 4 Hydrolysis of Ericerus pela Insect Wax in 1-Propanol Ericerus pela insect wax (500 g) was melted at a temperature between 80 to 100° C. Sodium hydroxide solution (100 g dissolved in 100 mL of water) was added to the wax with 1900 mL of 50% 1-propanol. The saponification reaction was allowed to proceed for a period of six hours with stirring and heating. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and filtered to obtain a white solid. The solid was washed with water (2×), neutralized with hydrochloric acid (300 mL, 25%, w/w) and washed with water until neutral. A total of 460 g of polycosanol was obtained at a yield of 92% having a purity of 55.0% based on four major fatty alcohols (1-tetracosanol, 1-hexacosanol, 1-octacosanol and 1-triaconsanol). The alcohol profile of the product is set forth in Table 4 below. TABLE 4 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (hydrolysis in 1-PrOH) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 1.9 1-hexacosanol 26.7 1-octacosanol 22.9 1-triacontanol 3.5 Example 5 Hydrolysis of Ericerus pela Insect Wax in Water Ericerus pela insect wax (100 g) was melted at a temperature between 80 to 100° C. Sodium hydroxide solution (100 mL, 20%) was added and the reaction mixture was heated with stirring for 4 hours. After 4 hours the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and extracted (6×) in a Soxlet extractor using chloroform as the solvent. The combined chloroform solution was evaporated to provide a purified polycosanol (35 g, 35% yield). The product contained four major fatty alcohols (1-tetracosanol, 1-hexacosanol, 1-octacosanol and 1-triaconsanol) at a total concentration of 93.2%. The alcohol profile of the product is set forth below in Table 5. TABLE 5 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (hydrolysis in H2O) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.1 1-hexacosanol 45.6 1-octacosanol 36.2 1-triacontanol 7.3 Example 6 Hydrolysis of Ericerus pela Insect Wax in n-Butanol Ericerus pela insect wax (25 g) was melted at a temperature between 80 to 100° C. Sodium hydroxide solution (7.5 g of sodium hydroxide dissolved in 5 mL of water) was added with 95 mL of 52.5% n-butanol. The saponification reaction was allowed to proceed for a period of 4.5 hours with stirring and heating. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and filtered to obtain a white solid. The solid was washed with water (2×), neutralized with concentrated phosphoric acid (5 mL) and washed with water (3×) until neutral. A total of 22 g of polycosanol (88% yield) was obtained having a purity of 60.7% based on four major fatty alcohols (1-tetracosanol, 1-hexacosanol, 1-octacosanol and 1-triaconsanol) as shown in Table 6. TABLE 6 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (hydrolysis in n-BuOH) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 2.2 1-hexacosanol 29.4 1-octacosanol 25.1 1-triacontanol 4.0 Example 7 Isolation of Polycosanol from Ericerus pela Insect Wax by Extraction with Ethyl Acetate Ericerus pela insect wax (25 g) was melted at 80-100° C. Potassium hydroxide (5 g) dissolved in 300 mL of 25% ethanol in water was added to the melted wax. The reaction mixture was maintained at 80-100° C. for 4.5 hours with stirring and heating. The basic reaction solution was then cooled to room temperature and extracted with ethyl acetate (10×). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and evaporated to provide purified polycosanol (6 g, 24% yield), containing four major fatty alcohols (1-tetracosanol, 1-hexacosanol, 1-octacosanol and 1-triaconsanol) having a purity of 95.0%. The alcohol profile of the product is set forth in Table 7 below. TABLE 7 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (EtOAc extraction) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.2 1-hexacosanol 43.7 1-octacosanol 39.9 1-triacontanol 7.2 Example 8 Isolation of Polycosanol from Ericerus pela Insect Wax by Extraction with Hexane Ericerus pela insect wax (500 g) was melted at 100-105° C. Sodium hydroxide (150 g) dissolved in 1500 mL of water was added to the melted wax and the solution was heated with stirring for 5 hours. After five hours a white solid was obtained by filtration. The solid was extracted for 12 hours in a Soxlet extractor using hexane as the solvent. The hexane solution was cooled to room temperature, resulting in the crystallization of the polycosanol product. The crystallized product was then filtered and recrystallized in methanol. Upon recrystallization polycosanol (165 g, 33% yield) was obtained, having a purity 92.3% aliphatic alcohols. The melting point of the mixture was 85-91° C. The fatty acid profile of this product is set forth in Table 8 below. TABLE 8 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (hexane extraction) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.0 1-hexacosanol 45.8 1-octacosanol 38.3 1-triacontanol 4.0 Example 9 Isolation of Polycosanol from Ericerus pela Insect Wax by Extraction with Chloroform Ericerus pela insect wax (200 g) was melted at 80-100° C. Sodium hydroxide (60 g) dissolved in 500 mL of water was added to the melted wax and the reaction was allowed to proceed for a period of 4 hours with stirring and heating. The solid obtained after the reaction was completed, was filtered and extracted for 10 hours in a solid-liquid extraction system using chloroform as the solvent. The solution was cooled to room temperature, resulting in the crystallization of the polycosanol. The crystallized product was then filtered and recrystallized in methanol/chloroform (3/1) mixture. Polycosanol (75 g, 37.5% yield) was obtained having a purity of 93.2%. The melting point of the mixture ranged from 86 to 90° C. Table 9 sets forth the composition of the polycosanol product. TABLE 9 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (CHCl3 extraction) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.1 1-hexacosanol 42.4 1-octacosanol 39.7 1-triacontanol 7.0 Example 10 Isolation of Polycosanol from Ericerus pela Insect Wax by Extraction with Tetrahydrofuran (THF) Ericerus pela insect wax (1000 g) was melted at 90-110° C. and potassium hydroxide (300 g) dissolved in 1500 mL of water was added. The saponification reaction was allowed to proceed for 120 minutes with stirring and heating. A white solid was obtained, which was filtered from the reaction mixture and then extracted with THF in a solid-liquid extracting system. The THF extract was evaporated and the residual solid was crystallized in petroleum ether to yield 355 g of polycosanol (35.5% yield) having a purity of 89.4%. The melting point of the mixture was 81 to 85° C. Table 10 sets forth the alcohol composition of the product. TABLE 10 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (THF extraction) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.2 1-hexacosanol 43.5 1-octacosanol 37.2 1-triacontanol 4.4 Example 11 Isolation of Polycosanol from Ericerus pela Insect Wax by Extraction with Methylene Chloride Ericerus pela insect wax (500 g) was melted at 90-100° C. and sodium hydroxide (120 g) dissolved in 1000 mL of water was added. The reaction mixture was stirred and heated for a period of 6 hours. The white solid produced was filtered and extracted with methylene chloride for a period of 12 hours in a conventional solid-liquid extraction system. The extraction solution was cooled to room temperature and the solid obtained was recrystallized in ethanol to yield 143 g of polycosanol (28.6% yield). The crystallized product contained total 91.8% fatty alcohols, having a melting point between 83-86° C. Table 11 shows the profile of the polycosanol product. TABLE 11 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (CH2Cl2 extraction) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.8 1-hexacosanol 41.4 1-octacosanol 40.2 1-triacontanol 5.4 Example 12 Isolation of Polycosanol from Ericerus pela Insect Wax by Extraction with Petroleum Ether Ericerus pela insect wax (500 g) was melted at 100-110° C. and sodium hydroxide (150 g) dissolved in 700 mL of water was added. The mixture was stirred and heated for 3 hours and then filtered. The solid obtained was extracted with petroleum ether for 16 hours in a solid-liquid extractor and the extraction solution was then cooled to room temperature and filtered. The solid was crystallized to yield polycosanol (150 g, 30% yield) having a purity of 95.0%. The melting point of the mixture ranged from 83-87° C. Table 12 shows the long chain aliphatic alcohol profile of the crystallized product. TABLE 12 Long chain alcohol profile of polycosanol product (pet. ether extraction) Component Percentage (w/w %) 1-tetracosanol 4.7 1-hexacosanol 43.4 1-octacosanol 41.5 1-triacontanol 5.4 Example 13 Effect of Polycosanol Composition on Lipid Levels Animal Model: C57BL/J-6 (Daihan BioLink, Korea) mice fed a high fat, cholesterol and cholic acid diet (TD-88051, supplemented with 15.8% fat, 1.25% cholesterol, and 0.5% Na-cholate, Harlan Teklad, USA). The lipid profile (mg/dl) in the high-fat diet induced hyperlipidemic C57BL/6J mice (n=5/group) following treatment for 6 months is set forth in Table 13. TABLE 13 Lipid Profile Following Treatment with Polycosanol Composition Groups* Cholesterol Triglycerides HDL-cholesterol LDL-cholesterol Control 366.20 ± 71.06 73.80 ± 19.52 56.00 ± 8.34 84.80 ± 20.04 Poli-90(2.7) 336.00 ± 52.23 71.60 ± 17.56 69.00 ± 11.42** 82.00 ± 12.14 Poli-90(5.5) 340.00 ± 34.92 71.80 ± 20.39 80.60 ± 6.58*** 67.20 ± 10.18 *Poli-90(2.7), Polycosanol 90%, 2.7 mg/kg/day, orally for 6 months. *Poli-90(5.5), Polycosanol 90%, 5.5 mg/kg/day, orally for 6 months. # p value (Student's t-test) **p < 0.05 compared to control group ***p < 0.01 compared to control group | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Polycosanols are a class of primary aliphatic alcohols having 20 to 40 (C20-C40) carbon atoms. They are widely distributed in germs, kernels and other components of nuts, seeds, fruits and cereals (Kawanishi et al. (1991) J. Amer. Oil Chemist Soc. 68:869-872), in Greek olive oils (Dimitrios et al. (1983) Grasas Aceites 34:402-404) and in apple wax (Belding et al. (1993) Hertscience 28:90). Polycosanols are also present, in very small amounts (less than 0.1%), in wheat grain, in the form of the long chain alkyl esters of fatty acids. The major compounds present in wheat grain include, palmitoyl hexacosanol and arachidoyl, palmitoyl and behenoyl tetracosanol (Ohnishi et al. (1986) Cereal Chem 63:193-196). Polycosanols, both as the free alcohols and the esters of fatty acids, have been isolated from many different genera and species of plants, including from the species Achillea biebersteinii (Oskay and Yeslada (1984) J. Nat. Prod. 47:742), Calamagrostis arundinacea (Solberg (1976) Acta Chem. Scand Ser. B. Org. Chem. Bioche. 30:786-787), Emilia sonchifolia (Srinivasan and Subramanian, (1980) Fitoterapia 51:241-244), Heliotropium digynum (Ismail et al. (1984) Fitoterapia 55:110-112), Hypericum perforatum (Brondze (1983) J. Nat. Prod. 46:940-941), Tragopogon orientalis (Krzaczek et al. (1988) Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 57:85-92), and from the genera of Triceae (Tulloch (1981) Can. J. Bot. 58:2602-2615). Polycosanols have also been isolated from various parts of many different genera and species of plants, including from the bark of various Acacia species (Banerji and Nigram (1980) J. Indian Chem. Soc. 57:1043-1044); from the stem of Anisomeles indica (Dobhal et al. (1988) Fitoterapia 59:155); from the leaves of Cordia rothii (Behari et al. (1980) Acta Cienc. Indica Chem. 6:226-228), Hibiscus cannabinus (Makhsudova (1979) Chem. Nat. Compd. 15:186) and Holigarna arnottiana (Prakash and Banerji (1979) Fitoterapia 50:265-266); from the roots of Talinum paniculatum (Komatsu et al. (1982) Yakugaku Zasshi 102:499-502); from the leaves and roots of Gymnosporia Montana (Kumar and Srimannarayana (1981) J. Nat. Prod. 44:625-628); from the aerial parts of Cymbopogon citrates (Olaniyi et al. (1975) Planta Medica 28:186-189), E. merifolia (Baslas and Agarwal (1980) Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 42:66-67) and E. Peplus (Rizk et al. (1980) Fitoterapia 51:223-228), Portulaca suffruticosa L. (Joshi et al. (1987) Herba Pol. 33:71-74) and Youngia denticulate (Arai et al. (1982) J. Pharm. Soc. Jp. 102:1089-1091); and from the heartwood of Melia birmanica (Banerji and Nigam, (1981) Fitoterapia 52:3-4). Polycosanols have also been isolated from carnauba wax from exudates of the leaves of the palm tree Copernicia cerifera (Pinto and Bento (1986) Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 19:243-5), from the leaf wax of Euphorbia helioscopia (Nazir et al. (1993) Xeischrift fur Naturforschung. Section C Biosciences 48:5-9), from epicuticular waxes of genera of Gramineae (Tulloch (1981) Can. J. Bot. 59:1213-1221), and from and the latex of Euphorbia pseusocactus (Awad et al. (1993) Fitoterapia 64:553) and Euphorbia thymifolia (Agarwal and Maslas (1981) Indian J. Pharma. Sci. 43:182-183). Finally, polycosanols have been isolated from the Korean indigenous plant Echinosophora koreensis (Kang and Kim (1987) Arch Pharmacal Res. 10:67-68). Bertholet has described a method for preparing polycosanol compositions by means of the saponification of plant wax from rice bran wax, carnauba wax and jojoba oil. (Bertholet, U.S. Pat. No. 5,159,124 (1991)). In the method described by Bertholet, the plant wax was first dissolved in an organic water immiscible solvent, such as butanol or pentanol, and then hydrolyzed using an aqueous solution of an alkaline earth metal hydroxide. The fatty acid by products of the saponification reaction are soluble in the alkaline aqueous layer and the polycosanol alcohol product remains in the organic layer, which contains <10% fatty acids and >90% alcohols. The overall yield of the reaction was approximately 50%. The composition of the polycosanol product is dependent on the origin of the plant wax. N-hexacosanol has been isolated from wool wax hydrosylate mixtures using gel permeation chromatography (Steel et al. (1999) International Publication No. WO 99/48853). Polycosanol compositions isolated from rice bran wax have been formulated with phytosterol from vegetable oil and used for reducing cholesterol levels. The aliphatic alcohol profile of this material is approximately 23-33% total polycosanol. Triacontanol is the major compound (8-9%), followed by octacosanol (5-6%) and tetracontanol, hexacosanol, dotriacontanol and tetratriacosanol (2-5% each). (Sorkin Jr. (1999) U.S. Pat. No. 6,197,832, and Sorkin Jr. (1998) U.S. Pat. No. 5,952,393). Octacosanol isolated from Sinach has been formulated with other ingredients as a nutritional powder for boosting energy. (Gaynor U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,187 (1996)). Sugar cane provides a major natural source of commercial polycosanol products (Ali et al. (1979) Egypt J. Pharm. Sci. 18:93-99). The long chain aliphatic alcohols are located primarily in the wax layer of sugar cane, with octacosanol being the predominant compound (Nagata et al. (1994) Breeding Sci. 44:427-429) (See Table 1, below). Aliphatic alcohols from sugar cane wax can be extracted directly with a supercritical fluid, an organic solvent or an alcohol to obtain a mixture with octacosanol (7-10%) and triacontanol (0.4-1%) as the major components (Inada et al. (1986) U.S. Pat. No. 4,714,791). A mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols, having from 24 to 34 carbon atoms has been obtained by saponification of sugar cane wax. (Laguna et al. (1996) U.S. Pat. No. 5,856,316). The saponification reaction described included melting the sugar cane wax, forming a homogeneous phase with an alkaline earth hydroxide (5-30%), extracting with an organic solvent and recrystallizing from an organic solvent. The profile of the material included octacosanol as the major component (60-70% content), followed by triacontanol (10-15%), hexacosanol (5.5-8.5%), dotriacontanol (4-6%), heptacosanol (2-3.5%), tetratriacontanol (0.4-2.0%), nonacontanol (0.4-1.2%) and tetracosanol (0.5-1.0%). This material has been formulated with acetylsalicylic acid and used for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, gastric ulcers and to improve male sexual activity. (Laguna et al. (1996) U.S. Pat. No. 5,856,316). Ericerus pela , which belongs to the family Coccidae (Ben-Dov and Hodgson, (1997) Soft scale insects; their biology, natural enemies and control. Vol. 7A. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam), is an insect indigenous to southern China, having the common name white wax scale. (Zhang (1987) Scientia Silvae Sinica 23:383-385, Cen and Ji (1988) Insect Knowledge 25:230-232). This insect has a high economic value in China (Chen (1999) World Forest Res. 12:46-52), due to its ability to produce wax and its high nutritional value (Zhao et al. (2001) Entomological Knowledge 38:216-218). The female lays over 7000 eggs on average (Park et al. (1998) Korea J. Applied Entomology 37:137-142) and egg hatching is directly related to wax production (Chen et al. (1997) Forest Res. 10:149-153). The reproductive capability of Ericerus pela can be impacted by sex ratio, lifespan, habitat and other ecological conditions. (Zhang et al. (1993) Entomological Knowledge 30:297-299). The eggs from this insect contain a high percentage of proteins (40-55%) and amino acids (30-50%) and are nutritious and safe for human consumption. (Ye et al. (2001) Forest Res. 14:322-327). The insect can be raised on 200 different species of host plants belonging to 98 genera and 36 families. (Chen and Li (2001) Forest Res. Beijing 14:100-105). The host plants provide not only their habitat and reproductive sites, but also serve as their food source. (Chen et al. (1997) Forest Res. 10:415-419). The average amount of wax production is affected by the host plant species (Chen et al. Forest Res. 11:285-288), geographic varieties of the insect (Chen et al. (1998) Forest Res. 11:34-38) and climate conditions, particularly temperature, dryness and intense sunshine. (Liu et al. (1998) Forest Res. 11:508-512). Ericerus pela has been produced in commercial forest plantations and the conditions and value of crop production have been reported. (Liu et al. (1996) Forest Res. 9:296-299). The wax from Ericerus pela is secreted from the wax gland of both male and female insects. (Tan and Zhong (1992) Zoological Res. 13:217-222). The composition of the insect wax has been analyzed by GC/MS and determined to be hexacosyl hexacosanoate (55.16%), hexacosyl tetracosanoate (22.36%) and hexacosyl octacosanol (16.65%). (Takahashi and Nomura (1982) Entomol. Gen. 7:313-316). The wax has traditionally been used for bleeding, pain relief, wound healing, coughing and diarrhea. (Li (1985) World Animal Review 55:26-33). Saturated long chain fatty alcohols have also been found in other insects, including Drosicha corpulenta (Hashimoto and Kitaoka (1983) Appl. Entomol Zool. 17:453-459). Bee wax also contains a significant quantity of long chain primary alcohols in both the free and esterified forms. Polycosanol compositions isolated from bee wax contain 24 to 34 carbon atoms (C24-C34) comprised of tetracosanol (9-15%), hexacosanol (12-18%), octacosanol (13-20%), triacontanol (20-30%) and dotriacontanol (13-21%). (Hernandez et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,795 (1994)). Bee wax, formulated with olive oil, β-sitosterol and an extract from Coptis chinensis , has been used for the treatment of diaper rash (Niazi, U.S. Pat. No. 6,419,963 (2001)) and as a pharmaceutical and cosmetic carrier (Xu, U.S. Pat. No. 5,817,322 (1996)). Polycosanols isolated from bee wax also show anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activity. (Mas (2001) Drugs of the Future, 26:731-744; Carbajal et al. (1996) J. Pharmacy and Pharmacol. 48:858-860; Hernandez et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,795 (1994)). Polycosanol compositions isolated from bee wax upon saponification contain primarily octacosanol (13.0-20.0%), triacontanol (20-30%), dotriacontanol (13-21%), hexacosanol (12-18%), tetracosanol (9-15%) and tetratriacontanol (1.5-3.5%). (Hernandez et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,465,526 (2000)). In the method reported by Hernandez et al., the saponification reaction was performed in the homogeneous phase using a 4-7:1 wax:base ratio. After hydrolysis, the polycosanols were extracted with organic solvents to produce a product that contained 80-98% total polycosanols in a yield of approximately 30% from bee wax. (Hernandez et al., (1994) U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,795). As noted above, this material showed both anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory activity. Polycosanol compositions obtained from the saponification of bee wax have also been formulated with acetyl salicylic acid for use in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, gastric ulcers and to improve male sexual activity (Granja et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,663,156 (1994)). The polycosanols in bee wax have also been extracted directly with organic solvent without saponification. (Perez, U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,354 (1999)). This material contained octacosanol (30-60%), triacosanol (16-26%), dotriacontanol (13-22%) and hexacosanol (7-12%) as the major components and has been shown to be effective in the treatment and prevention of hypercholesterolemia related diseases. (Perez, U.S. Pat. No. 6,225,354 (1999)). Polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane have been shown to lower cholesterol levels in both animal and human models. (Menedez et al. (2000) Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 50:255-262; Arruzazabala et al. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 33:835-840; Crespo et al. (1999) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 19:117-127; Gouni-Berthold and Berthold (2002) Am. Heart J. 143:356-365; Alcocer et al. (1999) Int. J. Tissue React 21:85-92). Modulation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase was observed in a celline model, but not in a pure enzyme inhibition assay. (Menendez et al. (2001) Arch. Med. Res. 32:8-12). Instead of inhibiting of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, as most cholesterol lowering drugs, polycosanol may have different mechanism of action, such as the down regulation of HMG-CoA reductase production in gene expression and/or at the proteomic level. (McCarty (2002) Med. Hypotheses 59:268). Older patients with hypertension and Type II hypercholesterolemia, treated with polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane at a dosage of 20 mg/day for twelve months, showed significantly decreased TC, LDL, LDL/HDL and TC/HDL levels, and increases HDL levels. (Castano et al. (2002) Drug R D. 3:159-172; Castano et al. (2001) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21:43-57). Even at a dosage of 5-10 mg, polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane showed a significant benefit in hypercholesterolemia postmenopausal women (Mirkin et al. (2001) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21:31-41; Castano et al. (2000) Gynecol. Endocrinol. 14:187-195) and in high coronary risk older patients (Castano et al. (2001) J. Geontol A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 56:M186-192; Castano et al. (1999) Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 19:105-116). In summary, it has been proposed that polycosanol compositions isolated from sugar cane could potentially provide a new treatment for cardiovascular disease with equal or better clinical output than simvastatin, pravastatin, lovastatin, probucol and acipimox. (Janikula (2002) Altern. Med. Rev. 7:203-217). Polycosanol compositions have also been shown to exhibit anti-thrombic effects (Carbajal et al. (1998) Pharmacol. Res. 38:89-91), with significant inhibition of platelet aggregation (Arruzazabala et al. (1993) Thromb Res. 69:321). Additionally, unlike aspirin polycosanol did not affect the platelet anti-aggregating enzyme PGI2, but rather inhibited platelet aggregating enzyme thromboxane B2 (TXB2). (Carbajal et al. (1998) Prostaglangins Leukot. Essent Fatty Acids 58:61-64). This makes a combination therapy of polycosanol with aspirin an attractive option. (Arruzazabala et al. (1997) Pharmacol. Res. 36293-297). For other reports on the anti-thrombic effects of polycosanol compositions see Arruzazabala et al. (2002) Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. 29:891-7; Janikula (2002) Alternative Medicine Review 7:203-217; and Stusser et al. (1998) Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 36(9):469-73). For reports on other cardiovascular benefits of polycosanol compositions see Noa et al. (1997) J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 49:999-1002; Noa et al. (2001) Pharmacolo. Res. 43:31-37; Molina et al. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 32:1269-1276; Janikula (2002) Alternative Medicine Review 7:203-217; and Menendez et al. (2002) Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 80:13-21. Polycosanol(s) and polycosanolic acids have also been reported to be effective as nutritional and therapeutic preparations for the prevention and treatment of aging and related conditions, such as, atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, tumors, obesity, overweight, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, as well as other conditions. (Pistolesi, WO 02/052955 (2001)). There are a numerous other reported uses of individual polycosanols and mixtures thereof in the literature. This provides a significant incentive to develop new sources containing novel polycosanol compositions of matter, which would be expected to have different pharmacological effects and strengths. The multitude of uses for the individual alcohols and mixtures thereof, also provides a significant incentive to develop improved methods for isolating these compounds. Polycosanol has been determined to be safe at a dosage of up to 500 mg/kg/day, which is 1500 times greater than the standard human dosage of 20 mg/day. Rats treated with a dosage of 500 mg/kg/day for 12 to 24 months exhibited no signs of toxicity or carcinogenesis resulting from treatment with polycosanols. (Aleman et al. (1995) Food Chem. Toxicol. 33:573-578). Dogs given 180 mg/kg/day for one year showed no side effects resulting from the composition (Mesa et al. (1994) Toxicol. Lett. 73:81-90) and monkeys given 25 mg/kg/day for 54 months showed no signs of adverse effects (Rodrigurz et al. (1994) Food Che. Toxicol. 32:565-575). In reproductive and fertility studies, polycosanol compositions exhibited no adverse effects on fertility, reproduction and development in rats fed up to 500 mg/kg/day for two weeks before mating, throughout pregnancy, and 21 days into lactation, and in male rats given 500 mg/kg/day for 60 days prior mating (Rodriguez and Garcia (1998) Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen. 18:1-7). Rabbits treated with a dosage of 1000 mg/kg/day during pregnancy showed no evidence of teratogenic and embryonic toxicity. The tissue distribution of polycosanol in animal models has been reported by Kabir and Kimura. ((1995) Ann. Nutr. Metab. 39:279-284 and (1993) 37:33-38). Polycosanol has been shown to be stable in 10 mg tablets for up to nine months (Cabrera et al. (2002) Boll. Chim. Farm. 141:223-229) with no interaction with excipients (Cabrera et al. (2002) Boll. Chim. Farm. 141:138-142). Cholestin™, a dietary supplement from Pharmanex, contains octacosanol isolated from the wax of honey bees. This product has been shown to promote healthy cholesterol levels by inhibiting the production of cholesterol in the liver. LesstanoL™ brand from Garuda International, Inc. contains natural octacosanol (95%) isolated from sugar cane or vegetable waxes. TwinLab Octacosanol Plus is derived from spinach, a superior and all natural source of octacosanol. Octacosanol in Nature's Way's products is a naturally occurring substance found in sugar cane, wheat germ oil, spinach, and other natural sources. Octacosanol from Viable Herbal Solutions is the active ingredient in wheat germ oil and is used to increase endurance, stamina and vigor. Applicant is not aware of any reports regarding the production polycosanol compositions from Ericerus pela wax. Sierra et al. has developed a gas chromatographic (GC) method for determining the fatty alcohol content of film-coated tablets. (Sierra et al. (2002) J. AOAC Int. 85:563-566). 1-Octacosanol in rat plasma has been quantified after solid phase extraction and derivatization using a capillary GC method developed by Marrero and Gonzalez ((2001) J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. 762:43-49). The polycosanols were derivatized with N-methyl-N-trimethylsilyltrifluoroacetamide. The general physical characteristics of sugar cane polycosanols have been reported by Uribarri et al. ((2002) Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 28:89-93). It is an objective of this invention to provide a mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols, referred to herein as “polycosanol(s)” having a unique chemical composition profile. It is another objective of this invention to provide an improved method for obtaining a highly pure mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention includes a novel method for the preparation of a unique profile of primary aliphatic alcohols, having 24 to 30 carbon atoms, from the wax secreted by the insect Ericerus pela . Included in the present invention is the composition of matter, referred to herein as “polycosanol” produced by the method of this invention. The polycosanol composition produced by the method of this invention is comprised primarily of two major components, the primary aliphatic alcohols, hexacosanol and octacosanol, with two minor components, the primary aliphatic alcohols, tetracosanol and triacontanol. Further included in this invention is the use of said composition of matter for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. The method of the present invention is comprised of the steps of (a) hydrolyzing the melted wax obtained from the insect with a base; (b) neutralizing the basic hydrosylate obtained from step (a) to yield a lower purity composition of matter comprised of polycosanols; and (c) optionally extracting the hydrosylate without neutralization with an organic solvent to obtain a higher purity polycosanol composition. In another embodiment of the instant invention, the method further comprises the step of (d) purifying the hydrolyzed product obtained in step (c) by recrystallization. The method of this invention can be extended to the isolation and purification of polycosanol compositions from any source of wax, in particular from any source of insect wax. The present invention includes the novel mixtures of primary long chain aliphatic alcohols (referred to herein as “polycosanol”) prepared and isolated by the methods of this invention. The long chain aliphatic alcohol portions of the polycosanol compositions prepared and isolated by the methods of this invention comprise 1-hexacosanol (20%-50%), 1-octacosanol (15%-45%), 1-triacontanol (2%-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (approximately 1%-9%). The total amount of long chain aliphatic alcohols in these compositions can be anywhere in the range of 35% to 100%, depending on the level of purification of the crude extract obtained from step (b) of the described method. In one embodiment, the composition of matter is isolated following hydrolysis of the wax and neutralization with no further purification. This composition is comprised of approximately 35-55% of the long chain primary aliphatic alcohols of interest. The major components of this composition are: 1-hexacosanol (˜20-30%) and 1-octacosanol (˜15-25%) and the minor components are: 1-triacontanol (˜2-4%) and 1-tetracosanol (˜1-3%). In another embodiment, the composition of matter is isolated following hydrolysis of the wax and further purification via extraction of the polycosanols under basic conditions with an organic solvent. In this embodiment the composition of matter is comprised of approximately 75-100% of the long chain primary aliphatic alcohols. The major components of this composition are 1-hexacosanol (˜30-50%), 1-octacosanol (˜25-45%), 1-triacontanol (˜4-10%) and 1-tetracosanol (˜3-9%). In yet another embodiment, the composition can be even further purified by recrystallization. As noted above, the alcoholic mixtures obtained from Ericerus pela wax in accordance with the present invention can be distinguished from all other currently known sources of polycosanols. Table 1, below highlights the differences between the compositions isolated from sugar cane and bee wax, which are currently the major commercially available sources of polycosanols, with the composition isolated according to the method of this invention. The present invention also includes the use of the polycosanol compositions isolated by the method of this invention for the prevention and treatment of obesity, syndrome X, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerotic complications, ischemia and thrombosis. These novel compositions are expected to have different pharmacological effects and strengths. The compositions can be formulated in a pharmaceutical composition, foodstuff or dietary supplement and administered to humans and other animals. The present invention provides not only a novel source of polycosanols and the resulting novel compositions of matter, but also provides an improved method for extracting these compounds from a wax. Preferred levels of certain operational parameters in the extraction and purification process have been discovered which lead to further enhancement of the purity level of the isolated alcohols and enhancement of the percent recovery of the alcohols from Ericerus pela wax. These operational parameters include optimized solvent volume and quantity of basic solution in the hydrolysis process; and extraction of the basic powder of crude polycosanol with lower polarity organic solvents than those used in current methods, which is critical to obtaining higher quality insect polycosanol. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. | 20041116 | 20060425 | 20050609 | 68402.0 | 1 | PRICE, ELVIS O | POLYCOSANOLS FROM ERICERUS PELA WAX | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,352 | ACCEPTED | Multimodal biometric platform | A multimodal biometric identification or authentication system includes a plurality of biometric clients. Each of the biometric clients may include devices for capturing biometric images of a plurality of types. The system includes a router in communication with the biometric clients. The router receives biometric images from, and returns biometric scores or results to, the biometric clients. The system includes a plurality of biometric matching engines in communication with the router. Each biometric matching engine includes multiple biometric processors. Each biometric processor is adapted to process biometric data of a particular type. The biometric matching engines transmit and receive biometric data to and from the router. | 1. A biometric system, which comprises: a biometric client, said biometric client including means for capturing biometric images in a plurality of modes; a router in communication with said biometric client to receive biometric images from said biometric client; and, a biometric matching engine in communication with said router to receive biometric images from said router, said biometric matching engine including means for processing biometric images in a plurality of modes. 2. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes: means for creating biometric templates from biometric images received from said router. 3. The biometric system as claimed in claim 2, wherein said biometric matching engine includes: means for sending to said router biometric templates. 4. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes: means for caching biometric templates received from said router. 5. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes means for caching biometric templates in physical memory. 6. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes means for comparing cached biometric templates with probe template. 7. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes means for normalizing scores resulting from comparison of cached templates with probe templates. 8. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes means for sending to said router scores resulting from comparison probe templates with cached templates. 9. The biometric system as claimed in claim 8, wherein said router includes means for sending to said biometric client scores received from said biometric matching engine. 10. The biometric system as claimed in claim 1, wherein said biometric matching engine includes: a first biometric processor for comparing biometric templates of a first type and returning scores based on comparison of biometric templates of said first type; a first biometric plugin coupled to said first biometric processor; a second biometric processor for comparing biometric templates of a second type and returning scores based on comparison of biometric templates of said second type; and, a second biometric plugin coupled to said second biometric processor. 11. A biometric system, which comprises: a plurality of biometric clients, each of said biometric client including means for capturing biometric images of a plurality of types; a router in communication with said biometric clients to receive biometric images from said biometric clients; and, a plurality of biometric matching engines in communication with said router to receive biometric images from said router, each said biometric matching engine including means for processing biometric images of a plurality of types. 12. The biometric system as claimed in claim 11, wherein said biometric matching engines comprise: a first group of biometric matching engines, each biometric matching engine of said first group including mean for processing a first set of biometric image types; and, a second group of biometric matching engines, each biometric matching engine of said second group including mean for processing a second set of biometric image types. 13. The biometric system as claimed in claim 12, where said router includes: means for sending to one biometric matching engine of said first group a biometric image of one of said first biometric image types. 14. The biometric system as claimed in claim 13, wherein each biometric matching engine of said first group includes: means for creating biometric templates from biometric images of said first set of image types. 15. The biometric system as claimed in claim 14, wherein each biometric matching engine of said first group includes: means for sending to said router biometric templates created from images of said first set of image types. 16. The biometric system as claimed in claim 15, wherein said router includes: means for sending to each biometric matching engine biometric templates created from images of said first set of image types. 17. The biometric system as claimed in claim 16, wherein each biometric matching engine of said first group includes: means for caching biometric templates received from said router. 18. The biometric system as claimed in claim 16, wherein each biometric matching engine of said first set includes means for caching biometric templates in physical memory. 19. The biometric system as claimed in claim 17, wherein each biometric matching engine of said first group includes: means for comparing cached biometric templates with a probe template. 20. The biometric system as claimed in claim 15, wherein said router includes: means for sending to a selected one of said biometric matching engines of said first group a biometric template created from a biometric image of said first type. 21. The biometric system as claimed in claim 11, wherein said router is configurable to operate in a mirrored mode, wherein a biometric template is sent to each biometric matching engine of said first group for caching. 22. The biometric system as claimed claim 21, wherein said router is configured in said mirrored mode to send to a selected one of said biometric matching engines of said first group a target biometric image of said first type. 23. The biometric system as claimed in claim 11, wherein said router is configurable to operate in a striped mode, wherein a biometric template is sent to a selected one of said biometric matching engines of said first group for caching. 24. The biometric system as claimed claim 23, wherein said router is configured in said striped mode to send to each of said biometric matching engines of said first group a target biometric image of said first type. 25. A biometric matching engine, which comprises: means for creating biometric templates of a first type; means for caching biometric templates of said first type; pluging means for providing to a first biometric processor probe templates and cached templates of said first type; and, means for sending to a router scores. 26. The biometric matching engine as claimed in claim 25, including means for normalizing scores returned from said first biometric processor. 27. A method of processing multimodal biometric data, which comprises: receiving at a router multimodal biometric enrollment data, said multimodal biometric enrollment data comprising a biometric image of a first type and a biometric image of a second type; sending said biometric image of said first type and a biometric image of said second type to one of a group of multimodal biometric matching engines; creating from said biometric image of said first type a first biometric template and from said biometric image of said second type a second biometric template; and, sending said first and second biometric templates to said router. 28. The method as claimed in claim 37, including: striping biometric templates across the multimodal biometric matching engines of said group. 29. The method as claimed in claim 28, wherein striping comprises: caching a biometric template at a single biometric matching engine of said group. 30. The method as claimed in claim 28, including: sending a target image of said first type and a target image of said second type to each biometric matching engine of said group for processing. 31. The method as claimed in claim 27, including: mirroring biometric templates across the multimodal biometric matching engines of said group. 32. The method as claimed in claim 31, wherein mirroring includes: caching each biometric template at each biometric matching engine of said group. 33. The method as claimed in claim 31, including: sending a target image of said first type and a target image of said second type to a selected biometric matching engine of said group for processing. 34. A method of producing a score in a multimodal biometric system which comprises: forming a set of enrolled biometric data records, each biometric data record comprising a record identifier, an enrolled biometric template of a first type and an enrolled biometric template of a second type; comparing a probe biometric template of said first type to enrolled biometric templates of said first type to produce a set of first scores; saving in a match set biometric data records wherein the first score for the data record is greater than a first biometric threshold; comparing a probe biometric template of said second type to biometric templates of said second type in said match set to produce a set of second scores; and, saving biometric data records wherein the second score for the data record is greater than a second biometric threshold. 35. A method of normalizing biometric scores, which comprises: enrolling in a biometric database a plurality of individuals by storing in said database for each individual a plurality of biometric templates of one type; comparing each biometric template in said database with every other biometric template of said database to obtain biometric scores; if a biometric score is obtained by comparing one biometric template of an individual with an other biometric template for that same individual, putting that score in a matching category; and, analyzing the scores in the matching category to determine a probability that a particular score is a matching score. 36. The method as claimed in claim 35, including: if a biometric score is obtained by comparing a biometric template of an individual with a biometric template for different individual, putting that score in a non-matching category; and, analyzing the scores in the non-matching category to determine a probability that a particular score is not a matching score. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally the field of biometric identification and authentication, and more particularly to a multimodal biometric system and method. Biometrics is a generic term for characteristics that can be used to distinguish one individual from another, particularly through the use of digital equipment. An example of a biometric is a fingerprint. Trained analysts have long been able to match fingerprints in order to identify individuals. More recently, computer systems have been developed to match fingerprints automatically. Examples of biometrics that have been, or are now being, used to identify, or authenticate the identity of, individuals include 2D face, 3D face, hand geometry, single fingerprint, ten finger live scan, iris, palm, full hand, signature, ear, finger vein, retina, DNA and voice. Other biometric may include characteristic gaits, lip movements and the like. New biometric are being developed or discovered continually. Biometrics have been used both for identification and authentication. Identification is the process of identifying or detecting the presence of an unknown individual. Identification typically involves a one to N or complete search of stored biometric information. Common uses of identification are law enforcement facial mug shot or fingerprint searches, drivers license facial photo or fingerprint searches to ensure that a particular individual is not issued more than one drivers license, and various crowd scanning schemes to detect criminals or terrorists. Authentication is the process of verifying that an individual is who he says he is. The individual presents something such as a card or computer logon name that identifies him. Then a biometric obtained from the individual is compared to a stored biometric to authenticate the individual's identity. Authentication is useful for controlling access to secure locations and systems and for controlling the uses of credit cards and the like. In these days of heightened security, biometrics are becoming increasingly important. One of the goals in biometrics is increased accuracy so that there are fewer false negative and false positive indications. Every biometric has some limitations. Some biometrics are inherently more accurate than others. It is estimated that approximately 5% of the individuals in most populations do not have legible fingerprints. The accuracy of some face recognition systems may be dependent on ambient lighting and the pose of the subject. A problem in current biometric identification and authentication is “spoofing”, which amounts to tricking the biometric capture device. Some devices may be spoofed by presenting a previously captured authentic image to the capture device. The device may capture the counterfeit image and then identify the wrong individual. One solution both to the accuracy and spoofing concerns is to use multiple biometrics in identifying or authenticating the identity of an individual. For any single biometric, there is a finite probability that multiple individuals will match on that biometric. However, biometrics tend to be independent of each other so that it is unlikely that individuals that match on one biometric would match on multiple biometrics. Accordingly, the likelihood that an individual would score false positives on multiple biometric tests is low. In order to spoof a system that uses multiple biometrics, one would have to have to obtain counterfeit images for each biometric. Thus, there is a desire to provide multimodal biometric platforms. However, there are a number of problems with current attempts to provide a multimodal biometric platform. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a multimodal biometric identification and/or authentication system. A system according to the present invention may include a plurality of biometric clients. Each of the biometric client may include devices for capturing biometric images of a plurality of types. Examples of biometric image capture devices are well known and may include digital cameras for capturing images for facial recognition, fingerprint scanners for capturing images for fingerprint recognition, iris scanners for capturing images for iris recognition, hand geometry sensors, and the like. The system includes a router in communication with the biometric clients. Among other things, the router receives biometric images from, and returns biometric scores or results to, the biometric clients. The system includes a plurality of biometric matching engines in communication with the router. Each biometric matching engine may include multiple biometric processors. Each biometric processor is adapted to process biometric data of a particular type. Among other things, the biometric matching engines transmit and receive biometric templates to and from the router. The biometric matching engines may include proprietary, third party, biometric applications that are implemented by means of software development kits (SDKs). The third party applications receive and compare pairs of biometric templates and return proprietary scores based upon the comparison. Each third party application is adapted to perform its work with respect to a particular biometric. For example, there are separate facial, fingerprint and iris applications, each application generally being available from a separate entity. The biometric matching engines include a plugin application for each biometric application. The plugins provide a number of functions. As well as providing a interface between the biometric application and the router, the plugins may create biometric templates from biometric images, cache biometric templates, preferably in physical memory, provide probe templates and enrolled templates to their associated biometric application for comparison and scoring, and return scores to the router. The plugins may also normalize or otherwise process scores received from the biometric applications. The biometric matching engines are organized into groups, based upon their capabilities. Each biometric matching engine of a group can process the same types of biometrics. A biometric matching engine may belong to more than on group. According to the present invention, all communication between the biometric clients and the biometric matching engines goes through the router. The biometric clients and the biometric matching engines see only the router. During an enrollment phase, the biometric clients send biometric and demographic data to the router. The router stores the demographic data and sends the biometric data to a biometric matching engine of an appropriate group. The plugins of the biometric matching engine convert the images of the biometric data to templates and send the templates back to the router. The router sends the templates back to one or all of the biometric matching engines of the group, depending on the configuration of the system. The system may be configured for striped operation, in which case, the templates are sent to one biometric matching engine of the group. In the striped configuration, the router uses a load balancing scheme to ensure that each biometric matching engine of a group has approximately the same number of enrolled templates in its cache. Alternatively, the system may be configured for mirrored operation. In the mirrored configuration, router sends the templates to each biometric matching engine of the group. In either configuration, the biometric matching engines cache the enrolled templates they receive from the router, preferably in physical memory. During a search phase, a biometric client sends target biometric data to the router. The router sends the target biometric data to one or all of the biometric matching engines of an appropriate group, depending on the configuration of the system. If the system is in the striped configuration, the router sends the target data to each biometric matching engine of the group. If the system is in the mirrored configuration, the router sends the target data to a single available biometric matching engine of the group. In either configuration, the biometric matching engine converts the target data to probe templates and then provides a probe template and enrolled templates to the appropriate biometric application for comparison and scoring. The biometric matching engine sends scores back to the router. In the striped configuration, the router accumulates the scores from all the biometric matching engines before reporting the scores back the biometric client. Since the biometric applications of the biometric matching engines generally produce proprietary, non-standardized scores, the present invention provides methods of producing more meaningful combined or normalized scores. In one embodiment, a biometric matching engine implements a search pruning strategy. According to the search pruning strategy, the biometric matching engine compares a probe biometric template of a first type to enrolled biometric templates of the first type to produce a set of first scores. The biometric matching engine saves in a match set biometric data records for which the first score for the data record is greater than a first biometric threshold. The biometric matching engine then compares a probe biometric template of a second type to biometric templates of the second type in said match set to produce a set of second scores. The biometric matching engine saves biometric data records for the second score for the data record is greater than a second biometric threshold. The biometric matching engine repeats the process until all template types have been processed, which results in a set of data records that have score higher than a threshold in each category. In a second embodiment, the system uses statistical analysis of enrollment data to produce normalized scores. Individuals are enrolled in a biometric database by storing for each individual a plurality of biometric templates of one type. The system compares each biometric template in the database with every other biometric template of the database to obtain biometric scores. If a biometric score is obtained by comparing one biometric template of an individual with another biometric template for that same individual, the system puts that score in a matching category. If a biometric score is obtained by comparing a biometric template of an individual with a biometric template for different individual, the system puts that score in a non-matching category. The system analyzes the scores in the matching category to determine the probability that a particular score is a matching score. The system analyzes the scores in the non-matching category to determine a probability that a particular score is not a matching score. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an embodiment of a biometric matching engine according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is block diagram of an embodiment of a biometric client according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating biometric matching engine grouping according to the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flowchart of an embodiment of biometric matching engine enrollment processing according to the present invention. FIG. 6 is a flowchart of an embodiment of biometric matching engine template caching according to the present invention. FIG. 7 is a flowchart of an embodiment of biometric matching engine search processing according to the present invention. FIG. 8 is a flowchart of an embodiment of router enrollment processing according to the present invention. FIG. 9 is a flowchart of an embodiment of router search processing according to the present invention. FIG. 10 illustrates an embodiment of a search pruning table according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a flowchart of an embodiment of search pruning according to the present invention. FIGS. 12A and 12B comprise a flowchart of an embodiment of statistical normalization according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is a plot of distributions of matching and non-matching scores. FIG. 14 is a flowchart of an embodiment of statistical normalization refinement according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to the drawings, and first to FIG. 1, an embodiment of a system according to the present invention is designated generally by the numeral 11. System 11 includes a plurality of biometric clients 13. Biometric clients 13 comprise computers having installed thereon a suitable operating system and biometric software, preferably implemented in a client software development kit (SDK). Biometric clients 13 are in communication with a router 15 through a suitable network, such as Internet Protocol (IP) network 17. Router 15 comprises a computer having installed thereon a suitable operating system and biometric software programmed according to the present invention. Router has associated therewith storage 19 for storing demographic data. Router 15 is in communication with a plurality of biometric matching engines 21 through a suitable network, such as IP network 23. Each biometric matching engine 21 comprises a computer having installed thereon a suitable operating and biometric software according to the present invention. As will be described in detail hereinafter, biometric matching engines 21 are adapted to process multimodal biometric data. Each biometric matching engine 21 has associated therewith a cache 25, which preferably implemented in physical memory. Referring now to FIG. 2, there is illustrated a block diagram of an embodiment of a biometric matching engine 21 according to the present invention. Biometric matching engine 21 communicates with router 15 (FIG. 15) and moves templates into and out of cache 25. Biometric matching engine 21 converts biometric images into templates at enrollment time and creates probe templates to compare against stored records at search time. In the example of FIG. 2, biometric matching engine 21 includes a facial recognition SDK 27, an iris recognition SDK 31, and fingerprint recognition SDK 35. SDKs 27, 31 and 35 are typically proprietary applications provided by third parties. For example, facial recognition SDK 27 may be a proprietary facial recognition application provided by a vendor such as COGNITEC™. Facial recognition SDK is adapted to compare facial biometric templates and return a score that represents the degree of similarity of the templates. Similarly, iris recognition SDK 31 may be a proprietary iris recognition application provided by a vendor such as IRIDIAN™. Iris recognition SDK is adapted to compare iris biometric templates and return a score that represents the degree of similarity of the templates. Fingerprint recognition SDK 35 may be a proprietary fingerprint recognition application provided by a vendor such as IDENTIX™. It will be recognized by those skilled in the art that a biometric matching engine may include any combination of one or more separate biometric algorithms or SDKs. Such SDKs may include 2D face, 3D face, hand geometry, single fingerprint, ten finger live scan, iris, palm, full hand, signature, ear, finger vein, retina, DNA, voice or any other biometric, all available from several well known vendors. Each SDK 27, 31 and 35 is wrapped in a plugin. Facial recognition SDK 27 is wrapped in a facial plugin 29. Iris recognition SDK 31 is wrapped in an iris plugin 33. Fingerprint recognition SDK 35 is wrapped in a fingerprint plugin 37. Each plugin 29, 33 and 37 is a modules that adheres to a common interface that allows biometric matching engine 21 to communicate with the SDK 27 about which the plugin is wrapped. Because a plugin has a common interface, it can be “plugged in” to the system with extremely minor setup and without the biometric matching engine 21 having much knowledge about which third party SDK is being wrapped. Facial plugin 29 and iris plugin 33 may be referred to as “normal” plugins. Normal plugins are interfaces between biometric matching engine 21 and their associated SDK. Normal plugins enable biometric matching engine 21 to supply probe and enrolled templates to their associated SDK for comparison and scoring. Normal plugins further enable biometric matching engine 21 to receive scores from their associated SDK for transmission to router 15 (FIG. 1). The combination of fingerprint recognition SDK 35 and fingerprint plugin 37 is somewhat different from that described with respect to the facial and iris recognition applications. Historically, fingerprint searching has been aimed at emulating the behavior of Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) systems, which handle the enrollment, storage, and searching of fingerprints. Most fingerprint matching algorithms and SDKs do not provide a method to simply compare one template to another and generate a score. Rather, they all provide their own special ‘database’ that fingerprints must be enrolled in. In order to make a comparison, a system passes in a probe image, and the SDK produces a score. Accordingly, a plugin of the type of fingerprint plugin 37 is known as a “pass-through” plugin. Biometric matching engine 21 passes fingerprint templates through fingerprint plugin for enrollment in the database of fingerprint recognition SDK, rather than storing them in cache 25. As shown in FIG. 2, multiple plugins can be used on a single biometric matching engine, so any single biometric matching engine might be responsible for storing any number of different template types. Of course, according to the present invention, a biometric matching engine may comprise different numbers and combinations of SDKs and plugins. Referring now to FIG. 3, there is illustrated a high level block diagram of an example of a biometric client 13. Biometric client 13 is implemented a computer having a suitable operating system and various application programs. Biometric client 13 includes commercially available biometric input and capture devices, such as a digital camera 41 for capturing facial images, a fingerprint scanner 43 and an iris image capture device 45. Capture devices generally may include 2D face, 3D face, hand geometry, single fingerprint, ten finger live scan, iris, palm, full hand, signature, ear, finger vein, retina, DNA and voice capture devices. Biometric client 13 includes a client SDK 47 that collects and formats biometric data captured by the capture device for transmission to router 15 (FIG. 1) and presents information returned from router 15. Biometric client may include a display 49 and a user input device 51, such as a keypad, keyboard, mouse or the like. Biometric client 13 may also include an interface to an access control device such as an automatic door lock. As shown in FIG. 4, biometric matching engines 21 may be organized in groups. A biometric matching engine group comprises one or more biometric matching engines having the same biometric capabilities. In FIG. 4 a first biometric matching engine group 55 comprises biometric matching engines 21a-21d, each of which is adapted to process face and fingerprint biometric data. A second biometric matching engine group 57 comprises biometric matching engines 21e-21h, each of which is adapted to process iris biometric data. A biometric matching engine group may comprise as many biometric matching engines as are necessary to meet the demands of the system. A system may be scaled up or down simply by adding or removing biometric matching engines. A single biometric matching engine may be in multiple groups. For example, a biometric matching engine with face, fingerprint and iris capabilities would be a member of both groups 55 and 57. Router 15 may configure the groups to optimize performance in terms of speed or concurrency. Router 15 can configure a group for striped or mirrored operation. In striped operation, templates are cached in a striped or distributed fashion across the biometric matching engines of the group. Each biometric matching engine caches only part of templates of the group. Router 15 distributes the templates to the biometric matching engines based upon a load balancing scheme that maintains the number of templates cached by each biometric matching engine approximately equal. In the example of FIG. 4, each biometric matching engine 21a-21d of group 55 would cache about 25% of the total number of templates in a striped configuration. In performing a search, each biometric matching engine 21a-21d would execute its searching routine. Thus, the search would be completed in 25% of the time it would take a single biometric matching engine to execute its searching routine over all the templates. However, in the striped configuration, the group can do only one search at a time. Thus, if there are concurrent requests for searches, the router 15 must queue the searches. In the mirrored configuration, the templates are mirrored across the entire query group. Each biometric matching engine 21a-21d of group 55 would cache every template assigned to the group. In the mirrored configuration, router 15 instructs a single biometric matching engine 21 to execute a search. Thus, in the example of FIG. 4, up to four searches can be executed concurrently in the mirrored configuration. without having to queue search requests. However, each search would take four times as long to complete as a search in the striped configuration. Speed and concurrency issues may be addressed by scaling the number of biometric matching engines in a group and configuring the group. Enrollment of templates according to the present invention is illustrated with respect to FIGS. 5, 6 and 8. FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate enrollment from a biometric matching engine's perspective. FIG. 8 illustrates enrollment from the router's perspective. From the biometric matching engine's perspective, enrollment comprises two independent processes. Referring to FIG. 5, a biometric matching engine receives a biometric image from the router at block 61. The biometric image may be of any type that the router is capable of handling. The biometric image may be a digital photograph of a face, a fingerprint scan, an iris scan, a wave file of a voice, or any other biometric image. The biometric matching engine creates a biometric template from the biometric image at block 62. Then, the biometric matching engine returns biometric template to the router at block 65 and the process ends. The other part of enrollment from the biometric matching engines perspective is template caching, an example of which is illustrated in FIG. 6. A Biometric matching engine receives a template from the router at block 67. The biometric matching engine executing the process of FIG. 6 may or may not be the same biometric matching engine that executed the process of FIG. 5 to create the template. The biometric matching engine tests, at decision block 68, if the template of the pass-through type. As explained above, fingerprint recognition SDKs typically maintain their own cache of templates in a proprietary database. Accordingly, the biometric matching engine typically passes templates through a fingerprint SDK for caching by the SDK. If the template is adapted to be passed through to the SDK, the biometric matching engine passes the template to the pass-through plugin for caching in the database maintained by the SDK, as indicated at block 69. If the template is not adapted for pass-through, the biometric matching engine caches the template at block 70 and the process ends. In a preferred embodiment, the biometric matching engine caches templates as part of a record. The record contains a record ID, which specifies an individual, and all biometric templates for that individual. For example, a record could contain face, fingerprint and iris templates for the individual associated with the record ID. Additionally, the record may contain multiple instances of a template type. For example, at enrollment, the system may capture multiple instances of each biometric image type. Referring now FIG. 8, there is illustrated an example of an enrollment process from the router's perspective. The router receives demographic and biometric data from a client at block 71. Demographic data may include and individuals name, sex, height, weight, hair color, eye color, etc. The router stores the demographic data in the demographic database 19 (FIG. 1) at block 73. The router sends the biometric data, which includes one or more biometric images, to a biometric matching engine at block 75. There is an implicit wait for the query image to return the template or templates. When the router receives the template or templates from the biometric matching engine, as indicated at block 77, the biometric matching engine checks, at decision block 79, the group is configured for striped or mirror operation. If the configuration is not mirrored (i.e. striped), the router sends the template or templates to on biometric matching engine of the group, based upon a load balancing scheme, at block 81. If, at decision block 79, the configuration is mirrored, the router sends the biometric template or templates to each biometric matching engine of the group, at block 83. Then, the router reports OK to the client, at block 85, and enrollment processing ends. Referring now to FIGS. 7 and 9, there illustrated search processing. FIG. 7 illustrates searching from a biometric matching engines perspective. FIG. 9 illustrates searching from the biometric matching engine's perspective. As shown in FIG. 7, a biometric matching engine receives one or more target biometric images from the router, at block 91. The biometric matching engines creates a probe template for each target image received, at block 93. Then, the biometric matching engine compares the probe template or templates with each template in its cache, at block 95. It will be recalled that an appropriate plugin passes the probe and a template from the cache to the appropriate SDK biometric application. As will be explained in detail hereinafter, the biometric matching engine may normalize the scores provided by the biometric application, as indicated generally at block 99. The biometric matching engine then returns the scores, typically above a certain threshold value, to the router, at block 99, and the process ends. Referring to FIG. 9, the router receives target biometric data from a client, at block 101. The router determines, at decision block 103, if the appropriate group is configured for striped or mirrored operation. If the configuration is not mirrored, the biometric matching engine sends the target biometric data to each biometric matching engine of the group, at block 105. When the router receives results from all the biometric matching engines of the group, at block 107, the router sends the results to the client, at block 109, and the process ends. If, as determined at decision block 103, the configuration is mirrored, the router sends the biometric data to one available biometric matching engine of the group, at block 111. When the router receives the results from the router, at block 113, the router sends the results to the client, at block 109, and the process ends. Scores produced by proprietary biometric algorithms are themselves proprietary and not standardized. Scores from one biometric algorithm may be in the range from 0 to 10,000 while scores from another biometric algorithm may be in the range of 50 to 100. While the scores in a single mode operation are meaningful in the sense that, with underlying knowledge they can be used to determine whether a score signifies a match, they are in a sense arbitrary. In order to combine scores and produce meaningful multimodal results according to the present invention, there are provided processes for normalizing or otherwise combining the scores. One simple way to normalize the scores is by means of a system of weighted averages. Under such a system, each separate mobile score is multiplied by a weight factor that puts the scores in the same range. Then the weighted scores can be averaged to obtain a composite score. Weighted averaging is not entirely satisfactory due to various nonlinearities and variations in the proprietary scoring algorithms. One method for combining scores is search pruning which is illustrated with respect to FIGS. 10 and 11. In FIG. 10 there is a table that specifies a search order and various thresholds for processing the results from a multimodal search according to the present invention. A search order is specified in Column 111. Search Order 111 specifies the order in which the search results are to be pruned. In Column 113 there is listed the algorithm. The biometric is listed in Column 115. Thus, referring to FIG. 10, the first score to be processed is the IDENTIX™ right thumb algorithm. For each biometric there is a pruning threshold, indicated in Column 117 and a final threshold indicated in Column 119. The pruning and final thresholds are set with reference to and knowledge of to the scoring system of each particular proprietary algorithm. The thresholds may be tuned so as not to produce too many or too few final candidates. Referring now to FIG. 11, there is shown a flowchart of an example of search pruning according to the present invention. A match set is initialized at block 121. Initially, the match set is all record IDs in the cache. The system orders the probe templates according to the search table, at block 123. For example, if the biometrics are iris, face, and left thumb, the system would perform the search on the left thumb first, then the face, and then the iris, as indicated in FIG. 10. The system then lets N equal the number of probe templates and lets index i equal one as indicated at block 125. Then, the system tests, at decision block 127 if i is equal to N. If not, the system compares probe template i with the first or next template in the match set, as indicated at block 129. Then, the system determines, at decision block 131 if the score returned from the comparison is less than the pruning threshold. If so, the system removes the record from the match set, at block 133. If, on the other hand, the score is greater than the pruning threshold, then the record ID is left in the match set. The system then determines, at decision block 135, if there are more templates in the match set. If so, the process returns to block 129 to compare template i with the next template in the match set. Processing continues to loop through blocks 129 to 133 until there are no more templates in the match set, as determined at decision block 135. Then, the system sets i equals i plus one at block 137 and processing returns to decision block 127. If, as determined at block 127, index i is not equal to N, then processing resumes at 129. If, however, i is equal to N, as determined at decision block 127, the system compares probe template i with the first or next template in the match set, as indicated at block 139. The system determines, at decision block 141, if the score is less than the final threshold determined from the table of FIG. 10. If so, the system removes the record from the match set, at block 143. If the score is not less than the final threshold, then the record ID is left in the match set. The system tests, at decision block 145 if there are more templates in the match set. If so, processing returns to block 139. If not, the system returns the match set to the router, at block 137 and processing ends. The match set returned to the router is the set of record IDs that have passed each threshold. Referring now to FIGS. 12A and 12B, there is illustrated a process for normalizing scores returned from separate proprietary biometric applications. The system is initialized at block 151 by setting indices i, j, k and l equal to 1 and setting N equal to the number of enrolled individuals in the biometric matching engine group. Indices i and k represent, respectively, record ID numbers. Thus, indices i and k represent unique individuals enrolled in the system. Indices j and l represent template instances enrolled for an individual. Thus, template ij represents the jth template stored in association with the ith individual. According to the present invention, multiple templates of each type are enrolled for each individual. The system sets P equal to the number of templates enrolled for the ith individual, at block 153. The system then sets N equal to the number of templates enrolled for individual k, at block 155. The system then tests whether index i is equal to index k, at decision block 157. Thus, the system determines at decision block 157 if a template under test belongs to a single individual. If so, the system tests at decision block 159 if index j equals index l. If so, index l is incremented by one, as indicated at block 161. Then the system compares template ij with template kl, as indicated at block 163. Thus, at block 163 a first template of an individual is compared with a second template of that same individual. The system puts the score produced from the comparison at block 163 into a match category, at block 165. The match category contains scores that were produced by matching a template of an individual against another template of that same individual. Thus, the match category contains scores that are known to represent matches. After putting the score in the match category at block 165, the system increments index l by one as indicated at block 167 and tests, at decision block 169 if l is greater than M. If not, processing returns to decision block 159. Returning to decision block 157, if index i is not equal to index k, which indicates that individual i is not the same person as individual k, then the system compares template ij to template kl at block 171. The system puts the score resulting from the comparison at block 171 into a non-match category at block 173. The non-match category contains the scores that are known not to represent a match. Then, the system increments index l by one, at block 175, and tests at decision block 177 if index l is greater than M. If not, processing returns to block 171. Processing continues until index l is determined to be greater than M at decision block 169 or decision block 177. Then, the system sets index k equal to k plus one and index l equal to one at block 179. Then the system tests at decision block 181 if index k is greater than N. If not, processing returns to block 155 of FIG. 12A. If, as determined at decision block 181, index k is greater than N, then the system sets index j equal to j plus one, k equal to one, and l equal to one, at decision block 183. Then, the system tests, at decision block 185, if index j is greater than P. If not, the system returns to block 155 of FIG. 12A. If, as determined at decision block 185, index j is greater than P, then the system sets index i equal to i plus one, j equal to one, k equal to one and l equal to one, as indicated at block 187, and then tests at decision block 189 if index i is greater than N. If not, processing returns to block 153 of FIG. 12A. Processing continues through the various loops described until each template enrolled for each individual has been compared with every other template in the system. At the completion of processing described thus far with respect to FIGS. 12A and 12B, the match category contains all scores known to be matches. The non-match category contains all scores known not to be matches. After collecting all the scores in either the match or the non-match category, the system performs statistical analysis of the match category, as indicated at block 191, and statistical analysis of the non-match category, as indicated at block 193. Referring now to FIG. 13, there is illustrated a plot of the distributions of scores in the non-match and match categories. The distribution of scores in the non-match category is designated by the numeral 201. The distribution of the scores in the match category is designated by the numeral 203. In FIG. 13, the number of scores is plotted against a range of arbitrary score values. The number of scores goes from 0 to 9,000 and the arbitrary scores go from 0 to 100. Statistical analysis of the distributions is well known to those skilled in the art. However, by inspection of FIG. 13, it can be seen that matching scores lie roughly in the range from 85 to 95. Non-matching scores lie roughly in the range from 10 to about 80. Thus, a score of about 85 would indicate a high probability of a match and a very low probability of a non-match. On the other hand, a score of 70 would indicate a very low probability of a match. Thus, the method of the present invention provides a method for converting arbitrary numerical scores to relatively precise probabilities of matches and non-matches. The probabilities obtained from different biometrics can be combined in a well known way to produce a probability of a match or non-match based on multiple biometrics. Referring now to FIG. 14 there is illustrated a flow chart of a dynamic system for improving the accuracy of the method according to the present invention. A biometric matching engine receives a target biometric image from the router at block 211. The biometric matching engine creates a probe template in the manner described above at block 213. Then, the biometric matching engine compares the template with cached templates at block 215. Finally, the biometric matching engine returns a score to the router, at block 217, as described above. Then, the biometric matching engine tests at decision block 219 if the score is above a particular probe threshold. If not, processing stops. However, if the score is above the probe threshold, then the system calls the probe template template xy as indicated at block 221. Then, the system sets index k equal to one, index l equal to one and sets the N equal to the number of individuals, at block 223. Then, the system sets M equal to the number of templates enrolled for individual k, at block 225. The system then tests at decision block 227 if k is equal to x, which would indicate that the probe template belongs to the same individual as template k. If so, the system compares template xy to template kl, at block 229, and puts the score in the match category at block 231. Then, the system increments index l to l plus one at block 233 and tests if l is greater than M, at decision block 235. If not, processing returns to block 229. If, as determined at decision block 227, index k is not equal to index x, then the system compares template xy to template kl at block 237 and puts the score in the non-match category at block 239. Then, the system increments index l to l plus one, at block 241, and tests, at decision block 243 if l is greater than M. If not, processing returns to block 237. Processing continues until index l is greater than M, as determined at decision block 235 or decision block 243. Then, the system increments k to k plus one and sets l equal to one, as indicated at block 245. The system then tests, at decision block 247, if k is greater than N. If not, processing returns to block 225. Processing continues until, as determined at decision block 247, index k is greater than N, which indicates that the probe template has been tested against all templates cached in the system. Then, the system performs statistical analysis of the match category at block 249 and statistical analysis of the non-match category at 251. From the for going it may be seen that the present invention overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art. The system completely and securely manages personal information and images for any given individual. The system efficiently manages the distribution and searching of assorted biometric templates, which can be optimized for throughput, concurrency, or both depending on the size and demands of the application in question. The system provides its advantages through a plugin based architecture, which enables the addition or switching of biometric plugins to occur easily. The system operates via a distributed architecture consisting of a router and at least one query, which are interconnected via a simple TCP/IP network. System operations are controlled via a client SDK, which also makes connections to the router via a TCP/IP connection. Commands are data transfer is carried out over this connection, enabling biometric functionality to reach infinitely far as the network infrastructure will allow. Those skilled in the art will recognize alternative embodiments given the foregoing description. Accordingly, the foregoing description is for the purpose of illustration and not limitation. Certain features may be used independent of or in combination with other features, all would be apparent to one skilled in the art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates generally the field of biometric identification and authentication, and more particularly to a multimodal biometric system and method. Biometrics is a generic term for characteristics that can be used to distinguish one individual from another, particularly through the use of digital equipment. An example of a biometric is a fingerprint. Trained analysts have long been able to match fingerprints in order to identify individuals. More recently, computer systems have been developed to match fingerprints automatically. Examples of biometrics that have been, or are now being, used to identify, or authenticate the identity of, individuals include 2D face, 3D face, hand geometry, single fingerprint, ten finger live scan, iris, palm, full hand, signature, ear, finger vein, retina, DNA and voice. Other biometric may include characteristic gaits, lip movements and the like. New biometric are being developed or discovered continually. Biometrics have been used both for identification and authentication. Identification is the process of identifying or detecting the presence of an unknown individual. Identification typically involves a one to N or complete search of stored biometric information. Common uses of identification are law enforcement facial mug shot or fingerprint searches, drivers license facial photo or fingerprint searches to ensure that a particular individual is not issued more than one drivers license, and various crowd scanning schemes to detect criminals or terrorists. Authentication is the process of verifying that an individual is who he says he is. The individual presents something such as a card or computer logon name that identifies him. Then a biometric obtained from the individual is compared to a stored biometric to authenticate the individual's identity. Authentication is useful for controlling access to secure locations and systems and for controlling the uses of credit cards and the like. In these days of heightened security, biometrics are becoming increasingly important. One of the goals in biometrics is increased accuracy so that there are fewer false negative and false positive indications. Every biometric has some limitations. Some biometrics are inherently more accurate than others. It is estimated that approximately 5% of the individuals in most populations do not have legible fingerprints. The accuracy of some face recognition systems may be dependent on ambient lighting and the pose of the subject. A problem in current biometric identification and authentication is “spoofing”, which amounts to tricking the biometric capture device. Some devices may be spoofed by presenting a previously captured authentic image to the capture device. The device may capture the counterfeit image and then identify the wrong individual. One solution both to the accuracy and spoofing concerns is to use multiple biometrics in identifying or authenticating the identity of an individual. For any single biometric, there is a finite probability that multiple individuals will match on that biometric. However, biometrics tend to be independent of each other so that it is unlikely that individuals that match on one biometric would match on multiple biometrics. Accordingly, the likelihood that an individual would score false positives on multiple biometric tests is low. In order to spoof a system that uses multiple biometrics, one would have to have to obtain counterfeit images for each biometric. Thus, there is a desire to provide multimodal biometric platforms. However, there are a number of problems with current attempts to provide a multimodal biometric platform. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a multimodal biometric identification and/or authentication system. A system according to the present invention may include a plurality of biometric clients. Each of the biometric client may include devices for capturing biometric images of a plurality of types. Examples of biometric image capture devices are well known and may include digital cameras for capturing images for facial recognition, fingerprint scanners for capturing images for fingerprint recognition, iris scanners for capturing images for iris recognition, hand geometry sensors, and the like. The system includes a router in communication with the biometric clients. Among other things, the router receives biometric images from, and returns biometric scores or results to, the biometric clients. The system includes a plurality of biometric matching engines in communication with the router. Each biometric matching engine may include multiple biometric processors. Each biometric processor is adapted to process biometric data of a particular type. Among other things, the biometric matching engines transmit and receive biometric templates to and from the router. The biometric matching engines may include proprietary, third party, biometric applications that are implemented by means of software development kits (SDKs). The third party applications receive and compare pairs of biometric templates and return proprietary scores based upon the comparison. Each third party application is adapted to perform its work with respect to a particular biometric. For example, there are separate facial, fingerprint and iris applications, each application generally being available from a separate entity. The biometric matching engines include a plugin application for each biometric application. The plugins provide a number of functions. As well as providing a interface between the biometric application and the router, the plugins may create biometric templates from biometric images, cache biometric templates, preferably in physical memory, provide probe templates and enrolled templates to their associated biometric application for comparison and scoring, and return scores to the router. The plugins may also normalize or otherwise process scores received from the biometric applications. The biometric matching engines are organized into groups, based upon their capabilities. Each biometric matching engine of a group can process the same types of biometrics. A biometric matching engine may belong to more than on group. According to the present invention, all communication between the biometric clients and the biometric matching engines goes through the router. The biometric clients and the biometric matching engines see only the router. During an enrollment phase, the biometric clients send biometric and demographic data to the router. The router stores the demographic data and sends the biometric data to a biometric matching engine of an appropriate group. The plugins of the biometric matching engine convert the images of the biometric data to templates and send the templates back to the router. The router sends the templates back to one or all of the biometric matching engines of the group, depending on the configuration of the system. The system may be configured for striped operation, in which case, the templates are sent to one biometric matching engine of the group. In the striped configuration, the router uses a load balancing scheme to ensure that each biometric matching engine of a group has approximately the same number of enrolled templates in its cache. Alternatively, the system may be configured for mirrored operation. In the mirrored configuration, router sends the templates to each biometric matching engine of the group. In either configuration, the biometric matching engines cache the enrolled templates they receive from the router, preferably in physical memory. During a search phase, a biometric client sends target biometric data to the router. The router sends the target biometric data to one or all of the biometric matching engines of an appropriate group, depending on the configuration of the system. If the system is in the striped configuration, the router sends the target data to each biometric matching engine of the group. If the system is in the mirrored configuration, the router sends the target data to a single available biometric matching engine of the group. In either configuration, the biometric matching engine converts the target data to probe templates and then provides a probe template and enrolled templates to the appropriate biometric application for comparison and scoring. The biometric matching engine sends scores back to the router. In the striped configuration, the router accumulates the scores from all the biometric matching engines before reporting the scores back the biometric client. Since the biometric applications of the biometric matching engines generally produce proprietary, non-standardized scores, the present invention provides methods of producing more meaningful combined or normalized scores. In one embodiment, a biometric matching engine implements a search pruning strategy. According to the search pruning strategy, the biometric matching engine compares a probe biometric template of a first type to enrolled biometric templates of the first type to produce a set of first scores. The biometric matching engine saves in a match set biometric data records for which the first score for the data record is greater than a first biometric threshold. The biometric matching engine then compares a probe biometric template of a second type to biometric templates of the second type in said match set to produce a set of second scores. The biometric matching engine saves biometric data records for the second score for the data record is greater than a second biometric threshold. The biometric matching engine repeats the process until all template types have been processed, which results in a set of data records that have score higher than a threshold in each category. In a second embodiment, the system uses statistical analysis of enrollment data to produce normalized scores. Individuals are enrolled in a biometric database by storing for each individual a plurality of biometric templates of one type. The system compares each biometric template in the database with every other biometric template of the database to obtain biometric scores. If a biometric score is obtained by comparing one biometric template of an individual with another biometric template for that same individual, the system puts that score in a matching category. If a biometric score is obtained by comparing a biometric template of an individual with a biometric template for different individual, the system puts that score in a non-matching category. The system analyzes the scores in the matching category to determine the probability that a particular score is a matching score. The system analyzes the scores in the non-matching category to determine a probability that a particular score is not a matching score. | 20041116 | 20071120 | 20060518 | 60092.0 | G06K900 | 4 | KIM, CHONG R | MULTIMODAL BIOMETRIC PLATFORM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06K | 2,004 |
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10,991,467 | ACCEPTED | Dynamic learning method and adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture for providing fast protection of enterprise applications | A dynamic learning method and an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture for providing fast protection of enterprise applications are disclosed. The adaptive NBP architecture includes a plurality of profile items. Each profile item includes a plurality of profile properties holding the descriptive values of the respective item. An application-level security system can identify and prevent attacks targeted at enterprise applications by matching application events against at least a single profile item in the adaptive NBP. | 1. A method for dynamic learning the behavior of enterprise applications for providing the fast protection of the enterprise applications, wherein the method comprises: receiving enterprise application events processed by network sensors; analyzing the enterprise application events; generating an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP), the adaptive NBP comprises at least a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties; and performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises distributing the stable adaptive NBP to the network sensors connected to at least one protected device. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the enterprise applications reside in the protected device. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the protected device is at least one of a web server and a database server. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the network sensors is at least one of a structured query language (SQL) sensor and a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) sensor. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the adaptive NBP is a hierarchic data structure. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the profile property comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the profile property further comprises maintenance information. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the maintenance information comprises at least one of a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponding profile item. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the current state is at least one of a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state. 11. The method of claim 6, wherein the profile item comprises at least one of a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the current state is at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the adaptive NBP represents at least one of a HTTP profile and a SQL profile. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein analyzing the application events further comprises: performing a lexical analysis; and performing a syntax analysis. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein performing the lexical analysis comprises: breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens; and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein performing the syntax analysis comprises: breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units; and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event. 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. 19. The method of claim 16, wherein generating the adaptive NBP further comprises: gathering the property units having at least one similar identification unit to form the profile property; and attaching the profile property to its corresponding profile item. 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. 21. The method of claim 1, wherein performing the statistical analysis comprises computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. 22. The method of claim 1, wherein the statistical analysis comprises: computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time; and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. 23. A computer program product, comprising computer-readable media with instructions to enable a computer to implement a method for dynamic learning the behavior of enterprise applications for providing fast the protection of the enterprise applications, wherein the method comprises: receiving enterprise application events processed by network sensors; analyzing the enterprise application events; generating an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP), the adaptive NBP comprises at least a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties; and performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. 24. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein the method further comprises distributing the stable adaptive NBP to the network sensors connected to at least one protected device. 25. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein the adaptive NBP is a hierarchic data structure. 26. The computer program product of claim 25, wherein the profile property comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item. 27. The computer program product of claim 26, wherein the profile property further comprises maintenance information. 28. The computer program product of claim 27, wherein the maintenance information comprises at least one of a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponding profile item. 29. The computer program product of claim 28, wherein the current state is at least one of a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state. 30. The computer program product of claim 25, wherein the profile item comprises at least one of a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. 31. The computer program product of claim 30, wherein the current state is at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. 32. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein the adaptive NBP represents at least one of a HTTP profile and a SQL profile. 33. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein analyzing the application events comprises: performing a lexical analysis; and performing a syntax analysis. 34. The computer program product of claim 33, wherein performing the lexical analysis comprises: breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens; and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. 35. The computer program product of claim 33, wherein performing the syntax analysis comprises: breaking each of the plurality of enterprises application events into functional units; and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. 36. The computer program product of claim 35, wherein the identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event. 37. The computer program product of claim 35, wherein the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. 38. The computer program product of claim 35, wherein generating the adaptive NBP further comprises: gathering the property units having at least one similar identification unit to form the profile property; and attaching the profile property to its corresponding profile item. 39. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein the adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. 40. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein performing the statistical analysis comprises computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. 41. The computer program product of claim 23, wherein the statistical analysis comprises: computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time; and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. 42. A non-intrusive network security system that utilizes a dynamic process for learning the behavior of enterprise applications for the purpose of allowing the fast protection of the enterprise applications, wherein the security system comprises: a plurality of network sensors capable of collecting, reconstructing, and processing enterprise application events; a secure server capable of building adaptive normal behavior profiles (NBPs); and connectivity means enabling the plurality of network sensors to monitor traffic directed to at least devices that require protection. 43. The security system of claim 42, wherein the enterprise applications reside in the protected devices. 44. The security system of claim 43, wherein each of the protected devices is at least one of a web server and a database server. 45. The security system of claim 42, wherein each of the network sensors is at least one of a structured query language (SQL) sensor and a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) sensor. 46. The security system of claim 42, wherein the adaptive NBP is a hierarchic data structure. 47. The security system of claim 42, wherein the adaptive NBP comprises a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality of the profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. 48. The security system of claim 42, wherein the dynamic learning process comprises: receiving the enterprise application events processed by the network sensors; analyzing the enterprise application events; generating the adaptive NBP; and performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. 49. The security system of claim 42, wherein the adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. 50. The security system of claim 42, wherein the secure sever is being further capable of distributing the stable adaptive NBP to the network sensors connected to at least one protected device. 51. The security system of claim 42, wherein the adaptive NBP represents at least one of a HTTP profile and a SQL profile. 52. An adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture enabling the fast protection of enterprise applications, the architecture comprising at least: a plurality of profile items; and each of the plurality of profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. 53. The architecture of claim 52, wherein the normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture is a hierarchic data structure. 54. The architecture of claim 52, wherein each of the plurality of profile properties comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item. 55. The architecture of claim 52, wherein each of the plurality of profile properties further comprises maintenance information. 56. The architecture of claim 55, wherein the maintenance information comprises at least one of a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponding profile item. 57. The architecture of claim 56, wherein the current state is at least one of a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state. 58. The architecture of claim 52, wherein each of the plurality of profile items comprises at least a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. 59. The architecture of claim 58, wherein the current state comprises at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. 60. The architecture of claim 52, wherein the adaptive NBP represents at least one of a HTTP profile and a SQL profile. 61. The architecture of claim 60, wherein the profile items of the HTTP profile comprise at least a web server group, a web application, a virtual folder, a URL, a cookie and a parameter. 62. The architecture of claim 61, wherein the profile property corresponding to a web server group items comprises at least a list of acceptable web application aliases. 63. The architecture of claim 61, wherein the profile properties corresponding to the virtual folder item comprise at least a list of sub-folders of the virtual folder, an indication as whether the virtual folder is directly accessible and properties corresponding to a URL item. 64. The architecture of claim 61, wherein the profile properties corresponding to the URL item comprise at least a first indication as whether the URL maintained by the URL item generates a binding HTML form, a second indication as whether the URL maintained by the URL item is used as the first URL of a new session, broken links and broken references. 65. The architecture of claim 61, wherein the profile properties corresponding to the cookie item comprise at least one of a length restriction on a cookie value and an indication as whether the cookie item represents a set of actual cookies with the same prefix. 66. The architecture of claim 61, wherein the profile properties corresponding to the parameter item comprise at least one of a list of allowed aliases for the parameter name, a length restriction on the parameter's value, a parameter type, a first indication as whether the parameter is bounded to a HTTP response, a second indication as whether the parameter is required for a URL and a third indication as whether the parameter represents a set of actual parameters with a same prefix. 67. The architecture of claim 60, wherein the profile items of the SQL profile comprise at least one of a database server group, a source group, a table access and a query. 68. The architecture of claim 67, wherein the profile properties corresponding to the source group items comprise at least a list of source IP addresses, a list of client applications, a list of database accounts, a list of tables and views for the source group, a first indication as whether an access profile should be enforced for the source group, a second indication as whether to allow database manipulation commands for the source group, a third indication as whether to allow access to a system administrator, a fourth indication as whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas and a fifth indication as whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas. 69. The architecture of claim 67, wherein the profile property corresponding to the table access item comprises at least an enforcement mode for each type of query. 70. The architecture of claim 67, wherein the profile property corresponding to the query item comprises at least the SQL query. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/526,098 filed on Dec. 2, 2003, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to comprehensive security systems, and more particularly, to dynamic learning methods and adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architectures utilized by comprehensive security systems. 2. Description of the Related Art Accessibility, ubiquity and convenience of the Internet rapidly changed the how people access information. The World Wide Web (“WWW”), usually referred to as “the web”, is the most popular means for retrieving information on the Internet. The web enables user access to practically an infinite number of resources, such as interlinked hypertext documents accessed by a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), or extensible markup language (XML) protocols from servers located around the world. Enterprises and organizations expose their business information and functionality on the web through software applications, usually referred to as “enterprise applications”. The enterprise applications use the Internet technologies and infrastructures. A typical enterprise application is structured as a three-layer system, comprising a presentation layer, a business logic layer and a data access layer. The multiple layers of the enterprise application are interconnected by application protocols, such as HTTP and structured query language (SQL). Enterprise applications provide great opportunities for an organization. However, at the same time, these applications are vulnerable to attack from malicious, irresponsible or criminally minded individual. An application level security system is required to protect enterprise applications from web hackers. In related art, application level security systems prevent attacks by restricting the network level access to the enterprises applications, based on the applications' attributes. Specifically, the security systems constantly monitor requests received at interfaces and application components, gather application requests from these interfaces, correlate the application requests and match them against predetermined application profiles. These profiles comprise a plurality of application attributes, such as uniform resource locators (URLs), cookies, users' information, Internet protocol (IP) addresses, query statements and others. These attributes determine the normal behavior of the protected application. Application requests that do not match the application profile are identified as potential attacks. An application profile is created during a learning period through which the security system monitors and learns the normal behavior of users and applications over time. The security system can apply a protection mechanism, only once the profile of a protected application is completed, i.e., when sufficient data is gathered for all attributes comprised in the profile. In addition, some security systems require that the application profile be manually defined. These requirements limit the ability of those security systems to provide a fast protection, since substantial time is required (usually days) in order to complete the application profile. Furthermore, this technique limits security systems from being adaptive to changes in application's behavior. Therefore, in the view of the limitations introduced in the related art, it would be advantageous to provide a solution that enables a fast protection of enterprise applications by an application level security system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention has been made in view of the above circumstances and to overcome the above problems and limitations of the prior art. Additional aspects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description that follows and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The aspects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. A first aspect of the invention provides a method for dynamic learning the behavior of enterprise applications for providing the fast protection of the enterprise applications. The method comprises receiving enterprise application events processed by network sensors and analyzing the enterprise application events. The method further comprises generating an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP), wherein the adaptive NBP comprises at least a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The method further comprises performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. The stable adaptive NBP is distributed to the network sensors connected to the protected devices, and the enterprise applications can reside in the protected device. The protected device can be a web server or a database server. Each of the network sensors can be one of a structured query language (SQL) sensor and a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) sensor. The adaptive NBP has a hierarchic data structure, and can represent a HTTP profile or a SQL profile. The profile property comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item, e.g., maintenance information. The maintenance information can comprise a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponded profile item. The current state can be a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state, and the profile item comprises at least one of a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. More particularly, the current state is at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. Analyzing the application events comprises performing a lexical analysis and performing a syntax analysis. The lexical analysis comprises breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens, and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. The syntax analysis comprises breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units, and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. The identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event, and the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. The property units having at least one similar identification unit are gathered to form the profile property, and attached to the profile property corresponding to the profile item. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. Performing the statistical analysis comprises computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. The statistical analysis comprises computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time, and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. A second aspect of the invention provides a computer program product, comprising computer-readable media with instructions to enable a computer to implement a method for dynamic learning the behavior of enterprise applications for providing fast the protection of the enterprise applications. The method embodied on the computer program product comprises receiving enterprise application events processed by network sensors and analyzing the enterprise application events. The method embodied on the computer program product further comprises generating an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP), wherein the adaptive NBP comprises at least a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The method embodied on the computer program product further comprises performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. The stable adaptive NBP is distributed to the network sensors connected to the protected devices. The computer program product creates an adaptive NBP that has a hierarchic data structure, and can represent a HTTP profile or a SQL profile. The profile property comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item, e.g., maintenance information. The maintenance information can comprise a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponded profile item. The current state can be a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state, and the profile item comprises at least one of a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. More particularly, the current state is at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. The computer program product analyzes the application events comprise performing a lexical analysis and performing a syntax analysis. The lexical analysis comprises breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens, and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. The syntax analysis comprises breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units, and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. The identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event, and the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. The property units having at least one similar identification unit are gathered to form the profile property, and attached to the profile property corresponding to the profile item. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. The computer program product performs the statistical analysis by computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. The statistical analysis comprises computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time, and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. A third aspect of the present invention is a non-intrusive network security system that utilizes a dynamic process for learning the behavior of enterprise applications to allow for the fast protection of the enterprise applications. The security system comprises a plurality of network sensors capable of collecting, reconstructing and processing enterprise application events and a secure server capable of building adaptive normal behavior profiles (NBPs). The security system further comprises connectivity means enabling the plurality of network sensors to monitor traffic directed to at least devices that require protection. In the security system, the enterprise applications reside in the protected devices, and the protected devices can be web servers and/or database servers. Each of the network sensors can be a structured query language (SQL) sensor and/or a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) sensor. In the security system, the adaptive NBP is a hierarchic data structure that comprises a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality of the profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The adaptive NBP represents at least one of a HTTP profile and a SQL profile. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. The secure sever is capable of distributing the stable adaptive NBP to the network sensors connected to the protected devices. In the security system, the dynamic learning process comprises receiving the enterprise application events processed by the network sensors, analyzing the enterprise application events and generating the adaptive NBP. The security system analyzes the application events by performing a lexical analysis and performing a syntax analysis. The lexical analysis comprises breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens, and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. The syntax analysis comprises breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units, and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. The identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event, and the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. The property units having at least one similar identification unit are gathered to form the profile property, and attached to the profile property corresponding to the profile item. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. In addition, the security system performs a statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. For example, the security system performs the statistical analysis by computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. The statistical analysis comprises computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time, and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. A fourth aspect of the present invention is an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture that enables the fast protection of enterprise applications. The architecture comprises a plurality of profile items, wherein each of the plurality of profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture is a hierarchic data structure, and can represent at least one of a HTTP profile and/or a SQL profile. Each of the plurality of profile properties comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item. For example, each of the profile properties may comprise maintenance information. The maintenance information may comprise at least one of a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponding profile item. The current state is at least one of a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state. Each of the plurality of profile items comprises at least a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. The current state comprises at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. The profile items of the HTTP profile comprise at least a web server group, a web application, a virtual folder, a URL, a cookie and a parameter. The profile property corresponding to a web server group items comprises at least a list of acceptable web application aliases. The profile properties corresponding to the virtual folder item comprise at least a list of sub-folders of the virtual folder, an indication as whether the virtual folder is directly accessible and properties corresponding to a URL item. The profile properties corresponding to the URL item comprise at least a first indication as whether the URL maintained by the URL item generates a binding HTML form, a second indication as whether the URL maintained by the URL item is used as the first URL of a new session, broken links and broken references. The profile properties corresponding to the cookie item comprise at least one of a length restriction on a cookie value and an indication as whether the cookie item represents a set of actual cookies with the same prefix. The profile properties corresponding to the parameter item comprise at least one of a list of allowed aliases for the parameter name, a length restriction on the parameter's value, a parameter type, a first indication as whether the parameter is bounded to a HTTP response, a second indication as whether the parameter is required for a URL and a third indication as whether the parameter represents a set of actual parameters with a same prefix. The profile items of the SQL profile comprise at least one of a database server group, a source group, a table access and a query. The profile properties corresponding to the source group items comprise at least a list of source IP addresses, a list of client applications, a list of database accounts, a list of tables and views for the source group, a first indication as whether an access profile should be enforced for the source group, a second indication as whether to allow database manipulation commands for the source group, a third indication as whether to allow access to a system administrator, a fourth indication as whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas and a fifth indication as whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas. The profile property corresponding to the table access item comprises at least an enforcement mode for each type of query, and the profile property corresponding to the query item comprises at least the SQL query. The above and other aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description and with reference to the accompanying drawing figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the aspects, advantages and principles of the invention. In the drawings, FIG. 1 is an exemplary diagram of an application level security system for illustrating the principles of the disclosed invention. FIG. 2 is an exemplary diagram illustrating the operation of the application level security system in accordance with this invention. FIG. 3 is a non-limiting diagram of an adaptive NBP architecture. FIG. 4 is a non-limiting diagram of an adaptive NBP architecture characteristic to a HTTP profile. FIG. 5 is a non-limiting diagram of an adaptive NBP architecture characteristic to a SQL profile. FIG. 6 is an exemplary flowchart describing the dynamic learning process in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of this invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIG. 1, an exemplary application level security system 100 for illustrating the principles of the present invention is shown. A security system 100 comprises a plurality of network sensors 130-1, 130-2, 130-m connected to a secure server 110. The network sensors 130 may be connected to secure server 110 through a conventional network or through an out-of-band network (OOB) 120 for transferring traffic over a dedicated and secure network that is completely separated from the production traffic. A network sensor 130 is placed on each network segment that is coupled to the web servers 160, 160-n and the database servers 170, 170-r to be protected. The network sensor 130 is a passive sniffing device that taps, gathers and reconstructs requests sent to the protected servers 160, 170 from an attacker machine 180. The network sensors 130-1, 130-2, 130-m are configured to operate in the line of traffic. Each network sensor 130 processes incoming application requests, which are sent as application events to the secure server 110. The security system 100 operates in two different modes: a LEARN mode and a PROTECT mode. In the LEARN mode, the security system 100 monitors and learns the normal behavior of users and applications over time, and builds an adaptive normal behavior profiles (NBP) for each protected entity. In the PROTECT mode, the security system 100 compares real time communications (i.e., application events) to the adaptive NBPs. Deviations from the adaptive NBP are defined as anomalies. Anomalies are further analyzed by advanced correlation and aggregation mechanisms to ensure that the anomalies are part of an attack. The analysis uses positive logic for intrusion detection. That is, if an event matches a profile, it is considered as a normal event, else if the event does not match any profile, it is considered as an irregular event. Application events may be collected either by analyzing network level protocol attributes of incoming network traffic, or by polling information about recent events from the web servers 160 or the database servers 170. The network sensor 130 is capable of reconstructing application events from a plurality of network level protocols comprising, but not limited to, Oracle Net8™, Microsoft SQL server™ TDS, Sybase TDS, OpenGroup DRDA, HTTP, encrypted HTTP (HTTPS) and similar applications. In addition, the network sensor 130 is capable of gathering application events by polling information (e.g., SQL queries) from Oracle Database™, Microsoft SQL server and similar systems. Each of network sensors 130-1, 130-2, 130-m operates autonomously, and thus the security system 100 is a scalable system. That is, to protect additional Web applications and databases, the user has just to add additional network sensors 130 to monitor the new protected entity. Referring to FIG. 2, an exemplary diagram 200 illustrating the operation of the application level security system 100 is shown. The security system 200 depicted in FIG. 2 comprises two network sensors, a HTTP sensor 230 and a SQL sensor 240. The HTTP sensor 230, capable of gathering and reconstructing HTTP events, collects an HTTP request e1 sent by a client 280-1 to the web server 260. The SQL sensor 240 collects a SQL request e2 by polling the database server 270. The event e2 may be a consequence of request e1. Requests e1 and e2 are processed by sensors 230 and 240, respectively, and are sent as application events E1 and E2 to secure server 210. Subsequently, the secure server 210 executes a profiling process for generating an adaptive NBP for each protected entity, i.e., for the web server 260 and for the database server 270. To allow fast protection, the security system 200 implements a dynamic learning process for generating the adaptive NBP. Through this process, a decision whether to use an application event for protection or learning is based on a single profile item. Specifically, the generated adaptive NBP comprises a plurality of profile items, wherein each item comprises a plurality of profile properties. The adaptive NBP may be used for protecting the application if at least one profile item is considered stable. A stable item comprises sufficient information regarding users' or applications' behavior, or is based on statistical measures, such as the Bayesian probabilities. The adaptive NBP generated by the present invention has a granular architecture allowing decisions to be made for discrete portions of the NPB. Furthermore, the NBP architecture allows the distribution of profile updates between the secure server 210 and the network sensors 230 and 240. The architecture of the adaptive NBP is described in greater detail below. An approved NBP, i.e., an adaptive NBP that comprises at least one stable profile item, is distributed among the network sensors. A copy held by a network sensor may comprise only a subset of the information existing in the original NBP. The adaptive NBP is distributed from secure server to network sensors through a synchronous communication channel. The network sensors also use this channel to retrieve NBP updates. In this example, the secure server 210 generates two adaptive NBPs, the first NBP characterizes the web server 260 and is uploaded to the HTTP sensor 230, while the second NBP characterizes the database server 270 and is uploaded to the SQL sensor 240. Once, the NBPs are uploaded to the sensors 230 and 240, the security system 210 can protect the web server 260 and the database server 270 using the stable properties of the NBPs. It should be noted that the security system 210 always protects the web server 260 and the database server 270 using at least signatures detection, protocol analysis and other network means, such as a firewall. In the PROTECT mode, the secure server 210 identifies deviations from at least one stable profile item in the adaptive NBP, analyzes the deviations, detects intrusions and block attacks according to a predefined security policy. Specifically, a HTTP request e3 sent by a client 280-2 to the web server 260 is captured by HTTP the sensor 230 and classified. The request e3 is compared with a copy of an adaptive NBP comprising at least one stable profile item maintained by the HTTP sensor 230. If the request e3 deviates from the adaptive NBP, then the HTTP sensor 230 classifies it as anomalous and sends an irregular event (IE3) to the secure server 210, which further processes the irregular event (IE3) to determine whether or not an intrusion takes place. On the other hand, if the request e3 matches the adaptive NBP, then the HTTP sensor 230 may discard this event, or alternatively, send the request to the secure server 210 for the purpose of amending or updating the adaptive NBP. Simultaneously, a SQL request e4 generated by the web server 260, possibly as a consequence of request e3, is captured by the SQL sensor 240. If the request e4 deviates from the adaptive NBP maintained by SQL sensor 240, this event is declared as irregular event (IE4) and sent to the secure server 210 for further analysis. Both events e3 and e4 may be compared against one stable profile item in each NBP maintained by the HTTP sensor 230 and the SQL sensor 240. The secure server 210 declares an intrusion alert when an event or a series of events triggers a rule based mechanism. The rule-based mechanism includes a predefined set of correlation rules that allow to easily correlate different types of anomalies and set alerts for a combination of anomalies that increases the probability of an attack. The correlation rules are predefined by the user. The rule-based mechanism employs a state machine to define and evaluate correlations between anomalies in real-time. For example, the two irregular events IE3 and IE4 are correlated into a single intrusion alert. The disclosed security system creates, through the dynamic learning process, the adaptive NBPs without any prior knowledge of the enterprise application semantics. However, the NBPs may be automatically updated while the system is operating in the PROTECT mode. Specifically, adaptive NBPs are updated when the enterprise application undergoes major changes. During the dynamic learning process, the security system tracks certain characteristics in the user activity and stores the tracking data in an internal database. This raw tracking data is not considered as a profile until the data is compiled, analyzed and formed into an adaptive NBP structure. Referring to FIG. 3, an exemplary diagram illustrating the architecture of an adaptive NBP 300 in accordance with the present invention is shown. The adaptive NBP is hierarchic data structure (e.g., a directed tree) comprising a plurality of profile items 310-1, 310-2, 310-4, 310-5 holding a plurality of corresponding profile properties 320-1, 320-2, 320-3, 320-4, 320-5, 320-6. The child of a profile item 310 may be at least a profile property 320 or another profile item 310. The profile items 310 and properties 320 characterize one or more enterprises applications installed on a server, e.g., a web server or a database server. The profile items 310 are independent, and are the smallest profile entity that can be conveyed individually from the secure server 110 to the network sensors 130. A profile property 320 is a descriptive value of a respective profile item 310. Therefore, an observation of an event related to a profile item results in updating all profile properties of that item. The profile properties 320 contain the actual data of the items, the property type, their current state and an awareness flag. The current state may be either a LEARN state, an ENFORCEABLE state, or a NON-ENFORCEABLE state. In the LEARN state, events relating to the respective profile property are gathered. In the ENFORCEABLE state, the respective profile property contains sufficient amount of information so that this property can be uploaded to a network sensor and used for detecting attacks. The NON-ENFORCEABLE state means that the profile property cannot be uploaded to a network sensor. Each of the profile properties 320 have their own state, but they cannot be handled independently of their containing item (e.g., a specific property cannot be removed from a profile item). The current state may be automatically determined by the secure server 110 or manually by the user. The awareness flag indicates whether this property should be conveyed to a network sensor. A copy of the adaptive NBP transmitted from the secure server 110 to the network sensors 130 may comprise a subset of items affected by the system's configuration (e.g., entities protected by the network sensor 130, policy regarding stable item, and so on) and a subset of properties for each profile item. Each profile item 310 is identified by a unique hierarchic key, thus the entire set of ancestors from an item's direct parent and up to the root of the profile tree can be determined by a single key. As a parent item may contain various child items, a parent item (e.g., item 310-2) must comprise at least one profile property that explicitly denominates the child profile items (e.g., 310-4 and 310-5) of the parent item. Each profile item 310 is further identified by its implied type and preferably its distinguished name, which are used for classification purposes. Furthermore, each profile item 310 maintains information comprising, but not limited to, a creation time, a current state, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number, a number of observations of item either at the network sensors 130 or the secure server 110 and a named collection of child items. The current state of a profile item may be a LEARN state, a PROTECT state, a DELETED state, a DECAYED state, or a MERGED state. In a LEARN state, events regarding to the respective profile item are gathered. In a PROTECT state, sufficient amount of information is gathered and the profile item is uploaded to a network sensor. A DELETED state indicates that the profile item was deleted. A DECAYED state indicates that a link to the profile item is broken. A MERGED state indicates that the respective profile item was merged with another profile item. The current state may be automatically determined by the secure server 110 or manually by the user. FIG. 4 shows a non-limiting architecture of an adaptive NBP 400 characteristic to HTTP. The profile items of NBP 400 comprise a web server group 410-A, an application (or host) 410-B, a virtual folder 410-C, a URL 410-D, a cookie 410-E and a parameter 410-F. The web server group item 410-A is the root of the NBP structure 400 and its child is the web application item 410-B. The web application item 410-B describes a single web application in the web server group. The children of the application item 410-B are the virtual folder item 410-C, which defines a virtual folder within a web application and the cookie item 410-E. The distinguished name of the virtual folder item 410-C is the full path of the folder from the virtual root. The cookie item 410-E comprises cookies for a single Web application of its parent item 410-B. The distinguished name of the cookie item 410-E is the name of the cookie. The URL item 410-D is the child of virtual folder item 410-C and describes a single URL within a web application. The distinguished name of the URL item 410-D is the full path of the virtual folder (maintained by item 410-C) together with the HTTP method (e.g., GET or POST). The parameter item 410-F is the child of URL item 410-4 and describes a list of parameters of HTTP requests submitted to a HTTP request. The distinguished name of the parameter item 410-F is the parameter name within the URL. Each of items 410 may comprise at least one profile property 420 containing the descriptive value of the item. Specifically, the profile property 421-B of application item 410-B is a list of acceptable web application (or host) aliases. The virtual folder item 410-C comprises two profile properties 421-C, 422-C holding, respectively, a list of sub-folders of a virtual folder and indication whether the virtual folder is directly accessible. The profile properties 421-D, 422-D of URL item 410-D comprise two indications, respectively, with one indicating whether the URL maintained by the item generates HTML form used for binding parameter values, and the other indicating whether the URL can be used as the first URL of a new session. In addition, the profile property 423-D comprises a list of identified broken links and broken references. The cookie property 421-E is the length restriction on the cookie values and the property 422-E is an indication whether the cookie represents a set of actual cookies with the same prefix. The parameter properties 421-F, 422-F, 423-F, 421-F, 425-F and 426-F, respectively, comprise a list of allowed aliases for the parameter name, length restriction on the parameter's value, a parameter type, an indication whether the parameter is bounded to a HTTP response, an indication whether the parameter is required for a URL, and an indication whether the parameter represents a set of actual parameters with the same prefix. As can be noted, the web server group item 410-A does not comprise any additional profile properties. A profile property may further comprise maintenance information comprising, but not limited to, a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of a corresponding profile item. Referring to FIG. 5, a non-limiting architecture of an adaptive NBP architecture 500 that characterizes a SQL profile is shown. The items of NBP 500 comprise a database server group 510-A, a source group 510-B, a table access 510-C and a query 510-D. The database server group item 510-A is the root of the NBP 500 and its children are the source group item 510-B and the query item 510-D. The source group item defines a homogeneous group of database clients having access to database servers. The child of source group item 510-B is the table access item 510-C, which defines the access profile of database clients to a database table. The distinguished name of table access item 510-C is the name of the table. The query item 510-D defines a specific SQL query and its distinguished name is the normalized text of the query. The distinguished names of database server group item 510-A and source group item 510-B comprise default values and are not used for classification. Each of items 510 may comprise at least one profile property 520 containing the descriptive value of the item. Specifically, the profile properties 521-B, 522-B and 523-B of source group item 510-B comprise a list of source IP address, a list of client applications, and a list of database accounts, each of these lists defines the source group, i.e., the clients that can access database servers. Furthermore, profile properties 524-B, 525-B, 526-B, 527-B, 528-B and 529-B comprise an indication whether the access profile should be enforced for this source group, an indication whether to allow database manipulation commands for this source group, an indication whether to allow access to a system administrator, an indication whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas, tables and views for this source group, and limitations on the operations of the source group. The profile property 521-C of the table access item 510-C defines the enforcement mode for each type of query, e.g., SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, and so on. The profile property 521-D holds the SQL query. As can be noted, database server group item 510-A does not comprise additional profile properties. It should be noted by a person skilled in the art that these examples are intended for purposes of demonstration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosed invention. As described above for a HTTP profile item, a SQL profile item can have a LEARN state, a PROTECT state, a DELETED state, a DECAYED state and a MERGED state. Referring to FIG. 6, an exemplary flowchart 600 describing the dynamic learning process, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention is shown. The dynamic learning process generates the adaptive NBPs described in greater detailed above. At S610, application events processed by a network sensor 130 are received at the secure server 110. At S620, the application events are analyzed to create the adaptive NBP. Specifically, the secure server 110 performs a lexical analysis, a syntax analysis or a statistical analysis to create the NBP. When performing a lexical analysis, the event is broken into tokens and a representation of the event based on token properties is created. SQL queries are modeled using a lexical analysis by replacing any literals with standard placeholders. When performing a syntax analysis of application events are broken into functional units. Some of the units are used for the purpose of identification of the event (the “identification units”) and others are considered to be properties (the “property units”). At S630, the property units having similar identification units are classified, gathered and attached to their respective profile item. For example, URLs having the same path are unified and added to the URL item 410-D. At S640, a statistical analysis is performed to determine if the profile item or profile property is stable. In one embodiment, the statistical analysis computes the percentage of learning progress out of the total number of application events collected over time. If the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold, the item is considered stable. The percentage of learning progress is computed for both a profile property and its respective item. In another embodiment, the statistical analysis may be the probability for mistakes computed using Bayesian methods. At S650, a check is made to determine if the item or property is stable, and if so, at S660, the current state of the profile item and property are respectively changed to a PROTECT state and an ENFORCEMENT state; otherwise, execution continues with S610. At S670, the adaptive NBP that comprises at least one stable item is distributed to the network sensors 130 and then the security system 100 can protect the protected servers using the stable items properties of the NBP. It should be noted that in the protect mode of the security system 100 protection is achieved based on at least one stable item or one stable property comprised in the adaptive NBP. For example, if the length for a first parameter item in a URL is stable and the length a second parameter is not, then the enforcement is made only for the first parameter but not for the second. The processes for determining the stability of a parameter item are discussed above. In accordance with an embodiment, adaptive NBPs are distributed to the network sensors through a proprietary protocol. The protocol provides at least the following operations: a) add a profile item together with its descendants to an adaptive NBP residing in a network sensor; b) update the NBP if an existing profile item is altered; and c) remove an item and its descendants from the NBP. Any changes made by the secure server 110 are immediately imposed onto the network sensors 130. The present invention can be implemented in software, hardware, firmware or various combinations thereof. In an embodiment of the present invention, the elements are implemented in software that is stored in a memory and that configures and drives a digital processor situated in the respective wireless device. The software can be stored on any computer-readable media for use by or in connection with any suitable computer-related system or method. It will be appreciated that the term “predetermined operations” and the term “computer system software” mean substantially the same thing for the purposes of this description. It is not necessary to the practice of the present invention that the memory and the processor be physically located in the same place. That is to say, it is foreseen that the processor and the memory might be in different physical pieces of equipment or even in geographically distinct locations. As used herein, one of skill in the art will appreciate that “media” or “computer-readable media” may comprise a diskette, a tape, a compact disc, an integrated circuit, a cartridge, a remote transmission via a communications circuit, or any other similar media useable by computers. For example, to distribute computer system software, the supplier might provide a diskette or might transmit the instructions for performing predetermined operations in some form via satellite transmission, via a direct telephone link, or via the Internet. More specific examples of computer-readable media would comprise an electrical connection (electronic) having one or more wires, a portable computer diskette (magnetic), a random access memory (RAM) (magnetic), a read-only memory (ROM) (magnetic), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory) (magnetic), an optical fiber (optical), and a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) (optical). The computer readable media could even be paper or another suitable media upon which the program is printed, as the program can be electronically captured, via for instance optical scanning of the paper or other media, then compiled, interpreted or otherwise processed in a suitable manner if necessary, and then stored in a computer memory. Although computer system software might be “written on” a diskette, “stored in” an integrated circuit, or “carried over” a communications circuit, it will be appreciated that, for the purposes of this discussion, the computer usable media will be referred to as “bearing” the instructions for performing the predetermined operations. Thus, the term “bearing” is intended to encompass the above and all equivalent ways in which instructions for performing predetermined operations are associated with a computer usable media. Therefore, for the sake of simplicity, the term “program product” is hereafter used to refer to a computer useable media, as defined above, which bears instructions for performing predetermined operations in any form. The foregoing description of the preferred embodiments of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings or may be acquired from practice of the invention. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain the principles of the invention and its practical application to enable one skilled in the art to utilize the invention in various embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. Thus, while only certain embodiments of the invention have been specifically described herein, it will be apparent that numerous modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Further, acronyms are used merely to enhance the readability of the specification and claims. It should be noted that these acronyms are not intended to lessen the generality of the terms used and they should not be construed to restrict the scope of the claims to the embodiments described therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to comprehensive security systems, and more particularly, to dynamic learning methods and adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architectures utilized by comprehensive security systems. 2. Description of the Related Art Accessibility, ubiquity and convenience of the Internet rapidly changed the how people access information. The World Wide Web (“WWW”), usually referred to as “the web”, is the most popular means for retrieving information on the Internet. The web enables user access to practically an infinite number of resources, such as interlinked hypertext documents accessed by a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), or extensible markup language (XML) protocols from servers located around the world. Enterprises and organizations expose their business information and functionality on the web through software applications, usually referred to as “enterprise applications”. The enterprise applications use the Internet technologies and infrastructures. A typical enterprise application is structured as a three-layer system, comprising a presentation layer, a business logic layer and a data access layer. The multiple layers of the enterprise application are interconnected by application protocols, such as HTTP and structured query language (SQL). Enterprise applications provide great opportunities for an organization. However, at the same time, these applications are vulnerable to attack from malicious, irresponsible or criminally minded individual. An application level security system is required to protect enterprise applications from web hackers. In related art, application level security systems prevent attacks by restricting the network level access to the enterprises applications, based on the applications' attributes. Specifically, the security systems constantly monitor requests received at interfaces and application components, gather application requests from these interfaces, correlate the application requests and match them against predetermined application profiles. These profiles comprise a plurality of application attributes, such as uniform resource locators (URLs), cookies, users' information, Internet protocol (IP) addresses, query statements and others. These attributes determine the normal behavior of the protected application. Application requests that do not match the application profile are identified as potential attacks. An application profile is created during a learning period through which the security system monitors and learns the normal behavior of users and applications over time. The security system can apply a protection mechanism, only once the profile of a protected application is completed, i.e., when sufficient data is gathered for all attributes comprised in the profile. In addition, some security systems require that the application profile be manually defined. These requirements limit the ability of those security systems to provide a fast protection, since substantial time is required (usually days) in order to complete the application profile. Furthermore, this technique limits security systems from being adaptive to changes in application's behavior. Therefore, in the view of the limitations introduced in the related art, it would be advantageous to provide a solution that enables a fast protection of enterprise applications by an application level security system. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention has been made in view of the above circumstances and to overcome the above problems and limitations of the prior art. Additional aspects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description that follows and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The aspects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. A first aspect of the invention provides a method for dynamic learning the behavior of enterprise applications for providing the fast protection of the enterprise applications. The method comprises receiving enterprise application events processed by network sensors and analyzing the enterprise application events. The method further comprises generating an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP), wherein the adaptive NBP comprises at least a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The method further comprises performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. The stable adaptive NBP is distributed to the network sensors connected to the protected devices, and the enterprise applications can reside in the protected device. The protected device can be a web server or a database server. Each of the network sensors can be one of a structured query language (SQL) sensor and a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) sensor. The adaptive NBP has a hierarchic data structure, and can represent a HTTP profile or a SQL profile. The profile property comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item, e.g., maintenance information. The maintenance information can comprise a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponded profile item. The current state can be a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state, and the profile item comprises at least one of a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. More particularly, the current state is at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. Analyzing the application events comprises performing a lexical analysis and performing a syntax analysis. The lexical analysis comprises breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens, and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. The syntax analysis comprises breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units, and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. The identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event, and the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. The property units having at least one similar identification unit are gathered to form the profile property, and attached to the profile property corresponding to the profile item. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. Performing the statistical analysis comprises computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. The statistical analysis comprises computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time, and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. A second aspect of the invention provides a computer program product, comprising computer-readable media with instructions to enable a computer to implement a method for dynamic learning the behavior of enterprise applications for providing fast the protection of the enterprise applications. The method embodied on the computer program product comprises receiving enterprise application events processed by network sensors and analyzing the enterprise application events. The method embodied on the computer program product further comprises generating an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP), wherein the adaptive NBP comprises at least a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The method embodied on the computer program product further comprises performing statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. The stable adaptive NBP is distributed to the network sensors connected to the protected devices. The computer program product creates an adaptive NBP that has a hierarchic data structure, and can represent a HTTP profile or a SQL profile. The profile property comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item, e.g., maintenance information. The maintenance information can comprise a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponded profile item. The current state can be a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state, and the profile item comprises at least one of a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. More particularly, the current state is at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. The computer program product analyzes the application events comprise performing a lexical analysis and performing a syntax analysis. The lexical analysis comprises breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens, and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. The syntax analysis comprises breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units, and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. The identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event, and the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. The property units having at least one similar identification unit are gathered to form the profile property, and attached to the profile property corresponding to the profile item. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. The computer program product performs the statistical analysis by computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. The statistical analysis comprises computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time, and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. A third aspect of the present invention is a non-intrusive network security system that utilizes a dynamic process for learning the behavior of enterprise applications to allow for the fast protection of the enterprise applications. The security system comprises a plurality of network sensors capable of collecting, reconstructing and processing enterprise application events and a secure server capable of building adaptive normal behavior profiles (NBPs). The security system further comprises connectivity means enabling the plurality of network sensors to monitor traffic directed to at least devices that require protection. In the security system, the enterprise applications reside in the protected devices, and the protected devices can be web servers and/or database servers. Each of the network sensors can be a structured query language (SQL) sensor and/or a hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) sensor. In the security system, the adaptive NBP is a hierarchic data structure that comprises a plurality of profile items and each of the plurality of the profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The adaptive NBP represents at least one of a HTTP profile and a SQL profile. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. The secure sever is capable of distributing the stable adaptive NBP to the network sensors connected to the protected devices. In the security system, the dynamic learning process comprises receiving the enterprise application events processed by the network sensors, analyzing the enterprise application events and generating the adaptive NBP. The security system analyzes the application events by performing a lexical analysis and performing a syntax analysis. The lexical analysis comprises breaking each of the plurality of application events into tokens, and creating a representation of the application event using the tokens' properties. The syntax analysis comprises breaking each of the enterprises application events into functional units, and classifying the functional units as identification units and property units. The identification units are used for identifying the enterprise application event, and the property units describe the property of the enterprise application event. The property units having at least one similar identification unit are gathered to form the profile property, and attached to the profile property corresponding to the profile item. The adaptive NBP is considered stable if at least one of the plurality of profile items or at least one of the plurality of profile properties of the adaptive NBP is stable. In addition, the security system performs a statistical analysis to determine if the adaptive NBP is stable. For example, the security system performs the statistical analysis by computing the Bayesian probability for a mistake. The statistical analysis comprises computing a percentage of learning progress for each profile item and profile property out of the total number of the enterprise application events received over a predefined time, and determining the respective profile item or the profile property as stable if the percentage of learning progress exceeds a predefined threshold. A fourth aspect of the present invention is an adaptive normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture that enables the fast protection of enterprise applications. The architecture comprises a plurality of profile items, wherein each of the plurality of profile items comprises a plurality of profile properties. The normal behavior profile (NBP) architecture is a hierarchic data structure, and can represent at least one of a HTTP profile and/or a SQL profile. Each of the plurality of profile properties comprises a descriptive value of its corresponding profile item. For example, each of the profile properties may comprise maintenance information. The maintenance information may comprise at least one of a current state of the profile property, a creation time of the profile property, a link to another profile item, a timestamp of last update, an update sequence number and a number of observations of the corresponding profile item. The current state is at least one of a learn state, an enforceable state and a non-enforceable state. Each of the plurality of profile items comprises at least a current state of the profile item and a distinguishable name. The current state comprises at least one of a learn state, a protect state, a deleted state, a decayed state and a merged state. The profile items of the HTTP profile comprise at least a web server group, a web application, a virtual folder, a URL, a cookie and a parameter. The profile property corresponding to a web server group items comprises at least a list of acceptable web application aliases. The profile properties corresponding to the virtual folder item comprise at least a list of sub-folders of the virtual folder, an indication as whether the virtual folder is directly accessible and properties corresponding to a URL item. The profile properties corresponding to the URL item comprise at least a first indication as whether the URL maintained by the URL item generates a binding HTML form, a second indication as whether the URL maintained by the URL item is used as the first URL of a new session, broken links and broken references. The profile properties corresponding to the cookie item comprise at least one of a length restriction on a cookie value and an indication as whether the cookie item represents a set of actual cookies with the same prefix. The profile properties corresponding to the parameter item comprise at least one of a list of allowed aliases for the parameter name, a length restriction on the parameter's value, a parameter type, a first indication as whether the parameter is bounded to a HTTP response, a second indication as whether the parameter is required for a URL and a third indication as whether the parameter represents a set of actual parameters with a same prefix. The profile items of the SQL profile comprise at least one of a database server group, a source group, a table access and a query. The profile properties corresponding to the source group items comprise at least a list of source IP addresses, a list of client applications, a list of database accounts, a list of tables and views for the source group, a first indication as whether an access profile should be enforced for the source group, a second indication as whether to allow database manipulation commands for the source group, a third indication as whether to allow access to a system administrator, a fourth indication as whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas and a fifth indication as whether to allow access to tables in non-default schemas. The profile property corresponding to the table access item comprises at least an enforcement mode for each type of query, and the profile property corresponding to the query item comprises at least the SQL query. The above and other aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description and with reference to the accompanying drawing figures. | 20041119 | 20100622 | 20050602 | 60987.0 | 1 | PALIWAL, YOGESH | DYNAMIC LEARNING METHOD AND ADAPTIVE NORMAL BEHAVIOR PROFILE (NBP) ARCHITECTURE FOR PROVIDING FAST PROTECTION OF ENTERPRISE APPLICATIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,538 | ACCEPTED | Multi-purpose air-packing method and system | A multi-purpose air-packing method and system enables to pack a product having an irregular shape easily at low cost. The air-packing method includes the steps of placing a product to be protected in a container box; applying a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; and inflating the air-packing device by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. | 1. A method of packing a product to prevent damages to the package due to shocks and vibrations, comprising the following steps of: placing a product to be protected in a container box; applying a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; and inflating the air-packing device by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. 2. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 1, further comprising the step of: laying out a second air-packing device on a bottom surface of the container box as a bottom air cushion before placing the product in the container box. 3. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 2, further comprising the step of: laying out a third air-packing device on a top of the product in the container box as a top air cushion after applying the first air-packing device to the sides of the product. 4. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 1, wherein said step of inflating the first air-packing device includes a step of introducing an air inlet port of the air-packing device through an opening of the container box to outside of the container box, thereby enabling to supply the compressed air to the air-packing device after closing the container box. 5. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 1, wherein said plurality of air containers of said first air-packing device have an identical cross sectional size with one another. 6. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 1, wherein said plurality of air containers of said first air-packing device have different cross sectional sizes from one another. 7. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 6, wherein said air containers of the air-packing device with small cross sectional size are arranged at one end of the air-packing device. 8. A method of packing a product as defined in claim 6, wherein said air containers of the first air-packing device with small cross sectional size and large cross sectional size are arranged in a predetermined order so that the air containers of the air-packing device fit with a product of particular outer shape. 9. An air-packing system for packing a product to prevent damages to the package due to shocks and vibrations, comprising: a container box for placing a product to be protected therein; a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers and is applied to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; and wherein the first air-packing device is inflated by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. 10. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 9, further comprising: a second air-packing device laid out on a bottom surface of the container box as a bottom air cushion before placing the product in the container box. 11. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 10, further comprising: a third air-packing device laid out on a top of the product in the container box as a top air cushion after applying the first air-packing device to the sides of the product. 12. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 9, wherein an air inlet port of the first air-packing device is introduced through an opening of the container box to outside of the container box, thereby enabling to supply the compressed air to the air-packing device after closing the container box. 13. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 9, wherein said plurality of air containers of said first air-packing device have an identical cross sectional size with one another. 14. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 9, wherein said plurality of air containers of said first air-packing device have different cross sectional sizes from one another. 15. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 14, wherein said air containers of the air-packing device with small cross sectional size are arranged at one end of the air-packing device. 16. An air-packing system for packing a product as defined in claim 14, wherein said air containers of the first air-packing device with small cross sectional size and large cross sectional size are arranged in a predetermined order so that the air containers of the air-packing device fit with a product of particular outer shape. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an air-packing system to pack a product of various shapes, and more particularly, to an air-packing method and system utilizing an air-packing device having-a plurality of air containers to pack a product of various shapes and sizes in a container box to securely protect the product from shocks and vibrations. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A styroform packing material has been used for a long time for packing commodity and industrial products. Although the styroform package material has a merit such as a good thermal insulation performance, it has also various disadvantages, i.e., recycling the styroform is not possible, soot is produced when it burns, a flake or chip comes off when it is snagged because of it's brittleness, an expensive mold is needed for its production, and a relatively large warehouse is necessary to store it. Therefore, to solve such problems above, other packing materials and methods have been proposed. One method is a fluid container (air-packing device) for sealingly containing a liquid or gas, typically an air as a cushion. An air-packing device has excellent characteristics to solve the problems in the styroform. First, because the air-packing device is made of only thin films, it does not need a large warehouse to store it unless the air-packing device is inflated. Second, a mold is not necessary for its production because of its simple shape and structure. Third, the air-packing device will not produce a chip or dust which has adverse effect on precision products. Further, recyclable materials can be used for thermoplastic films of the air-packing device. Furthermore, the air-packing device can be produced with low cost. FIG. 1 shows an example of air-packing device in the conventional technology. The air-packing device 10a is composed of first and second air-packing thermoplastic films 13 and 14, respectively, and a check valve 11. Typically, each thermoplastic film is composed of three layers of materials: polyethylene, nylon and polyethylene which are bonded together with appropriate adhesive. The nylon layer is incorporated to increase physical strength of the thermoplastic film. The first and second thermoplastic films are heat-sealed together around seal portions 12a, 12b after the check valve is attached. Thus, one container bag 10a sealed with the heat seal portions 12a, 12b is formed as shown in FIG. 1. Air-packing devices are becoming more and more popular because of the above noted advantages. Products to be enclosed by air-packing devices come in various shapes, sizes and materials. Moreover, a product having a simple shape can become a complicated shape when combined with other products. Generally, it is difficult and time consuming for packing a product that has irregular shapes or sizes in a container box. Two or more different types of air-packing devices complicated structure may be necessary to firmly hold a product having a complicated shape. Moreover, it is not cost effective to manufacture specific air-packing devices tailored to fit to each unique product. Thus, there is a need for a cost effective air-packing system that can be applied to various products. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a multi-purpose air-packing method and system to enclose a product that comes with various shapes and sizes within a container box with use of an air-packing device of simple structure. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system to pack a product by an air-packing device as an inflatable cushion for protecting the product from damages due to shocks and vibrations where the air-packing device is configured by a plurality of air containers each having a check valve. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an air-packing method and system to securely enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box in which an air inlet port of an air-packing device is projected from the container box thereby enabling to supply the compressed air after closing the container box. It is a further object of the present invention is to provide a method and system to enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box to prevent damages to the product due to shocks and vibrations by using an air-packing device having a plurality of air containers of different cross sectional sizes. One aspect of the present invention is a method of packing a product to prevent damages to the package due to shocks and vibrations. The method includes the steps of: placing a product to be protected in a container box; applying a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; and inflating the air-packing device by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. The method of packing a product further includes the step of laying out a second air-packing device on a bottom surface of the container box as a bottom air cushion before placing the product in the container box. The method further includes the step of laying out a third air-packing device on a top of the product in the container box as a top air cushion after applying the first air-packing device to the sides of the product. In the air-packing method, preferably, an air inlet port of the air-packing device is introduced through an opening of the container box to outside of the container box, thereby enabling to supply the compressed air to the air-packing device after closing the container box. In the present invention, the plurality of air containers of the first air-packing device have an identical cross sectional size with one another. Alternatively, the plurality of air containers of the first air-packing device have different cross sectional sizes from one another. The air containers of the air-packing device with small cross sectional size are arranged at one end of the air-packing device. The air containers of the first air-packing device with small cross sectional size and large cross sectional size are arranged in a predetermined order so that the air containers of the air-packing device fit with a product of particular outer shape. Another aspect of the present invention is an air-packing system for packing a product to prevent damages to the package due to shocks and vibrations. The air-packing system is comprised of a container box for placing a product to be protected therein; a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers and is applied to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; wherein the first air-packing device is inflated by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. According to the multi-purpose air-packing method and system of present invention, a product that comes with various shapes and sizes can be securely packed within a container box with use of an air-packing device of simple structure. The air-packing device as an inflatable cushion is able to protect the product from damages due to shocks and vibrations where the air-packing device has a plurality of air containers each having a check valve. The air-packing method and system of the present invention can enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box by using an air-packing device having a plurality of air containers of different cross sectional sizes. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing an example of outer structure of a typical air-packing device in the conventional technology. FIGS. 2A and 2B are schematic diagrams showing an example of structure of an air-packing device having a plurality of air containers each having a check valve, where FIG. 2A is a plan view thereof and FIG. 2B is a perspective view thereof. FIG. 3 is a partially cut-out perspective view showing the air-packing system of the present invention where an air-packing device as a bottom air cushion is laid out in a container box. FIG. 4 is a partially cut-out perspective view showing the air-packing system of the present invention where a set of products is placed on the bottom air-packing device in the container box. FIG. 5 is a partially cut-out perspective view showing the air-packing system of the present invention where another air-packing device is arranged to encircle the set of products in the container box. FIG. 6A is a partially cut-out perspective view showing the air-packing system of the present invention of FIG. 5 where the another air-packing device encircling the set of products is inflated to pack the products, and FIG. 6B is a cross sectional front view of the air-packing system of the present invention including top and bottom air-packing devices and the encircling air-packing device. FIG. 7 is a plan view showing the air-packing system of the present invention correspond to FIG. 6A without the top air-packing device where the air-packing device surrounding the set of products is inflated. FIG. 8A is a plan view showing another example of the air-packing system of the present invention where the air-packing device surrounding the products and having air containers of different sizes is inflated, and FIG. 8B is a front view of the air-packing device of FIG. 8A when it is flatly extended. FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing a further example of the air-packing system of the present invention where an air inlet port of the air-packing device is projected from the container box. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the air-packing system of FIG. 9 having the air inlet port on the container box viewed in an angle different from that of FIG. 9. FIG. 11A is a plan view showing an example of an air-packing system specifically made for packing a particular product having a complicated outer shape, and FIG. 11B is a front view of the air-packing device used in the air-packing system of FIG. 11A. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an air-packing method and system that can securely hold a product or a set of products of various sizes and shapes in a container box. The present invention utilizes one or more air-packing devices having a plurality of air containers to pack a product in a container box to absorb shocks and vibrations that encounter during the shipment of the products. Generally, the container box used in air-packing system is a carton box, but other type of boxes such as a wood box or plastic box can be used as well. FIGS. 2A and 2B show an example of an air-packing device 10b with a plurality of air containers where each air container is provided with a check valve. A main purpose of having a plurality of air containers with corresponding check valves is to increase the reliability. Namely, even if one of the air containers suffers from an air leakage for some reason, the air-packing device can still function as a cushion of a product in the distribution channel because other air containers can remain inflated. The structure having a plurality of air containers allows the air-packing device to be bent at the boundary of the air containers to create a desirable shape. The air-packing device 10b is made of first and second thermoplastic films which are bonded together around a rectangular periphery 23a and further bonded together at each boundary 23b of two adjacent air containers 22 so that a guide passage 21 and a plurality of air containers 22 are created. When the first and second thermoplastic container films are bonded together at the hatched areas 23a and 23b shown in FIG. 2A, the check valves 11 are also attached to each input of the air container 22. By attaching the check valves 11, each air container 22 becomes independent from the other. An inlet port 24 of the air-packing device lob is used when filling an air or other types of fluid to each air container 22 by using, for example, an air compressor. FIG. 2B is a perspective view showing the air-packing device 10b having the multiple air containers 22 when it is filled with the compressed air. Each air container 22 is filled with the air from the inlet port 24 through the guide passage 21 and the check valve 11. To avoid a rupture of the air container by variations in the environmental temperature, the supply of compressed air to the air container is typically stopped when the air container member 22 is inflated at about 90% of its full expansion rate. After filling the air, the expansion of each air container 22 is maintained because each check-valve 11 prevents the reverse flow of the air. Typically, the air compressor has a gage to monitor the supplied air pressure, and automatically stops supplying the air to the air-packing device lob when the pressure reaches a predetermined value. The check valve 11 is typically made of one or two thermoplastic valve films to form a fluid pass (not shown). The fluid pass has a tip opening and a valve body to allow a fluid flowing through the fluid pipe from the tip opening but the valve body prevents the reverse flow of the air. Typically the check valve 11 is prepared before manufacturing the air-packing device and attached to the thermoplastic film during the procedure of bonding the thermoplastic films. The structure and procedure of enclosing a product or a set of products by the air-packing system of the present invention is described in detail with reference to partially cut-out perspective views of FIGS. 3-7. In the drawings, the front side of a container box (ex. carton box) 50 is cut out for an illustration purpose to show the inside of the container box 50. In the example of FIGS. 3-7, two or more air-packing devices each having a plurality of air containers of the same size and shape are used in the container box 50. FIG. 3 shows the air-packing system of the present invention where a bottom air-packing device 40 as a bottom air cushion is laid out in the container box 50. The bottom air-packing device 40 shown in FIG. 3 is comprised of a plurality of air containers 42 such as shown in FIG. 2A and 2B. It is also feasible to use a conventional fluid container made of only one air container body that hold the compressed air as shown in FIG. 1. In FIG. 3, an air inlet port and check valves of the air-packing device 40 are omitted for simplicity of illustration. When the bottom air-packing device 40 is laid on the bottom surface of the container box 50, a product 43 to be packed in the container box 50 is placed on the air-packing device 40 as shown in FIG. 4. The product 43 can be a single product or a set of two or more products (in this example, two packages of products). Rather than a simple box shape, the product 43 in this example has a relatively complicated outer shape. FIG. 5 shows the condition where another air-packing device 60 having a plurality of air containers is placed in the container box 50 in a manner to surround the sides of the product 43. In this example, the air-packing device 60 is not inflated at this stage, however, it is also possible that the air-packing device 60 is inflated by the compressed air before being placed in the container box 50. The air-packing device 60 is composed of an air passage 71, an air inlet port 74, and a plurality of air containers 62 each of which has a check valve 61. Preferably, a further air-packing device which is similar to the air-packing device 40 is placed at the top of the product 43 and air-packing device 60 (FIG. 6B). Alternatively, the top portion of the air-packing device 60 will be inwardly bent to cover the top area of the product 43. After the air-packing device 60 is placed inside of the container box 50 in FIG. 5, the air-packing device 60 is filled with the compressed air through the inlet port 74 by means of, for example, an air compressor (not shown). FIG. 6A shows the condition where the air-packing device 60 is inflated so that the product 43 is securely held by the air-packing device 60 which is supported by the container box 50. As noted above, preferably, a further air-packing device 40 which is the same or similar to the air-packing device 40 is placed at the top of the product 43 as a top air cushion. Thus, as shown in a cross sectional front view of FIG. 6B, the air-packing system is configured by a first air packing device 60 that surrounds the sides of the product 43, a second (bottom) air-packing device 40a on the bottom surface of the container box 50, and a third (top) air-packing device 40b on the upper surface of the product 43. FIG. 7 is a plan view showing the relationship between the product 43, the inflated air-packing device 60, and the container box 50 as described above with reference to FIGS. 3-6. The air-packing devices 40a and 40b (FIG. 6B) at the top and bottom of the product 43 are not shown for simplicity of illustration. In this manner, the product 43 is tightly packed by the air-packing devices 40a, 40b and 60 within the container box 50. It should be noted that although the container box (carton box) 50 has a conventional box shape, the method described above may be applied to any shape of a container box as well. Although the air-packing device 60 is placed at the sides of the product 43 to surround the product 43 in the example described above, such an encircling air-packing device may be placed to surround the top and bottom of the product 43. In such a situation, the air-packing devices 40a and 40b at the top and bottom of the container box 50 may be positioned at the sides of the product 43. FIG. 8A is a top view of the container box in another embodiment of the present invention where a product 83 having a shape different from that of the product 43 in FIGS. 3-7 is packed by an air-packing device 70 within the container box 50. FIG. 8B is a front view of the air-packing device 70 when it is flatly extended before placing in the container box 50 of FIG. 8A. The air-packing device 70 in this example has a plurality of air containers 72 and 73 where the air containers 73 have a cross sectional size smaller than that of the air containers 72. FIG. 8B also shows check valves 84 provided to the air containers 72 and 73. The air containers 73 with smaller size will be configured, for example, at one end of the air-packing device 70 to contact with the surfaces of the product 83 at an area having a relatively complicated shape. The air container 73 with smaller cross sectional size can be more flexible to fit with the irregular outer shape of the product 83. Thus, even though the product 83 has the irregular shape, the air-packing device 70 can securely hold the product 83 within the container box 50 when it is inflated. A further embodiment of the present invention is described with reference to Figured 9 and 10. FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing the air-packing system of the present invention where an air inlet port of the air-packing device is projected from the container box. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the air-packing system 9 having the air inlet port on the container box viewed in an angle different from that of FIG. 9. In FIG. 9, unlike an actual embodiment, the front side of the container box 50 is illustrated in a transparent manner to show the configuration of a container box 100 and an air-packing device 60 in the container box 100. In FIG. 9, the product 43 to be protected is placed on the bottom air cushion made of the air-packing device 40 which is laid out at bottom of the container box 100. The air inlet port 74 of the air-packing device 60 is projected from the container box 100 through an opening 102 (FIG. 10) formed on the wall of the box 100. This configuration allows the compressed air to be supplied to the air-packing device 60 after the container box 100 is closed. In the case where a large number of products having the same shape and size are to be distributed, air-packing devices specifically made for such products can be used for packing the products. Such an example is shown in Figured 11A and 11B where an air-packing device 90 is configured by air containers of different sizes that are aligned in the order specific to the particular shape of a product 113. FIG 11A is a plan view showing the air-packing system specifically made for packing the particular product 113 having a complicated shape, and FIG 11B is a front view of the air-packing device 90 of FIG 11A when it is flatly extended. More specifically, the air-packing device 90 includes air containers 92 and 93 where a cross sectional size of the air container 93 is larger than that of the air container 92. The air containers 92 and the air containers 93 are arranged in the specific order to match the outer shape of the product 113 to be protected. The front view of the air-packing device 90 in FIG 11B also shows such an order of the air containers 92 and 93. The example of FIG 11B also shows the check valves 104 for the corresponding air containers 92 and 93. As shown in FIG. 11A, the air containers 93 fit with the relatively large indented portions of the product 113 to fill-in the spaces between the container box 50 while the air containers 92 are positioned at relatively narrow areas in the container box 50. According to the multi-purpose air-packing method and system of present invention, a product that comes with various shapes and sizes can be securely packed within a container box with use of an air-packing device of simple structure. The air-packing device as an inflatable cushion is able to protect the product from damages due to shocks and vibrations where the air-packing device has a plurality of air containers each having a check valve. The air-packing method and system of the present invention can enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box by using an air-packing device having a plurality of air containers of different cross sectional sizes. Although the invention is described herein with reference to the preferred embodiments, one skilled in the art will readily appreciate that various modifications and variations may be made without departing from the spirit and the scope of the present invention. Such modifications and variations are considered to be within the purview and scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A styroform packing material has been used for a long time for packing commodity and industrial products. Although the styroform package material has a merit such as a good thermal insulation performance, it has also various disadvantages, i.e., recycling the styroform is not possible, soot is produced when it burns, a flake or chip comes off when it is snagged because of it's brittleness, an expensive mold is needed for its production, and a relatively large warehouse is necessary to store it. Therefore, to solve such problems above, other packing materials and methods have been proposed. One method is a fluid container (air-packing device) for sealingly containing a liquid or gas, typically an air as a cushion. An air-packing device has excellent characteristics to solve the problems in the styroform. First, because the air-packing device is made of only thin films, it does not need a large warehouse to store it unless the air-packing device is inflated. Second, a mold is not necessary for its production because of its simple shape and structure. Third, the air-packing device will not produce a chip or dust which has adverse effect on precision products. Further, recyclable materials can be used for thermoplastic films of the air-packing device. Furthermore, the air-packing device can be produced with low cost. FIG. 1 shows an example of air-packing device in the conventional technology. The air-packing device 10 a is composed of first and second air-packing thermoplastic films 13 and 14 , respectively, and a check valve 11 . Typically, each thermoplastic film is composed of three layers of materials: polyethylene, nylon and polyethylene which are bonded together with appropriate adhesive. The nylon layer is incorporated to increase physical strength of the thermoplastic film. The first and second thermoplastic films are heat-sealed together around seal portions 12 a , 12 b after the check valve is attached. Thus, one container bag 10 a sealed with the heat seal portions 12 a , 12 b is formed as shown in FIG. 1 . Air-packing devices are becoming more and more popular because of the above noted advantages. Products to be enclosed by air-packing devices come in various shapes, sizes and materials. Moreover, a product having a simple shape can become a complicated shape when combined with other products. Generally, it is difficult and time consuming for packing a product that has irregular shapes or sizes in a container box. Two or more different types of air-packing devices complicated structure may be necessary to firmly hold a product having a complicated shape. Moreover, it is not cost effective to manufacture specific air-packing devices tailored to fit to each unique product. Thus, there is a need for a cost effective air-packing system that can be applied to various products. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a multi-purpose air-packing method and system to enclose a product that comes with various shapes and sizes within a container box with use of an air-packing device of simple structure. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system to pack a product by an air-packing device as an inflatable cushion for protecting the product from damages due to shocks and vibrations where the air-packing device is configured by a plurality of air containers each having a check valve. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an air-packing method and system to securely enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box in which an air inlet port of an air-packing device is projected from the container box thereby enabling to supply the compressed air after closing the container box. It is a further object of the present invention is to provide a method and system to enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box to prevent damages to the product due to shocks and vibrations by using an air-packing device having a plurality of air containers of different cross sectional sizes. One aspect of the present invention is a method of packing a product to prevent damages to the package due to shocks and vibrations. The method includes the steps of: placing a product to be protected in a container box; applying a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; and inflating the air-packing device by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. The method of packing a product further includes the step of laying out a second air-packing device on a bottom surface of the container box as a bottom air cushion before placing the product in the container box. The method further includes the step of laying out a third air-packing device on a top of the product in the container box as a top air cushion after applying the first air-packing device to the sides of the product. In the air-packing method, preferably, an air inlet port of the air-packing device is introduced through an opening of the container box to outside of the container box, thereby enabling to supply the compressed air to the air-packing device after closing the container box. In the present invention, the plurality of air containers of the first air-packing device have an identical cross sectional size with one another. Alternatively, the plurality of air containers of the first air-packing device have different cross sectional sizes from one another. The air containers of the air-packing device with small cross sectional size are arranged at one end of the air-packing device. The air containers of the first air-packing device with small cross sectional size and large cross sectional size are arranged in a predetermined order so that the air containers of the air-packing device fit with a product of particular outer shape. Another aspect of the present invention is an air-packing system for packing a product to prevent damages to the package due to shocks and vibrations. The air-packing system is comprised of a container box for placing a product to be protected therein; a first air-packing device having a plurality of air containers and is applied to side surfaces of the product in a manner to surround the product in the container box; wherein the first air-packing device is inflated by supplying an compressed air to securely hold the product within the container box. According to the multi-purpose air-packing method and system of present invention, a product that comes with various shapes and sizes can be securely packed within a container box with use of an air-packing device of simple structure. The air-packing device as an inflatable cushion is able to protect the product from damages due to shocks and vibrations where the air-packing device has a plurality of air containers each having a check valve. The air-packing method and system of the present invention can enclose a product of complicated shape in a container box by using an air-packing device having a plurality of air containers of different cross sectional sizes. | 20041118 | 20070814 | 20060518 | 69246.0 | B65B1158 | 1 | HUYNH, LOUIS K | MULTI-PURPOSE AIR-PACKING METHOD AND SYSTEM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | B65B | 2,004 |
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10,991,754 | ACCEPTED | Fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system | In one embodiment, a method for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system includes monitoring a currently running node in an HPC system including multiple nodes. A fabric coupling the multiple nodes to each other and coupling the multiple nodes to storage accessible to each of the multiple nodes and capable of storing multiple hosts that are each executable at any of the multiple nodes. The method includes, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, discontinuing operation of the currently running node and booting the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. | 1. A system for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the system for fault tolerance and recovery comprising: a fabric coupling a plurality of nodes in an HPC system to each other; storage coupled to the fabric and accessible to each of the nodes, the storage operable to store a plurality of hosts each executable at any of the nodes; and a manager coupled to the fabric, the manager operable to monitor a currently running node in the HPC system executing a host and, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, discontinue operation of the currently running node and boot the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the manager is further operable to identify the fault at the currently running node according to one or more messages from a daemon at the currently running node indicating a status of the currently running node. 3. The system of claim 2, wherein the status of the currently running comprises one or more of an average speed of a fan at the currently running node, a current temperature of the currently running node, and a level of power consumption at the currently running node. 4. The system of claim 2, wherein the daemon communicates the messages to the manager at regular intervals. 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the daemon communicates the messages to the manager across each interface between the currently running node and the fabric. 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the manager is further operable to checkpoint the host to enable the manager to boot the host at the free node from a checkpoint. 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the manager is further operable, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, to update one or more routing tables in the HPC system to enable communication to and from the host at the free node. 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the manager is further operable, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, to notify an administrator of the HPC system of the occurrence of the fault. 9. The system of claim 1, wherein the manager is operable, to discontinue operation of the currently running node, to do one or more of the following: prevent communication to and from the currently running node; prevent the currently running node from accessing the storage; cause the currently running node to idle; cause the currently running node to power down; or cause the currently running node to reboot. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the fabric comprises a plurality of switches coupling the nodes to each other according to a topology comprising a three dimensional torus. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the switches are INFINIBAND switches. 12. The system of claim 1, wherein a host comprises an Internet Protocol (IP) address, a boot image, a configuration, and a file system usable to boot the host at a node in the HPC system. 13. The system of claim 1, wherein the fault at the currently running node comprises a fault in a hardware component at the currently running node. 14. The system of claim 1, wherein the fault at the currently running node comprises a fault in a software component at the currently running node. 15. The system of claim 1, wherein the fault at the currently running node comprises a fault in an interface between the currently running node and the fabric. 16. A method for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the method comprising: monitoring a currently running node in an HPC system comprising a plurality of nodes, a fabric coupling the plurality of nodes to each other and coupling the plurality of nodes to storage accessible to each of the plurality of nodes and operable to store a plurality of hosts each executable at any of the plurality of nodes; and if a fault occurs at the currently running node: discontinuing operation of the currently running node; and booting the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising identifying the fault at the currently running node according to one or more messages from a daemon at the currently running node indicating a status of the currently running node. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the status of the currently running comprises one or more of an average speed of a fan at the currently running node, a current temperature of the currently running node, and a level of power consumption at the currently running node. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the daemon communicates the messages to the manager at regular intervals. 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the daemon communicates the messages to the manager across each interface between the currently running node and the fabric. 21. The method of claim 16, further comprising checkpointing the host to enable booting the host at the free node from a checkpoint. 22. The method of claim 16, further comprising, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, updating one or more routing tables in the HPC system to enable communication to and from the host at the free node. 23. The method of claim 16, further comprising, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, notifying an administrator of the HPC system of the occurrence of the fault. 24. The method of claim 16, wherein discontinuing operation of the currently running node comprises one or more of: preventing communication to and from the currently running node; preventing the currently running node from accessing the storage; causing the currently running node to idle; causing the currently running node to power down; and causing the currently running node to reboot. 25. The method of claim 16, wherein the fabric comprises a plurality of switches coupling the nodes to each other according to a topology comprising a three dimensional torus. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the switches are INFINIBAND switches. 27. Logic for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the logic encoded in a computer-readable medium and when executed operable to: monitor a currently running node in an HPC system comprising a plurality of nodes, a fabric coupling the plurality of nodes to each other and coupling the plurality of nodes to storage accessible to each of the plurality of nodes and operable to store a plurality of hosts each executable at any of the plurality of nodes; and if a fault occurs at the currently running node: discontinue operation of the currently running node; and boot the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. 28. The logic of claim 27, further operable to identify the fault at the currently running node according to one or more messages from a daemon at the currently running node indicating a status of the currently running node. 29. The logic of claim 28, wherein the status of the currently running comprises one or more of an average speed of a fan at the currently running node, a current temperature of the currently running node, and a level of power consumption at the currently running node. 30. The logic of claim 28, wherein the daemon communicates the messages to the manager at regular intervals. 31. The logic of claim 27, wherein the daemon communicates the messages to the manager across each interface between the currently running node and the fabric. 32. The logic of claim 27, further operable to checkpoint the host to enable booting the host at the free node from a checkpoint. 33. The logic of claim 27, further operable, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, to update one or more routing tables in the HPC system to enable communication to and from the host at the free node. 34. The logic of claim 27, further operable, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, to notify an administrator of the HPC system of the occurrence of the fault. 35. The logic of claim 27, operable, to discontinue operation of the currently running node, to do one or more of the following: prevent communication to and from the currently running node; prevent the currently running node from accessing the storage; cause the currently running node to idle; cause the currently running node to power down; and cause the currently running node to reboot. 36. The logic of claim 27, wherein the fabric comprises a plurality of switches coupling the nodes to each other according to a topology comprising a three dimensional torus. 37. The logic of claim 36, wherein the switches are INFINIBAND switches. 38. A system for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the system for fault tolerance and recovery comprising: means for monitoring a currently running node in an HPC system comprising a plurality of nodes, a fabric coupling the plurality of nodes to each other and coupling the plurality of nodes to storage accessible to each of the plurality of nodes and operable to store a plurality of hosts each executable at any of the plurality of nodes; and means for, if a fault occurs at the currently running node: discontinuing operation of the currently running node; and booting the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. | TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates generally to data processing and more particularly to fault tolerance and recovery in an HPC system. BACKGROUND High-performance computing (HPC) is often characterized by the computing systems used by scientists and engineers for modeling, simulating, and analyzing complex physical or algorithmic phenomena. Currently, HPC machines are typically designed using Numerous HPC clusters of one or more processors referred to as nodes. For most large scientific and engineering applications, performance is chiefly determined by parallel scalability and not the speed of individual nodes; therefore, scalability is often a limiting factor in building or purchasing such high-performance clusters. Scalability is generally considered to be based on i) hardware, ii) memory, input/output (I/O), and communication bandwidth; iii) software; iv) architecture; and v) applications. The processing, memory, and I/O bandwidth in most conventional HPC environments are normally not well balanced and, therefore, do not scale well. Many HPC environments do not have the I/O bandwidth to satisfy high-end data processing requirements or are built with blades that have too many unneeded components installed, which tend to dramatically reduce the system's reliability. Accordingly, many HPC environments may not provide robust cluster management software for efficient operation in production-oriented environments. Typically, when a computer system experiences a hardware failure, software and data at a storage device coupled to computer system remain unavailable until the failure has been resolved (which may require replacing one or more hardware components of the computer system or replacing the entire computer system). Scientific and data-center applications often use clusters of commodity computer systems (such as PCs), but such clusters often lack fault tolerance and recovery capabilities. Typically, a cluster of commodity computer systems includes one or more storage devices shared among the commodity computer systems for storing applications and application data. In such clusters, requirements imposed on the applications often necessitate the applications being integrated into software managing the clusters, processing at the applications being restricted, or both, which drives up complexity of applications providing fault tolerance in such clusters and drives up costs associated with developing such applications. Scientific and data-center applications often use clusters of commodity computer systems (such as PCs), but such clusters often lack fault tolerance and recovery capabilities. To provide at least some fault tolerance, such clusters often rely on shared-disk systems that use network file systems (NFSs) across Ethernet networks. Such systems are inadequate in HPC systems that require high-speed accessibility to applications, application data, or both. SUMMARY The present invention may reduce or eliminate disadvantages, problems, or both associated with HPC systems. In one embodiment, a method for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system includes monitoring a currently running node in an HPC system including multiple nodes. A fabric coupling the multiple nodes to each other and coupling the multiple nodes to storage accessible to each of the multiple nodes and capable of storing multiple hosts that are each executable at any of the multiple nodes. The method includes, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, discontinuing operation of the currently running node and booting the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. Particular embodiments of the present invention may provide one or more technical advantages. As an example, particular embodiments provide fault tolerance and recovery in a cluster of commodity computer systems. Particular embodiments provide viable fault tolerance and recovery in a cluster of commodity computer systems for scientific and data-center computing applications. Particular embodiments provide cost-effective fault tolerance and recovery in a cluster of commodity computer systems for scientific and data-center computing applications. Particular embodiments of the present invention provide all, some, or none of the above technical advantages. Particular embodiments may provide one or more other technical advantages, one or more of which may be readily apparent to a person skilled in the art from the figures, description, and claims herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS To provide a more complete understanding of the present invention and the features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an example high-performance computing system in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG. 2 illustrates an example node in the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 illustrates an example central processing unit (CPU) in a node; FIG. 4 illustrates an example node pair; FIGS. 5A-5D illustrate various embodiments of the grid in the system of FIG. 1 and the usage thereof; FIGS. 6A-6B illustrate various embodiments of a graphical user interface in accordance with the system of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of the cluster management software in accordance with the system in FIG. 1; FIG. 8 illustrates an example one dimensional request folded into a y dimension; FIG. 9 illustrates two free meshes constructed using a y axis as an inner loop; FIG. 10 illustrates two free meshes constructed using an x axis as an inner loop; FIG. 11 illustrates an example interface of the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 12 illustrates an example management node of the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating a method for submitting a batch job in accordance with the high-performance computing system of FIG. 1; FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating a method for dynamic backfilling of the grid in accordance with the high-performance computing system of FIG. 1; FIG. 15 is a flow chart illustrating a method for dynamically managing a node failure in accordance with the high-performance computing system of FIG. 1; FIG. 16 illustrates an example method for on-demand instantiation in the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1; and FIG. 17 illustrates an example method for fault tolerance and recovery in the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a HPC system 100 for executing software applications and processes, for example an atmospheric, weather, or crash simulation, using HPC techniques. System 100 provides users with HPC functionality dynamically allocated among various computing nodes 115 with I/O performance substantially similar to the processing performance. Generally, these nodes 115 are easily scaleable because of, among other things, this increased I/O performance and reduced fabric latency. For example, the scalability of nodes 115 in a distributed architecture may be represented by a derivative of Amdahl's law: S(N)=1/((FP/N)+FS)×(1−Fc×(1−RR/L)) where S(N)=Speedup on N processors, Fp=Fraction of Parallel Code, Fs=Fraction of Non-Parallel Code, Fc=Fraction of processing devoted to communications, and RR/L=Ratio of Remote/Local Memory Bandwidth. Therefore, by HPC system 100 providing I/O performance substantially equal to or nearing processing performance, HPC system 100 increases overall efficiency of HPC applications and allows for easier system administration. HPC system 100 is a distributed client/server system that allows users (such as scientists and engineers) to submit jobs 150 for processing on an HPC server 102. For example, system 100 may include HPC server 102 that is connected, through network 106, to one or more administration workstations or local clients 120. But system 100 may be a standalone computing environment or any other suitable environment. In short, system 100 is any HPC computing environment that includes highly scaleable nodes 115 and allows the user to submit jobs 150, dynamically allocates scaleable nodes 115 for job 150, and automatically executes job 150 using the allocated nodes 115. Job 150 may be any batch or online job operable to be processed using HPC techniques and submitted by any apt user. For example, job 150 may be a request for a simulation, a model, or for any other high-performance requirement. Job 150 may also be a request to run a data center application, such as a clustered database, an online transaction processing system, or a clustered application server. The term “dynamically,” as used herein, generally means that certain processing is determined, at least in part, at run-time based on one or more variables. The term “automatically,” as used herein, generally means that the appropriate processing is substantially performed by at least part of HPC system 100. It should be understood that “automatically” further contemplates any suitable user or administrator interaction with system 100 without departing from the scope of this disclosure. HPC server 102 comprises any local or remote computer operable to process job 150 using a plurality of balanced nodes 115 and cluster management engine 130. Generally, HPC server 102 comprises a distributed computer such as a blade server or other distributed server. However the configuration, server 102 includes a plurality of nodes 115. Nodes 115 comprise any computer or processing device such as, for example, blades, general-purpose personal computers (PC), Macintoshes, workstations, Unix-based computers, or any other suitable devices. Generally, FIG. 1 provides merely one example of computers that may be used with the disclosure. For example, although FIG. 1 illustrates one server 102 that may be used with the disclosure, system 100 can be implemented using computers other than servers, as well as a server pool. In other words, the present disclosure contemplates computers other than general purpose computers as well as computers without conventional operating systems (OSs). As used in this document, the term “computer” is intended to encompass a personal computer, workstation, network computer, or any other suitable processing device. HPC server 102, or the component nodes 115, may be adapted to execute any OS including Linux, UNIX, Windows Server, or any other suitable OS. According to one embodiment, HPC server 102 may also include or be communicably coupled with a remote web server. Therefore, server 102 may comprise any computer with software and/or hardware in any combination suitable to dynamically allocate nodes 115 to process HPC job 150. At a high level, HPC server 102 includes a management node 105, a grid 110 comprising a plurality of nodes 115, and cluster management engine 130. More specifically, server 102 may be a standard 19″ rack including a plurality of blades (nodes 115) with some or all of the following components: i) dual-processors; ii) large, high bandwidth memory; iii) dual host channel adapters (HCAs); iv) integrated fabric switching; v) FPGA support; and vi) redundant power inputs or N+1 power supplies. These various components allow for failures to be confined to the node level. But it will be understood that HPC server 102 and nodes 115 may not include all of these components. Management node 105 comprises at least one blade substantially dedicated to managing or assisting an administrator. For example, management node 105 may comprise two blades, with one of the two blades being redundant (such as an active/passive configuration). In one embodiment, management node 105 may be the same type of blade or computing device as HPC nodes 115. But, management node 105 may be any node, including any Number of circuits and configured in any suitable fashion, so long as it remains operable to at least partially manage grid 110. Often, management node 105 is physically or logically separated from the plurality of HPC nodes 115, jointly represented in grid 110. In the illustrated embodiment, management node 105 may be communicably coupled to grid 110 via link 108. Reference to a “link” encompasses any appropriate communication conduit implementing any appropriate communications protocol. As an example and not by way of limitation, a link may include one or more wires in one or more circuit boards, one or more internal or external buses, one or more local area networks (LANs), one or more metropolitan area networks (MANs), one or more wide area networks (WANs), one or more portions of the Internet, or a combination of two or more such links, where appropriate. In one embodiment, link 108 provides Gigabit or 10 Gigabit Ethernet communications between management node 105 and grid 110. Grid 110 is a group of nodes 115 interconnected for increased processing power. Typically, grid 110 is a 3D Torus, but it may be a mesh, a hypercube, or any other shape or configuration without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Reference to a “torus” may encompass all or a portion of grid 110, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. The links between nodes 115 in grid 110 may be serial or parallel analog links, digital links, or any other type of link that can convey electrical or electromagnetic signals such as, for example, fiber or copper. Each node 115 is configured with an integrated switch. This allows node 115 to more easily be the basic construct for the 3D Torus and helps minimize XYZ distances between other nodes 115. Further, this may make copper wiring work in larger systems at up to Gigabit rates with, in some embodiments, the longest cable being less than 5 meters. In short, node 115 is generally optimized for nearest-neighbor communications and increased I/O bandwidth. Each node 115 may include a cluster agent 132 communicably coupled with cluster management engine 130. Generally, agent 132 receives requests or commands from management node 105 and/or cluster management engine 130. Agent 132 could include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof operable to determine the physical status of node 115 and communicate the processed data, such as through a “heartbeat,” to management node 105. In another embodiment, management node 105 may periodically poll agent 132 to determine the status of the associated node 115. Agent 132 may be written in any appropriate computer language such as, for example, C, C++, Assembler, Java, Visual Basic, and others or any combination thereof so long as it remains compatible with at least a portion of cluster management engine 130. Cluster management engine 130 could include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof operable to dynamically allocate and manage nodes 115 and execute job 150 using nodes 115. For example, cluster management engine 130 may be written or described in any appropriate computer language including C, C++, Java, Visual Basic, assembler, any suitable version of 4GL, and others or any combination thereof. It will be understood that while cluster management engine 130 is illustrated in FIG. 1 as a single multi-tasked module, the features and functionality performed by this engine may be performed by multiple modules such as, for example, a physical layer module, a virtual layer module, a job scheduler, and a presentation engine (as shown in more detail in FIG. 7). Further, while illustrated as external to management node 105, management node 105 typically executes one or more processes associated with cluster management engine 130 and may store cluster management engine 130. Moreover, cluster management engine 130 may be a child or sub-module of another software module without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Therefore, cluster management engine 130 comprises one or more software modules operable to intelligently manage nodes 115 and jobs 150. In particular embodiments, cluster management engine includes a scheduler 515 for allocating nodes 115 to jobs 150, as described below. Scheduler 515 may use a scheduling algorithm to allocate nodes 115 to jobs 150, as further described below. Server 102 may include interface 104 for communicating with other computer systems, such as client 120, over network 106 in a client-server or other distributed environment. In certain embodiments, server 102 receives jobs 150 or job policies from network 106 for storage in disk farm 140. Disk farm 140 may also be attached directly to the computational array using the same wideband interfaces that interconnects the nodes. Generally, interface 104 comprises logic encoded in software and/or hardware in a suitable combination and operable to communicate with network 106. More specifically, interface 104 may comprise software supporting one or more communications protocols associated with communications network 106 or hardware operable to communicate physical signals. Network 106 facilitates wireless or wireline communication between computer server 102 and any other computer, such as clients 120. Indeed, while illustrated as residing between server 102 and client 120, network 106 may also reside between various nodes 115 without departing from the scope of the disclosure. In other words, network 106 encompasses any network, networks, or sub-network operable to facilitate communications between various computing components. Network 106 may communicate, for example, Internet Protocol (IP) packets, Frame Relay frames, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) cells, voice, video, data, and other suitable information between network addresses. Network 106 may include one or more local area networks (LANs), radio access networks (RANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), wide area networks (WANs), all or a portion of the global computer network known as the Internet, and/or any other communication system or systems at one or more locations. MAC stands for media access control, where appropriate. In general, disk farm 140 is any memory, database or storage area network (SAN) for storing jobs 150, profiles, boot images, or other HPC information. According to the illustrated embodiment, disk farm 140 includes one or more storage clients 142. Disk farm 140 may process and route data packets according to any of a Number of communication protocols, for example, InfiniBand (IB), Gigabit Ethernet (GE), or FibreChannel (FC). Data packets are typically used to transport data within disk farm 140. A data packet may include a header that has a source identifier and a destination identifier. The source identifier, for example, a source address, identifies the transmitter of information, and the destination identifier, for example, a destination address, identifies the recipient of the information. Client 120 is any device operable to present the user with a job submission screen or administration via a graphical user interface (GUI) 126. At a high level, illustrated client 120 includes at least GUI 126 and comprises an electronic computing device operable to receive, transmit, process and store any appropriate data associated with system 100. It will be understood that there may be any Number of clients 120 communicably coupled to server 102. Further, “client 120” and “user of client 120” may be used interchangeably as appropriate without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Moreover, for ease of illustration, each client is described in terms of being used by one user. But this disclosure contemplates that many users may use one computer to communicate jobs 150 using the same GUI 126. As used in this disclosure, client 120 is intended to encompass a personal computer, touch screen terminal, workstation, network computer, kiosk, wireless data port, cell phone, personal data assistant (PDA), one or more processors within these or other devices, or any other suitable processing device. For example, client 120 may comprise a computer that includes an input device, such as a keypad, touch screen, mouse, or other device that can accept information, and an output device that conveys information associated with the operation of server 102 or clients 120, including digital data, visual information, or GUI 126. Both the input device and output device may include fixed or removable storage media such as a magnetic computer disk, CD-ROM, or other suitable media to both receive input from and provide output to users of clients 120 through the administration and job submission display, namely GUI 126. GUI 126 comprises a graphical user interface operable to allow i) the user of client 120 to interface with system 100 to submit one or more jobs 150; and/or ii) the system (or network) administrator using client 120 to interface with system 100 for any suitable supervisory purpose. Generally, GUI 126 provides the user of client 120 with an efficient and user-friendly presentation of data provided by HPC system 100. GUI 126 may comprise a plurality of customizable frames or views having interactive fields, pull-down lists, and buttons operated by the user. In one embodiment, GUI 126 presents a job submission display that presents the various job parameter fields and receives commands from the user of client 120 via one of the input devices. GUI 126 may, alternatively or in combination, present the physical and logical status of nodes 115 to the system administrator, as illustrated in FIGS. 6A-6B, and receive various commands from the administrator. Administrator commands may include marking nodes as (un)available, shutting down nodes for maintenance, rebooting nodes, or any other suitable command. Moreover, it should be understood that the term graphical user interface may be used in the singular or in the plural to describe one or more graphical user interfaces and each of the displays of a particular graphical user interface. Therefore, GUI 126 contemplates any graphical user interface, such as a generic web browser, that processes information in system 100 and efficiently presents the results to the user. Server 102 can accept data from client 120 via the web browser (e.g., Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator) and return the appropriate HTML or XML responses using network 106. In one aspect of operation, HPC server 102 is first initialized or booted. During this process, cluster management engine 130 determines the existence, state, location, and/or other characteristics of nodes 115 in grid 110. As described above, this may be based on a “heartbeat” communicated upon each node's initialization or upon near immediate polling by management node 105. Next, cluster management engine 130 may dynamically allocate various portions of grid 110 to one or more virtual clusters 220 based on, for example, predetermined policies. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 continuously monitors nodes 115 for possible failure and, upon determining that one of the nodes 115 failed, effectively managing the failure using any of a variety of recovery techniques. Cluster management engine 130 may also manage and provide a unique execution environment for each allocated node of virtual cluster 220. The execution environment may consist of the hostname, IP address, OS, configured services, local and shared file systems, and a set of installed applications and data. The cluster management engine 130 may dynamically add or subtract nodes from virtual cluster 220 according to associated policies and according to inter-cluster policies, such as priority. When a user logs on to client 120, he may be presented with a job submission screen via GUI 126. Once the user has entered the job parameters and submitted job 150, cluster management engine 130 processes the job submission, the related parameters, and any predetermined policies associated with job 150, the user, or the user group. Cluster management engine 130 then determines the appropriate virtual cluster 220 based, at least in part, on this information. Engine 130 then dynamically allocates a job space 230 within virtual cluster 220 and executes job 150 across the allocated nodes 115 using HPC techniques. Based, at least in part, on the increased I/O performance, HPC server 102 may more quickly complete processing of job 150. Upon completion, cluster management engine communicates results 160 to the user. FIG. 2 illustrates an example node (or blade) 115. A node 115 includes any computing device in any orientation for processing all or a portion, such as a thread or process, of one or more jobs 150. As an example and not by way of limitation, a node 115 may include a XEON motherboard, an OPTERON motherboard, or other computing device. Node 115 has an architecture providing an integrated fabric that enables distribution of switching functionality across nodes 115 in grid 110. In particular embodiments, distributing such functionality across nodes 115 in grid 110 may obviate centralized switching in grid 110, which may in turn increase fault tolerance in grid 110 and enable parallel communication among nodes 115 in grid 110. Node 115 includes two CPUs 164 and a switch (or fabric) 166. Reference to a node 115 may encompass two CPUs 164 and a switch 166, where appropriate. Reference to a node 115 may encompass just a CPU 164, where appropriate. Switch 166 may be an integrated switch. In particular embodiments, switch 166 has twenty-four ports. Two ports on switch 166 may couple node 115 to management node 105 for input and output to and from node 115. In addition, two ports on switch 166 may each couple node 115 to another node 115 along an x axis of grid 110, two ports on switch 166 may each couple node 115 to another node 115 along a y axis of grid 110, and two ports on switch 166 may each couple node 115 to another node 115 along a z axis of grid 110 to facilitate implementation of a 3D mesh, a 3D torus, or other topology in grid 110. Additional ports on switch 166 may couple node 115 to other nodes 115 in grid 110 to facilitate implementation of a multidimensional topology (such as a 4D torus or other nontraditional topology including more than three dimensions) in grid 110. In particular embodiments, one or more ports on switch 166 may couple node 115 to one or more other nodes 115 along one or more diagonal axes of grid 110, which may reduce communication jumps or hops between node 115 and one or more other node 115 relatively distant from node 115. As an example and not by way of limitation, a port on switch 166 may couple node 115 to another node 155 residing along a northeasterly axis of grid 110 several 3D jumps away from node 115. In particular embodiments, switch 166 is an InfiniBand switch. Although a particular switch 166 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable switch 166. Link 168a couples CPU 164a to switch 166. Link 168b couples CPU 164a to another switch 166 in another node 115, as described below. Link 168c couples CPU 164b to switch 166. Link 168d couples CPU 164b to other switch 166, as described below. Links 168e and 168f couple switch 166 to two other CPUs 164 in other node 115, as further described below. In particular embodiments, a link 168 includes an InfiniBand 4× link capable of communicating approximately one gigabyte per second in each direction. Although particular links 168 are illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable links 168. Links 170 are I/O links to node 115. A link 170 may include an InfiniBand 4× link capable of communicating approximately one gigabyte per second in each direction. Although particular links 170 are illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable links 170. Links 172 couple switch 166 to other switches 166 in other nodes 115, as described below. In particular embodiments, a link 172 includes an InfiniBand 12×link capable of communicating approximately three gigabytes per second in each direction. Although particular links 172 are illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable links 172. FIG. 3 illustrates an example CPU 164 in a node 115. Although an example CPU 164 is illustrated and the described, the present invention contemplates any suitable CPU 164. CPU 164 includes a processor 174, a memory controller hub (MCH) 176, a memory unit 178, and a host channel adapter (HCA) 180. Processor 174 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components. In particular embodiments, processor 174 is a NOCONA XEON processor 174 from INTEL. In particular embodiments, processor 174 is an approximately 3.6 gigahertz processor having an approximately 1 megabyte cache and being capable of approximately 7.2 gigaflops per second. In particular embodiments, processor 174 provides HyperThreading. In particular embodiments, processor 174 includes a memory controller providing efficient use of memory bandwidth. Although a particular processor 174 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable processor 174. Bus 182 couples processor 174 and MCH 176 to each other. In particular embodiments, bus 182 is an approximately 800 MHz front side bus (FSB) capable of communicating approximately 6.4 gigabytes per second. Although a particular bus 182 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable bus 182. MCH 176 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components facilitating communication between processor 174 and one or more other components of HPC system 100, such as memory unit 178. In particular embodiments, MCH 176 is a northbridge for CPU 164 that controls communication between processor 174 and one or more of memory unit 178, bus 182, a Level 2 (L2) cache, and one or more other components of CPU 164. In particular embodiments, MCH 176 is a LINDENHURST E7520 MCH 176. In particular embodiments, Memory unit 178 includes eight gigabytes of random access memory (RAM). In particular embodiments, memory unit 178 includes two double data rate (DDR) memory devices separately coupled to MCH 176. As an example and not by way of limitation, memory unit 178 may include two DDR2-400 memory devices each capable of approximately 3.2 Gigabytes per second per channel. Although a particular memory unit 178 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable memory unit 178. In particular embodiments, a link couples MCH 176 to an I/O controller hub (ICH) that includes one or more hardware, software, or embedded logic components facilitating I/O between processor 174 and one or more other components of HPC system 100, such as a Basic I/O System (BIOS) coupled to the ICH, a Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) controller or other Ethernet interface coupled to the ICH, or both. In particular embodiments, the ICH is a southbridge for CPU 164 that controls I/O functions of CPU 164. The Ethernet interface coupled to the ICH may facilitate communication between the ICH and a baseboard management controller (BMC) coupled to the Ethernet interface. In particular embodiments, management node 105 or other component of HPC system 100 includes one or more such BMCs. In particular embodiments, a link couples the Ethernet interface to a switch providing access to one or more GbE management ports. Bus 184 couples MCH 176 and HCA 180 to each other. In particular embodiments, bus 184 is a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) bus 184, such as a PCI-Express 8× bus 184 capable of communicating approximately 4 gigabytes per second. Although a particular bus 184 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable bus 184. HCA 180 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components providing channel-based I/O to CPU 164. In particular embodiments, HCA 180 is a MELLANOX InfiniBand HCA 180. In particular embodiments, HCA 180 provides a bandwidth of approximately 2.65 gigabytes per second, which may allow approximately 1.85 gigabytes per processing element (PE) to switch 166 in node 115 and approximately 800 megabytes per PE to I/O, such as Basic I/O System (BIOS), an Ethernet interface, or other I/O. In particular embodiments, HCA 180 allows a bandwidth at switch 166 to reach approximately 3.7 gigabytes per second for an approximately 13.6 gigaflops per second peak, an I/O rate at switch 166 to reach approximately 50 megabytes per gigaflop for approximately 0.27 bytes per flop, or both. Although a particular HCA 180 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable HCA 180. Each link 168 couples HCA 180 to a switch 166. Link 168a couples HCA 180 to a first switch 166 that is a primary switch 166 with respect to HCA 180, as described below. In particular embodiments, node 115 including HCA 180 includes first switch 166. Link 168b couples HCA 180 to a second switch 166 that is a secondary switch with respect to HCA 180, as described below. In particular embodiments, a node 115 not including HCA 180 includes second switch 166, as described below. FIG. 4 illustrates an example node pair 186 including two switches 166 and four processors 174. Switches 166 in node pair 186 are redundant with respect to each other, which may increase fault tolerance at node pair 186. If a first switch 166 in node pair 186 is not functioning properly, a second switch 166 in node pair 186 may provide switching for all four CPUs in node pair 186. In node pair 186, switch 166a is a primary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164a and 164b and a secondary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164c and 164d. Switch 166b is a primary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164c and 164d and a secondary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164a and 164b. If both switches 166a and 116b are functioning properly, switch 166a may provide switching for CPUs 164a and 164b and switch 166b may provide switching for CPUs 164c and 164d. If switch 166a is functioning properly, but switch 166b is not, switch 166a may provide switching for CPUs 164a, 164b, 164c, and 164d. If switch 166b is functioning properly, but switch 166a is not functioning properly, switch 166b may provide switching for CPUs 164a, 164b, 164c, and 164d. Links 172 couple each node 115 in node pair 186 to six nodes 115 outside node pair 186 in grid 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, link 172a at switch 166a couples node 115a to a first node 115 outside node pair 186 north of node 115a in grid 110, link 172b at switch 166a couples node 115a to a second node 115 outside node pair 186 south of node 115a in grid 110, link 172c at switch 166a couples node 115a to a third node 115 outside node pair 186 east of node 115a in grid 110, link 172d at switch 166a couples node 115a to a fourth node 115 outside node pair 186 west of node 115a in grid 110, link 172e at switch 166a couples node 115a to a fifth node 115 outside node pair 186 above node 115a in grid 110, and link 172f at switch 166a couples node 115a to a sixth node 115 outside node pair 186 below node 115a in grid 110. In particular embodiments, links 172 couple nodes 115a and 115b in node pair 186 to sets of nodes 115 outside node pair 186 that are different from each other. As an example and not by way of limitation, links 172 at switch 166a may couple node 115a to a first set of six nodes 115 outside node pair 186 that includes a first node 115 outside node pair 186, a second node 115 outside node pair 186, a third node 115 outside node pair 186, a fourth node 115 outside node pair 186, a fifth node 115 outside node pair 186, and a sixth node 115 outside node pair 186. Links 172 at switch 166b may couple node 115b to a second set of six nodes 115 outside node pair 186 that includes a seventh node 115 outside node pair 186, an eighth node 115 outside node pair 186, a ninth node 115 outside node pair 186, a tenth node 115 outside node pair 186, an eleventh node 115 outside node pair 186, and a twelfth node 115 outside node pair 186. In particular embodiments, a link 172 may couple a first node 115 adjacent a first edge of grid 110 to a second node 115 adjacent a second edge of grid 110 opposite the first edge. As an example and not by way of limitation, consider a first node 115 adjacent a left edge of grid 110 and a second node 115 adjacent a right edge of grid 110 opposite the left edge of grid 110. A link 172 may couple first and second nodes 115 to each other such that first node 115 is east of second node 115 and second node 115 is west of first node 115, despite a location of first node 115 relative to a location of second node 115 in grid 110. As another example, consider a first node 115 adjacent a front edge of grid 110 and a second node 115 adjacent a back edge of grid 110 opposite the front edge of grid 110. A link 172 may couple first and second nodes 115 to each other such that first node 115 is south of second node 115 and second node 115 is north of first node 115, despite a location of first node 115 relative to a location of second node 115 in grid 110. As yet another example, consider a first node 115 adjacent a top edge of grid 110 and a second node 115 adjacent a bottom edge of grid 110 opposite the top edge of grid 110. A link 172 may couple first and second nodes 115 to each other such that first node 115 is below second node 115 and second node 115 is above first node 115, despite a location of first node 115 relative to a location of second node 115 in grid 110. FIGS. 5A-5D illustrate various embodiments of grid 110 in system 100 and the usage or topology thereof. FIG. 5A illustrates one configuration, namely a 3D Torus, of grid 110 using a plurality of node types. For example, the illustrated node types are external I/O node, files system (FS) server, FS metadata server, database server, and compute node. FIG. 5B illustrates an example of “folding” of grid 110. Folding generally allows for one physical edge of grid 110 to connect to a corresponding axial edge, thereby providing a more robust or edgeless topology. In this embodiment, nodes 115 are wrapped around to provide a near seamless topology connect by a node line 216. Node line 216 may be any suitable hardware implementing any communications protocol for interconnecting two or more nodes 115. For example, node line 216 may be copper wire or fiber optic cable implementing Gigabit Ethernet. In particular embodiments, a node line 216 includes one or more links 172, as described above. FIG. 5C illustrates grid 110 with one virtual cluster 220 allocated within it. While illustrated with only one virtual cluster 220, there may be any Number (including zero) of virtual clusters 220 in grid 110 without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Virtual cluster 220 is a logical grouping of nodes 115 for processing related jobs 150. For example, virtual cluster 220 may be associated with one research group, a department, a lab, or any other group of users likely to submit similar jobs 150. Virtual cluster 220 may be any shape and include any Number of nodes 115 within grid 110. Indeed, while illustrated virtual cluster 220 includes a plurality of physically neighboring nodes 115, cluster 220 may be a distributed cluster of logically related nodes 115 operable to process job 150. Virtual cluster 220 may be allocated at any appropriate time. For example, cluster 220 may be allocated upon initialization of system 100 based, for example, on startup parameters or may be dynamically allocated based, for example, on changed server 102 needs. Moreover, virtual cluster 220 may change its shape and size over time to quickly respond to changing requests, demands, and situations. For example, virtual cluster 220 may be dynamically changed to include an automatically allocated first node 115 in response to a failure of a second node 115, previously part of cluster 220. In certain embodiments, clusters 220 may share nodes 115 as processing requires. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 may allocate one or more virtual clusters 220 to one or more jobs 150 according to a scheduling algorithm, as described below. FIG. 5D illustrates various job spaces, 230a and 230b respectively, allocated within example virtual cluster 220. Generally, job space 230 is a set of nodes 115 within virtual cluster 220 dynamically allocated to complete received job 150. Typically, there is one job space 230 per executing job 150 and vice versa, but job spaces 230 may share nodes 115 without departing from the scope of the disclosure. The dimensions of job space 230 may be manually input by the user or administrator or dynamically determined based on job parameters, policies, and/or any other suitable characteristic. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 may determine one or more dimensions of a job space 230 according to a scheduling algorithm, as described below. FIGS. 6A-6B illustrate various embodiments of a management graphical user interface 400 in accordance with the system 100. Often, management GUI 400 is presented to client 120 using GUI 126. In general, management GUI 400 presents a variety of management interactive screens or displays to a system administrator and/or a variety of job submission or profile screens to a user. These screens or displays are comprised of graphical elements assembled into various views of collected information. For example, GUI 400 may present a display of the physical health of grid 110 (illustrated in FIG. 6A) or the logical allocation or topology of nodes 115 in grid 110 (illustrated in FIG. 6B). FIG. 6A illustrates example display 400a. Display 400a may include information presented to the administrator for effectively managing nodes 115. The illustrated embodiment includes a standard web browser with a logical “picture” or screenshot of grid 110. For example, this picture may provide the physical status of grid 110 and the component nodes 115. Each node 115 may be one of any Number of colors, with each color representing various states. For example, a failed node 115 may be red, a utilized or allocated node 115 may be black, and an unallocated node 115 may be shaded. Further, display 400a may allow the administrator to move the pointer over one of the nodes 115 and view the various physical attributes of it. For example, the administrator may be presented with information including “node,” “availability,” “processor utilization,” “memory utilization,” “temperature,” “physical location,” and “address.” Of course, these are merely example data fields and any appropriate physical or logical node information may be display for the administrator. Display 400a may also allow the administrator to rotate the view of grid 110 or perform any other suitable function. FIG. 6B illustrates example display 400b. Display 400b presents a view or picture of the logical state of grid 100. The illustrated embodiment presents the virtual cluster 220 allocated within grid 110. Display 400b further displays two example job spaces 230 allocate within cluster 220 for executing one or more jobs 150. Display 400b may allow the administrator to move the pointer over graphical virtual cluster 220 to view the Number of nodes 115 grouped by various statuses (such as allocated or unallocated). Further, the administrator may move the pointer over one of the job spaces 230 such that suitable job information is presented. For example, the administrator may be able to view the job name, start time, Number of nodes, estimated end time, processor usage, I/O usage, and others. It will be understood that management GUI 126 (represented above by example displays 400a and 400b, respectively) is for illustration purposes only and may include none, some, or all of the illustrated graphical elements as well as additional management elements not shown. FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of cluster management engine 130, in accordance with system 100. In this embodiment, cluster management engine 130 includes a plurality of sub-modules or components: physical manager 505, virtual manager 510, scheduler 515, and local memory or variables 520. Physical manager 505 is any software, logic, firmware, or other module operable to determine the physical health of various nodes 115 and effectively manage nodes 115 based on this determined health. Physical manager may use this data to efficiently determine and respond to node 115 failures. In one embodiment, physical manager 505 is communicably coupled to a plurality of agents 132, each residing on one node 115. As described above, agents 132 gather and communicate at least physical information to manager 505. Physical manager 505 may be further operable to communicate alerts to a system administrator at client 120 via network 106. Virtual manager 510 is any software, logic, firmware, or other module operable to manage virtual clusters 220 and the logical state of nodes 115. Generally, virtual manager 510 links a logical representation of node 115 with the physical status of node 115. Based on these links, virtual manager 510 may generate virtual clusters 220 and process various changes to these clusters 220, such as in response to node failure or a (system or user) request for increased HPC processing. Virtual manager 510 may also communicate the status of virtual cluster 220, such as unallocated nodes 115, to scheduler 515 to enable dynamic backfilling of unexecuted, or queued, HPC processes and jobs 150. Virtual manager 510 may further determine the compatibility of job 150 with particular nodes 115 and communicate this information to scheduler 515. In certain embodiments, virtual manager 510 may be an object representing an individual virtual cluster 220. In particular embodiments, cluster management engine 130 includes scheduler 515. Scheduler 515 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or one or more such components for allocating nodes 115 to jobs 150 according to a scheduling algorithm. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 is a plug in. In particular embodiments, in response to cluster management engine 130 receiving a job 150, cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 515 to job 150. In particular embodiments, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 515 to a job 150, cluster management engine 130 identifies to scheduler 515 nodes 115 in grid 110 available for allocation to job 150. As an example and not by way of limitation, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 115 to a job 150, cluster management engine 130 may communicate to scheduler 515 a list of all nodes 115 in grid 110 available for allocation to job 150. In particular embodiments, cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 115 to a job 150 only if a Number of nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150 is greater than or equal to a Number of nodes 115 requested for job 150. As described above, in particular embodiments, grid 110 is a three dimensional torus of switches 166 each coupled to four CPUs 164. Scheduler 515 logically configures grid 110 as a torus of nodes 115. A torus of size [x, y, Z] switches 166 provides six possible logical configurations: [4x, y, z], [x, 4y, z], [x, y, 4z], [2x,2y, z], [2x, y, 2z], and [x, 2y, 2z]. When scheduler 515 allocates one or more nodes 115 to a job 150, scheduler 515 may select a logical configuration best suited to job 150. Message Passing Interface (MPI) is a standard for communication among processes in a job 150. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 assigns an MPI Rank to each node 115 allocated to a job 150. For a job 150 including N processes, scheduler 150 assigns a unique integer Rank between 0 and N−1 to each process. To communicate a message to a first process in job 150, a second process in job 150 may specify a Rank of the first process. Similarly, to receive a message from a first process in a job 150, a second process in job 150 may specify a Rank of the first process. Scheduler 150 may also define one or more broadcast groups each facilitating communication of messages from processes in the broadcast group to all other processes in the broadcast group. To receive a message from a first process in a broadcast group, a second process in the broadcast group may specify the broadcast group In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 handles three types of requests: “spatial,” “compact,” and “any.” Reference to a “request” encompasses a job 150, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. When a user submits a job 150 to HPC server 102, the user may specify a request type. A “spatial” request encompasses a job 150 described spatially. One class of existing MPI applications assumes a spatial relationship among processes in a job 150. Weather models are an example. To process a job 150 including a weather model, HPC server 102 may use a two dimensional grid encompassing longitude and latitude (or a similar coordinate system) to partition the surface of the earth and divides the time period into discrete time steps. Each process of job 150 models the weather for a particular area. At the beginning of each time step, the process exchanges boundary values with each of four other processes neighboring the process and then computes weather for the particular area. To process a job 150 including a weather model, HPC server 102 may use a three dimensional grid encompassing longitude, latitude, and altitude (or a similar coordinate system) instead of a two dimensional grid to partition the surface of the earth. For an MPI application assuming a spatial relationship among processes in a job 150, a user may request a triplet {Sx, Sy, Sz} of nodes 115 for job 150. If all the dimensions S are greater than one, the request is a three dimensional request. If one of the dimensions S is equal to one, the request is a two dimensional request. If two of the dimensions S are equal to one, the request is a one dimensional request. To allocate nodes 115 to the request, scheduler 150 may map spatial coordinates to MPI Rank as follows: [x, y, z]→x×Sy×Sz+y×Sz+z. Sx, Sy, and Sz indicate a size of the request, x is between zero and Sx, y is between zero and Sy, and z is between zero and Sz. To allocate nodes 115 to a two dimensional request, scheduler 150 may map spatial coordinates to MPI Rank as follows: [x, y]→x×Sy+y. In particular embodiments, to map spatial coordinates to MPI Rank, scheduler 515 first increments along a z axis of grid 110, then increments along a y axis of grid 110, and then increments along an x axis of grid 110. To accommodate an incorrect assumption regarding scheduler 515 mapping spatial coordinates to MPI Rank, e.g., first incrementing along an x axis of grid 110, then incrementing along a y axis of grid 110, and then incrementing along a z axis of grid 110, cluster management engine 30 may present a requested job 150 to scheduler 515 as, e.g., {Sz, Sy, Sx}. A “compact” request encompasses a job 150 not described spatially. Scheduler 515 may allocate nodes 115 to a compact request to minimize a maximum communication distance (or hop count) between each pair of nodes 115 allocated to the compact request. An “any” request encompasses a job 150 requiring little or no interprocess communication. Scheduler 150 may allocate any set of nodes 115 to satisfy an any request. Such a job 150 provides scheduler 150 an opportunity to fill holes resulting from fragmentation in grid 110. When a user submits a job 150 to HPC server 102, the user may also specify an aggressive flag on job 150. In particular embodiments, an aggressive flag is a floating-point Number between zero and one indicating a degree of leeway allotted to scheduler 515 for purposes of allocating nodes 115 to job 150. A higher Number gives scheduler 515 more leeway than a lower Number does. If a user submits a spatial request to HPC server 102 and sets an aggressive flag on the spatial request to zero, scheduler 515 schedules job 150 only if nodes 115 are available to accommodate the spatial request. In particular embodiments, if a user submits a spatial request to HPC server 102 and sets an aggressive flag on the spatial request to a Number greater than zero, scheduler 515 tries to accommodate the spatial request, but, if scheduler 515 cannot accommodate the spatial request, schedules job 150 as a compact request. In particular embodiments, a compact request may allow unlimited hop counts between pairs of nodes 115 allocated to the compact request. Scheduler 150 can always accommodate such a request because, as described above, cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 only if a Number of nodes 115 available for allocation is greater than or equal to a Number of nodes 115 requested. In particular embodiments, an aggressive flag on a compact request indicates a limit on hop counts between pairs of nodes 115 allocated to the compact request. In such embodiments, the limit on hop counts may equal 1 1 - a , where a is the aggressive flag. In particular embodiments, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 115 to a job 150, cluster management engine 130 provides the following input to scheduler 515: a Number of nodes 115 requested; a request type; a size of job 150; an aggressive flag on job 150; a switch-based size of grid 110 (which scheduler 515 later adjusts to determine a node-based size of grid 110); a Number of nodes 115 per switch 166 (which, in particular embodiments, equals four); a Number of nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150; and identification of one or more nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150 (such as, for example, a list of all nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150). In particular embodiments, RequestedNodes indicates the Number of nodes 115 requested, RequestType indicates the request type, RequestedSize (which includes an array) indicates the size of job 150, AggressiveFlag indicates the aggressive flag on job 150, TorusSize (which includes array) indicates the switch-based size of grid 110, NodesPerSwitch indicates the Number of nodes 115 per switch 166, NumFreeNodes indicates the Number of nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150, and FreeNodeList (which includes an array) identifies one or more nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150. In particular embodiments, when scheduler 515 schedules (or attempts to schedule) a job 150, scheduler 515 provides the following output: identification of nodes 115 allocated to job 150 (such as a list of nodes 115 allocated to job 150); an MPI Rank of each node allocated to job 150; and a return value indicating that (1) scheduler 515 scheduled job 150, (2) scheduler 515 did not schedule job 150, or (3) scheduler 515 can never schedule job 150. In particular embodiments, to allocate nodes 115 to a job 150, scheduler 515 first initializes variables for scheduling job 150, then schedules job 150 according to the variables, and then converts the schedule (or results) for processing at cluster management engine 130. Three variables—SpatialAllowed, CompactAllowed, and AnyAllowed—indicate allowed types of scheduling. Scheduler 515 may use the following example logic to initialize SpatialAllowed, CompactAllowed, and AnyAllowed: If the NodesRequested=1 SpatialAllowed=False CompactAllowed=False AnyAllowed=True Else If RequestedType=SPATIAL SpatialAllowed=True AnyAllowed=False If AggressiveFlag>0 CompactAllowed=True Else ComPactAllowed=False Else If RequestedType=Compact SpatialAllowed=False CompactAllowed=True AnyAllowed=False Else If RequestedType=Any SpatialAllowed=False CompactAllowed=False AnyAllowed=True In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 orients a switch-based size of grid 110 to indicate larger dimensions of grid 110 before smaller dimensions of grid 110. TorusMap (which includes an array) indicates the switch-based size of grid 110 oriented to indicate larger dimensions of grid 110 before smaller dimensions of grid 110. Scheduler 515 applies TorusMap to all nodes 115 identified in FreeNodeList. InverseTorusMap (which includes an array) is an inverse of TorusMap, and scheduler 515 applies InverseTorusMap to a list of nodes 115 allocated to a job 150 before returning the list to cluster management engine 130 for processing. As an example and not by way of limitation, if cluster management engine 130 communicates a switch-based torus size of 14×16×15 to scheduler 515, scheduler 515 sets TorusMap to {2,0,1}. The switch-based torus size then becomes 16×15×14 and, for a node 155 in FreeNodeList having indices {x, y, z}, the indices of node 155 after scheduler 515 applies TorusMap are {y, z, x}. The InverseTorusMap for the above example is {1,2,0}. In particular embodiments, NumMapDimensions indicates a Number of dimensions for modification when converting a switch-based torus to a node-based torus. MapDimsions[2] and MapMod[2] provide indices of the dimensions for modification and respective multipliers of the dimensions for modification. Scheduler 515 may multiply one of the dimensions for modification by four or multiply each of two of the dimensions for modification by two. Scheduler 515 determines which multiplication to apply and then modifies a size of the torus, initially described in terms of switches, accordingly. Scheduler 515 determines, according to RequestType, which multiplication to apply. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 applies one or more geometric transformations to a request to generate a list of meshes satisfying the request. A mesh includes a box embedded in grid 110. A start point, [Sx, Sy, Sz], and an end point, [Ex, Ey, Ez], define a mesh. A mesh “wraps” in one or more dimensions if the mesh has a start point greater than an end point in the one or more dimensions. As an example and not by way of limitation, a mesh with a start point at [3,7,5] and an end point at [2,9,4] wraps in the x and y dimensions. A point, [x, y, z], in grid 110 resides in a nonwrapping mesh if [Sx≦x≦Ex], [Sy≦y≦Ey], and [Sz≦z≦Ez]. After scheduler 515 generates a list of meshes satisfying the request, scheduler 515 loops through the list until scheduler 515 identifies a mesh that is schedulable with respect to a set of nodes 155 available for allocation to the request. Generally, a three dimensional request tends to result in six meshes satisfying the request, a two dimensional request tends to result in tens of meshes satisfying the request, and a one dimensional request tends to result in hundreds of meshes satisfying the request. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 sets a node-based torus for a two or three dimensional request to maximize a Number of meshes satisfying the request. To initialize variables for scheduling (or allocating one or more nodes 115 to) a one dimensional request, scheduler 515 sets a y axis and a z axis of switches 166 in grid 110 to a 2×2 configuration of nodes 115. Scheduler 515 maps job 150 so that a z axis of switches 166 in grid 110 is an unused dimension. Scheduler 515 then folds job 150 along the z axis into the y axis. Therefore, in particular embodiments, the following applies to a one dimensional request: NumMapDimensions=2 MapDimension[0]=1 MapDimension[1]=2 MapMod[0]=2 MapMod[1]=2 [n] indicate a one dimensional array having an index ranging from 0 to 1−n, where appropriate. As an example and not by way of limitation, a={4,6,2} corresponds to a[0]=4, a[1]=6, and a[2]=2, where appropriate. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 may also set a y axis and a z axis of switches 166 in grid 110 to a 2×2 configuration of nodes 115 to initialize variables for scheduling a two dimensional request. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 folds a two dimensional requests into a third, unused dimension to generate a more compact shape for scheduling. Because many such folds may be possible, scheduler 515 may select a configuration (which may be different from a 2×2 configuration of nodes 115) that generates a greatest Number of such folds. Scheduler 515 may check each of six possible configurations for a two dimensional request and calculate a Number of possible folds for each of the six possible configurations. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 selects a configuration allowing a greatest Number of possible folds. In particular embodiments, in the event of a tie between two 1×4 configurations, scheduler 515 first selects the 1×4 configuration modifying the z axis and then selects the 1×4 configuration modifying the y axis. In particular embodiments, in the event of a tie between a 1×4 configuration and a 2×2 configuration, scheduler 515 selects the 2×2 configuration. In particular embodiments, in the event of a tie between two or more 2×2 configurations, scheduler 515 first selects the 2×2 configuration modifying the y and z axes, then selects the 2×2 configuration modifying the x and z axes, and then selects the 2×2 configuration modifying the x and y axes. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 initializes variables for scheduling a three dimensional request as scheduler 515 would initialize variables for scheduling a two dimensional request, except that a three dimensional request allows six orientations (or rotations) that are each unique with respect to each other instead of allowing folds. In particular embodiments, to initialize variables for scheduling a compact request, scheduler 515 multiples a z axis of the compact request by four to generate a 1×4 configuration. Using a 1×4 configuration to process a compact request facilitates use of all nodes 115 coupled to a switch 166 allocated to the compact request, which in turn reduces fragmentation at switch points in grid 110. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 similarly initializes variables for scheduling an any request. A partition is a smallest mesh including all nodes 115 in grid 110 available for scheduling. Part Start[3] indicates a start coordinate of the partition, Part End[3] indicates an end coordinate of the partition, Part Size[3] indicates a size of the partition, and Part Wraps[3] indicates whether the partition wraps. Scheduler 515 may construct a partition to reduce lengths of searches for nodes 115 satisfying a request. A partition may be much smaller than grid 110. For i=0, 1, and 2, Part Start[i] includes a minimum of all possible i coordinates in FreeMesh (which includes an array) and Part End[i] includes a maximum of all possible i coordinates in FreeMesh. Part Size[i]=Part End[i]−Part Start[i]+1. If Part Size[i] equals TorusSize[i], Part Wraps[i] is True. Scheduler 515 sets NodeInUse (which includes an array) to NODE_NOT_IN_USE for all nodes in FreeMesh and set to NODE_IN_USE for all other nodes. In particular embodiments, FreeY[i,j,k] contains a Number of free nodes 155 along line {i,j,k} to {i, TorusSize[1]−1, k}. FreeX[i,j,k] includes a Number of free nodes 115 along line {i,j,k} to {TorusSize[0]−1, j, k}. Scheduler 515 uses FreeY[i,j,k] and FreeX[i,j,k] to execute a scan algorithm, as described below. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 constructs FreeY[i,j,k] and FreeX[i,j,k] only if SpatialAllowed or CompactAllowed is True. If SpatialAllowed is True, scheduler 515 tries various structures for scheduling a request. A spatial job of size S={Sx, Sy, Sz} has up to six unique orientations: {Sx, Sy, Sz}, {Sx, Sz, Sy}, {Sy, Sx, Sz}, {Sy, Sz, Sx}, {Sz, Sx, Sy}, and {Sz, Sy, Sx}. The six orientations correspond to four unique 90° rotations and two unique 180° rotations that scheduler 515 may apply to a mesh. If any two dimensions are equal to each other, only three unique orientations are available. Scheduler 515 considers all possible orientations when scheduling a mesh. If a job 150 is two dimensional, i.e., one dimension of job 150 equals one, scheduler 515 may fold either of two used dimensions of job 150, i.e., dimensions of job 150 greater than one, into the unused dimension of job 150, i.e., the dimension of job 150 equal to one, in an accordion-like fashion to generate a more compact three dimensional mesh. If scheduler 515 folds a dimension that is not an integral multiple of a length of the fold, a last fold will be shorter than all preceding folds, which will result in a two dimensional mesh concatenated onto a three dimensional mesh. If job 150 is one dimensional, scheduler 515 may fold job 150 into either of two unused dimensions. Scheduler 515 may then fold either of two resulting dimensions into a remaining unused dimension. A resulting shape of the mesh would, generally speaking, be a concatenation of four meshes. FIG. 8 illustrates an example one dimensional request folded into a y dimension. In FIG. 8, scheduler 515 has folded the one dimensional request, {1,1,11}, into the y dimension using a fold length of four to generate a two dimensional mesh, {1,2,4}, and a one dimensional mesh {1,1,3}, concatenated onto the two dimensional mesh. Scheduler 515 may Number a first fold zero, a second fold one, and a third, short fold two. When scheduler 515 assigns an MPI Rank to nodes 115 along a fold, the MPI Rank is incremented as a z value increases along even-Numbered folds and as z values decrease along odd-Numbered folds. As an example and not by way of limitation, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,0] may be zero, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,1] may be one, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,2] may be two, and the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,3] may be three. The MPI Rank for node 115 at [1,3] may be four, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [1,2] may be five, and so on. Concatenation starts at z=0, since the fold has an even Number. If scheduler 515 folded the request using an odd Number of complete folds, concatenation would instead start at z=3 and continue inward toward x=0. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 only considers accordion-like folds. Other types of folds exist. As an example and not by way of limitation, a fold may produce a staircase shape. Scheduler 515 may prohibit certain folds on one dimensional jobs 150. As described above, in particular embodiments, scheduler 515 folds one dimensional jobs 150 twice. A second fold either folds a dimension that scheduler 515 folded first or folds a dimension that scheduler 515 folded into first. In FIG. 8, scheduler 515 has folded a z dimension and folded into a y dimension. If a second fold folds a dimension that scheduler 515 folded first, scheduler 515 may generate up to three concatenations, for a total of four meshes. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 allows no more than two concatenations. As a result, when scheduler 515 schedules a one dimensional job 150, a second fold is restricted to folding a dimension that scheduler 515 folded into first, unless the first fold did not result in concatenation. If a size of job 150 is an integral multiple of fold length, no concatenation results. In particular embodiments, such a restriction ensures that scheduler 515 allows no more than two concatenations. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 initially constructs all possible meshes satisfying a request. If the request is one or two dimensional, scheduler 515 constructs each possible accordion-like fold and each possible orientation of each such fold. If the request is three dimensional, scheduler 515 constructs each possible orientation of the request. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 records each such construction using a list of Try Structures, as described below. If CompactAllowed is True, scheduler 515 constructs a compact mesh containing a requested Number of nodes 115. Scheduler 515 designates the mesh a best fit and stores the mesh in BestFit (which includes an array). As an example and not by way of limitation, let N be the requested Number of nodes 115 and Q be a cubic root of N truncated to an integer. Scheduler initially sets BestFit to {Q, Q, Q}. If N=Q3, scheduler 515 is done. Otherwise, scheduler 515 will increment one or more dimensions of BestFit according to a BuildCompactFits function, as described below. Scheduler 515 then constructs all meshes having dimensions greater than or equal to dimensions of BestFit and less than or equal to dimensions of grid 110 and records the meshes using Fit (which includes an array). Scheduler 515 then removes undesirable meshes from Fit. As described above, in particular embodiments, grid 110 is a three dimensional torus of switches 166 each coupled to four CPUs 164. Scheduler 515 modifies the torus by either a factor of four in one dimension or a factor of two in two dimensions to account for grid 110 including four CPUs 164 per switch 166. To increase a likelihood scheduler 515 will satisfy a request so that, when one CPU 164 at a switch 166 executes a process, all CPUs 164 at switch 166 execute processes, scheduler 515 keeps only meshes having sizes in the one or more modified dimensions that are integral multiples of the multiplication factor. As an example and not by way of limitation, if scheduler 515 multiplied a torus of switches 166 in a y dimension by two and in a z dimension by two, scheduler 515 would keep only meshes in Fit having even y and z dimensions. Scheduler 515 then sorts remaining meshes in Fit according to maximum hop counts in the remaining meshes. A maximum distance between any two nodes in a mesh of size {Sx, Sy, Sz} is (Sx+1)+(Sy−1)+(Sz−1). If two meshes have maximum hop counts identical to each other, scheduler 515 puts the mesh closer to being a cube before the other mesh. As an example and not by way of limitation, M1={4,6,16} and M2={8,9,9} have the same maximum distance, but scheduler 515 puts M2 before M1. Even if scheduler 515 did not remove undesirable meshes from Fit, scheduler 515 would not generate all meshes including at least N nodes 115. As an example and not by way of limitation, if N equaled twenty-seven and BestFit equaled {3,3,3}, Fit would not include mesh {1,1,27}. Mesh {1,1,27} would not result in a reasonable Number of meshes and would always result in at least one mesh satisfying a request, since Fit would include a mesh equal to grid 110 and cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 only if N is less than or equal to a Number of nodes 115 in grid 110. If AnyAllowed is true, to construct one or more free meshes, scheduler 515 loops through NodeInUse with an x axis as an outer loop, a y axis next, and a z axis as an inner loop until scheduler 515 identifies a free node 115. A free mesh includes a mesh including only free nodes 115, and a free node 115 includes a node 115 allocatable to a job 150. Scheduler 515 constructs NumFreeMeshes and FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes]. NumFreeMeshes indicates a Number of free meshes in grid 110, and FreeMesh is a list identifying, for each free mesh in grid 110, one or more free meshes structures in grid 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, indices of node 115 may be {i1, j1, k1}. Scheduler 515 may increment a z axis until scheduler 515 identifies a nonfree node 115, such as, for example, {i1,j1,k2}. Scheduler 515 may set FreeMesh.start[2] to k1 and FreeMesh.end[2] to k2−1. FreeMesh.start[2] corresponds to a start value of a free mesh along the z axis, and FreeMesh.end[2] corresponds to an end value of the free mesh. Scheduler 515 may then increment a y axis, starting at j1, to identify a first value, j2, so that line, {i1, j2, k1} through {i1, j1, k2−1}, includes at least one nonfree node. Scheduler 515 then sets FreeMesh.start[1] to j1 and FreeMesh.end[2] to j2−1. Scheduler 515 then increments an x axis, starting at i1, to identify a first value, i2, so that plane, {i2, j1, k1} through {i2, j2−1, k2−1}, includes at least one nonfree node. Scheduler then sets FreeMesh.start[0] to i1 and FreeMesh.end[0] to i2−1. Scheduler 515 repeats the above process scheduler 515 covers all nodes 115 in grid 110. The above process does not result in a unique set of free meshes. Looping in a different order tends to generate a different set of free meshes, but only if two or more free meshes share a boundary with each other. A free mesh entirely surrounded by nodes 115 in is always unique. FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrate a difference between using a y axis as an inner loop and an x axis as an inner loop in a two dimensional case. FIG. 9 illustrates two free meshes constructed using a y axis as an inner loop, and FIG. 10 illustrates two free meshes constructed using an x axis as an inner loop. In FIG. 9, area 530 includes nodes 115 in use, area 532a is a first free mesh, and area 532b is a second free mesh. Similarly, in FIG. 10, area 530 includes nodes 115 in use, area 532a is a first free mesh, and area 532b is a second free mesh. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a first scheduling algorithm to schedule spatial requests, a second scheduling algorithm to schedule compact requests, and a third scheduling algorithm to schedule any requests. The first and second scheduling algorithms are similar to each other, but use scan algorithms that are relatively different from each other. If scheduler 515 schedules a job 150, scheduler 515 lists nodes 150 allocated to job 150 in AssignedNodeList according to MPI Rank, i.e., AssignedNodeList[i] has MPI Rank i. To schedule a spatial request having size {Sx, Sy, Sz}, scheduler 515 uses a scan algorithm to search for a start point in NodeInUse for the spatial request. The following example logic provides an example description of an example scan algorithm. Part Start is a start point and Part End is an end point of a partition and Tx, Ty, and Tz are torus sizes in x, y, and z dimensions, respectively. For x = PartStart[0] to PartEnd[0] For y = PartStart[1] to PartEnd[1] For z = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] Hit = True For i = x to x+Sx−1 For j = y to y+Sy−1 For k = z to z+Sz−1 If (NodeInUse[i mod Tx, j mod Ty, k mod Tz) = NODE_IN_USE Hit = False End If End For End For End For If (Hit = True) Return True End If End For End For End For Return False In particular embodiments, a scan algorithm applicable to a compact request replaces the above Hit flag with a Count value incremented in an innermost loop as follows: Count = 0 For i = x to x+Sx−1 For j = y to y+Sy−1 For k = z to z+Sz−1 If (NodeInUse[i mod Tx, j mod Ty, k mod Tz) = NODE_NOT_IN_USE Count = Count + 1 End If End For End For End For If (Count ≧ RequestedNodes) Return True End If The above logic is relatively inefficient, since scheduler 515 evaluates each point in NodeInUse up to Sx×Sy×Sz times. In the above scan of a compact request, as a z loop increments from, say, z1 to z1+1, i and j inner loops do not change and a k loop changes only at end points. As a result, a two dimensional mesh from {x, y, z1} to {x+Sx, y+Sy−1, z1} is excluded from further calculations and scheduler 515 adds a two dimensional mesh from {x, y, (z1+1)+Sz−1} to {x+Sx−1,y+Sy−1,(z1+1)+Sz−1} to further calculations. i, j, and k inner loops count free nodes 115 in a sequence of two dimensional meshes along a z axis of size {Sx, Sy, 1}. A z loop removes one mesh and adds another. At a y loop, a similar effect occurs along a y axis. FreeX and FreeY (which both include arrays) facilitate reducing processing time. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses the following algorithm to scan a compact request: Define an array, zPlane[TorusSize[2]], to store two dimensional mesh counts. Compute an end point of x, y, and z loops as follows: For i = 0 to 2 If PartWraps[i] = True, end[i] = PartEnd[i] Else end[i] = PartEnd[i] − Size[i] Now x will loop from PartStart[0] to End[0] and so on. x loop For each z = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2], re-compute zPlane for meshes {x,PartStart[1],z} to {x+Sx−1,PartStart[1]+Sy−1,z} In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 would use three loop here. FreeY used here reduces a Number of loops to two: one loop for x and one lop for z. FreeY[x,PartStart[1],z] − FreeY[x,PartStart[1]+Sy,2] provides a Number of free nodes 115 along line {x,PartStart[1],z} to {x,PartStart[1]+Sy−1,z} inclusively. Set NewX = True for the below y loop. y loop If NewX = True Do nothing. Else Update zPlane For each z = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2], Subtract free nodes 115 in line segment from {x,y−1,z} to {x+Sx−1,y−1,z} from Zplane[z] Use FreeX[x,y−1,z] − FreeX[x+Sx,y−1,z] to avoid looping over x Add free nodes 115 in line segment from {x,y+Sy−1,z} to {x+Sx−1,y+Sy−1,z} to zPlane[z] Use FreeX[x,y+Sy−1,z] − FreeX[x+Sx,y+Sy−1,z] to avoid looping over x Set NewX = False for a next y increment Set NewY = True for the below z loop z loop If NewY = True Sum zPlane from z = PartStart[2] to z = PartEnd[2] and record results in Count Else Subtract zPlane[z−1] from Count Compute zPlane[z+Sz−1], which is a sum of free nodes 115 in a two dimensional mesh from {x,y,z+Sz−1} to {x+sX−1,y+Sy−1, z+Sz−1}. As described above, use FreeX to reduce a Number of loops from two to one. Add zPlane[z+Sz−1] to Count If Count ≧ RequestedNodes, Return True In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 applies one or more of the following modifications to address a partition wrapping in a dimension: (1) if indices in the dimension exceed array bounds, scheduler 515 applies a modulus function to the indices before any array reference; and (2) if the partition wraps in an x dimension or a y dimension, to compute free nodes 115 for a line segment, e.g., from point a to point b, scheduler 515 computes free nodes 115 for two line segments, one from point a to an end of the partition in the x or y dimension and another from a beginning of the partition to point b. In particular embodiments, a scan algorithm applicable to a spatial request is similar to the above scan algorithm applicable to a compact request. In particular embodiments, differences between a scan algorithm applicable to a spatial request and the above scan algorithm applicable to a compact request include the following: (1) instead of scheduler 515 identifying a point in a mesh having a particular Count, scheduler 515 looks for a point in the mesh at which all nodes 115 are free, which tends to reduce a memory references; and (2) scheduler 515 may need to handle one or more concatenated meshes, since, as described above, scheduler 515 may be dealing with a one dimensional request or a two dimensional request folded to produce a base mesh having up to two additional meshes concatenated onto the base mesh. In particular embodiments, such modifications to the scan algorithm tend to reduce a maximum run time associated with scheduler 515 scheduling a 16×16×16 configuration by one or more orders of magnitude. To schedule a spatial request, scheduler 515 uses a scheduling algorithm that applies a scan algorithm to each Try structure in a list of Try structures until scheduler 515 identifies a Try Structure that is schedulable. If no Try structures in the list are schedulable and an aggressive flag on the spatial request is zero, scheduler 515 returns to cluster management engine 130 without scheduling the spatial request. Otherwise, scheduler 515 uses a compact scheduling algorithm to try to schedule the spatial request. In particular embodiments, scheduling a request according to a spatial algorithm involves up to three transformations: two folds and one rotation. Scheduler 515 keeps track of the transformations using the following fields in Try: Try.rMap is a mapping function for rotation. Try.rMap is an array having three elements that maps indices of a point. As an example and not by way of limitation, Try.rMap={1, 0, 2} means index 0 gets mapped to 1, index 1 gets mapped to 0 and index 2 gets mapped to 2 so that, under the map, {x, y, z}) {y, x, z}. Try.irMap is an inverse of Try.rMap. Try.NumFoldMaps indicates a Number of folds producing a Try Structure. Try.foldLength is an array indicating lengths of folds. Try.foldFrom is an array indicating an index of a folded dimension. As an example and not by way of limitation, Try.foldFrom[i]=2 indicates that an i fold folded a z axis. Try.foldTo is an array indicating an index of a dimension folded into. Try.foldFix is an array indicating an index of a dimension that remained fixed. In particular embodiments, after scheduler 515 determines that a job 150 is schedulable at a starting point in grid 110 using a Try structure, scheduler 515 assigns MPI Ranks as follows: Scheduler 515 applies an inverse rotation map to the starting point to map the starting point to a pretransformed mesh. Scheduler 515 constructs folds to leave the starting point of the mesh fixed so that scheduler 515 need not apply an inverse fold. Scheduler 515 loops through the pretransformed mesh in to generate MPI Rank. As described above, in particular embodiments, an x axis is an outer loop, a y axis is a middle loop, and a z axis is an inner loop. Scheduler 515 applies the transformations applied to the pretransformed mesh to each point {x, y, z} in the loop according to an order scheduler 515 applied the transformations to the pretransformed mesh, i.e., scheduler 515 folds 0, then folds 1, and then rotates the point to get a point, {x′, y′, z′}, in the pretransformed mesh. Scheduler 515 then inserts the node, {x′, y′, z′}, into an end of AssignedNodeList. In particular embodiments, a compact scheduling algorithm applies a scan algorithm to each mesh in a list of Try structures until the compact scheduling algorithm identifies a Try structure that works. A Number of meshes in the list may be relatively large. As an example and not by way of limitation, for a torus including 16×16×16 nodes 115 and a request for one hundred nodes 115, BestFit={4,4,5}, which results in over two thousand meshes in a Try structures list. Although applying a binary search to the Try structures list may be desirable, a binary search of the Try structures list would not work in particular embodiments. A binary search including condition C would not work unless, (1) if C were true for element i, C were true for all j greater than or equal to i and, (2) if C were false for element i, C were false for all j less than or equal to i. In particular embodiments, a binary search of a Try structures list would not work, since a possibility exists that a scan using, for example, mesh M1={4,4,4} would find enough nodes to satisfy a request, while a scan using, for example, mesh M2={2,2,10} would not, despite M2 being above M1 in the Try structures list. In particular embodiments, a binary search of maximum distances works. If scheduler 515 groups meshes in a Try structures list according to maximum distance, then, if scheduler 515 identifies a fit for a mesh in the list having a maximum distance i, for all j greater than or equal to i, at least one mesh in the list having a maximum distance j will also fit. If no mesh in the list having a maximum distance i fits, no mesh in the list having a maximum distance less than or equal to i will fit either. As an example and not by way of limitation, suppose {x, y, z} is a mesh having a maximum distance i that fits. Therefore, {x, y, z+1} has a maximum distance i+1 and, since {x, y, z+1} covers {x, y, z}, {x, y, z+1} also works. Induction applies to all j greater than or equal to i. If no mesh in the list having a maximum distance i works, with respect to any mesh {x, y, z} having a maximum distance i−1, {x, y, z+1} has a maximum distance i and also does not fit. Neither does {x, y, z} since {x, y, z+1} covers {x, y, z}. Accordingly, Scheduler 515 constructs MaxDistance[NumMaxDistances,2] during initialization. In particular embodiments, a binary search of meshes in Fit does not guarantee a best fit, but provides a reasonably good upper bound on a best fit. In particular embodiments, a binary search of meshes in Fit is efficient, e.g., generating approximately ten scans for approximately one thousand meshes. Scheduler 515 may use an upper bound to run a binary search on maximum lengths or run a linear search downward from the upper bound. In particular embodiments, a linear search downward tends to be more efficient. Scheduler 515 runs a binary search on Fit and returns HighFit and HighStart[3]. HighFit is an index of Fit satisfying a request, and HighStart is a starting point of a fit in grid 110. An algorithm for running a linear search downward begins with HighFit and HighStart. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 decrements a maximum distance of a current HighFit mesh. Scheduler 515 then loops through all meshes including the maximum distance until scheduler 515 identifies a mesh satisfying the request. If scheduler 515 identifies a mesh satisfying the request, scheduler 515 sets the mesh to HighFit, decremented the maximum distance again, and repeats the process. If scheduler 515 identifies no such meshes, the algorithm exits and a current HighFit is a best fit. If scheduler 515 cannot identify a fit for a particular maximum distance, then scheduler 515 cannot identify a fit for a shorter maximum distance. Scheduler 515 loops through a Fit mesh and inserts one or more nodes 115 into an end of AssignedNodeList. An order of the three loops depends on how scheduler 515 mapped a switch-based torus to a node-based torus. If scheduler mapped the switch-based torus using a 4×1 configuration in one dimension, the one dimension is an inner loop. If scheduler 515 mapped the switch-based torus using a 2×2 configuration in two dimensions, the two dimensions are innermost loops. To schedule an any request, scheduler 515 loops through FreeMesh and fills the any request until scheduler 515 has assigned a requested Number of nodes 115 to the any request Scheduler 515 inserts nodes 115 into AssignedNodeList incrementally as scheduler 515 loops through FreeMesh. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 loops through FreeMesh as follows: A z axis is an innermost loop. Scheduler 515 expanded the z axis by a factor of four when scheduler 515 converted a switch-based torus to a node-based torus. Using the z axis as an innermost loop tends to avoid fragmentation of CPUs 164 coupled to a switch 116. A smaller one of two remaining dimensions in FreeMesh is a middle loop, and a larger one of the two remaining dimensions is an outermost loop. Scheduler 515 lists selected nodes 115 using node-based coordinates in AssignedNodeList according to MPI Rank. AssignedNodeList[1,0] is a x coordinate of a node 115 of MPI Rank i, AssignedNodeList[i,1] is a y coordinate of node 115 of MPI Rank i, and AssignedNodeList[i,2] is a z coordinate of node 115 of MPI Rank i. FreeNodeList is a list of available nodes 115 passed to scheduler 515 in switch-based coordinates. In particular embodiments, to set an mpiRank field in FreeNodeList, scheduler 515 uses the following example algorithm: For i=0 to NumFreeNodes−1 Convert AssignedNodeList[i] to switch-based coordinates and add them to To[4] Apply InverseTorusMap to first three elements of To For j=0 to NumFreeNodes−1 If To[k]=FreeNodeList[j].coordinate[k] for all k=0,1,2,3 FreeNodeList[j].mpiRank=i Exit j loop The following example logic describes particular embodiments of scheduler 515. In particular embodiments, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to schedule a job 150, cluster management engine 130 communicates values for the following input parameters to scheduler 515: RequestedNodes: Indicates a Number of nodes 115 requested. RequestType: Indicates a request type. Set to SPATIAL, COMPACT, or ANY. RequestSize: An array having three elements indicating a request size. Valid only for SPATIAL requests. AggressiveFlag: A floating-point number between zero and one indicating a degree of leeway allotted to scheduler 515 for purposes of allocating nodes 115 to job 150. TorusSize: An array having three elements indicating a switch-based size of grid 110. NodesPerSwitch: A Number of CPUs 164 coupled to each switch 166 in grid 110. NumFreeNodes: A Number of nodes 115 in FreeNodeList. FreeNodeList: A list of FreeNode structures indicating switch-based coordinates of nodes 115 available for scheduling. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 returns one of the following after scheduler 515 attempts to schedule a job 150: PQS_ASSIGNED: Indicates scheduler 515 has scheduled job 150. PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_AT_SPECIFIED_TIME: Indicates scheduler 515 has not schedule job 150. PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_FOR_JOB_CATEGORY: Indicates scheduler 515 can never schedule job 150, even if all nodes 115 in grid 110 are available. If scheduler 515 schedules job 150, scheduler 515 sets mpiRank fields of FreeNode structures accordingly. In particular embodiments, a wrapper function between cluster management engine 130 and scheduler 515 converts input from cluster management engine 130 to a format that scheduler 515 expects and converts output from scheduler 515 to a format that cluster management engine 130 expects. In particular embodiments, setSchedulable, which determines whether a job 150 is theoretically schedulable, encompasses the following example logic: If setSchedulable( ) = False Return PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_FOR_JOB_CATEGORY End If If initScheduler( ) = False Return PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_AT_SPECIFIED_TIME End If If RequestedNodes > NumFreeNodes ret = False Else ret = scheduleJob( ) End If If ret = True setMpiRank( ) Return PQS_ASSIGNED Else Return PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_AT_SPECIFIED_TIME End If In particular embodiments, Rank, which scheduler 515 calls to rank job sizes, encompasses the following example logic. Input to Rank includes a one dimensional array, In[3], having three elements. Output from Rank includes a one dimensional array, Rank[3], having three elements indicating, in increasing size, indices of In. In[Rank[0]≦In[Rank[1]]≦In[Rank[2]. In particular embodiments, Rank includes a bubble algorithm. Rank[0] = 0 Rank[1] = 1 Rank[2] = 2 For i = 0 to 2 For j = i+1 to 2 If In[Rank[j] < In[Rank[i] k = Rank[j] Rank[j] = Rank[i] Rank[i] = k End If End For End For In particular embodiments, setSchedulable, which determines whether a job 150 is theoretically schedulable, encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 2 If TorusSize[i] ≦ 1 Return False End For If RequestedNodes > TorusSize[0] × TorusSize[1] × TorusSize[2] × NodesPerSwitch Return False End If If NodesPerSwitch not equal to four Return False; End If If RequestType = SPATIAL factor[0] = 2 factor[1] = 2 Rank(TorusSize, tRank) Rank(RequestedSize, jRank) NumJobDim = 0 NumExceed = 0 For i = 0 to 2 If RequestedSize[i] > 1) NumJobDim = NumJobDim + 1 Else If RequestedSize[i] < 1 Return False End If If RequestedSize[jRank[i]] > TorusSize[tRank[i]] Exceed[NumExceed] = i NumExceed = NumExceed + 1 End If End For If NumExceed = 0 Return True Else If NumExceed = 1 If RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[0]] ≦ NodesPerSwitch × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[0]] Return True End If If NumJobDim < 3 Return True End If Return False Else If RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[0]] ≦ factor[0] × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[0] and RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[1]] ≦ factor[1] × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[1]] Return True End If If NumJobDim < 3 and (RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[0]] ≦ NodesPerSwitch × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[0]] or RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[1]] ≦ NodesPerSwitch × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[1]]) Return True End If return False End If return True In particular embodiments, initScheduler, which sets allowed scheduling types, encompasses the following example logic. If a job 150 requests only one node 115, initScheduler sets an allowed type to Any, regardless of an original request: If RequestedNodes = 1 or RequestType = Any AnyAllowed = True SpatialAllowed = False CompactAllowed = False Else If RequestType = Compact CompactAllowed = True AnyAllowed = False SpatialAllowed = False Else If RequestType = Spatial SpatialAllowed = True AnyAllowed = False If AggressiveFlag > 0 CompactAllowed = True Else Compact Allowed = False End If End If factor[0] = 2 factor[1] = 2 Rank(TorusSize, tRank) TorusMap[0] = tRank[2] TorusMap[1] = tRank[1] TorusMap[2] = tRank[0] InverseTorusMap[tRank[0]] = 2 InverseTorusMap[tRank[1]] = 1 InverseTorusMap[tRank[2]] = 0 If SpatialAllowed = True If setTorusForSpatial( ) = False Return False End If Else If CompactAllowed = True If setTorusForCompactl( ) = False Return False End If Else If setTorusForAny( ) = False Return False End If End If For i = 0 to NumMapDimensions TorusSize[mapDiminsions[i]] = mapMod[i] × TorusSize[mapDiminsions[i]] End For SetPartition( ) If SpatialAllowed = True buildSpatialTries( ) End If If compactAllowed = True buildCompactFits( ) End If If AnyAllowed = True buildFreeMeshes( ) End If If SpatialAllowed = True or CompactAllowed = True InitScan( ) End If return True In particular embodiments, setTorusForSpatial, which maps a switch-based torus to a node-based torus for a spatial request, encompasses the following example logic: Rank(RequestedSize, jRank) NumDim = 0 dNdx = 0 For i = 0 to 2 If RequestedSize[i] > 1) twoD[NumDim] = i NumDim = NumDim + 1 Else oneD[dNdx] = i dNdx = dNdx + 1 End If End For If NumDim = 1 Return setTorusFor1D( ) Else If NumDim = 2 Return setTorusFor2D( ) Else Return setTorusFor3D( ) End If In particular embodiments, setTorusForID, which multiplies grid 110 by two factors in two largest dimensions of job 150, jRank[2] and jRank[1], encompasses the following example logic: NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = jRank[2] mapDiminsions[1] = jRank[1] mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[0] For i = 0 to 3 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[TorusMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 3 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For For i = 0 to 3 RequestedSize[i] = OriginalSize[jRank[i]] JobMap[jRank[i]] = i End For Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusFor2D maps a switch-based torus to a node-based torus in one of six ways: 1. {7[0], T[1], T[2]}→{T[0], 2×T[1], 2×T[2]} 2. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{2×T[0], T[1], 2×T[2]} 3. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{2×T[0], 2×T[1], T[2]} 4. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{T[0], T[1], 4×T[2]} 5. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{T[0], 4×T[1], T[2]} 6. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{4×T[0], T[1], T[2]} T is TorusSize. The first three configurations result from scheduler 515 configuring nodes 115 per switch 166 as 2×2 nodes 115. The last three configurations result from scheduler 515 configuring nodes 115 per switch 166 as 1×1 nodes 115. In particular embodiments, setTorusFor2D counts Try structures that scheduler 515 would generate for each map and selects a map that would generate a greatest number of Try structures. In the event of a tie, setTorusFor2D selects a map according to the above order. Scheduler 515 constructs pSize[6,4] to include: pSizes[i,0]=size of the partition in the x dimension for configuration i. pSizes[i,1]=size of the partition in the y dimension for configuration i. pSizes[i,2]=size of the partition in the z dimension for configuration i. pSizes[i,3]=the Number of tries that would be generated for configuration i. In particular embodiments, setTorusFor2D encompasses the following example logic: max = −1 maxNdx = −1 For i = 0 to 2 For j = i+1 to 3 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (i+j) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (i+j+1) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i + j −1, 2] = testPartSize[2] pSizes[i + j −1, 1] = testPartSize[1] pSizes[i + j −1, 0] = testPartSize[0] pSizes[i + j −1][3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize) If pSizes[i + j − 1][3] > max max = pSizes[i + j − 1][3] maxNdx = i + j − 1 End If End For End For For i = 0 to 3 NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = 2 − i mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i+3, 2] = testspSize[2] pSizes[i+3, 1] = testspSize[1] pSizes[i+3, 0] = testspSize[0] pSizes[i+3][3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize) if pSizes[i+3][3] > max max = pSizes[i+3][3] maxNdx = i+3 End If End For If max ≦ 0 if CompactAllowed = True SpatialAllowed = False Return setTorusForCompact( ) Else return False End If Else For i = 0 to 2 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[TorusMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 2 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For If maxNdx < 3 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (maxNdx+1) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (maxNdx+2) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[0]] JobMap[jRank[1]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[1] JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3− mapDiminsions[0]− mapDiminsions[1] Else NumMod = 1 NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = (5 − maxNdx) mod 3 mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid If mapDiminsions[0] = 2 i = 1 Else i = 2 End If RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[i] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] RequestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i] = OriginalSize[jRank[0]] JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[1]] = i JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i End If End If Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusFor3D encompasses the following example logic: max = −1 maxNdx = −1 For i = 0 to 2 For j = i+1 to 2 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (i+j) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (i+j+1) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i + j − 1, 2] = testPartSize[2] pSizes[i + j − 1, 1] = testPartSize[1] pSizes[i + j − 1, 0] = testPartSize[0] pSizes[i + j − 1, 3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize) If (pSizes[i + j − 1,3] > max) max = pSizes[i + j − 1, 3] maxNdx = i + j − 1 End If End For End For For i = 0 to 2 NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = 2 − i mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid; setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i+3, 2] = testPartSize[2] pSizes[i+3, 1] = testPartSize[1] pSizes[i+3, 0] = testPartSize[0] pSizes[i+3], 3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize If pSizes[i+3][3] > max max = pSizes[i+3, 3] maxNdx = i+3 End If End For If max ≦ 0 If CompactAllowed = True SpatialAllowed = False Return setTorusForCompact( ) Else return False End If Else For i = 0 to 2 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[TorusMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 2 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For If maxNdx < 3 NumMod = 2 mod[0] = (maxNdx+1)mod 3 mod[1] = (maxNdx+2) mod 3 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (maxNdx+1) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (maxNdx+2) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[0]] JobMap[jRank[1]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[1] JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3 − mapDiminsions[0] − mapDiminsions[1] Else NumMod = 1 mod[0] = 2 − (maxNdx − 3) NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = (5 − maxNdx) mod 3 mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid If mapDiminsions[0] = 2 i = 1 Else i = 2 End If RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[i] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] requestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i] = originalSize[jRank[0]]; JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[1]] = i JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i End If End If Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusForCompact, which sets a z dimension of a compact request to a 4×1 configuration, encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 3 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[tMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 3 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = 2 mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusForAny, which sets a z dimension of an any request to a 4×1 configuration, encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 3 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[tMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 3 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = 2 mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid Return True In particular embodiments, setPartition encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to TorusSize[0] − 1 For j = 0 to TorusSize[1] − 1 For k = 0 to TorusSize[2] − 1 NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_IN_USE End For End For End For For i = 0 to 2 PartStart[i] = TorusSize[i] PartEnd[i] = 0 End For For i = 0 to NumFreeNodes − 1 To[0] = FreeNodes[i].coordinate[TorusMap[0]] To[1] = FreeNodes[i].coordinate[TorusMap[1]] To[2] = FreeNodes[i].coordinate[TorusMap[2]] If NumMapDimensions = 1 To[MapDimension[0]] = To[MapDimension[0]] × MapMod[0] + FreeNodes[i].coordinate[3] Else To[MapDimension[0]] = To[MapDimension[0]] × MapMod[0] + FreeNodes[i].coordinate[3] / MapMod[1] To[MapDimension[1]] = To[MapDimension[1]] × MapMod[1] + FreeNodes[i].coordinate[3] mod MapMod[1] End If NodeInUse[To[0]], To[1], To[2]] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE For j = 0 to 2 If To[j] < PartStart[j] PartStart]j] = To[j] End If If To[j] < PartStart[j] PartStart]j] = To[j] End If End For End For For i = 0 to 2 If PartStart[i] = 0 and PartEnd[i] = TorusSize[i] − 1 PartWraps[i] = True Else PartWraps[i] = False End If PartSize[i] = PartEnd[i] − PartStart[i] + 1 End For In particular embodiments, initScan, which constructs FreeY and FreeX, encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to TorusSize[0] − 1 For k = 0 to TorusSize[2]− 1 Count = 0 For j = TorusSize[1] − 1 to 0 by −1 If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE Count = Count + 1 End If FreeY[i,j,k] = Count End For End For End For For j = 0 to TorusSize[1] − 1 For k = 0 to TorusStSize[2]− 1 Count = 0 For i = TorusSize[0] − 1 to 0 by −1 If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE Count = Count + 1 End If FreeX[i,j,k] = Count End For End For End For In particular embodiments, buildSpatialTries, which determines a Number of dimensions in a request, encompasses the following example logic: NumDim = 0 For i = 0 to 2 If RequestedSize[i] > 1) NumDim = NumDim + 1 End If End For If NumDim = 1 build1DTry( ) Else If NumDim = 2 build2DTry( ) Else for i = 0 to 2 Try.baseSize[i] RequestedSize[i] End For Try.NumConcats = 0 Try.NumFoldMaps = 0 NumberOfTries = 0 build3Dtry(Try, NumberOfTries) End If In particular embodiments, build3Dtry, which builds TryList for a three dimensional request and builds Try structures for each fold in a one dimensional request or a two dimensional request, encompasses the following example logic: setOrient(Try, NumOrient, orient) if NumOrient > 0 For (i = 0 to NumOrient − 1 ++NumTries; For j = 0 to 2 TryList[NumberOfTries].baseSize[j] = Try.baseSize[orient[i, j]] End For TryList[NumberOfTries].NumConcats = Try.NumConcats; For j = 0 to TryList[NumberOfTries].NumConcats − 1 For k = 0 to 2 TryList[NumberOfTries.concatSize[j, k] = Try.concatSize[j,orient[i, k]]; TryList[NumberOfTries].concatStartNode[j, k] = Try.concatStartNode[j, orient[i, k]]; End For End For TryList[NumberOfTries].NumFoldMaps = Try.NumFoldMaps; For j = 0 to TryList[NumberOfTries].NumFoldMaps TryList[NumberOfTries].foldLength[j] = Try.foldLength[j] TryList[NumberOfTries].foldFrom[j] = Try.foldFrom[j] TryList[NumberOfTries].foldTo[j] = Try.foldTo[j] TryList[NumberOfTries].foldFix[j] = Try.foldFix[j] End For For k = 0 to 2 TryList[NumberOfTries].rMap[k] = orient[i, k] TryList[NumberOfTries].irMap[orient[i, k]] = ; End For NumberOfTries = NumberOfTries + 1 In particular embodiments, setOrient, which calculates a Number of unique rotations, NumOrient, for a Try structure and an indices map for each rotation, encompasses the following example logic: NumOrient = 0; If try.NumberOfConcatanations > 0 For i = 0 to 2 size[i] = try.baseSize[i]; For j = 0 to try.NumConcats − 1 If try.concatStartNode[j, i] ≧ size[i] size[i] = Try.concatStartNode[j, i] + Try.concatSize[j, i]; Else If Try.concatStartNode[j, i] < 0 size[i] = size[i] − try.concatStartNode[j, i] End If End For End For If size[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[1] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[2] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[0] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[2] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[0] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[0] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[1] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[0] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else If Try.baseSize[0] = Try.baseSize[1] If try.baseSize[0] = try.baseSize[2] If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If End if Else if Try.baseSize[0] = Try.baseSize[2] If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else Tf Try.baseSize[1] = Try≧baseSize[2]) If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If End If In particular embodiments, build2Dtry encompasses the following example logic: Rank(PartSize, pRank) build2DFold(PartSize, pRank, RequestedSize, NumFolds, FoldList) For i = 0 to NumFolds − 1 d1 = RequestedSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] + FoldList[i]. foldLengtht + FoldList[i].NumFolds If FoldList[i].remainder not equal 0 d1 = d1 + 1 End If For j = i + 1 to NumFolds − 1 D2 = RequestedSize[FoldList[j].fixDimension] + FoldList[j]. foldLengtht + FoldList[j].NumFolds If FoldList[j].remainder not equal 0 D2 = d2 + 1 End If If d2 < d1 TempFold = FoldList[j] FoldList[j] = FoldList[i] FoldList[i] = tempFold d1 = d2 End If End For End For NumberOfTries = 0 For i = 0 to NumFolds − 1 try.baseSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] = RequestedSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] try.baseSize[FoldList[i].foldDimension = FoldList[i].foldLength try.baseSize[FoldList[i].oneDimension] = FoldList[i].NumFolds If FoldList[i].remainder not equal 0 try.NumConcats = 1 If FoldList[i].NumFolds is odd Try.concatStartNode[0, FoldList[i]. foldDimension] = FoldList[i].foldLength − FoldList[i].remainder Else Try.concatStartNode[0, FoldList[i]. foldDimension] = 0 End If try.concatStartNode[0,FoldList[i]. fixDimension] = 0 try.concatStartNode[0,FoldList[i]. oneDimension] = FoldList[i].NumFolds try.concatSize[0,FoldList[i]. fixDimension] = try. baseSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] try.concatSize[0, FoldList[i]. foldDimension] = FoldList[i]. remainder try.concatSize[0,FoldList[i]. oneDimension] = 1 Else try.NumConcats = 0 End If try.NumFoldMaps = 1 try.foldLength[0] = FoldList[i].foldLength try.foldFrom[0] = FoldList[i].foldDimension try.foldTo[0] = FoldList[i]. oneDimension try.foldFix[0] = FoldList[i].fixDimension build3Dtry(Try, NumberOfTries) End For In particular embodiments, build2Dfold, which builds all possible folds of a two dimensional mesh, encompasses the following example logic: j = 0 oneD = −1 For i = 0 to 2 If size[i] = 1 and oneD = −1 oneD = i Else twoD[j] = I j = j + 1 End If End For If size[twoD[1]] ≧ size[twoD[0]] bigD = twoD[1] littleD = twoD[0] Else bigD = twoD[0] littleD = twoD[1] End If startFoldB = sqrt(size[bigD]) If startFoldB × startFoldB not equal size[bigD] or startFoldB = 1 StartFoldB = startFoldB + 1 End If endFoldB = size[bigD] / 2 startFoldL = sqrt(size[littleD]) If startFoldL × startFoldL not equal size[littleD] or startFoldL = 1 StartFoldL = startFoldL + 1 if size[bigD] not equal size[littleD] endFoldL = size[littleD] / 2 else endFoldL = 1 End If NumFolds = 1 If endFoldB ≧ startFoldB NumFolds= NumFolds +(endFoldB − startFoldB+1) End If If endFoldL ≧ startFoldL NumFolds= NumFolds +(endFoldL − startFoldL+1) End If foldIndex = 0; FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength =size[littleD] FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds = 1 FoldList[foldIndex].remainder = 0 FoldList[foldIndex].foldD = littleD FoldList[foldIndex].fixD = bigD FoldList[foldIndex].oneD = oneD An array, t, constructed according to the example logic below, is a mesh size of a resulting Try. Scheduler 515 records a Rank of t in an array, tRank. t[littleD] = size[bigD] t[bigD] = FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds rank(t, tRank) hit = False For i1 = 0 to 2 while hit = False If t[tRank[i1]] > PartSize[pRank[i1]] hit = True End If If hit = False foldIndex = foldIndex + 1 End If For i = startFoldB to endFoldB FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength = i FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds = size[bigD] / i FoldList[foldIndex].remainder = size[bigD] mod i FoldList[foldIndex].foldD = bigD FoldList[foldIndex].fixD = littleD FoldList[foldIndex].oneD = oneD t[littleD] = size[littleD] t[bigD] = FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength If (FoldList[foldIndex].remainder not equal 0 t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds + 1 Else t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds End If Rank(t, tRank) hit = False For i1 = 0 to 2 while hit = False If t[tRank[i1]] > PartSize[pRank[i1]] hit = True End If End For if hit = False foldIndex = foldIndex + 1 End If End For For i = startFoldL to endFoldL FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength = i FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds = size[littleD] / i FoldList[foldIndex].remainder = size[littleD] mod i FoldList[foldIndex].foldD = littleD FoldList[foldIndex].fixD = bigD FoldList[foldIndex].oneD = oneD t[bigD] = size[bigD] t[littleD] = FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength If FoldList[foldIndex].remainder not equal 0 t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds + 1 Else t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds End If Rank(t, tRank) hit = False for i1 = 0 to 2 while hit = False If t[tRank[i1]] > PartSize[pRank[i1]] hit = True End If End For If hit = False FoldIndex = foldIndex + 1 End If End For In particular embodiments, build1Try generates a list of folds of a one dimensional request and, for each fold, calls build2DFold to generate a list of one or more additional folds. Build1Try records the list of folds in the OneDFoldList, which encompasses the following example structure: Structure oneDFold Fold Structure oneD Fold Structure twoD[x] integer NumTwoDFolds integer twoDFoldSize[3] End Structure In particular embodiments, oneD includes a first fold. In particular embodiments, twoD includes a list of folds generated from the first fold. NumTwoDFolds indicates a Number of folds in twoD. In particular embodiments, twoDFoldSize indicates a mesh size passed to build2Dfold. Scheduler 515 generates Try structures for elements of twoD and calls build3Dtry to build all possible rotations of each Try structure. In particular embodiments, build1Try encompasses the following example logic: Rank(PartSize, pRank) Rank(RequestedSize, jRank[0]) end = sqrt(RequestedSize[jRank[2]]) start = 2 OneDFoldList[0].oneD.foldLength = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] OneDFoldList[0].oneD.NumFolds = 1 OneDFoldList[0].oneD.remainder = 0 OneDFoldList[0].oneD.foldD = jRank[2] OneDFoldList[0].oneD.oneD = jRank[1] OneDFoldList[0].oneD.fixD = jRank[0] OneDFoldList[0].twoDFoldSize[jRank[2]] = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] OneDFoldList[0].twoDFoldSize[jRank[1]] = 1 OneDFoldList[0].twoDFoldSize[jRank[0]] = 1 hit = False For j = 0 to 2 while hit = False if RequestedSize[jRank[j]] > PartSize[pRank[j]] hit = True End If End For If hit = False build2DFold(PartSize, pRank, RequestedSize, OneDFoldList[0].twoD, OneDFoldList[0].nTwoDFolds) OneDFoldList[0].nTwoDFolds = 1 Num1DFolds = 1; Else Num1DFolds = 0 End If gotRemZero = False For i = start to end OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.foldLength = i OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.NumFolds = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] / i OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.remainder = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] mod i OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.foldD = jRank[2] (OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.oneD = jRank[1] OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.fixD = jRank[0] OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize[jRank[2]] = OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.foldLength OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize[jRank[1]] = OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.NumFolds OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize[jRank[0]] = 1 If OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.remainder not equal 0 or gotRemZero =False If OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.remainder = 0 gotRemZero = True End If build2DFold(PartSize, pRank, RequestedSize, OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize, OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoD, OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].nTwoDFolds) Num1DFolds = Num1DFolds + 1 End If End For NumberOfTries = 0 For i = 0 to Num1DFolds For j = 0 to OneDFoldList[i].nTwoDFolds If OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD not equal OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD or OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder = 0 try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoDFoldSize[OneDFoldList[i]. twoD[j].fixD] try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds; if OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].remainder not equal 0 try.NumConcats = 1 if OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds is odd try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength − OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].remainder Else try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = 0 End If try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] = 0 try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds try.concatSize[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] = try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] try.concatSize[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].remainder try.concatSize[0 OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD] = 1; Else try.NumConcats = 0 End If If OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder not equal 0 if OneDFoldList[i].oneD.NumFolds is odd try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength − OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder Else try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD] = 0 End If try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD. fixD] = 0 try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.NumFolds try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD. fixD] = 1 try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD. oneD] = 1 oneDEnd[0] = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 0] + try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 0] − 1 oneDEnd[1] = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 1] + try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 1] − 1 oneDEnd[2] = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 2] + try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 2] − 1 k = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] l = oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] If OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds is odd try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength − 1 − (k mod OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength) oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength − 1 − (l mod OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength) Else try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = k mod OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = l mod OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength End If try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD] = k / OneDFoldList[i].twoD.foldLength oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD] = l / OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 0] = oneDEnd[0] − try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 0] + 1 try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 1] = oneDEnd[1] − try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 1] + 1 try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 2] = oneDEnd[2] − try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 2] + 1 try.NumConcats = try.NumConcats + 1 End If try.NumFoldMaps = 2 try.foldLength[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength try.foldFrom[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD try.foldTo[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD try.foldFix[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.fixD try.foldLength[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength try.foldFrom[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD try.foldTo[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD try.foldFix[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD build3Dtry(Try, NumberOfTries) End For End For NumDeleted = 0 For i = 0 to NumberOfTries − 1 curMax = TryList[i].baseSize[0] + TryList[i].baseSize[1] + TryList[i].baseSize[2] if TryList[i].NumConcats > 0 curMax = curMax + 1 End If For j = i +1toNumberOfTries − 1 duplicate = True For i1 = 0 to 2 while duplicate = True If TryList[j].baseSize[i1] not equal TryList[i].baseSize[i] duplicate = False End If End For If duplicate = True and TryList[j].NumConcats = TryList[i].NumConcats) For i1 = 0 to TryList[i].NumConcats while duplicate = True For j1 = 0 to 2 while duplicate = True If TryList[j].concatStartNode[i1, j1] not equal TryList[i].concatStartNode[i1, j1] duplicate = False Else If TryList[j].concatSize[i1, j1] not equal TryList[i].concatSize[i1, j1] duplicate = False End For End For End If If duplicate = True For i1 = 0 to 2 TryList[j].baseSize[i1] = TorusSize[i1] + 1 End For NumDeleted = NumDeleted + 1 Else nxtMax = TryList[j].baseSize[0] + TryList[j].baseSize[1] + TryList[j].baseSize[2] If TryList[j].NumConcats > 0 nxtMax = nxtMax + 1 End If If nxtMax < curMax TempTry = TryList[j] TryList[j] = TryList[i] TryList[i] = tempTry curMax = nxtMax End If End If End For End For NumberOfTries = NumberOfTries − NumDeleted In particular embodiments, buildCompactFits, which constructs BestFit[3], encompasses the following example logic: Rank(PartSize,PartRank) l = QubeRoot(ResuestedNodes) hit = False For i = 1 to l+1 while hit = False For j = i to l+1 while hit = False For (k = j to l+1 while hit = False If i × j × k ≧ RequestedNodes t[0] = i t[1] = j t[2] = k hit = True End If End For End For End For If t[0] ≦ PartSize[PartRank[0]] If t[1] > PartSize[PartRank[1]] t[1] = t[1] − 1 hit = False For t[2] = RequestedNodes / (t[0] × t[1]) to PartSize[PartRank[2]] while hit = False If t[0] × t[1] × t[2] ≧ RequestedNodes Hit = True End If End For End If Else t[0] = PartSize[PartRank[0]] l = sqrt(RequestedNodes / t[0]) hit = False; For j = l to l + 1 while hit = False For (k = j to l + 1 while hit = False If (t[0] × j × k ≧ RequestedNodes t[1] = j t[2] = k hit = True End If End For End For if t[1] > PartSize[PartRank[1]] t[1] = PartSize[PartRank[1]] t[2] = RequestedNodes / (t[0] × t[1]) If t[0] × t[1] × t[2] < RequestedNodes t[2] = t[2] + 1 End If End If End If bestFit[pRank[0]] = t[0]; bestFit[pRank[1]] = t[1]; bestFit[pRank[2]] = t[2]; NumberOfFits = 0 For i = BestFit[0] to PartSize[0] For j = BestFit[1] to PartSize[1] For k = BestFit[2] to PartSize[2] Fit[NumberOfFits,0] = i Fit[NumberOfFits,1] = j Fit[NumberOfFits,2] = k Hit = True If (i not equal to PartSize[0]) and(j not equal to PartSize[0]) and (k not equal to PartSize[0]) For m = 0 to NumMapDimensions While Hit = True If Fit[NumberOfFits,MapDimension[m]] mod MapMod[m] not equal to 0 Hit = False End If End For End If If Hit = True NumberOfFits = NumberOfFits + 1 End If End For End For End For For i = 0 to NumBerOfFits − 1 d1 = Fit[i, 0] + Fit[i, 1] + Fit[i, 2] For j = i + 1 to NumBerOfFits − 1 d2 = Fit[j, 0] + Fit[j, 1] + Fit[j, 2] if d2 < d1 k = Fit[j, 0] Fit[j, 0] = Fit[i, 0] Fit[i, 0] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k d1 = d2 Else If d2 = d1 Rank(Fit[i], iRank) Rank(Fit[j], jRank) hit = 0 For (k = 0 to 2 while hit = 0 If Fit[j, jRank[k] > Fit[i, iRank[k] hit = 1 Else If Fit[j, jRank[k] < Fit[i, iRank[k] Hit = −1 End For If hit = 1 k = Fit[j, 0] Fit[j, 0] = Fit[i, 0] Fit[i, 0] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k d1 = d2 End If End If End For End For lastMax = 0 NumMaxDistances = 0 For i = 0 NumberOfFits − 1 currentMax = Fit[i, 0] + Fit[i, 1] + Fit[i, 2] If currentMax not equal lastMax MaxDistance[NumberOfMaxDistance, 0] = i MaxDistance[NumberOfMaxDistance, 1] = currentMax NumberOfMaxDistance = NumberOfMaxDistance + 1 End If End For In particular embodiments, buildFreeMeshes Function encompasses the following example logic: NumFreeMeshes = 0 For i = partStart[0] to PartEnd[0] For j =PartStart[1] to PartEnd[1] For k = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_ON_HOLD meshStart[0] = i meshStart[1] = j meshStart[2] = k inMesh = True for mz = k + 1 to PartEnd[2] and inMesh = True if NodeInUse[i,j,mz] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For If inMesh = True mEnd[2] = mz − 1 Else mEnd[2] = mz − 2 If PartWraps[2] and meshStart[2] = 0 and meshEnd[2] not equal PartEnd[2] inMesh = True; For mz = PartEnd[2 to meshEnd[2] by −1 and inMesh = True If NodeInUse [i,j,mz] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For If inMesh = True mz = mz + 1 Else mz = mz + 2 End If if mz ≦ PartEnd[2] meshStart[2] = mz; meshEnd[2] =meshEnd[2] + TorusSize[2] End If End If inMesh = True For my = j + 1 to PartEnd[1] and inMesh = True For mz = meshStart[2 tomeshEnd[2] an inMesh = True If NodeInUse[i, my, mz mod TorusSize[2]] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For If inMesh = True meshEnd[1] = my − 1 Else meshEnd[1] = my − 2 End If If PartWraps[1] and meshStart[1] = 0 and meshEnd[1] not equal PartEnd[1] inMesh = True For my = PartEnd[1] to meshEnd[1] by −1 and inMesh = True For mz = meshStart[2] to meshEnd[2] and inMesh = True If NodeInUse[i,my,mz mod Torus Size[2] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For End For If inMesh = True My = my + 1 Else my = my + 2 End If if my ≦ PartEnd[1] meshStart[1] = my meshEnd[1] =meshEnd[1] + TorusSize[1] End If End If End For inMesh = True for mx = i + 1 to PartEnd[0] and inMesh = True for my = meshStart[1] to meshEnd[1] and inMesh = True for mz = mStart[2] to mEnd[2] and inMesh = True If NodeInUse[mx,my mod TorusSize[1],mz mod TorusSize[2]] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For End For End For If inMesh = True meshEnd[0] = mx − 1 Else meshEnd[0] = mx − 2 End If If partWraps[0] and meshStart[0] = 0 and meshEnd[0] not equal PartEnd[0] inMesh = True For mx = partEnd[0] to meshEnd[0] by −1 and inMesh = True For my = meshStart[1] to meshEnd[1] and inMesh = True For mz = meshStart[2] to meshEnd[2] and inMesh = True If NodeInUse[mx,my mod TorusSize[1],mz Mod TorusSize[2]] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For End For End For If inMesh = True Mx = mx + 1 Else Mx = mx + 2 End If If mx ≦ PartEnd[0] meshStart[0] = mx meshEnd[0] = meshEnd[0] + TorusSize[0] End If End If FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Start[0] = meshStart[0] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Start[1] = meshStart[1] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Start[2] = meshStart[2] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].end[0] = meshEnd[0] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].end[1] = meshEnd[1] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].end[2] = meshEnd[2] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].NumNodes = (meshEnd[0] − meshStart[0] + 1) ×(meshEnd[1] − meshStart[1] + 1) ×(meshEnd[2] − meshStart[2] + 1) For mx = meshStart[0] to meshEnd[0] mx1 = mx mod TorusSize[0] For my = meshStart[1] to meshEnd[1] my1 = my mod TorusSize[1] For mz = meshStart[2] to meshEnd[2] mz1 = mz mod TorusSize[2] NodeInUse[mx1], my1], mz1] = NODE_ON_HOLD End For End For End For For i = 0 to 2 FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[i] = 2 − l; End For For l = 0 to 2 For m = l+1 to 3 l1 = FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[l] m1 = FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[m] If meshEnd[m1] − meshStart[m1] <meshEnd[l1] − meshStart[l1] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[l] = m1 FreeMeshRank[m] = l1 End If End For End For NumFreeMeshes = NumFreeMeshes + 1 End If End For End For End For For i = partStart[0] to PartEnd[0] For j =PartStart[1] to PartEnd[1] For k = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_ON_HOLD NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE End If End For End For End For For i = 0 to NumFreeMeshes − 1 For j = i +1 to NumFreeMeshes − 1 hit = False if FreeMesh[j].NumNodes < freeMesh[i].NumNodes hit = True; Else If FreeMesh[j].NumNodes = freeMesh[i].NumNodes hit = True For l = 0 to 2 while hit = True If FreeMesh[j].Rank[l] > freeMesh[i].Rank[l]) Hit = False End If End For End If If hit = True TempMesh = FreeMesh[j] FreeMesh[j] = FreeMesh[i] FreeMesh[i] = TempMesh End If End For End For In particular embodiments, ScheduleJob, which returns True if scheduler 515 successfully schedules a job 150, encompasses the following example logic: If SpatialAllowed = True If scheduleSpatial( ) = True return True Else If CompactAllowed = True return scheduleCompact( ) End If Else If CompactAllowed = True return scheduleCompact( ) Else Return scheduleAny( ) End If In particular embodiments, scheduleSpatial encompasses the following example logic: GotFit = False For i = 0 to NumberOfTries − 1 while GotFit = False If scanSpatial(TryList[i],Start) = True GotFit = True setSpatialNodeInUse(Try, Start) End If End For Return GotFit In particular embodiments, setSpatialNodeInUse, which builds AssignedNodeList, encompasses the following example logic: NodeIndex = 0 For (cNode[0] = 0 to OriginalSize[0] − 1 For cNode[1] = 0 to OriginalSize[1] − 1 For cNode[2] = 0 to OriginalSize[2] − 1 For i = 0 to 2 jcNode[jobMap[i]] = cNode[i] End For If Try.NumFoldMaps = 1 mNode[0, Try.foldFix[0]] =jcNode[Try.foldFix[0]] mNode[0, Try.foldTo[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] / Try.foldLength[0] If mNode[0, Try.foldTo[0]] is odd mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = Try.foldLength[0] − 1 − (jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0]) Else mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0] End If For i = 0 to 2 node[i] = mNode[0, Try.rMap[l]] End For Else mNode[0, Try.foldFix[0]] =jcNode[Try.foldFix[0]] mNode[0,Try.foldTo[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] / Try → foldLnt[0] If mNode[0, Try.foldTo[0]] is odd mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = Try.foldLength[0] − 1 − (jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0]) Else mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0] End If mNode[1, Try.foldFix[1]] =mNode[0, Try.foldFix[1]] mNode[1, Try.foldTo[1]] = mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[1]] / Try.foldLength[1] If mNode[1, Try.foldTo[1]] is odd mNode[1, Try.foldFrom[1]] = Try.foldLength[1] − 1 − (mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[1]] mod Try.foldLength[1]) Else mNode[1, Try.foldFrom[1]] = mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[1]] modTry → foldLnt[1] For i = 0 to 2 node[i] = mNode[1, Try.rMap[i]] End For End If For i = 0 to 2 Node[i] = node[i] mod TorusSize[i] End For NodeInUse[node[0], node[1], node[2]] = NODE_IN_USE AssignedNodeList[NodeIndex, 0] = node[0] AssignedNodeList[NodeIndex, 1] = node[2] AssignedNodeList[NodeIndex, 2] = node[2] NodeIndex = NodeIndex + 1 End For End For End For In particular embodiments, scanSpatial encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 2 If PartWraps[i]) End[i] =PartEnd[i] Else End[i] = PartEnd[i] − Try.baseSize[i] + 1 End If End For zPlaneCnt = Try.baseSize[0] × Try.baseSize[1]; For i = PartStart[0] to End[0] newX = True For (n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] zPlane[n] = 0 End For For l = i to i+try.baseSize[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] l1 = l mod TorusSize[0] m1 = PartStart[1] m2 = (m1 + Try.baseSize[1]) mod TorusSize[1] If PartStart[1] + Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartEnd[1] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeY[l1,m1,n] − FreeY[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n]+ FreeY[i1,m1,n] End If End For End For For j = PartStart[1] to End[1] if newX = False l1 = i mod TorusSize[0] l2 = (i + Try.baseSize[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = (j − 1) mod TorusSize[1] if PartWraps[0] = False or i+try.baseSize[0]) PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If i+Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX[l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l2,m1,n]) Else zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − FreeX[l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX[l1,m1,n]+ (FreeX[0,m1,n] −FreeX[l2,m1,n])) End For End If l1 = i mod TorusSize[0] l2 = (i + Try.baseSize[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = (j + Try.baseSize[1]) mod TorusSize[1] If PartWraps[0] = False or i+try.baseSize[0]) ≦ PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If i + Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n]) + FreeX[0,m2,n]) − FreeX[l1,m2,n] End For End If Else newX = False; k = PartStart[2]; while k ≦ End[2]) hit = True; For n = k; to k + Try.baseSize[2] − 1 while hit = True If zPlane[n mod TorusSize[2]] not equal zPlaneCnt hit = False; End If End For if hit = True Start[0] = i; Start[1] = j; Start[2] = k; For cNdx = 0 to try.NumConcats − 1 while hit = True For m = 0 to 2 while hit = True cStart[m] = Start[m] + Try.concatStartNode[cNdx, m] cEnd[m] = cStart[m] + Try.concatSize[cNdx, m] − 1; if (cEnd[m] ≧ TorusSize[m] && PartWraps[m] = False hit = False; End For For 1 = cStart[0] to cEnd[0] while hit = True For m = cStart[1] to cEnd[1] while hit = True For n = cStart[2] to cEnd[2] while hit = True l1 = l mod TorusSize[0] m1 = m mod TorusSize[1] n1 = n mod TorusSize[2] If NodeInUse[l1,m1,n1] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE hit = False; End If End For End For End For If hit = True Return True; Else K = k + 1 End If Else k = n + 1 End If End If End For End For Return False In particular embodiments, scheduleCompactFunction, which runs a binary search on Fit, encompasses the following example logic: HighFit = NumberOfFits − 1 For i = 0 to 2 HighStart[i] = PartStart[i] End For LowFit = −1 While True CurrentFit = LowFit + (HighFit − LowFit) / 2 If scanCompact(NumberOfNodes, Fit[CurrentFit], HighStart) = True HighFit = CurrentFit Else LowFit = CurrentFit End If If HighFit = LowFit + 1 Return End If End While Hit = False For i = 0 to NumMaxDistances − 1 While Hit = False If HighFit ≧ MaxDistance[i,0] HigMaxDistance = i Hit = True End If End For Hit = True For i = HighMaxDistance − 1 to 0 by −1 StartFit = MaxDistance[i,0] If i =NumMaxDistance − 1 EndFit = NumberOfFits − 1 Else EndFit = MaxDistance[i+1,0] − 1 End If Hit = False For j = StartFit to EndFit While Hit = False If scanCompact(NumberOfNodes, Fit[j], HighStart)= True HighFit = j HighMaxDistance = I Hit = True End If End For End For setCompactNodeInUse(Fit(HighFit), HighStart) In particular embodiments, setComPactNodeInUse encompasses the following example logic: node = 0 For i = 0 to 2 if Start[i] ≧ TorustSize[i] Start[i] = Start[i] mod TorusSize[i] End[i] = Start[i] + Size[i] − 1 End If End For If NumMapDiminsions = 1 If MapDiminsion[0] = 0 order[0] = 1 order[1] = 2 order[2] = 0 Else If MapDiminsion[0] = 1 order[0] = 0 order[1] = 2 order[2] = 1 Else order[0] = 0 order[1] = 1 order[2] = 2 End If Else order[0] = 3 − MapDiminsion[0] − MapDiminsion[1] order[1] = MapDiminsion[0] order[2] = MapDiminsion[1] End If count = 0 For i = Start[order[0]] to end[order[0]] and count < RequestedNodes index[order[0]] = i mod TorusSize[order[0]] For j = Start[order[1]] to end[order[1]] and count < RequestedNodes index[order[1]] = j mod TorusSize[order[1]] For k = Start[order[2]] to end[order[2]] and count < RequestedNodes index[order[2]] = k mod TorusSize[order[2]] If NodeInUse[index[0], index[1], index[2]] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE NodeInUse[index[0], index[1], index[2]] = NODE_IN_USE AssignedNodeList[node, order[0] = index[order[0]] AssignedNodeList[node, order[1] = index[order[2]] AssignedNodeList[node, order[2] = index[order[2]] node = node + 1 End If End For End For End For In particular embodiments, ScanCompact encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 2 If PartWraps[i] = True end[i] =PartEnd[i] Else end[i] = PartEnd[i] − Start[i] + 1 End If For i = PartStar[0] to end[0] newX = True For n = 0 to TorusSize[2] ZPlane[n] = 0 End For for (l = i to i + size[0] for (n = pStart[2]; n ≦ pEnd[2]; n++) l1 = l mod TorusSize[0]; m1 = PartStart[1] m2 = (PartStart[1] + size[1]) mod TorusSize[1] If PartStart[1]+size[1] ≦ PartEnd[1]) ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] +FreeY[l1,m1,n] − FreeY[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] +FreeY[l1,m1,n] End If End For End For For j = PartStart[1] to End[1] newY = True If newX = False l1 = i l2 = (i + size[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = j − 1 If PartWraps[0] = False or i+Start[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If i+size[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX [l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l2,m1,n]) else zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − FreeX [l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX [l1,m1,n] + (FreeX[0,m1,n] − FreeX [l2,m1,n])) End For End If l1 = i l2 = (i + Start[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = (j + size[1] − 1) mod TorusSize[1] If PartWraps[0] = False or i + Start[0]) ≦ PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If (i + Start[0] ≦ PartEnd[0]) ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + (FreeX[l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + (FreeX[l1,m1,n] + (FreeX[0,m1,n] − FreeX[l1,m2,n])) End For End If Else newX = False End If For k = PartStart[2] to end[2] if newY = True newY = False count = 0; For n = k to k + size[2] count = count + zPlane[n mod TorusSize[2]] End For Else count = count − zPlane[k − 1] k1 = (k + size[2] − 1) mod TorusSize[2] zPlane[k1] = 0 l1 = i l2 = (i + size[0]) mod TorusSize[0] If PartWraps[0] = False or i + size[0]) ≦ PartEnd[0] For m = j to j + size[1] m1 = m mod TorusSize[1] If i + size[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] ZPlane[k1] = zPlane[k1] + (FreeX[l1,m1,k1] − FreeX[l2,m1,k1]) Else ZPlane[k1] = zPlane[k1] + FreeX[l1,m1,k1] End For Else For m = j to j + size[1] ZPlane[k1] = zPlane[k1] + FreeX[l1,m1,k1] + (FreeX[0,m1,k1] − FreeX[l2,m1,k1]) End For End If count= count + zPlane[k1] End If If count ≧ NumberOf Nodes Start[0] = i Start[1] = j Start[2] = k return True End If End For End For End For End For return False In particular embodiments, scheduleAny encompasses the following logic: Node = 0 Remainder = RequestedNodes For m = 0 to NumFreeMeshes while Remainder > 0 If FreeMesh[m].Rank[0] = 2 iNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[2] jNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[1] Else If FreeMesh[m].Rank[1] = 2 iNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[2] jNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[0] Else iNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[1] jNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[0] End If For i = FreeMesh[m].Start[iNdx] toFreeMesh[m].end[iNdx] while Remainder > 0 For j = FreeMesh[m].Start[jNdx] to FreeMesh[m].end[jNdx] while Remainder > 0 For k = FreeMesh[m].Start[2] to FreeMesh[m].end[2] while Remainder > 0 i1 = i mod TorusSize[iNdx] j1 = j mod TorusSize[iMod] k1 = k mod TorusSize[2] If iNdx = 0 NodeInUse[i1,j1,k1] = NODE_IN_USE Else NodeInUse[j1,i1,k1] = NODE_IN_USE End If AssignedNodeList[Node].[iNdx] = i1 AssignedNodeList[Node].[jNdx] = j1 AssignedNodeList[Node, 2] = k1 Node = Node + 1 End For End For End For End For In particular embodiments, setMpiRank encompasses the following logic: For node = 0 to RequestedNodes − 1 to[0] = AssignedNodeList[node, 0] to[1] = AssignedNodeList[node, 1] to[2] = AssignedNodeList[node, 2] If NumMapDiminsions = 1 to[MapDiminsion[0]] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDimension[0]] /MapMod[0] to[3] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[0]] mod MapMod[0] Else to[MapDiminsion[0]] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[0]] /MapMod[0] to[MapDiminsion[1]] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[1]] /MapMod[1] to[3] = (AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[0]] mod MapMod[0]) × MapMod[1] + AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[1]] mod MapMod[1] End If hit = False for (node1 = 0 to NumFreeNodes − 1 while hit = False If to[0] = FreeNodeList[node1],coordinate[0] and to[1] = FreeNodeList[node1].coordinate[1] and to[2] = FreeNodeList[node1].coordinate[2] and to[3] = FreeNodeList[node1].coordinate[3] FreeNodeList[node1].mpiRank = node Hit = True End If End For End For In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses the following example structures, which are defined as follows, to allocate nodes 115 to jobs 150. As described above, cluster management engine 130 communicates a list of FreeNode structures to scheduler 515 along with a job 150. The list includes all nodes 115 available for scheduling. In the list, switch-based coordinates identify available nodes 115 in the list. If scheduler 515 schedules job 150, scheduler 515 sets mpiRank before returning. Structure FreeNode integer coordinate[4] integer mpiRank End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a Fold Structure to record how scheduler 515 folds one dimensional and two dimensional spatial requests. Structure Fold integer foldLength integer numFolds integer remainder integer foldDimension integer fixDdimension integer oneDimension End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a Try structure to store information on meshes used for scheduling a spatial job 150. A Try structure includes information on a base mesh and up to two concatenated meshes. Structure Try integer baseSize[3] integer numConcats integer concatSize[2,3] integer concatStartNode[2,3] integer rMap[3] integer irMap[3] integer numFoldMaps integer foldLength[2] integer foldFrom[2] integer foldTo[2] integer foldFix[2] End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a FreeMesh structure to store information on meshes in grid 110 available for scheduling. Scheduler 515 uses FreeMesh to schedule “any” requests. Structure FreeMesh integer start[3] integer end[3] integer size[3] integer rank[3] integer numberOfNodes End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses the following example variables, which are defined as follows, to allocate nodes 115 to jobs 150. RequestedNodes: a number of nodes requested for a job 150. RequestType: a type of job request: SPATIAL, COMPACT, or ANY. OriginalSize[3]: if RequestType=SPATIAL, a size of a job 150. AggressiveFlag: a floating-point number between zero and one indicating a degree of leeway allotted to scheduler 515 for purposes of allocating nodes 115 to a job 150. JobMap[3]: if RequestType ═SPATIAL, a mapping of indices of OriginalSize to an order more suitable to scheduler 515. RequestedSize[3]: if RequestType=SPATIAL, size of a job 150 after scheduler 515 has applied JobMap. TorusSize[3]: size of grid 110 in terms of CPUs 164. NodesPerSwitch: number of nodes 115 per switch 166. NumFreeNodes: number of nodes 115 available for scheduling. FreeNodeList[NumFreeNodes]: list of nodes 115 available for scheduling passed to scheduler 515. SpatialAllowed: set to True if spatial scheduling allowed. CompactAllowed: set to True if compact scheduling allowed. AnyAllowed: set to True if any scheduling allowed. TorusMap[3]: a mapping of indices from a switch-based torus to an order more suitable to scheduler 515. InverseTorusMap[3]: an inverse of TorusMap; applied to all output nodes 115 before returning to cluster management engine 130. NumMapDimesions: number of dimensions modified when going from a switch-based torus to a node base torus; possible values are one and two. MapDimensions[2]: indices of dimensions modified when going from a switch-based torus to the node base torus. MapMod[2]: multipliers used when going from a switch-based torus to a node-based torus; possible values are MapMod[0]=4 for NumMapDimesions=1 and MapMod[0]=2 and MapMode[1]=2 for NumMapDimesions=2. Part Size[3]: size of a partition. Part Start[3]: start coordinate of a partition. Part End[3]: end coordinate of a partition. Part Wraps[3]: Part Wraps[i]=True if a partition wraps in dimension i. NodeInUse[TorusSize[0],TorusSize[1],TorusSize[2]]: NodeInUse[i,j,k] indicates a state of a node 115; possible values include NODE_IN_USE (node 115 assigned to another job 150), NODE_NOT_IN_USE (node 115 available), and NODE_ON_HOLD (a temporary state used when assigning nodes 115 to a job 150). FreeY[TorusSize[0],TorusSize[1],TorusSize[2]]: FreeY[i,j,k] indicates a number of free nodes 115 in line {i,j,k} through {i,TorusSize[1]−1,k} inclusively. A scan routine uses FreeY. FreeX[TorusSize[0],TorusSize[1],TorusSize[2]]: FreeX[i,j,k] indicates a number of free nodes in the line {i,j,k} through {TorusSize[0]−1,j,k} inclusively. A scan routine uses FreeX. NumberOfTries: a number of Try structures constructed for a spatial request. TryList[NumberOfTries]: a list of Try structures for a spatial request. NumberOfFits: a number of meshes constructed for a compact request. Fit[NumberOfFits,3]: a list of meshes constructed for a compact request. Fit[i,0]=size of mesh i in an x dimension. Fit[i,1]=size of mesh i in a y dimension. Fit[i,2]=size of mesh i in a z dimension. NumMaxDistances: a number of unique maximum distances in Fit. MaxDistance[NumMaxDistances,2]: a list of unique maximum distances in Fit. For any 0≦i<NumMaxDistances, MaxDistance[1,0]=index into Fit of a first mesh with maximum distance=MaxDistance[I,1]. NumFreeMeshes: a number of free meshes in grid 110. A free mesh is a mesh including only free nodes 115. FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes]: an array of FreeMesh structures. AssignedNodeList[RequestedNodes,3]: a list of nodes 115 assigned to a job 115 in MPI rank order. Cluster management engine 130, such as through scheduler 515, may be further operable to perform efficient check-pointing. Restart dumps typically comprise over seventy-five percent of data written to disk. This I/O is often done so that processing is not lost to a platform failure. Based on this, a file system's I/O can be segregated into two portions: productive I/O and defensive I/O. Productive I/O is the writing of data that the user calls for to do science such as, for example, visualization dumps, traces of key physics variables over time, and others. Defensive I/O is performed to manage a large simulation run over a substantial period of time. Accordingly, increased I/O bandwidth greatly reduces the time and risk involved in check-pointing. Returning to engine 130, local memory 520 comprises logical descriptions (or data structures) of a plurality of features of system 100. Local memory 520 may be stored in any physical or logical data storage operable to be defined, processed, or retrieved by compatible code. For example, local memory 520 may comprise one or more eXtensible Markup Language (XML) tables or documents. The various elements may be described in terms of SQL statements or scripts, Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM) files, flat files, binary data files, Btrieve files, database files, or comma-separated-value (CSV) files. It will be understood that each element may comprise a variable, table, or any other suitable data structure. Local memory 520 may also comprise a plurality of tables or files stored on one server 102 or across a plurality of servers or nodes. Moreover, while illustrated as residing inside engine 130, some or all of local memory 520 may be internal or external without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Illustrated local memory 520 includes physical list 521, virtual list 522, group file 523, policy table 524, and job queue 525. But, while not illustrated, local memory 520 may include other data structures, including a job table and audit log, without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Returning to the illustrated structures, physical list 521 is operable to store identifying and physical management information about node 115. Physical list 521 may be a multidimensional data structure that includes at least one record per node 115. For example, the physical record may include fields such as “node,” “availability,” “processor utilization,” “memory utilization,” “temperature,” “physical location,” “address,” “boot images,” and others. It will be understood that each record may include none, some, or all of the example fields. In one embodiment, the physical record may provide a foreign key to another table, such as, for example, virtual list 522. Virtual list 522 is operable to store logical or virtual management information about node 115. Virtual list 522 may be a multidimensional data structure that includes at least one record per node 115. For example, the virtual record may include fields such as “node,” “availability,” “job,” “virtual cluster,” “secondary node,” “logical location,” “compatibility,” and others. It will be understood that each record may include none, some, or all of the example fields. In one embodiment, the virtual record may include a link to another table such as, for example, group file 523. Group file 523 comprises one or more tables or records operable to store user group and security information, such as access control lists (or ACLs). For example, each group record may include a list of available services, nodes 115, or jobs for a user. Each logical group may be associated with a business group or unit, a department, a project, a security group, or any other collection of one or more users that are able to submit jobs 150 or administer at least part of system 100. Based on this information, cluster management engine 130 may determine if the user submitting job 150 is a valid user and, if so, the optimum parameters for job execution. Further, group table 523 may associate each user group with a virtual cluster 220 or with one or more physical nodes 115, such as nodes residing within a particular group's domain. This allows each group to have an individual processing space without competing for resources. However, as described above, the shape and size of virtual cluster 220 may be dynamic and may change according to needs, time, or any other parameter. Policy table 524 includes one or more policies. It will be understood that policy table 524 and policy 524 may be used interchangeably as appropriate. Policy 524 generally stores processing and management information about jobs 150 and/or virtual clusters 220. For example, policies 524 may include any Number of parameters or variables including problem size, problem run time, timeslots, preemption, users' allocated share of node 115 or virtual cluster 220, and such. Job queue 525 represents one or more streams of jobs 150 awaiting execution. Generally, queue 525 comprises any suitable data structure, such as a bubble array, database table, or pointer array, for storing any Number (including zero) of jobs 150 or reference thereto. There may be one queue 525 associated with grid 110 or a plurality of queues 525, with each queue 525 associated with one of the unique virtual clusters 220 within grid 110. In one aspect of operation, cluster management engine 130 receives job 150, made up of N tasks which cooperatively solve a problem by performing calculations and exchanging information. Cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 and assigns each of the N tasks to one particular node 115 using any suitable technique, thereby allowing the problem to be solved efficiently. For example, cluster management engine 130 may utilize job parameters, such as job task placement strategy, supplied by the user. Regardless, cluster management engine 130 attempts to exploit the architecture of server 102, which in turn provides the quicker turnaround for the user and likely improves the overall throughput for system 100. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 then selects and allocates nodes 115 according to any of the following example topologies: Specified 2D (x,y) or 3D (x,y,z)—Nodes 115 are allocated and tasks may be ordered in the specified dimensions, thereby preserving efficient neighbor to neighbor communication. The specified topology manages a variety of jobs 150 where it is desirable that the physical communication topology match the problem topology allowing the cooperating tasks of job 150 to communicate frequently with neighbor tasks. For example, a request of 8 tasks in a 2×2×2 dimension (2, 2, 2) will be allocated in a cube. For best-fit purposes, 2D allocations can be “folded” into 3 dimensions, while preserving efficient neighbor to neighbor communications. Cluster management engine 130 may be free to allocate the specified dimensional shape in any orientation. For example, a 2×2×8 box may be allocated within the available physical nodes vertically or horizontally Best Fit Cube—cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 in a cubic volume. This topology efficiently handles jobs 150 allowing cooperating tasks to exchange data with any other tasks by minimizing the distance between any two nodes 115. Best Fit Sphere—cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 in a spherical volume. For example, the first task may be placed in the center node 115 of the sphere with the rest of the tasks placed on nodes 115 surrounding the center node 115. It will be understood that the placement order of the remaining tasks is not typically critical. This topology may minimize the distance between the first task and all other tasks. This efficiently handles a large class of problems where tasks 2−N communicate with the first task, but not with each other. Random—cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 with reduced consideration for where nodes 115 are logically or physically located. In one embodiment, this topology encourages aggressive use of grid 110 for backfilling purposes, with little impact to other jobs 150. It will be understood that the prior topologies and accompanying description are for illustration purposes only and may not depict actual topologies used or techniques for allocating such topologies. Cluster management engine 130 may utilize a placement weight, stored as a job 150 parameter or policy 524 parameter. In one embodiment, the placement weight is a modifier value between 0 and 1, which represents how aggressively cluster management engine 130 should attempt to place nodes 115 according to the requested task (or process) placement strategy. In this example, a value of 0 represents placing nodes 115 only if the optimum strategy (or dimensions) is possible and a value of 1 represents placing nodes 115 immediately, as long as there are enough free or otherwise available nodes 115 to handle the request. Typically, the placement weight does not override administrative policies 524 such as resource reservation, in order to prevent starvation of large jobs 150 and preserve the job throughput of HPC system 100. The preceding illustration and accompanying description provide an exemplary modular diagram for engine 130 implementing logical schemes for managing nodes 115 and jobs 150. However, this figure is merely illustrative and system 100 contemplates using any suitable combination and arrangement of logical elements for implementing these and other algorithms. Thus, these software modules may include any suitable combination and arrangement of elements for effectively managing nodes 115 and jobs 150. Moreover, the operations of the various illustrated modules may be combined and/or separated as appropriate. FIG. 11 illustrates an example interface 104. Interface 104 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components providing an interface between network 106 and HPC server 102. In particular embodiments, interface 104 includes an instantiation manager 534 and instantiation data 536. Instantiation manager 534 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components dynamically instantiating hosts at nodes 115 in response to connection requests from clients 120. In particular embodiments, connection requests from clients 120 are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection requests. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 functions as a router or an interface to a router that maps host names and port numbers advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 to host names and port numbers internal to HPC server 102. Instantiation manager 534 may interact with one or more components of cluster management engine 130 (such as, for example, physical manager 505, virtual manager 510, or both) to dynamically instantiate one or more hosts at one or more nodes 115 in response to a connection request from a client 120, according to particular needs. Instantiation data 536 includes data for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 in response to connection requests from clients 120. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 includes one or more lists of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102. Reference to a service encompasses an application, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. Reference to a list of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 may encompass a routing table, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 sets up and maintains such routing tables. In particular embodiments, an entry in a list of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 specifies (1) a service, (2) a host name and a port number advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 corresponding to the service, and (3) a host name and a port number internal to HPC server 102 corresponding to a host that, when instantiated, provides the service. The entry may also specify rules, conditions, or both governing when the host should be made available, when instantiation of the host should take place, and when the host should be made unavailable. As an example and not by way of limitation, a host may provide a web server. If instantiation manager 534 receives no HTTP requests at an HTTP port corresponding to the web server during business hours, the host may remain uninstantiated during business hours and one or more resources (such as nodes 115 in grid 110) that the host would use if instantiated may be available for other hosts, services, or both. If a user at a client 120 uses a web browser to access the web server during business hours, instantiation manager 534 may instantiate the host to provide the web server to client 120. If the user at client 120 uses a web browser to access the web server outside business hours, instantiation manager 534 blocks the HTTP port corresponding to the web server to prevent the host from providing the web server to client 120. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 includes one or more boot images for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 to provide services. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 also includes one or more file systems for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 to provide services. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 also includes one or more OS configuration files for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 to provide services. As an example and not by way of limitation, in response to instantiation manager 534 receiving a connection request from a client 120 specifying an port number advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 that corresponds to a service advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102, instantiation manager 534 may boot an available node 115 in grid 110 using a boot image and one or more file systems for the service to initialize a host for the service at node 115. Instantiation manager 534 may also update one or more of local routing tables and one or more OS configuration files to route IP traffic from client 120 to node 115. In particular embodiments, to decrease time requirements associated with HPC server 102 responding to a connection request from a client 120, instantiation manager 534 spoofs an IP/MAC address of a target host and starts a TCP/IP connection sequence on behalf of the target host. The TCP/IP connection sequence between client 120 and instantiation manager 534 takes place while the target host is booting. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 tracks whether each host at HPC server 102 is active or inactive. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 also controls whether each host at HPC server 102 is active or inactive. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 may determine whether a service should be available. If instantiation manager 534 determines that a service should no longer be available, instantiation manager 534 shuts down, idles, or otherwise makes unavailable one or more nodes 115 at which instantiation manager 534 instantiated a host to provide the service and updates one or more routing tables accordingly. FIG. 12 illustrates an example management node 15. Management node 15 includes a fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 and centralized storage 540. Fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components for detecting faults at nodes 115 in grid 110 and initiating recovery from such faults. Centralized storage 540 includes one or more storage devices coupled to a network fabric of HPC server 102 that are accessible to all nodes 115 in grid 110. Centralized storage 540 includes application data including data on hosts and applications executable at nodes 115 in grid 110, as described below. Centralized storage 540 and the network fabric of HPC server 102 facilitate fault tolerance and recovery in HPC system 100. In particular embodiments, the network fabric of HPC server 102 is a high-speed network fabric. In particular embodiments, the network fabric of HPC server 102 includes switches 166 coupled to each other according to a topology encompassing a three dimensional torus, as described above. In particular embodiments, the storage devices of centralized storage 540 are high-bandwidth storage devices. In particular embodiments, the storage devices of centralized storage 540 allow access at faster rates than traditional storage devices typically allow. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 facilitates configuring hosts for application use. As an example and not by way of limitation, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may allow an administrator of HPC server 102 to define a host and store the host at centralized storage 540. Fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may also allow an administrator of HPC server 102 to specify a host name, an IP address, a boot image, a configuration, and one or more file systems corresponding to the host and store the specifications at centralized storage 540. Because centralized storage 540 includes the host and the specifications corresponding to the host, each node 115 in grid 110 may have access to the host and the specifications corresponding to the host via the network fabric of HPC server 102 and, as a result, any node 115 in grid 100 may execute the host. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 facilitates execution of any hosts at any nodes 115 of grid 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may interact with interface 104 (including instantiation manager 534) and cluster management engine 130 (including job scheduler 515) to select one or more nodes 115 for executing a host. After fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 or other component of HPC server 102 has selected nodes 115 for executing the host, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may use a configured boot image, one or more file systems and an IP address corresponding to the host to boot the host on nodes 115. To boot the host, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may use one or more of Wake-On LAN, Intelligent Platform Management Interface (IPMI), Preboot Execution Environment (PXE), and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 or another component of HPC server 102 may then update one or more routing tables to identify nodes 115 executing the host. In particular embodiments, when a node 115 executes a host, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 monitors the host to track health of node 115 and one or more applications running at node 115. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 uses a daemon or other software component at node 115 providing a heartbeat mechanism to monitor health of node 115. The daemon communicates heartbeat messages to fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 at regular intervals indicating whether node 115 is functioning properly. A heartbeat message from the daemon may provide status information regarding node 115. As an example and not by way of limitation, a heartbeat message from the daemon may provide status information regarding node 115 indicating a temperature of node 115, an average speed of a fan at node 115, and a level of power consumption at node 115. In response to status information indicating a fault at a node 115, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may automatically and without user input initiate action to recover from the fault, notify an administrator of HPC server 102 of the fault, or both. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 considers a node 115 healthy if fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 continues to receive heartbeat messages from node 115 providing status information indicating that node 115 has not exceeded one or more configurable thresholds. If fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 does not receive a heartbeat message from node 115 providing status information indicating that node 115 has not exceeded one or more configurable thresholds, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may automatically and without user input initiate action to recover from the fault, notify an administrator of HPC server 102 of the fault, or both. If a node 115 includes multiple interfaces (such as one or more Ethernet interfaces, one or more INFINIBAND interfaces, or both) to the network fabric of HPC server 102, a daemon at node 115 communicating a heartbeat message to fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may communicate an instance of the heartbeat message across each of the multiple interfaces at node 115 so that fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may determine whether each of the multiple interfaces at node 115 is functioning properly. The daemon may also store an instance of the heartbeat message at centralized storage 540 so that fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may read the heartbeat message. In particular embodiments, the heartbeat message identifies all interfaces across which the daemon sent instances of the heartbeat message. If fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 detects a fault at one or more of the multiple interfaces at node 115, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may update one or more routing tables at HPC server 102 to enable a host executed at node 115 to use one or more additional communication paths to communicate with other hosts (which may be external or internal to HPC server 102). Fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may also initiate action to restore access to centralized storage 540 to node 115. Fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may also notify an administrator of HPC server 102 of the detected fault and execute a configurable script to carry out customized recovery with respect to node 115. In particular embodiments, if a heartbeat message from a daemon at a first node 115 indicates that a nonrecoverable fault has occurred in hardware executing a host at first node 115 and a configurable script for carrying out customized recovery with respect to first node 115 specifies a recovery method that includes restarting the host at a second node 115 in grid 110, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may select a second node 115 for executing the host and then boot the host at second node 115 for execution at second node 115. Fault tolerance and recovery manager may then update one or more routing tables to enable the host to communicate with other nodes 115 in grid 110 and clients 120 external to HPC server 102. Fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may indicate in the routing tables or elsewhere in HPC server 102 that first node 115 is offline and notify an administrator of HPC server 102 of the fault at first node 115. In particular embodiments, if fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 has detected a fault at a first node 115 executing a host and, in response to the fault, booted a second node 115 and successfully initialized the host at second node 115, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may take steps to discontinue operation of first node 115. As an example and not by way of limitation, to discontinue operation of first node 115, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may update one or more routing tables at HPC server 102 to prevent communication to and from first node 115, update software or other logic at centralized storage 540 to prevent first node 115 from accessing centralized storage 540, force node 115 to idle or power down, or reboot first node 115. Discontinuing operation of first node 115 may be preferable if first node 115 failed not because of a fault in hardware at first node 115, but because of a network failure or a failure in an OS or other software at first node 115. In particular embodiments, an administrator of HPC server 102 may choose to manually move a host from a first node 115 to a second node 115 to carry out corrective maintenance on hardware at first node 115 or check out a potential problem at first node 115 that fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 has detected. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 enables an administrator to manually move the host from first node 115 to second node 115. In particular embodiments, when an administrator manually moves the host from first node 115 to second node 115, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may indicate in the routing tables or elsewhere in HPC server 102 that first node 115 is offline so that HPC server 102 will not schedule another host to first node 115. If an application executed at first node 115 supports checkpointing or hardware at HPC server 102 supports kernel-level checkpointing and restarting, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may support checkpointing the application on first node 115 and restarting the application at second node 115. In particular embodiments, if an application and an OS being executed at a first node 115 supports kernel-level checkpointing and restarting, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may checkpoint first node 115 according to a predetermined schedule or a configurable load or user-directed threshold at first node 115. When fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 checkpoints a host at first node 115, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may write a checkpoint file to centralized storage 540 indicating a state of the OS and the application being executed at first node 115. Fault tolerance and recover manager 536 may use the checkpoint file to restart the host and the application at a second node 115 in grid 110. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may restart the host and the application at second node 115 if first node 115 fails or reaches a configurable load or a user-directed threshold. In particular embodiments, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 may restart the host and the application at second node 115 to free up first node 115 to execute another, higher priority host. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 600 for dynamically processing a job submission in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. Generally, FIG. 13 describes method 600, which receives a batch job submission, dynamically allocates nodes 115 into a job space 230 based on the job parameters and associated policies 524, and executes job 150 using the allocated space. The following description focuses on the operation of cluster management module 130 in performing method 600. But system 100 contemplates using any appropriate combination and arrangement of logical elements implementing some or all of the described functionality, so long as the functionality remains appropriate. Method 600 begins at step 605, where HPC server 102 receives job submission 150 from a user. As described above, in one embodiment the user may submit job 150 using client 120. In another embodiment, the user may submit job 150 directly using HPC server 102. Next, at step 610, cluster management engine 130 selects group 523 based upon the user. Once the user is verified, cluster management engine 130 compares the user to the group access control list (ACL) at step 615. But it will be understood that cluster management engine 130 may use any appropriate security technique to verify the user. Based upon determined group 523, cluster management engine 130 determines if the user has access to the requested service. Based on the requested service and hostname, cluster management engine 130 selects virtual cluster 220 at step 620. Typically, virtual cluster 220 may be identified and allocated prior to the submission of job 150. But, in the event virtual cluster 220 has not been established, cluster management engine 130 may automatically allocate virtual cluster 220 using any of the techniques described above. Next, at step 625, cluster management engine 130 retrieves policy 524 based on the submission of job 150. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 may determine the appropriate policy 524 associated with the user, job 150, or any other appropriate criteria. Cluster management engine 130 then determines or otherwise calculates the dimensions of job 150 at step 630. It will be understood that the appropriate dimensions may include length, width, height, or any other appropriate parameter or characteristic. As described above, these dimensions are used to determine the appropriate job space 230 (or subset of nodes 115) within virtual cluster 220. After the initial parameters have been established, cluster management 130 attempts to execute job 150 on HPC server 102 in steps 635 through 665. At decisional step 635, cluster management engine 130 determines if there are enough available nodes to allocate the desired job space 230, using the parameters already established. If there are not enough nodes 115, then cluster management engine 130 determines the earliest available subset 230 of nodes 115 in virtual cluster 220 at step 640. Then, cluster management engine 130 adds job 150 to job queue 125 until the subset 230 is available at step 645. Processing then returns to decisional step 635. Once there are enough nodes 115 available, then cluster management engine 130 dynamically determines the optimum subset 230 from available nodes 115 at step 650. It will be understood that the optimum subset 230 may be determined using any appropriate criteria, including fastest processing time, most reliable nodes 115, physical or virtual locations, or first available nodes 115. At step 655, cluster management engine 130 selects the determined subset 230 from the selected virtual cluster 220. Next, at step 660, cluster management engine 130 allocates the selected nodes 115 for job 150 using the selected subset 230. According to one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of nodes 115 in virtual node list 522 from “unallocated” to “allocated”. Once subset 230 has been appropriately allocated, cluster management engine 130 executes job 150 at step 665 using the allocated space based on the job parameters, retrieved policy 524, and any other suitable parameters. At any appropriate time, cluster management engine 130 may communicate or otherwise present job results 160 to the user. For example, results 160 may be formatted and presented to the user via GUI 126. FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 700 for dynamically backfilling a virtual cluster 220 in grid 110 in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. At a high level, method 700 describes determining available space in virtual cluster 220, determining the optimum job 150 that is compatible with the space, and executing the determined job 150 in the available space. The following description will focus on the operation of cluster management module 130 in performing this method. But, as with the previous flowchart, system 100 contemplates using any appropriate combination and arrangement of logical elements implementing some or all of the described functionality. Method 700 begins at step 705, where cluster management engine 130 sorts job queue 525. In the illustrated embodiment, cluster management engine 130 sorts the queue 525 based on the priority of jobs 150 stored in the queue 525. But it will be understood that cluster management engine 130 may sort queue 525 using any suitable characteristic such that the appropriate or optimal job 150 will be executed. Next, at step 710, cluster management engine 130 determines the Number of available nodes 115 in one of the virtual clusters 220. Of course, cluster management engine 130 may also determine the Number of available nodes 115 in grid 110 or in any one or more of virtual clusters 220. At step 715, cluster management engine 130 selects first job 150 from sorted job queue 525. Next, cluster management engine 130 dynamically determines the optimum shape (or other dimensions) of selected job 150 at 720. Once the optimum shape or dimension of selected job 150 is determined, then cluster management engine 130 determines if it can backfill job 150 in the appropriate virtual cluster 220 in steps 725 through 745. At decisional step 725, cluster management engine 130 determines if there are enough nodes 115 available for the selected job 150. If there are enough available nodes 115, then at step 730 cluster management engine 130 dynamically allocates nodes 115 for the selected job 150 using any appropriate technique. For example, cluster management engine 130 may use the techniques describes in FIG. 6. Next, at step 735, cluster management engine 130 recalculates the Number of available nodes in virtual cluster 220. At step 740, cluster management engine 130 executes job 150 on allocated nodes 115. Once job 150 has been executed (or if there were not enough nodes 115 for selected job 150), then cluster management engine 130 selects the next job 150 in the sorted job queue 525 at step 745 and processing returns to step 720. It will be understood that while illustrated as a loop, cluster management engine 130 may initiate, execute, and terminate the techniques illustrated in method 700 at any appropriate time. FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 800 for dynamically managing failure of a node 115 in grid 110 in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. At a high level, method 800 describes determining that node 115 failed, automatically performing job recovery and management, and replacing the failed node 115 with a secondary node 115. The following description will focus on the operation of cluster management module 130 in performing this method. But, as with the previous flowcharts, system 100 contemplates using any appropriate combination and arrangement of logical elements implementing some or all of the described functionality. Method 800 begins at step 805, where cluster management engine 130 determines that node 115 has failed. As described above, cluster management engine 130 may determine that node 115 has failed using any suitable technique. For example, cluster management engine 130 may pull nodes 115 (or agents 132) at various times and may determine that node 115 has failed based upon the lack of a response from node 115. In another example, agent 132 existing on node 115 may communicate a “heartbeat” and the lack of this “heartbeat” may indicate node 115 failure. Next, at step 810, cluster management engine 130 removes the failed node 115 from virtual cluster 220. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of node 115 in virtual list 522 from “allocated” to “failed”. Cluster management engine 130 then determines if a job 150 is associated with failed node 115 at decisional step 815. If there is no job 150 associated with node 115, then processing ends. As described above, before processing ends, cluster management engine 130 may communicate an error message to an administrator, automatically determine a replacement node 115, or any other suitable processing. If there is a job 150 associated with the failed node 115, then the cluster management engine 130 determines other nodes 115 associated with the job 150 at step 820. Next, at step 825, cluster management engine 130 kills job 150 on all appropriate nodes 115. For example, cluster management engine 130 may execute a kill job command or use any other appropriate technique to end job 150. Next, at step 830, cluster management engine 130 de-allocates nodes 115 using virtual list 522. For example, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of nodes 115 in virtual list 522 from “allocated” to “available”. Once the job has been terminated and all appropriate nodes 115 de-allocated, then cluster management engine 130 attempts to re-execute the job 150 using available nodes 115 in steps 835 through 850. At step 835, cluster management engine 130 retrieves policy 524 and parameters for the killed job 150 at step 835. Cluster management engine 130 then determines the optimum subset 230 of nodes 115 in virtual cluster 220, at step 840, based on the retrieved policy 524 and the job parameters. Once the subset 230 of nodes 115 has been determined, then cluster management engine 130 dynamically allocates the subset 230 of nodes 115 at step 845. For example, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of nodes 115 in virtual list 522 from “unallocated” to “allocated”. It will be understood that this subset of nodes 115 may be different from the original subset of nodes that job 150 was executing on. For example, cluster management engine 130 may determine that a different subset of nodes is optimal because of the node failure that prompted this execution. In another example, cluster management engine 130 may have determined that a secondary node 115 was operable to replace the failed node 115 and the new subset 230 is substantially similar to the old job space 230. Once the allocated subset 230 has been determined and allocated, then cluster management engine 130 executes job 150 at step 850. The preceding flowcharts and accompanying description illustrate exemplary methods 600, 700, and 800. In short, system 100 contemplates using any suitable technique for performing these and other tasks. Accordingly, many of the steps in this flowchart may take place simultaneously and/or in different orders than as shown. Moreover, system 100 may use methods with additional steps, fewer steps, and/or different steps, so long as the methods remain appropriate. FIG. 16 illustrates an example method for on-demand instantiation in HPC system 100. The method begins at step 900, where interface 104 receives a connection request from a client 120 specifying a port number and a host name advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102. At step 902, in response to the connection request, instantiation manager 534 accesses instantiation data 536 providing a list of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102. At step 904, instantiation manager 534 uses the list of services to identify a service corresponding to the port number and the host name specified in the connection request. At step 906, instantiation manager 534 determines, according to the list of services, whether the identified service is available to client 120. As described above, whether the identified service is available to client 120 may depend on a time associated with the connection request, an identity of a user at client 120, or other aspect of the connection request. At step 906, if the identified service is available to client 120, the method proceeds to step 908. At step 908, instantiation manager 534 uses instantiation data 536 indicating a host name and a port number internal to HPC server 102 corresponding to the identified service to instantiate the host at one or more nodes 115 in grid 110 to provide the identified service to client 120. As described above, instantiation manager 534 may also use instantiation data 536 including a boot image, a file system, and an OS configuration to instantiate the host at nodes 115, at which point the method ends. At step 906, if the identified service is unavailable to client 120, the method proceeds to step 910. At step 910, instantiation manager 534 blocks the port specified in the connection request to prevent client 120 from accessing the identified service, at which point the method ends. Although particular steps in the method illustrated in FIG. 16 have been illustrated and described as occurring in a particular order, any suitable steps in the method illustrated in FIG. 16 may occur in any suitable order. FIG. 17 illustrates an example method for fault tolerance and recovery in HPC system 100. The method begins at step 1000, where fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 receives one or more heartbeat messages from a host being executed at a first node 115. At step 1002, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 determines health of first node 115 (which may include health of a hardware, software, embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components at first node 115) from the one or more heartbeat messages. At step 1004, if first node 115 is healthy, the method returns to step 1000. At step 1004, if first node 115 is not healthy, the method proceeds to step 1006, where fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 selects a second node 115 in grid 110 for executing the host. At step 1008, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 boots the host at second node 115. At step 1010, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 discontinues operation of first node 115. At step 1012, fault tolerance and recovery manager 538 notifies an administrator of HPC server 102 that first node 115 is not healthy, at which point the method ends. Although particular steps in the method illustrated in FIG. 17 have been illustrated and described as occurring in a particular order, any suitable steps in the method illustrated in FIG. 17 may occur in any suitable order. Although this disclosure has been described in terms of certain embodiments and generally associated methods, alterations and permutations of these embodiments and methods will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the above description of example embodiments does not define or constrain this disclosure. Other changes, substitutions, and alterations are also possible without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>High-performance computing (HPC) is often characterized by the computing systems used by scientists and engineers for modeling, simulating, and analyzing complex physical or algorithmic phenomena. Currently, HPC machines are typically designed using Numerous HPC clusters of one or more processors referred to as nodes. For most large scientific and engineering applications, performance is chiefly determined by parallel scalability and not the speed of individual nodes; therefore, scalability is often a limiting factor in building or purchasing such high-performance clusters. Scalability is generally considered to be based on i) hardware, ii) memory, input/output (I/O), and communication bandwidth; iii) software; iv) architecture; and v) applications. The processing, memory, and I/O bandwidth in most conventional HPC environments are normally not well balanced and, therefore, do not scale well. Many HPC environments do not have the I/O bandwidth to satisfy high-end data processing requirements or are built with blades that have too many unneeded components installed, which tend to dramatically reduce the system's reliability. Accordingly, many HPC environments may not provide robust cluster management software for efficient operation in production-oriented environments. Typically, when a computer system experiences a hardware failure, software and data at a storage device coupled to computer system remain unavailable until the failure has been resolved (which may require replacing one or more hardware components of the computer system or replacing the entire computer system). Scientific and data-center applications often use clusters of commodity computer systems (such as PCs), but such clusters often lack fault tolerance and recovery capabilities. Typically, a cluster of commodity computer systems includes one or more storage devices shared among the commodity computer systems for storing applications and application data. In such clusters, requirements imposed on the applications often necessitate the applications being integrated into software managing the clusters, processing at the applications being restricted, or both, which drives up complexity of applications providing fault tolerance in such clusters and drives up costs associated with developing such applications. Scientific and data-center applications often use clusters of commodity computer systems (such as PCs), but such clusters often lack fault tolerance and recovery capabilities. To provide at least some fault tolerance, such clusters often rely on shared-disk systems that use network file systems (NFSs) across Ethernet networks. Such systems are inadequate in HPC systems that require high-speed accessibility to applications, application data, or both. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention may reduce or eliminate disadvantages, problems, or both associated with HPC systems. In one embodiment, a method for fault tolerance and recovery in a high-performance computing (HPC) system includes monitoring a currently running node in an HPC system including multiple nodes. A fabric coupling the multiple nodes to each other and coupling the multiple nodes to storage accessible to each of the multiple nodes and capable of storing multiple hosts that are each executable at any of the multiple nodes. The method includes, if a fault occurs at the currently running node, discontinuing operation of the currently running node and booting the host at a free node in the HPC system from the storage. Particular embodiments of the present invention may provide one or more technical advantages. As an example, particular embodiments provide fault tolerance and recovery in a cluster of commodity computer systems. Particular embodiments provide viable fault tolerance and recovery in a cluster of commodity computer systems for scientific and data-center computing applications. Particular embodiments provide cost-effective fault tolerance and recovery in a cluster of commodity computer systems for scientific and data-center computing applications. Particular embodiments of the present invention provide all, some, or none of the above technical advantages. Particular embodiments may provide one or more other technical advantages, one or more of which may be readily apparent to a person skilled in the art from the figures, description, and claims herein. | 20041117 | 20090106 | 20060525 | 92481.0 | G06F1100 | 3 | LE, DIEU MINH T | FAULT TOLERANCE AND RECOVERY IN A HIGH-PERFORMANCE COMPUTING (HPC) SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,004 |
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10,991,908 | ACCEPTED | Single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor with voltage boost | A single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor including a stator including six alternately-wound coils connected into a single coil having first and second ends, the oppositely-wound coils forming stator poles, and six magnets of alternating polarity coupled to a rotor and rotatably journaled in the stator. A sensor, such as a dual output Hall sensor, is used for sensing rotation of the rotor. A drive circuit, such as an H-bridge circuit, is coupled to the first and second ends of the single coil to drive the motor. The H-bridge circuit includes two high-side switches for alternately receiving signals from the Hall sensor, and two low-side switches alternately receiving signals from the Hall sensor. A high-side switching signal can be controlled by an inverted low-side switching signal. A voltage boost circuit is also provided, having capacitors to provide a boosted voltage to alternately turn on the high-side switches of the H-bridge. The capacitors can be charged by an unregulated bus voltage. | 1. A single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor, comprising: an internal rotor including at least four alternate poles; an external stator with a like number of salient poles, each including alternately wound coils coupled to form a single coil; a commutated H-bridge including a voltage boost circuit having capacitors providing a boosted voltage to alternately turn on high-side switches of the H-bridge, wherein the capacitors are charged by a low-side switching signal flowing through low-side switches; and a microcontroller to commutate the H-bridge. 2. The motor of claim 1, wherein the rotor further comprises at least four alternate-polarity magnets that form the at least four alternate poles. 3. The motor of claim 1, wherein the capacitors are charged by an unregulated bus voltage. 4. The motor of claim 1, wherein the rotor includes six alternate poles and the stator includes six coils connected into the single coil. 5. The motor of claim 4, wherein the rotor further comprises at least three magnets that form the six alternate poles. 6. The motor of claim 1, wherein the H-bridge further includes an alternating current conversion circuit including a bridge rectifier and smoothing capacitor coupled to a source of alternating current, the conversion circuit converting the alternating current to provide direct current to power the motor. 7. The motor of claim 1, wherein the motor is configured to be powered by either alternating current or direct current. 8. The motor of claim 1, wherein a uniform concentric air gap is defined between the stator and the rotor. 9. The motor of claim 1, further comprising a module configured to provide locked rotor protection. 10. A method of commutating a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor including a rotor with at least four poles, a stator with a like number of salient poles each having alternately wound coils coupled to form a single coil with two free ends, a commutated H-bridge including a voltage boost circuit having capacitors providing a boosted voltage, and a microcontroller, the method comprising: charging the capacitors by a switching current flowing through low-side switches of the H-bridge; controlling the high-side switches of the H-bridge using an inverted low-side switching signal from the low-side switches of the H-bridge; turning on the high-side switches of the H-bridge using the charge stored in the capacitors; and controlling commutation of the H-bridge using the microcontroller. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising forming the at least four poles of the rotor using at least four alternate-polarity magnets. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the rotor includes six alternate poles. 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising forming the six alternate poles using at least three magnets. | RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/462,008, filed on Jun. 12, 2003, the entirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates generally to direct current electric motors. More particularly, this invention relates to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor with a voltage boost circuit. BACKGROUND Permanent magnet brushless electric motors are desirable for efficiency. Brushless motors are typically more efficient and quieter than induction motors because brushless motor designs avoid losses related to the “induction” process. However, the costs associated with the manufacture of brushless motors are usually greater than induction motors. For example, brushless motors can be more expensive than induction motors because of the control circuitry necessary to drive the brushless motors. Therefore, until recently, brushless motors have typically been used in larger, expensive equipment such as washing machines and high-efficiency furnaces and in medical and military applications, where cost is less of a factor. Increased concerns for efficiency and stricter government regulations are requiring more efficient electric motors. Single-phase brushless motors are known. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,379,984, 4,535,275 and 5,859,519, and S. Bentouati et al., Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motors For Consumer Products (last visited Dec. 8, 2002), located at URL mag-net.ee.umist.ac.uk/reports/P11/p11.html. Although different brushless motors can vary in configuration, all brushless motors run on direct current and include circuitry to sequentially switch the direct current into one or more stator coils. In addition, most brushless motors include a plurality of permanent magnets attached to a rotor. Brushless motors typically have a different number of stator poles versus rotor poles. For example, a majority of brushless motor manufacturers use a three phase drive circuit including three rotation sensors and six transistors to switch the direct current. Current flows through two of the three coils or phases at any one time. Therefore, a three phase motor with three coils only utilizes approximately two-thirds of the copper windings at one time. Such a configuration can provide a smooth drive and good starting torque, but is complicated in terms of the number of components and the expense of the components. Other similarly designed motors including different pairings of stator poles versus rotor poles (e.g., 6-8, 12-8, 4-6, 6-2) are also complex and expensive. In particular, the circuitry used to drive a brushless motor can be complex and expensive. For example, some drive circuits for brushless motors require a voltage boost, or discrete isolated voltage sources. This can be accomplished, for example, using a transformer. However, transformers are both bulky and expensive. Voltage doublers can also be used, but they typically require large and expensive capacitors to generate the needed voltages with sufficient current capability. Other circuitry, such as charge pumps with a dedicated oscillator, diodes, and capacitors, has also been used. One application in which the above-described voltage boost circuits have been used is in drive circuits for brushless motors including a main semi-conductor switch (e.g., mosfets, transistors, SCRs, Triacs, etc.) that “is above the load.” This is generally the case in a drive circuit in which a full-bridge or half-bridge is used to drive the motor. Although the drive circuits noted above may be used in a drive circuit for a brushless motor with main switches that are above the load, such circuits can be inefficient, complex, and cost-prohibitive. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a brushless motor that is efficient and can be manufactured in a cost-effective manner. SUMMARY This invention relates generally to direct current electric motors. More particularly, this invention relates to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor with a voltage boost circuit. According to one aspect, the invention relates generally to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor, including an internal rotor with six alternate polarity magnets rotatably journaled in the motor, and an external stator with six salient poles including six alternately wound coils coupled to form a single coil with two free ends. The motor can also include a commutated H-bridge having a voltage boost circuit with capacitors providing a boosted voltage to alternately turn on high-side switches of the H-bridge, wherein the capacitors are charged by a switching current flowing through low-side switches. In another aspect, the motor can also be configured to be powered by either alternating current or direct current. For example, the motor can have an alternating current conversion circuit including a bridge rectifier and smoothing capacitor coupled to a source of alternating current, the conversion circuit converting the alternating current to provide direct current to power the motor. In yet another aspect, a means for providing locked rotor protection can include a Hall sensor configured to turn off the two high-side switches and two low-side switches of the H-bridge for a period of time when the Hall sensor detects a locked rotor condition. The above summary is not intended to describe each disclosed embodiment or every implementation of the present invention. Figures and the detailed description that follow more particularly exemplify embodiments of the invention. While certain embodiments will be illustrated and described, the invention is not limited to use in such embodiments. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Aspects of the invention may be more completely understood in consideration of the following detailed description of various embodiments of the invention in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a partial cutaway view of an example single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless electric motor; FIG. 2 is a schematic view of six coils coupled to form a single coil with two free ends; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of another example single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor including a schematic of an example commutation circuit including voltage boost; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of another example single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor including a schematic of an example commutation circuit and an alternating current conversion circuit; and FIG. 5 is a perspective view of another example single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor including a schematic of an example commutation circuit having a microcontroller. While the invention is amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specifics thereof have been shown by way of example and will be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the intention is not to limit the invention to the particular embodiments described. On the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION This invention relates generally to direct current electric motors. More particularly, this invention relates to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor with a voltage boost circuit. While the present invention is not so limited, an appreciation of the various aspects of the invention will be gained through a discussion of the examples provided below. Generally, the present disclosure relates to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor including a rotor with alternate-polarity magnets rotatably journaled in the motor and a stator with a like number of stator poles including wound coils connected into a single coil with two ends. Preferably, the motor includes at least four magnets and a like number of stator poles. More preferably, the motor includes six magnets and six stator poles. In addition, the motor includes a commutated H-bridge coupled to the two ends of the single coil to drive the motor. Referring now to FIG. 1, one embodiment of a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor 100 is shown. Generally, the motor 100 includes a stationary stator 170 and a rotatable rotor 160. Preferably, an air gap 180 formed between the stator 170 and the rotor 160 is concentrically uniform, irrespective of any reluctance notches formed in the stator. The stator 170 includes a plurality of stator poles 110 individually wound and connected to form a single coil 105 with two free ends 120 and 130 (see FIG. 2). The single coil 105 can be formed using a variety of techniques such as, for example, a bifilar winding. Each stator pole 110 is formed by winding a coil in a given direction. Each alternating pole 110 is wound in an opposite direction and connected to the next pole to form an alternating series of north and south stator poles. In addition, the rotor 160 of the motor 100 includes a plurality of rotor poles 140, formed by permanent magnets coupled to the rotor 160. Each alternating rotor pole 140 is of a different polarity to form an alternating series of north and south rotor poles. The illustrated rotor 160 is an internal rotor, although external or flat-type rotors can also be used. Preferably, at least four alternating stator poles and four associated rotor poles are provided. Preferably, the brushless motor includes the same number of stator and rotor poles. Most preferably, and as illustrated, the motor 100 includes six stator poles and a like number of rotor poles. To operate the motor 100, free ends 120 and 130 of the single coil 105 are connected to a source of electric power. Specifically, the free end 120 is connected to an electric source of positive potential, and free end 130 is connected to an electrical source of negative potential. In this configuration, electrical current flows through the single coil 105 in a forward direction, for example, from free end 120 to free end 130. As the current flows through the single coil 105, the stator poles 110 act as electromagnets of alternating north or south polarity, depending on which direction each stator pole 110 is wound. The rotor poles 140 are attracted to each respective adjacent oppositely-charged stator pole 110, causing the rotor 160 to turn. As the current flowing through the single coil 105 is alternately switched between the forward and a reverse direction, each stator pole 110 changes polarity to attract an oppositely-charged rotor pole 140, causing the rotor 160 to continue spinning. One pulse (i.e. the change in the direction of the current through the single coil 105) is required for each pole to cause the rotor to complete a full revolution of 360 degrees. For the illustrated six-pole motor, six pulses are required to cause the rotor 160 to complete one full 360-degree revolution. As the rotor 160 spins, torque is transferred to a shaft 150 that is coupled to the rotor 160 of the motor 100. A sensor (not shown in FIG. 1) that can be fixed on the stator, in close proximity to the permanent magnets on the rotor, is able to determine the polarity of the magnet positioned in front of it. The sensor is thereby used to provide feedback as to the angular position of the rotor 160 relative to the stator 170 to control the direction of the current (forward or reverse) applied to the first and second ends 120 and 130 of the single coil 105, thereby providing the switching necessary to cause the rotor 160 to spin. Multiple speeds for the motor 100 can be accomplished, for example, with pulse circuits including pulse width modulation (PWM), phase control, or multiple windings, or by switching in a current limiting capacitor in an alternating current line, if the motor is driven by rectified alternating current as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,929,871 to Gerfast. Referring now to FIGS. 3 and 4, example single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motors 200 and 300 are shown including example drive circuits 210 and 310. The motor 200 shown in FIG. 3 is powered using a direct current (DC) source, while the motor 300 shown in FIG. 4 is powered using an alternating current (AC) source. The drive circuits 210 and 310 can commutate current through the single coil 105 to cause the motors 200 and 300 to spin, as described above. Referring to FIG. 3, the drive circuit 210 includes semiconductor switches 218, 219, 225 and 226. In a preferred embodiment, N-channel mosfets with a 60 to 600 volt rating and about 35 nanosecond switching are used. However, other semiconductor switches such as other mosfets (e.g., P-channel or PNP), SCRs, Triacs, or other transistors, for example, can also be used. The circuit 210 also includes inverters 221 and 222 and capacitors 223 and 224, described further below. The switches 218 and 219 function as high-side switches, and the switches 225 and 226 function as low-side switches. The drains of the two high-side switches 218 and 219 are connected to the bus voltage, while the sources of the two low-side switches 225 and 226 are connected to ground. The source of the high-side switch 218 and the drain of the low-side switch 226 are connected to the second end 130 of the single coil 105, while the source of the high-side switch 219 and the drain of the low-side switch 225 are connected to the first end 120 of the single coil 105. The drive circuit 210 drives the motor 200 as follows. Generally, the driver circuit 210 switches the direction of the current flowing through the single coil 105. When high-side switch 218 and opposite low-side switch 225 are turned on, current flows in a first or “forward” direction through the coil 105. When switches 218 and 225 are turned off, and high-side switch 219 and low-side switch 226 are turned on, current flows in a second or “reverse” direction through the coil 105. As noted above, alternating the direction of the flow of current through the coil 105 causes the rotor 160 to spin, and torque is thereby transferred to the shaft 150. To initiate the change in the state of the switches, a sensor 220 is used to measure the angular position of the rotor poles 110 with respect to the stator poles 120. In a preferred embodiment, a single sensor is used, regardless of the number of poles in the motor. Also preferred is a dual output Hall sensor that is mounted to the stator 170 adjacent the rotor 160. As the rotor 160 spins, the sensor 220 measures the change in polarity as oppositely-magnetized rotor poles 140 pass by the sensor. As the rotor pole 140 (and its associated polarity) positioned in front of the sensor 220 changes, the sensor 220 measures the change and provides the commutating signal in order to change the direction of the current flowing through the coil 105. In alternative embodiments, sensors other than a dual output Hall sensor can be used. For example, a single output Hall sensor can be used, as well as an optical sensor. In addition, multiple sensors can be provided. The sensors can also perform functions other than measuring the angular position of the rotor such as, for example, measuring when the rotor has stopped spinning to provide locked rotor protection, as described further below. More specifically, the circuit 210 can be used to commutate the current flowing through the coil 105 as follows. When an output 220a of the sensor 220 is positive, an output 220b is always the opposite of output 220a (i.e. negative). When the polarity of the magnet positioned in front of the sensor 220 causes the sensor 220 to provide a positive signal on output 220a, the switch 225 is immediately turned on. The same signal from the output 220a of the sensor 220 is also provided at the inverter 221, which inverts the signal, providing a negative signal to the switch 219, turning it off. The output 220b of the sensor 220 is opposite of that of 220a, therefore turning off switch 226 while turning on switch 218. The result is that direct current flows through switches 218 and 225 to ground, thereby producing a torque in the coil that swings in an opposite polarity to that of the magnet in front of the sensor 220. The torque is transferred to the rotor, causing the rotor to spin, and thereby causing the sensor 220 to transition to a second state as another magnet of opposite polarity swings into position in front of the sensor. This causes the sensor to change the outputs 220a and 220b, thereby turning switches 218 and 225 off and 219 and 226 on, causing the direct current to flow in the opposite direction through the coil. The high-side switch 218 requires a gate voltage higher than its source voltage to turn on. If the voltage at the end of coil 105 that is connected to switch 226 is lower than the voltage at point 269 then capacitor 224 will be charged to the voltage level at 269. When switch 226 and inverter 222 are turned off, capacitor 224 will provide voltage to the gate of high-side switch 218 and switch 218 will turn on. While switch 218 remains on, the voltage on capacitor 224 will be higher than the bus voltage. Accordingly, high-side switch 219 will be turned on with the voltage from capacitor 223 when switch 225 and inverter 221 are off. The illustrated switching scheme is therefore advantageous in that an unregulated voltage source can be used to charge the voltage boost capacitors. In this “unregulated” configuration, the voltage across the capacitors 223 and 224 remains at a desired value without requiring a voltage regulator or separate isolated voltage source. In FIG. 3, the voltage at point 269 is the same as the applied DC voltage. In FIG. 4, the voltage at point 269 is produced by a voltage divider. The voltage divider is either resistors 270 or 272 in series with 273. The drive circuit 310 shown in FIG. 4 is similar to drive circuit 210 described above, except for an alternating current conversion circuit 315. The circuit 315 accepts at inputs 332 and 334 current from an AC source. A bridge rectifier 313 (including four diodes) and a smoothing capacitor 323 are used to convert the AC into DC, which powers the remainder of the driver circuit 310. In this manner, an AC source is used to drive the motor 300. In addition to requiring drive circuits to function, electric motors may require locked rotor protection to increate reliability. This protection can take the form of thermally operated switches or relays that are sufficient to protect induction motors that heat up slowly with the rotor locks up. An electronically driven motor such as a brushless motor uses transistors that heat up rapidly, therefore other methods of sensing rotor lockup may be required. In the illustrated embodiment, locked rotor protection can be provided by the sensor 220. The preferred Hall sensor is a dual output Hall sensor that is configured to drive two inductive coils, with an added feature to detect a stalled condition. In the illustrated embodiment, the sensor 220 is modified by the addition of two resistors 270 and 272 to supply current to the sensor. When the rotor is locked up or stalled, the sensor 220 detects an absence of magnetic change and this condition is reflected at the resistors 270 and 272, with the sensor shutting off current to all four switches 218, 219, 225, and 226 for a period of time. In this configuration, locked rotor protection is achieved with minimum parts and at a low cost. Other methods can also be used to provide locked rotor protection, such as by using a sensor resistor and an SCR, with the sensing resistor positioned in the main line to provide a turn-off when current increases rapidly during locked rotor conditions. In such an arrangement, the gate of the SCR is provided with a “hold-off” capacitor and diode to prevent false turn-offs. A brushless electric motor configured as disclosed herein has several advantages. For example, the preferred six-pole brushless motor disclosed herein includes only two free ends, which can be driven with a drive circuit that is simple in terms of the number of components. For example, only the four transistors formed into a bridge circuit are needed. Other single phase motor designs, including 4, 8, or 10 poles, likewise include only two free ends and are therefore advantageous. In addition, the brushless motors disclosed herein are cost-effective for manufacture, and are as efficient or more efficient than other brushless electric motors, since approximately 100 percent of the copper windings are utilized at a given time. Further, the drive circuits for the motors are robust and can provide efficient locked rotor protection using minimal additional components. Various modifications can be made to the motor and circuits shown and described herein. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, example circuit 410 includes a microcontroller 412 and drivers 415 and 416 that are coupled to the Hall sensor 220 output and are used to commutate the H-bridge circuit. In other embodiments, various forms of digital signal processing can be used to enhance commutation of the motor. Other modifications to the motor and circuitry are also possible, such as commutation without a Hall sensor. The above specification, examples and data provide a complete description of the manufacture and use of various aspects of the invention. Since many embodiments of the invention can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, the invention resides in the claims hereinafter appended. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Permanent magnet brushless electric motors are desirable for efficiency. Brushless motors are typically more efficient and quieter than induction motors because brushless motor designs avoid losses related to the “induction” process. However, the costs associated with the manufacture of brushless motors are usually greater than induction motors. For example, brushless motors can be more expensive than induction motors because of the control circuitry necessary to drive the brushless motors. Therefore, until recently, brushless motors have typically been used in larger, expensive equipment such as washing machines and high-efficiency furnaces and in medical and military applications, where cost is less of a factor. Increased concerns for efficiency and stricter government regulations are requiring more efficient electric motors. Single-phase brushless motors are known. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,379,984, 4,535,275 and 5,859,519, and S. Bentouati et al., Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motors For Consumer Products (last visited Dec. 8, 2002), located at URL mag-net.ee.umist.ac.uk/reports/P11/p11.html. Although different brushless motors can vary in configuration, all brushless motors run on direct current and include circuitry to sequentially switch the direct current into one or more stator coils. In addition, most brushless motors include a plurality of permanent magnets attached to a rotor. Brushless motors typically have a different number of stator poles versus rotor poles. For example, a majority of brushless motor manufacturers use a three phase drive circuit including three rotation sensors and six transistors to switch the direct current. Current flows through two of the three coils or phases at any one time. Therefore, a three phase motor with three coils only utilizes approximately two-thirds of the copper windings at one time. Such a configuration can provide a smooth drive and good starting torque, but is complicated in terms of the number of components and the expense of the components. Other similarly designed motors including different pairings of stator poles versus rotor poles (e.g., 6-8, 12-8, 4-6, 6-2) are also complex and expensive. In particular, the circuitry used to drive a brushless motor can be complex and expensive. For example, some drive circuits for brushless motors require a voltage boost, or discrete isolated voltage sources. This can be accomplished, for example, using a transformer. However, transformers are both bulky and expensive. Voltage doublers can also be used, but they typically require large and expensive capacitors to generate the needed voltages with sufficient current capability. Other circuitry, such as charge pumps with a dedicated oscillator, diodes, and capacitors, has also been used. One application in which the above-described voltage boost circuits have been used is in drive circuits for brushless motors including a main semi-conductor switch (e.g., mosfets, transistors, SCRs, Triacs, etc.) that “is above the load.” This is generally the case in a drive circuit in which a full-bridge or half-bridge is used to drive the motor. Although the drive circuits noted above may be used in a drive circuit for a brushless motor with main switches that are above the load, such circuits can be inefficient, complex, and cost-prohibitive. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a brushless motor that is efficient and can be manufactured in a cost-effective manner. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>This invention relates generally to direct current electric motors. More particularly, this invention relates to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor with a voltage boost circuit. According to one aspect, the invention relates generally to a single coil, direct current permanent magnet brushless motor, including an internal rotor with six alternate polarity magnets rotatably journaled in the motor, and an external stator with six salient poles including six alternately wound coils coupled to form a single coil with two free ends. The motor can also include a commutated H-bridge having a voltage boost circuit with capacitors providing a boosted voltage to alternately turn on high-side switches of the H-bridge, wherein the capacitors are charged by a switching current flowing through low-side switches. In another aspect, the motor can also be configured to be powered by either alternating current or direct current. For example, the motor can have an alternating current conversion circuit including a bridge rectifier and smoothing capacitor coupled to a source of alternating current, the conversion circuit converting the alternating current to provide direct current to power the motor. In yet another aspect, a means for providing locked rotor protection can include a Hall sensor configured to turn off the two high-side switches and two low-side switches of the H-bridge for a period of time when the Hall sensor detects a locked rotor condition. The above summary is not intended to describe each disclosed embodiment or every implementation of the present invention. Figures and the detailed description that follow more particularly exemplify embodiments of the invention. While certain embodiments will be illustrated and described, the invention is not limited to use in such embodiments. | 20041118 | 20050906 | 20050609 | 57636.0 | 2 | LEYKIN, RITA | SINGLE COIL, DIRECT CURRENT PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS MOTOR WITH VOLTAGE BOOST | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,991,994 | ACCEPTED | On-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system | In one embodiment, a method for on-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system includes receiving a connection request from a client specifying a first port number and a first host name advertised externally with respect to an HPC server including a cluster of nodes, identifying a service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name, determining whether the identified service is available, and, if the identified service is available, instantiating a host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. | 1. Logic for on-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the logic encoded in a computer-readable medium and when executed operable to: receive a connection request from a client specifying a first port number and a first host name, the first port number and the first host name advertised externally with respect to an HPC server comprising a cluster of nodes; identify a service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name; determine whether the identified service is available; and if the identified service is available, instantiate a host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 2. The logic of claim 1, wherein the connection request is a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection request or a User Datagram Protocol (UDP) connection request. 3. The logic of claim 1, further operable to: access a list of services at the HPC server comprising a plurality of entries that each specify: a service; and a port number and a host name advertised externally with respect to the HPC server that correspond to the service; and identify, according to the list of services at the HPC server, the service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name. 4. The logic of claim 1, further operable to: access a list of services at the HPC server comprising a plurality of entries that each specify: a service; and a port number and a host name internal to the HPC server that correspond to a host that, when executed at one or more nodes in the cluster, provides the service; and instantiate, according to the list of services at the HPC server, the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 5. The logic of claim 1, further operable to: access a list of services at the HPC server comprising a plurality of entries that each specify a service and one or more rules indicating whether the service is available; and determine, according to the list of services, whether the identified service is available. 6. The logic of claim 5, wherein the rules indicate whether the service is available based on a time associated with the connection request from the client. 7. The logic of claim 1, further operable, if the identified service is unavailable, to block a port on the HPC server corresponding to the first port number to prevent the client from accessing the identified service. 8. The logic of claim 1, further operable to: access a boot image, a file system, and an operating system (OS) configuration file at the HPC server corresponding to the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster; and use the boot image, the file system and the OS configuration file to instantiate the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 9. The logic of claim 1, wherein the identified service is a web server. 10. The logic of claim 1, further operable to spoof an address of the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster and initiate a connection sequence on behalf of the host while the host is booting. 11. (canceled) 11. (canceled) 12. The logic of claim 1, wherein a node in the cluster of nodes is a central processing unit (CPU) coupled to two switches. 13. A method for on-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the method comprising: receiving a connection request from a client specifying a first port number and a first host name, the first port number and the first host name advertised externally with respect to an HPC server comprising a cluster of nodes; identifying a service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name; determining whether the identified service is available; and if the identified service is available, instantiating a host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the connection request is a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection request or a User Datagram Protocol (UDP) connection request. 15. The method of claim 13, further comprising: accessing a list of services at the HPC server comprising a plurality of entries that each specify: a service; and a port number and a host name advertised externally with respect to the HPC server that correspond to the service; and identifying, according to the list of services at the HPC server, the service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name. 16. The method of claim 13, further comprising: accessing a list of services at the HPC server comprising a plurality of entries that each specify: a service; and a port number and a host name internal to the HPC server that correspond to a host that, when executed at one or more nodes in the cluster, provides the service; and instantiating, according to the list of services at the HPC server, the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 17. The method of claim 13, further comprising: accessing a list of services at the HPC server comprising a plurality of entries that each specify a service and one or more rules indicating whether the service is available; and determining, according to the list of services, whether the identified service is available. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the rules indicate whether the service is available based on a time associated with the connection request from the client. 19. The method of claim 13, further comprising, if the identified service is unavailable, blocking a port on the HPC server corresponding to the first port number to prevent the client from accessing the identified service. 20. The method of claim 13, further comprising: accessing a boot image, a file system, and an operating system (OS) configuration file at the HPC server corresponding to the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster; and using the boot image, the file system and the OS configuration file to instantiate the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 21. The method of claim 13, wherein the identified service is a web server. 22. The method of claim 13, further comprising spoofing an address of the host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster and initiating a connection sequence on behalf of the host while the host is booting. 23. The method of claim 13, wherein: the address is an Internet Protocol over Media Access Control (IP/MAC) address; and the connection sequence is a Transmission Control Protocol over IP (TCP/IP) connection sequence or a User Datagram Protocol (UDP) over IP (UDP/IP) connection sequence. 24. The method of claim 13, wherein the cluster of nodes comprises a plurality of nodes coupled to each other according to a topology comprising a three dimensional torus. 25. The method of claim 13, wherein a node in the cluster of nodes is a central processing unit (CPU) coupled to two switches. 26. A system for on-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system, the system for on-demand instantiation in an HPC system comprising: means for receiving a connection request from a client specifying a first port number and a first host name, the first port number and the first host name advertised externally with respect to an HPC server comprising a cluster of nodes; means for identifying a service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name; means for determining whether the identified service is available; and means for, if the identified service is available, instantiating a host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. 27. The logic of claim 1, wherein: the address is an Internet Protocol over Media Access Control (IP/MAC) address; and the connection sequence is a Transmission Control Protocol over IP (TCP/IP) connection sequence or a User Datagram Protocol (UDP) over IP (UDP/IP) connection sequence. 28. The logic of claim 1, wherein the cluster of nodes comprises a plurality of nodes coupled to each other according to a topology comprising a three dimensional torus. | TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates generally to data processing and more particularly to on-demand instantiation in an HPC system. BACKGROUND High-performance computing (HPC) is often characterized by the computing systems used by scientists and engineers for modeling, simulating, and analyzing complex physical or algorithmic phenomena. Currently, HPC machines are typically designed using Numerous HPC clusters of one or more processors referred to as nodes. For most large scientific and engineering applications, performance is chiefly determined by parallel scalability and not the speed of individual nodes; therefore, scalability is often a limiting factor in building or purchasing such high-performance clusters. Scalability is generally considered to be based on i) hardware, ii) memory, input/output (I/O), and communication bandwidth; iii) software; iv) architecture; and v) applications. The processing, memory, and I/O bandwidth in most conventional HPC environments are normally not well balanced and, therefore, do not scale well. Many HPC environments do not have the I/O bandwidth to satisfy high-end data processing requirements or are built with blades that have too many unneeded components installed, which tend to dramatically reduce the system's reliability. Accordingly, many HPC environments may not provide robust cluster management software for efficient operation in production-oriented environments. SUMMARY The present invention may reduce or eliminate disadvantages, problems, or both associated with HPC systems. In one embodiment, a method for on-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system includes receiving a connection request from a client specifying a first port number and a first host name advertised externally with respect to an HPC server including a cluster of nodes, identifying a service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name, determining whether the identified service is available, and, if the identified service is available, instantiating a host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. Particular embodiments of the present invention may provide one or more technical advantages. As an example, particular embodiments may enable clients to request services at an HPC server. In particular embodiments, a service at an HPC server are available to a client only if a request from the client to access the service meets one or more criteria for access to the service. Particular embodiments provide high availability of hosts in a virtual cluster. Particular embodiments dynamically monitor Internet service requests and map such requests to and instantiate hosts providing the requested services. Particular embodiments of the present invention provide all, some, or none of the above technical advantages. Particular embodiments may provide one or more other technical advantages, one or more of which may be readily apparent to a person skilled in the art from the figures, description, and claims herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS To provide a more complete understanding of the present invention and the features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an example high-performance computing system in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG. 2 illustrates an example node in the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 illustrates an example central processing unit (CPU) in a node; FIG. 4 illustrates an example node pair; FIGS. 5A-5D illustrate various embodiments of the grid in the system of FIG. 1 and the usage thereof; FIGS. 6A-6B illustrate various embodiments of a graphical user interface in accordance with the system of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of the cluster management software in accordance with the system in FIG. 1; FIG. 8 illustrates an example one dimensional request folded into a y dimension; FIG. 9 illustrates two free meshes constructed using a y axis as an inner loop; FIG. 10 illustrates two free meshes constructed using an x axis as an inner loop; FIG. 11 illustrates an example interface of the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 12 is a flowchart illustrating a method for submitting a batch job in accordance with the high-performance computing system of FIG. 1; FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating a method for dynamic backfilling of the grid in accordance with the high-performance computing system of FIG. 1; FIG. 14 is a flow chart illustrating a method for dynamically managing a node failure in accordance with the high-performance computing system of FIG. 1; and FIG. 15 illustrates an example method for on-demand instantiation in the HPC system illustrated in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a HPC system 100 for executing software applications and processes, for example an atmospheric, weather, or crash simulation, using HPC techniques. System 100 provides users with HPC functionality dynamically allocated among various computing nodes 115 with I/O performance substantially similar to the processing performance. Generally, these nodes 115 are easily scaleable because of, among other things, this increased I/O performance and reduced fabric latency. For example, the scalability of nodes 115 in a distributed architecture may be represented by a derivative of Amdahl's law: S(N)=1/((FP/N)+FS)×(1−Fc×(1−RR/L)) where S(N)=Speedup on N processors, Fp=Fraction of Parallel Code, Fs=Fraction of Non-Parallel Code, Fc=Fraction of processing devoted to communications, and RR/L=Ratio of Remote/Local Memory Bandwidth. Therefore, by HPC system 100 providing I/O performance substantially equal to or nearing processing performance, HPC system 100 increases overall efficiency of HPC applications and allows for easier system administration. HPC system 100 is a distributed client/server system that allows users (such as scientists and engineers) to submit jobs 150 for processing on an HPC server 102. For example, system 100 may include HPC server 102 that is connected, through network 106, to one or more administration workstations or local clients 120. But system 100 may be a standalone computing environment or any other suitable environment. In short, system 100 is any HPC computing environment that includes highly scaleable nodes 115 and allows the user to submit jobs 150, dynamically allocates scaleable nodes 115 for job 150, and automatically executes job 150 using the allocated nodes 115. Job 150 may be any batch or online job operable to be processed using HPC techniques and submitted by any apt user. For example, job 150 may be a request for a simulation, a model, or for any other high-performance requirement. Job 150 may also be a request to run a data center application, such as a clustered database, an online transaction processing system, or a clustered application server. The term “dynamically,” as used herein, generally means that certain processing is determined, at least in part, at run-time based on one or more variables. The term “automatically,” as used herein, generally means that the appropriate processing is substantially performed by at least part of HPC system 100. It should be understood that “automatically” further contemplates any suitable user or administrator interaction with system 100 without departing from the scope of this disclosure. HPC server 102 comprises any local or remote computer operable to process job 150 using a plurality of balanced nodes 115 and cluster management engine 130. Generally, HPC server 102 comprises a distributed computer such as a blade server or other distributed server. However the configuration, server 102 includes a plurality of nodes 115. Nodes 115 comprise any computer or processing device such as, for example, blades, general-purpose personal computers (PC), Macintoshes, workstations, Unix-based computers, or any other suitable devices. Generally, FIG. 1 provides merely one example of computers that may be used with the disclosure. For example, although FIG. 1 illustrates one server 102 that may be used with the disclosure, system 100 can be implemented using computers other than servers, as well as a server pool. In other words, the present disclosure contemplates computers other than general purpose computers as well as computers without conventional operating systems (OSs). As used in this document, the term “computer” is intended to encompass a personal computer, workstation, network computer, or any other suitable processing device. HPC server 102, or the component nodes 115, may be adapted to execute any OS including Linux, UNIX, Windows Server, or any other suitable OS. According to one embodiment, HPC server 102 may also include or be communicably coupled with a remote web server. Therefore, server 102 may comprise any computer with software and/or hardware in any combination suitable to dynamically allocate nodes 115 to process HPC job 150. At a high level, HPC server 102 includes a management node 105, a grid 110 comprising a plurality of nodes 115, and cluster management engine 130. More specifically, server 102 may be a standard 19″ rack including a plurality of blades (nodes 115) with some or all of the following components: i) dual-processors; ii) large, high bandwidth memory; iii) dual host channel adapters (HCAs); iv) integrated fabric switching; v) FPGA support; and vi) redundant power inputs or N+1 power supplies. These various components allow for failures to be confined to the node level. But it will be understood that HPC server 102 and nodes 115 may not include all of these components. Management node 105 comprises at least one blade substantially dedicated to managing or assisting an administrator. For example, management node 105 may comprise two blades, with one of the two blades being redundant (such as an active/passive configuration). In one embodiment, management node 105 may be the same type of blade or computing device as HPC nodes 115. But, management node 105 may be any node, including any Number of circuits and configured in any suitable fashion, so long as it remains operable to at least partially manage grid 110. Often, management node 105 is physically or logically separated from the plurality of HPC nodes 115, jointly represented in grid 110. In the illustrated embodiment, management node 105 may be communicably coupled to grid 110 via link 108. Reference to a “link” encompasses any appropriate communication conduit implementing any appropriate communications protocol. As an example and not by way of limitation, a link may include one or more wires in one or more circuit boards, one or more internal or external buses, one or more local area networks (LANs), one or more metropolitan area networks (MANs), one or more wide area networks (WANs), one or more portions of the Internet, or a combination of two or more such links, where appropriate. In one embodiment, link 108 provides Gigabit or 10 Gigabit Ethernet communications between management node 105 and grid 110. Grid 110 is a group of nodes 115 interconnected for increased processing power. Typically, grid 110 is a 3D Torus, but it may be a mesh, a hypercube, or any other shape or configuration without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Reference to a “torus” may encompass all or a portion of grid 110, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. The links between nodes 115 in grid 110 may be serial or parallel analog links, digital links, or any other type of link that can convey electrical or electromagnetic signals such as, for example, fiber or copper. Each node 115 is configured with an integrated switch. This allows node 115 to more easily be the basic construct for the 3D Torus and helps minimize XYZ distances between other nodes 115. Further, this may make copper wiring work in larger systems at up to Gigabit rates with, in some embodiments, the longest cable being less than 5 meters. In short, node 115 is generally optimized for nearest-neighbor communications and increased I/O bandwidth. Each node 115 may include a cluster agent 132 communicably coupled with cluster management engine 130. Generally, agent 132 receives requests or commands from management node 105 and/or cluster management engine 130. Agent 132 could include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof operable to determine the physical status of node 115 and communicate the processed data, such as through a “heartbeat,” to management node 105. In another embodiment, management node 105 may periodically poll agent 132 to determine the status of the associated node 115. Agent 132 may be written in any appropriate computer language such as, for example, C, C++, Assembler, Java, Visual Basic, and others or any combination thereof so long as it remains compatible with at least a portion of cluster management engine 130. Cluster management engine 130 could include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof operable to dynamically allocate and manage nodes 115 and execute job 150 using nodes 115. For example, cluster management engine 130 may be written or described in any appropriate computer language including C, C++, Java, Visual Basic, assembler, any suitable version of 4GL, and others or any combination thereof. It will be understood that while cluster management engine 130 is illustrated in FIG. 1 as a single multi-tasked module, the features and functionality performed by this engine may be performed by multiple modules such as, for example, a physical layer module, a virtual layer module, a job scheduler, and a presentation engine (as shown in more detail in FIG. 7). Further, while illustrated as external to management node 105, management node 105 typically executes one or more processes associated with cluster management engine 130 and may store cluster management engine 130. Moreover, cluster management engine 130 may be a child or sub-module of another software module without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Therefore, cluster management engine 130 comprises one or more software modules operable to intelligently manage nodes 115 and jobs 150. In particular embodiments, cluster management engine includes a scheduler 515 for allocating nodes 115 to jobs 150, as described below. Scheduler 515 may use a scheduling algorithm to allocate nodes 115 to jobs 150, as further described below. Server 102 may include interface 104 for communicating with other computer systems, such as client 120, over network 106 in a client-server or other distributed environment. In certain embodiments, server 102 receives jobs 150 or job policies from network 106 for storage in disk farm 140. Disk farm 140 may also be attached directly to the computational array using the same wideband interfaces that interconnects the nodes. Generally, interface 104 comprises logic encoded in software and/or hardware in a suitable combination and operable to communicate with network 106. More specifically, interface 104 may comprise software supporting one or more communications protocols associated with communications network 106 or hardware operable to communicate physical signals. Network 106 facilitates wireless or wireline communication between computer server 102 and any other computer, such as clients 120. Indeed, while illustrated as residing between server 102 and client 120, network 106 may also reside between various nodes 115 without departing from the scope of the disclosure. In other words, network 106 encompasses any network, networks, or sub-network operable to facilitate communications between various computing components. Network 106 may communicate, for example, Internet Protocol (IP) packets, Frame Relay frames, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) cells, voice, video, data, and other suitable information between network addresses. Network 106 may include one or more local area networks (LANs), radio access networks (RANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), wide area networks (WANs), all or a portion of the global computer network known as the Internet, and/or any other communication system or systems at one or more locations. MAC stands for media access control, where appropriate. In general, disk farm 140 is any memory, database or storage area network (SAN) for storing jobs 150, profiles, boot images, or other HPC information. According to the illustrated embodiment, disk farm 140 includes one or more storage clients 142. Disk farm 140 may process and route data packets according to any of a Number of communication protocols, for example, InfiniBand (IB), Gigabit Ethernet (GE), or FibreChannel (FC). Data packets are typically used to transport data within disk farm 140. A data packet may include a header that has a source identifier and a destination identifier. The source identifier, for example, a source address, identifies the transmitter of information, and the destination identifier, for example, a destination address, identifies the recipient of the information. Client 120 is any device operable to present the user with a job submission screen or administration via a graphical user interface (GUI) 126. At a high level, illustrated client 120 includes at least GUI 126 and comprises an electronic computing device operable to receive, transmit, process and store any appropriate data associated with system 100. It will be understood that there may be any Number of clients 120 communicably coupled to server 102. Further, “client 120” and “user of client 120” may be used interchangeably as appropriate without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Moreover, for ease of illustration, each client is described in terms of being used by one user. But this disclosure contemplates that many users may use one computer to communicate jobs 150 using the same GUI 126. As used in this disclosure, client 120 is intended to encompass a personal computer, touch screen terminal, workstation, network computer, kiosk, wireless data port, cell phone, personal data assistant (PDA), one or more processors within these or other devices, or any other suitable processing device. For example, client 120 may comprise a computer that includes an input device, such as a keypad, touch screen, mouse, or other device that can accept information, and an output device that conveys information associated with the operation of server 102 or clients 120, including digital data, visual information, or GUI 126. Both the input device and output device may include fixed or removable storage media such as a magnetic computer disk, CD-ROM, or other suitable media to both receive input from and provide output to users of clients 120 through the administration and job submission display, namely GUI 126. GUI 126 comprises a graphical user interface operable to allow i) the user of client 120 to interface with system 100 to submit one or more jobs 150; and/or ii) the system (or network) administrator using client 120 to interface with system 100 for any suitable supervisory purpose. Generally, GUI 126 provides the user of client 120 with an efficient and user-friendly presentation of data provided by HPC system 100. GUI 126 may comprise a plurality of customizable frames or views having interactive fields, pull-down lists, and buttons operated by the user. In one embodiment, GUI 126 presents a job submission display that presents the various job parameter fields and receives commands from the user of client 120 via one of the input devices. GUI 126 may, alternatively or in combination, present the physical and logical status of nodes 115 to the system administrator, as illustrated in FIGS. 6A-6B, and receive various commands from the administrator. Administrator commands may include marking nodes as (un)available, shutting down nodes for maintenance, rebooting nodes, or any other suitable command. Moreover, it should be understood that the term graphical user interface may be used in the singular or in the plural to describe one or more graphical user interfaces and each of the displays of a particular graphical user interface. Therefore, GUI 126 contemplates any graphical user interface, such as a generic web browser, that processes information in system 100 and efficiently presents the results to the user. Server 102 can accept data from client 120 via the web browser (e.g., Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator) and return the appropriate HTML or XML responses using network 106. In one aspect of operation, HPC server 102 is first initialized or booted. During this process, cluster management engine 130 determines the existence, state, location, and/or other characteristics of nodes 115 in grid 110. As described above, this may be based on a “heartbeat” communicated upon each node's initialization or upon near immediate polling by management node 105. Next, cluster management engine 130 may dynamically allocate various portions of grid 110 to one or more virtual clusters 220 based on, for example, predetermined policies. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 continuously monitors nodes 115 for possible failure and, upon determining that one of the nodes 115 failed, effectively managing the failure using any of a variety of recovery techniques. Cluster management engine 130 may also manage and provide a unique execution environment for each allocated node of virtual cluster 220. The execution environment may consist of the hostname, IP address, OS, configured services, local and shared file systems, and a set of installed applications and data. The cluster management engine 130 may dynamically add or subtract nodes from virtual cluster 220 according to associated policies and according to inter-cluster policies, such as priority. When a user logs on to client 120, he may be presented with a job submission screen via GUI 126. Once the user has entered the job parameters and submitted job 150, cluster management engine 130 processes the job submission, the related parameters, and any predetermined policies associated with job 150, the user, or the user group. Cluster management engine 130 then determines the appropriate virtual cluster 220 based, at least in part, on this information. Engine 130 then dynamically allocates a job space 230 within virtual cluster 220 and executes job 150 across the allocated nodes 115 using HPC techniques. Based, at least in part, on the increased I/O performance, HPC server 102 may more quickly complete processing of job 150. Upon completion, cluster management engine communicates results 160 to the user. FIG. 2 illustrates an example node (or blade) 115. A node 115 includes any computing device in any orientation for processing all or a portion, such as a thread or process, of one or more jobs 150. As an example and not by way of limitation, a node 115 may include a XEON motherboard, an OPTERON motherboard, or other computing device. Node 115 has an architecture providing an integrated fabric that enables distribution of switching functionality across nodes 115 in grid 110. In particular embodiments, distributing such functionality across nodes 115 in grid 110 may obviate centralized switching in grid 110, which may in turn increase fault tolerance in grid 110 and enable parallel communication among nodes 115 in grid 110. Node 115 includes two CPUs 164 and a switch (or fabric) 166. Reference to a node 115 may encompass two CPUs 164 and a switch 166, where appropriate. Reference to a node 115 may encompass just a CPU 164, where appropriate. Switch 166 may be an integrated switch. In particular embodiments, switch 166 has twenty-four ports. Two ports on switch 166 may couple node 115 to management node 105 for input and output to and from node 115. In addition, two ports on switch 166 may each couple node 115 to another node 115 along an x axis of grid 110, two ports on switch 166 may each couple node 115 to another node 115 along a y axis of grid 110, and two ports on switch 166 may each couple node 115 to another node 115 along a z axis of grid 110 to facilitate implementation of a 3D mesh, a 3D torus, or other topology in grid 110. Additional ports on switch 166 may couple node 115 to other nodes 115 in grid 110 to facilitate implementation of a multidimensional topology (such as a 4D torus or other nontraditional topology including more than three dimensions) in grid 110. In particular embodiments, one or more ports on switch 166 may couple node 115 to one or more other nodes 115 along one or more diagonal axes of grid 110, which may reduce communication jumps or hops between node 115 and one or more other node 115 relatively distant from node 115. As an example and not by way of limitation, a port on switch 166 may couple node 115 to another node 155 residing along a northeasterly axis of grid 110 several 3D jumps away from node 115. In particular embodiments, switch 166 is an InfiniBand switch. Although a particular switch 166 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable switch 166. Link 168a couples CPU 164a to switch 166. Link 168b couples CPU 164a to another switch 166 in another node 115, as described below. Link 168c couples CPU 164b to switch 166. Link 168d couples CPU 164b to other switch 166, as described below. Links 168e and 168f couple switch 166 to two other CPUs 164 in other node 115, as further described below. In particular embodiments, a link 168 includes an InfiniBand 4X link capable of communicating approximately one gigabyte per second in each direction. Although particular links 168 are illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable links 168. Links 170 are I/O links to node 115. A link 170 may include an InfiniBand 4X link capable of communicating approximately one gigabyte per second in each direction. Although particular links 170 are illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable links 170. Links 172 couple switch 166 to other switches 166 in other nodes 115, as described below. In particular embodiments, a link 172 includes an InfiniBand 12X link capable of communicating approximately three gigabytes per second in each direction. Although particular links 172 are illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable links 172. FIG. 3 illustrates an example CPU 164 in a node 115. Although an example CPU 164 is illustrated and the described, the present invention contemplates any suitable CPU 164. CPU 164 includes a processor 174, a memory controller hub (MCH) 176, a memory unit 178, and a host channel adapter (HCA) 180. Processor 174 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components. In particular embodiments, processor 174 is a NOCONA XEON processor 174 from INTEL. In particular embodiments, processor 174 is an approximately 3.6 gigahertz processor having an approximately 1 megabyte cache and being capable of approximately 7.2 gigaflops per second. In particular embodiments, processor 174 provides HyperThreading. In particular embodiments, processor 174 includes a memory controller providing efficient use of memory bandwidth. Although a particular processor 174 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable processor 174. Bus 182 couples processor 174 and MCH 176 to each other. In particular embodiments, bus 182 is an approximately 800 MHz front side bus (FSB) capable of communicating approximately 6.4 gigabytes per second. Although a particular bus 182 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable bus 182. MCH 176 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components facilitating communication between processor 174 and one or more other components of HPC system 100, such as memory unit 178. In particular embodiments, MCH 176 is a northbridge for CPU 164 that controls communication between processor 174 and one or more of memory unit 178, bus 182, a Level 2 (L2) cache, and one or more other components of CPU 164. In particular embodiments, MCH 176 is a LINDENHURST E7520 MCH 176. In particular embodiments, Memory unit 178 includes eight gigabytes of random access memory (RAM). In particular embodiments, memory unit 178 includes two double data rate (DDR) memory devices separately coupled to MCH 176. As an example and not by way of limitation, memory unit 178 may include two DDR2-400 memory devices each capable of approximately 3.2 Gigabytes per second per channel. Although a particular memory unit 178 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable memory unit 178. In particular embodiments, a link couples MCH 176 to an I/O controller hub (ICH) that includes one or more hardware, software, or embedded logic components facilitating I/O between processor 174 and one or more other components of HPC system 100, such as a Basic I/O System (BIOS) coupled to the ICH, a Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) controller or other Ethernet interface coupled to the ICH, or both. In particular embodiments, the ICH is a southbridge for CPU 164 that controls I/O functions of CPU 164. The Ethernet interface coupled to the ICH may facilitate communication between the ICH and a baseboard management controller (BMC) coupled to the Ethernet interface. In particular embodiments, management node 105 or other component of HPC system 100 includes one or more such BMCs. In particular embodiments, a link couples the Ethernet interface to a switch providing access to one or more GbE management ports. Bus 184 couples MCH 176 and HCA 180 to each other. In particular embodiments, bus 184 is a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) bus 184, such as a PCI-Express 8X bus 184 capable of communicating approximately 4 gigabytes per second. Although a particular bus 184 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable bus 184. HCA 180 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components providing channel-based I/O to CPU 164. In particular embodiments, HCA 180 is a MELLANOX InfiniBand HCA 180. In particular embodiments, HCA 180 provides a bandwidth of approximately 2.65 gigabytes per second, which may allow approximately 1.85 gigabytes per processing element (PE) to switch 166 in node 115 and approximately 800 megabytes per PE to I/O, such as Basic I/O System (BIOS), an Ethernet interface, or other I/O. In particular embodiments, HCA 180 allows a bandwidth at switch 166 to reach approximately 3.7 gigabytes per second for an approximately 13.6 gigaflops per second peak, an I/O rate at switch 166 to reach approximately 50 megabytes per gigaflop for approximately 0.27 bytes per flop, or both. Although a particular HCA 180 is illustrated and described, the present invention contemplates any suitable HCA 180. Each link 168 couples HCA 180 to a switch 166. Link 168a couples HCA 180 to a first switch 166 that is a primary switch 166 with respect to HCA 180, as described below. In particular embodiments, node 115 including HCA 180 includes first switch 166. Link 168b couples HCA 180 to a second switch 166 that is a secondary switch with respect to HCA 180, as described below. In particular embodiments, a node 115 not including HCA 180 includes second switch 166, as described below. FIG. 4 illustrates an example node pair 186 including two switches 166 and four processors 174. Switches 166 in node pair 186 are redundant with respect to each other, which may increase fault tolerance at node pair 186. If a first switch 166 in node pair 186 is not functioning properly, a second switch 166 in node pair 186 may provide switching for all four CPUs in node pair 186. In node pair 186, switch 166a is a primary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164a and 164b and a secondary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164c and 164d. Switch 166b is a primary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164c and 164d and a secondary switch 166 with respect to CPUs 164a and 164b. If both switches 166a and 116b are functioning properly, switch 166a may provide switching for CPUs 164a and 164b and switch 166b may provide switching for CPUs 164c and 164d. If switch 166a is functioning properly, but switch 166b is not, switch 166a may provide switching for CPUs 164a, 164b, 164c, and 164d. If switch 166b is functioning properly, but switch 166a is not functioning properly, switch 166b may provide switching for CPUs 164a, 164b, 164c, and 164d. Links 172 couple each node 115 in node pair 186 to six nodes 115 outside node pair 186 in grid 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, link 172a at switch 166a couples node 115a to a first node 115 outside node pair 186 north of node 115a in grid 110, link 172b at switch 166a couples node 115a to a second node 115 outside node pair 186 south of node 115a in grid 110, link 172c at switch 166a couples node 115a to a third node 115 outside node pair 186 east of node 115a in grid 110, link 172d at switch 166a couples node 115a to a fourth node 115 outside node pair 186 west of node 115a in grid 110, link 172e at switch 166a couples node 115a to a fifth node 115 outside node pair 186 above node 115a in grid 110, and link 172f at switch 166a couples node 115a to a sixth node 115 outside node pair 186 below node 115a in grid 110. In particular embodiments, links 172 couple nodes 115a and 115b in node pair 186 to sets of nodes 115 outside node pair 186 that are different from each other. As an example and not by way of limitation, links 172 at switch 166a may couple node 115a to a first set of six nodes 115 outside node pair 186 that includes a first node 115 outside node pair 186, a second node 115 outside node pair 186, a third node 115 outside node pair 186, a fourth node 115 outside node pair 186, a fifth node 115 outside node pair 186, and a sixth node 115 outside node pair 186. Links 172 at switch 166b may couple node 115b to a second set of six nodes 115 outside node pair 186 that includes a seventh node 115 outside node pair 186, an eighth node 115 outside node pair 186, a ninth node 115 outside node pair 186, a tenth node 115 outside node pair 186, an eleventh node 115 outside node pair 186, and a twelfth node 115 outside node pair 186. In particular embodiments, a link 172 may couple a first node 115 adjacent a first edge of grid 110 to a second node 115 adjacent a second edge of grid 110 opposite the first edge. As an example and not by way of limitation, consider a first node 115 adjacent a left edge of grid 110 and a second node 115 adjacent a right edge of grid 110 opposite the left edge of grid 110. A link 172 may couple first and second nodes 115 to each other such that first node 115 is east of second node 115 and second node 115 is west of first node 115, despite a location of first node 115 relative to a location of second node 115 in grid 110. As another example, consider a first node 115 adjacent a front edge of grid 110 and a second node 115 adjacent a back edge of grid 110 opposite the front edge of grid 110. A link 172 may couple first and second nodes 115 to each other such that first node 115 is south of second node 115 and second node 115 is north of first node 115, despite a location of first node 115 relative to a location of second node 115 in grid 110. As yet another example, consider a first node 115 adjacent a top edge of grid 110 and a second node 115 adjacent a bottom edge of grid 110 opposite the top edge of grid 110. A link 172 may couple first and second nodes 115 to each other such that first node 115 is below second node 115 and second node 115 is above first node 115, despite a location of first node 115 relative to a location of second node 115 in grid 110. FIGS. 5A-5D illustrate various embodiments of grid 110 in system 100 and the usage or topology thereof. FIG. 5A illustrates one configuration, namely a 3D Torus, of grid 110 using a plurality of node types. For example, the illustrated node types are external I/O node, files system (FS) server, FS metadata server, database server, and compute node. FIG. 5B illustrates an example of “folding” of grid 110. Folding generally allows for one physical edge of grid 110 to connect to a corresponding axial edge, thereby providing a more robust or edgeless topology. In this embodiment, nodes 115 are wrapped around to provide a near seamless topology connect by a node line 216. Node line 216 may be any suitable hardware implementing any communications protocol for interconnecting two or more nodes 115. For example, node line 216 may be copper wire or fiber optic cable implementing Gigabit Ethernet. In particular embodiments, a node line 216 includes one or more links 172, as described above. FIG. 5C illustrates grid 110 with one virtual cluster 220 allocated within it. While illustrated with only one virtual cluster 220, there may be any Number (including zero) of virtual clusters 220 in grid 110 without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Virtual cluster 220 is a logical grouping of nodes 115 for processing related jobs 150. For example, virtual cluster 220 may be associated with one research group, a department, a lab, or any other group of users likely to submit similar jobs 150. Virtual cluster 220 may be any shape and include any Number of nodes 115 within grid 110. Indeed, while illustrated virtual cluster 220 includes a plurality of physically neighboring nodes 115, cluster 220 may be a distributed cluster of logically related nodes 115 operable to process job 150. Virtual cluster 220 may be allocated at any appropriate time. For example, cluster 220 may be allocated upon initialization of system 100 based, for example, on startup parameters or may be dynamically allocated based, for example, on changed server 102 needs. Moreover, virtual cluster 220 may change its shape and size over time to quickly respond to changing requests, demands, and situations. For example, virtual cluster 220 may be dynamically changed to include an automatically allocated first node 115 in response to a failure of a second node 115, previously part of cluster 220. In certain embodiments, clusters 220 may share nodes 115 as processing requires. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 may allocate one or more virtual clusters 220 to one or more jobs 150 according to a scheduling algorithm, as described below. FIG. 5D illustrates various job spaces, 230a and 230b respectively, allocated within example virtual cluster 220. Generally, job space 230 is a set of nodes 115 within virtual cluster 220 dynamically allocated to complete received job 150. Typically, there is one job space 230 per executing job 150 and vice versa, but job spaces 230 may share nodes 115 without departing from the scope of the disclosure. The dimensions of job space 230 may be manually input by the user or administrator or dynamically determined based on job parameters, policies, and/or any other suitable characteristic. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 may determine one or more dimensions of a job space 230 according to a scheduling algorithm, as described below. FIGS. 6A-6B illustrate various embodiments of a management graphical user interface 400 in accordance with the system 100. Often, management GUI 400 is presented to client 120 using GUI 126. In general, management GUI 400 presents a variety of management interactive screens or displays to a system administrator and/or a variety of job submission or profile screens to a user. These screens or displays are comprised of graphical elements assembled into various views of collected information. For example, GUI 400 may present a display of the physical health of grid 110 (illustrated in FIG. 6A) or the logical allocation or topology of nodes 115 in grid 110 (illustrated in FIG. 6B). FIG. 6A illustrates example display 400a. Display 400a may include information presented to the administrator for effectively managing nodes 115. The illustrated embodiment includes a standard web browser with a logical “picture” or screenshot of grid 110. For example, this picture may provide the physical status of grid 110 and the component nodes 115. Each node 115 may be one of any Number of colors, with each color representing various states. For example, a failed node 115 may be red, a utilized or allocated node 115 may be black, and an unallocated node 115 may be shaded. Further, display 400a may allow the administrator to move the pointer over one of the nodes 115 and view the various physical attributes of it. For example, the administrator may be presented with information including “node,” “availability,” “processor utilization,” “memory utilization,” “temperature,” “physical location,” and “address.” Of course, these are merely example data fields and any appropriate physical or logical node information may be display for the administrator. Display 400a may also allow the administrator to rotate the view of grid 110 or perform any other suitable function. FIG. 6B illustrates example display 400b. Display 400b presents a view or picture of the logical state of grid 100. The illustrated embodiment presents the virtual cluster 220 allocated within grid 110. Display 400b further displays two example job spaces 230 allocate within cluster 220 for executing one or more jobs 150. Display 400b may allow the administrator to move the pointer over graphical virtual cluster 220 to view the Number of nodes 115 grouped by various statuses (such as allocated or unallocated). Further, the administrator may move the pointer over one of the job spaces 230 such that suitable job information is presented. For example, the administrator may be able to view the job name, start time, Number of nodes, estimated end time, processor usage, I/O usage, and others. It will be understood that management GUI 126 (represented above by example displays 400a and 400b, respectively) is for illustration purposes only and may include none, some, or all of the illustrated graphical elements as well as additional management elements not shown. FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of cluster management engine 130, in accordance with system 100. In this embodiment, cluster management engine 130 includes a plurality of sub-modules or components: physical manager 505, virtual manager 510, scheduler 515, and local memory or variables 520. Physical manager 505 is any software, logic, firmware, or other module operable to determine the physical health of various nodes 115 and effectively manage nodes 115 based on this determined health. Physical manager may use this data to efficiently determine and respond to node 115 failures. In one embodiment, physical manager 505 is communicably coupled to a plurality of agents 132, each residing on one node 115. As described above, agents 132 gather and communicate at least physical information to manager 505. Physical manager 505 may be further operable to communicate alerts to a system administrator at client 120 via network 106. Virtual manager 510 is any software, logic, firmware, or other module operable to manage virtual clusters 220 and the logical state of nodes 115. Generally, virtual manager 510 links a logical representation of node 115 with the physical status of node 115. Based on these links, virtual manager 510 may generate virtual clusters 220 and process various changes to these clusters 220, such as in response to node failure or a (system or user) request for increased HPC processing. Virtual manager 510 may also communicate the status of virtual cluster 220, such as unallocated nodes 115, to scheduler 515 to enable dynamic backfilling of unexecuted, or queued, HPC processes and jobs 150. Virtual manager 510 may further determine the compatibility of job 150 with particular nodes 115 and communicate this information to scheduler 515. In certain embodiments, virtual manager 510 may be an object representing an individual virtual cluster 220. In particular embodiments, cluster management engine 130 includes scheduler 515. Scheduler 515 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or one or more such components for allocating nodes 115 to jobs 150 according to a scheduling algorithm. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 is a plug in. In particular embodiments, in response to cluster management engine 130 receiving a job 150, cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 515 to job 150. In particular embodiments, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 515 to a job 150, cluster management engine 130 identifies to scheduler 515 nodes 115 in grid 110 available for allocation to job 150. As an example and not by way of limitation, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 115 to a job 150, cluster management engine 130 may communicate to scheduler 515 a list of all nodes 115 in grid 110 available for allocation to job 150. In particular embodiments, cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 115 to a job 150 only if a Number of nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150 is greater than or equal to a Number of nodes 115 requested for job 150. As described above, in particular embodiments, grid 110 is a three dimensional torus of switches 166 each coupled to four CPUs 164. Scheduler 515 logically configures grid 110 as a torus of nodes 115. A torus of size [x,y,z] switches 166 provides six possible logical configurations: [4x,y,z], [x,4y,z], [x,y,4z], [2x,2y,z], [2x,y,2z], and [x,2y,2z]. When scheduler 515 allocates one or more nodes 115 to a job 150, scheduler 515 may select a logical configuration best suited to job 150. Message Passing Interface (MPI) is a standard for communication among processes in a job 150. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 assigns an MPI Rank to each node 115 allocated to a job 150. For a job 150 including N processes, scheduler 150 assigns a unique integer Rank between 0 and N−1 to each process. To communicate a message to a first process in job 150, a second process in job 150 may specify a Rank of the first process. Similarly, to receive a message from a first process in a job 150, a second process in job 150 may specify a Rank of the first process. Scheduler 150 may also define one or more broadcast groups each facilitating communication of messages from processes in the broadcast group to all other processes in the broadcast group. To receive a message from a first process in a broadcast group, a second process in the broadcast group may specify the broadcast group In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 handles three types of requests: “spatial,” “compact,” and “any.” Reference to a “request” encompasses a job 150, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. When a user submits a job 150 to HPC server 102, the user may specify a request type. A “spatial” request encompasses a job 150 described spatially. One class of existing MPI applications assumes a spatial relationship among processes in a job 150. Weather models are an example. To process a job 150 including a weather model, HPC server 102 may use a two dimensional grid encompassing longitude and latitude (or a similar coordinate system) to partition the surface of the earth and divides the time period into discrete time steps. Each process of job 150 models the weather for a particular area. At the beginning of each time step, the process exchanges boundary values with each of four other processes neighboring the process and then computes weather for the particular area. To process a job 150 including a weather model, HPC server 102 may use a three dimensional grid encompassing longitude, latitude, and altitude (or a similar coordinate system) instead of a two dimensional grid to partition the surface of the earth. For an MPI application assuming a spatial relationship among processes in a job 150, a user may request a triplet {Sx,Sy,Sz} of nodes 115 for job 150. If all the dimensions S are greater than one, the request is a three dimensional request. If one of the dimensions S is equal to one, the request is a two dimensional request. If two of the dimensions S are equal to one, the request is a one dimensional request. To allocate nodes 115 to the request, scheduler 150 may map spatial coordinates to MPI Rank as follows: [x,y,z]→x×Sy×Sz+y×Sz+z. Sx, Sy, and Sz indicate a size of the request, x is between zero and Sx,y is between zero and Sy, and z is between zero and Sz. To allocate nodes 115 to a two dimensional request, scheduler 150 may map spatial coordinates to MPI Rank as follows: [x,y]→x×Sy+y. In particular embodiments, to map spatial coordinates to MPI Rank, scheduler 515 first increments along a z axis of grid 110, then increments along a y axis of grid 110, and then increments along an x axis of grid 110. To accommodate an incorrect assumption regarding scheduler 515 mapping spatial coordinates to MPI Rank, e.g., first incrementing along an x axis of grid 110, then incrementing along ay axis of grid 110, and then incrementing along a z axis of grid 110, cluster management engine 30 may present a requested job 150 to scheduler 515 as, e.g., {Sz,Sy,Sx}. A “compact” request encompasses a job 150 not described spatially. Scheduler 515 may allocate nodes 115 to a compact request to minimize a maximum communication distance (or hop count) between each pair of nodes 115 allocated to the compact request. An “any” request encompasses a job 150 requiring little or no interprocess communication. Scheduler 150 may allocate any set of nodes 115 to satisfy an any request. Such a job 150 provides scheduler 150 an opportunity to fill holes resulting from fragmentation in grid 110. When a user submits a job 150 to HPC server 102, the user may also specify an aggressive flag on job 150. In particular embodiments, an aggressive flag is a floating-point Number between zero and one indicating a degree of leeway allotted to scheduler 515 for purposes of allocating nodes 115 to job 150. A higher Number gives scheduler 515 more leeway than a lower Number does. If a user submits a spatial request to HPC server 102 and sets an aggressive flag on the spatial request to zero, scheduler 515 schedules job 150 only if nodes 115 are available to accommodate the spatial request. In particular embodiments, if a user submits a spatial request to HPC server 102 and sets an aggressive flag on the spatial request to a Number greater than zero, scheduler 515 tries to accommodate the spatial request, but, if scheduler 515 cannot accommodate the spatial request, schedules job 150 as a compact request. In particular embodiments, a compact request may allow unlimited hop counts between pairs of nodes 115 allocated to the compact request. Scheduler 150 can always accommodate such a request because, as described above, cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 only if a Number of nodes 115 available for allocation is greater than or equal to a Number of nodes 115 requested. In particular embodiments, an aggressive flag on a compact request indicates a limit on hop counts between pairs of nodes 115 allocated to the compact request. In such embodiments, the limit on hop counts may equal 1/1−a, where a is the aggressive flag. In particular embodiments, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to allocate one or more nodes 115 to a job 150, cluster management engine 130 provides the following input to scheduler 515: a Number of nodes 115 requested; a request type; a size of job 150; an aggressive flag on job 150; a switch-based size of grid 110 (which scheduler 515 later adjusts to determine a node-based size of grid 110); a Number of nodes 115 per switch 166 (which, in particular embodiments, equals four); a Number of nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150; and identification of one or more nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150 (such as, for example, a list of all nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150). In particular embodiments, RequestedNodes indicates the Number of nodes 115 requested, RequestType indicates the request type, RequestedSize (which includes an array) indicates the size of job 150, AggressiveFlag indicates the aggressive flag on job 150, TorusSize (which includes array) indicates the switch-based size of grid 110, NodesPerSwitch indicates the Number of nodes 115 per switch 166, NumFreeNodes indicates the Number of nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150, and FreeNodeList (which includes an array) identifies one or more nodes 115 available for allocation to job 150. In particular embodiments, when scheduler 515 schedules (or attempts to schedule) a job 150, scheduler 515 provides the following output: identification of nodes 115 allocated to job 150 (such as a list of nodes 115 allocated to job 150); an MPI Rank of each node allocated to job 150; and a return value indicating that (1) scheduler 515 scheduled job 150, (2) scheduler 515 did not schedule job 150, or (3) scheduler 515 can never schedule job 150. In particular embodiments, to allocate nodes 115 to a job 150, scheduler 515 first initializes variables for scheduling job 150, then schedules job 150 according to the variables, and then converts the schedule (or results) for processing at cluster management engine 130. Three variables—SpatialAllowed, CompactAllowed, and AnyAllowed—indicate allowed types of scheduling. Scheduler 515 may use the following example logic to initialize SpatialAllowed, CompactAllowed, and AnyAllowed: If the NodesRequested=1 SpatialAllowed=False CompactAllowed=False AnyAllowed=True Else If RequestedType=SPATIAL SpatialAllowed=True AnyAllowed=False If AggressiveFlag>0 CompactAllowed=True Else ComPactAllowed=False Else If RequestedType=Compact SpatialAllowed=False CompactAllowed=True AnyAllowed=False Else If RequestedType=Any SpatialAllowed=False CompactAllowed=False AnyAllowed=True In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 orients a switch-based size of grid 110 to indicate larger dimensions of grid 110 before smaller dimensions of grid 110. TorusMap (which includes an array) indicates the switch-based size of grid 110 oriented to indicate larger dimensions of grid 110 before smaller dimensions of grid 110. Scheduler 515 applies TorusMap to all nodes 115 identified in FreeNodeList. InverseTorusMap (which includes an array) is an inverse of TorusMap, and scheduler 515 applies InverseTorusMap to a list of nodes 115 allocated to a job 150 before returning the list to cluster management engine 130 for processing. As an example and not by way of limitation, if cluster management engine 130 communicates a switch-based torus size of 14×16×15 to scheduler 515, scheduler 515 sets TorusMap to {2,0,1}. The switch-based torus size then becomes 16×15×14 and, for a node 155 in FreeNodeList having indices {x,y,z}, the indices of node 155 after scheduler 515 applies TorusMap are {y,z,x}. The InverseTorusMap for the above example is {1,2,0}. In particular embodiments, NumMapDimensions indicates a Number of dimensions for modification when converting a switch-based torus to a node-based torus. MapDimsions[2] and MapMod[2] provide indices of the dimensions for modification and respective multipliers of the dimensions for modification. Scheduler 515 may multiply one of the dimensions for modification by four or multiply each of two of the dimensions for modification by two. Scheduler 515 determines which multiplication to apply and then modifies a size of the torus, initially described in terms of switches, accordingly. Scheduler 515 determines, according to RequestType, which multiplication to apply. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 applies one or more geometric transformations to a request to generate a list of meshes satisfying the request. A mesh includes a box embedded in grid 110. A start point, [Sx,Sy,Sz], and an end point, [Ex,Ey,Ez], define a mesh. A mesh “wraps” in one or more dimensions if the mesh has a start point greater than an end point in the one or more dimensions. As an example and not by way of limitation, a mesh with a start point at [3,7,5] and an end point at [2,9,4] wraps in the x and y dimensions. A point, [x,y,z], in grid 110 resides in a nonwrapping mesh if [Sx≦x≦Ex], [Sy≦y≦Ey], and [Sz≦z≦Ez]. After scheduler 515 generates a list of meshes satisfying the request, scheduler 515 loops through the list until scheduler 515 identifies a mesh that is schedulable with respect to a set of nodes 155 available for allocation to the request. Generally, a three dimensional request tends to result in six meshes satisfying the request, a two dimensional request tends to result in tens of meshes satisfying the request, and a one dimensional request tends to result in hundreds of meshes satisfying the request. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 sets a node-based torus for a two or three dimensional request to maximize a Number of meshes satisfying the request. To initialize variables for scheduling (or allocating one or more nodes 115 to) a one dimensional request, scheduler 515 sets a y axis and a z axis of switches 166 in grid 110 to a 2×2 configuration of nodes 115. Scheduler 515 maps job 150 so that a z axis of switches 166 in grid 110 is an unused dimension. Scheduler 515 then folds job 150 along the z axis into the y axis. Therefore, in particular embodiments, the following applies to a one dimensional request: NumMapDimensions=2 MapDimension[0]=1 MapDimension[1]=2 MapMod[0]=2 MapMod[1]=2 [n] indicate a one dimensional array having an index ranging from 0 to 1−n, where appropriate. As an example and not by way of limitation, a={4,6,2} corresponds to a[0]=4, a[1]=6, and a[2]=2, where appropriate. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 may also set a y axis and a z axis of switches 166 in grid 110 to a 2×2 configuration of nodes 115 to initialize variables for scheduling a two dimensional request. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 folds a two dimensional requests into a third, unused dimension to generate a more compact shape for scheduling. Because many such folds may be possible, scheduler 515 may select a configuration (which may be different from a 2×2 configuration of nodes 115) that generates a greatest Number of such folds. Scheduler 515 may check each of six possible configurations for a two dimensional request and calculate a Number of possible folds for each of the six possible configurations. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 selects a configuration allowing a greatest Number of possible folds. In particular embodiments, in the event of a tie between two 1×4 configurations, scheduler 515 first selects the 1×4 configuration modifying the z axis and then selects the 1×4 configuration modifying the y axis. In particular embodiments, in the event of a tie between a 1×4 configuration and a 2×2 configuration, scheduler 515 selects the 2×2 configuration. In particular embodiments, in the event of a tie between two or more 2×2 configurations, scheduler 515 first selects the 2×2 configuration modifying the y and z axes, then selects the 2×2 configuration modifying the x and z axes, and then selects the 2×2 configuration modifying the x and y axes. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 initializes variables for scheduling a three dimensional request as scheduler 515 would initialize variables for scheduling a two dimensional request, except that a three dimensional request allows six orientations (or rotations) that are each unique with respect to each other instead of allowing folds. In particular embodiments, to initialize variables for scheduling a compact request, scheduler 515 multiples a z axis of the compact request by four to generate a 1×4 configuration. Using a 1×4 configuration to process a compact request facilitates use of all nodes 115 coupled to a switch 166 allocated to the compact request, which in turn reduces fragmentation at switch points in grid 110. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 similarly initializes variables for scheduling an any request. A partition is a smallest mesh including all nodes 115 in grid 110 available for scheduling. PartStart[3] indicates a start coordinate of the partition, PartEnd[3] indicates an end coordinate of the partition, PartSize[3] indicates a size of the partition, and PartWraps[3] indicates whether the partition wraps. Scheduler 515 may construct a partition to reduce lengths of searches for nodes 115 satisfying a request. A partition may be much smaller than grid 110. For i=0, 1, and 2, PartStart[i] includes a minimum of all possible i coordinates in FreeMesh (which includes an array) and PartEnd[i] includes a maximum of all possible i coordinates in FreeMesh. PartSize[i]=PartEnd[i]−PartStart[i]+1. If PartSize[i] equals TorusSize[i], PartWraps[i] is True. Scheduler 515 sets NodeInUse (which includes an array) to NODE_NOT_IN_USE for all nodes in FreeMesh and set to NODE_IN_USE for all other nodes. In particular embodiments, FreeY[i,j,k] contains a Number of free nodes 155 along line {i,j,k} to {i,TorusSize[1]−1,k}. FreeX[i,j,k] includes a Number of free nodes 115 along line {i,j,k} to {TorusSize[0]−1,j,k}. Scheduler 515 uses FreeY[i,j,k] and FreeX[i,j,k] to execute a scan algorithm, as described below. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 constructs FreeY[i,j,k] and FreeX[i,j,k] only if SpatialAllowed or CompactAllowed is True. If SpatialAllowed is True, scheduler 515 tries various structures for scheduling a request. A spatial job of size S={Sx,Sy,Sz} has up to six unique orientations: {Sx,Sy,Sz}, {Sx,Sz,Sy}, {Sy,Sx,Sz}, {Sy,Sz,Sx}, {Sz,Sx,Sy}, and {Sz,Sy,Sx}. The six orientations correspond to four unique 90° rotations and two unique 180° rotations that scheduler 515 may apply to a mesh. If any two dimensions are equal to each other, only three unique orientations are available. Scheduler 515 considers all possible orientations when scheduling a mesh. If a job 150 is two dimensional, i.e., one dimension of job 150 equals one, scheduler 515 may fold either of two used dimensions of job 150, i.e., dimensions of job 150 greater than one, into the unused dimension of job 150, i.e., the dimension of job 150 equal to one, in an accordion-like fashion to generate a more compact three dimensional mesh. If scheduler 515 folds a dimension that is not an integral multiple of a length of the fold, a last fold will be shorter than all preceding folds, which will result in a two dimensional mesh concatenated onto a three dimensional mesh. If job 150 is one dimensional, scheduler 515 may fold job 150 into either of two unused dimensions. Scheduler 515 may then fold either of two resulting dimensions into a remaining unused dimension. A resulting shape of the mesh would, generally speaking, be a concatenation of four meshes. FIG. 8 illustrates an example one dimensional request folded into a y dimension. In FIG. 8, scheduler 515 has folded the one dimensional request, {1,1,11}, into the y dimension using a fold length of four to generate a two dimensional mesh, {1,2,4}, and a one dimensional mesh {1,1,3}, concatenated onto the two dimensional mesh. Scheduler 515 may Number a first fold zero, a second fold one, and a third, short fold two. When scheduler 515 assigns an MPI Rank to nodes 115 along a fold, the MPI Rank is incremented as a z value increases along even-Numbered folds and as z values decrease along odd-Numbered folds. As an example and not by way of limitation, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,0] may be zero, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,1] may be one, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,2] may be two, and the MPI Rank for node 115 at [0,3] may be three. The MPI Rank for node 115 at [1,3] maybe four, the MPI Rank for node 115 at [1,2] maybe five, and so on. Concatenation starts at z=0, since the fold has an even Number. If scheduler 515 folded the request using an odd Number of complete folds, concatenation would instead start at z=3 and continue inward toward x=0. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 only considers accordion-like folds. Other types of folds exist. As an example and not by way of limitation, a fold may produce a staircase shape. Scheduler 515 may prohibit certain folds on one dimensional jobs 150. As described above, in particular embodiments, scheduler 515 folds one dimensional jobs 150 twice. A second fold either folds a dimension that scheduler 515 folded first or folds a dimension that scheduler 515 folded into first. In FIG. 8, scheduler 515 has folded a z dimension and folded into a y dimension. If a second fold folds a dimension that scheduler 515 folded first, scheduler 515 may generate up to three concatenations, for a total of four meshes. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 allows no more than two concatenations. As a result, when scheduler 515 schedules a one dimensional job 150, a second fold is restricted to folding a dimension that scheduler 515 folded into first, unless the first fold did not result in concatenation. If a size of job 150 is an integral multiple of fold length, no concatenation results. In particular embodiments, such a restriction ensures that scheduler 515 allows no more than two concatenations. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 initially constructs all possible meshes satisfying a request. If the request is one or two dimensional, scheduler 515 constructs each possible accordion-like fold and each possible orientation of each such fold. If the request is three dimensional, scheduler 515 constructs each possible orientation of the request. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 records each such construction using a list of Try Structures, as described below. If CompactAllowed is True, scheduler 515 constructs a compact mesh containing a requested Number of nodes 115. Scheduler 515 designates the mesh a best fit and stores the mesh in BestFit (which includes an array). As an example and not by way of limitation, let N be the requested Number of nodes 115 and Q be a cubic root of N truncated to an integer. Scheduler initially sets BestFit to {Q, Q, Q}. If N=Q3, scheduler 515 is done. Otherwise, scheduler 515 will increment one or more dimensions of BestFit according to a BuildCompactFits function, as described below. Scheduler 515 then constructs all meshes having dimensions greater than or equal to dimensions of BestFit and less than or equal to dimensions of grid 110 and records the meshes using Fit (which includes an array). Scheduler 515 then removes undesirable meshes from Fit. As described above, in particular embodiments, grid 110 is a three dimensional torus of switches 166 each coupled to four CPUs 164. Scheduler 515 modifies the torus by either a factor of four in one dimension or a factor of two in two dimensions to account for grid 110 including four CPUs 164 per switch 166. To increase a likelihood scheduler 515 will satisfy a request so that, when one CPU 164 at a switch 166 executes a process, all CPUs 164 at switch 166 execute processes, scheduler 515 keeps only meshes having sizes in the one or more modified dimensions that are integral multiples of the multiplication factor. As an example and not by way of limitation, if scheduler 515 multiplied a torus of switches 166 in a y dimension by two and in a z dimension by two, scheduler 515 would keep only meshes in Fit having even y and z dimensions. Scheduler 515 then sorts remaining meshes in Fit according to maximum hop counts in the remaining meshes. A maximum distance between any two nodes in a mesh of size {Sx,Sy,Sz} is (Sx+1)+(Sy−1)+(Sz−1). If two meshes have maximum hop counts identical to each other, scheduler 515 puts the mesh closer to being a cube before the other mesh. As an example and not by way of limitation, M1={4,6,16} and M2={8,9,9} have the same maximum distance, but scheduler 515 puts M2 before M1. Even if scheduler 515 did not remove undesirable meshes from Fit, scheduler 515 would not generate all meshes including at least N nodes 115. As an example and not by way of limitation, if N equaled twenty-seven and BestFit equaled {3,3,3}, Fit would not include mesh {1,1,27}. Mesh {1,1,27} would not result in a reasonable Number of meshes and would always result in at least one mesh satisfying a request, since Fit would include a mesh equal to grid 110 and cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 only if N is less than or equal to a Number of nodes 115 in grid 110. If AnyAllowed is true, to construct one or more free meshes, scheduler 515 loops through NodeInUse with an x axis as an outer loop, a y axis next, and a z axis as an inner loop until scheduler 515 identifies a free node 115. A free mesh includes a mesh including only free nodes 115, and a free node 115 includes a node 115 allocatable to a job 150. Scheduler 515 constructs NumFreeMeshes and FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes]. NumFreeMeshes indicates a Number of free meshes in grid 110, and FreeMesh is a list identifying, for each free mesh in grid 110, one or more free meshes structures in grid 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, indices of node 115 may be {i1,j1,k1}. Scheduler 515 may increment a z axis until scheduler 515 identifies a nonfree node 115, such as, for example, {i1,j1,k2}. Scheduler 515 may set FreeMesh.start[2] to k1 and FreeMesh.end[2] to k2−1. FreeMesh.start[2] corresponds to a start value of a free mesh along the z axis, and FreeMesh.end[2] corresponds to an end value of the free mesh. Scheduler 515 may then increment a y axis, starting at j1, to identify a first value, j2, so that line, {i1,j2,k1} through {i1, j1, k2−1}, includes at least one nonfree node. Scheduler 515 then sets FreeMesh.start[1] to j1 and FreeMesh.end[2] to j2−1. Scheduler 515 then increments an x axis, starting at i1, to identify a first value, i2, so that plane, {i2,j1,k1} through {i2,j2−1,k2−1}, includes at least one nonfree node. Scheduler then sets FreeMesh.start[0] to i1 and FreeMesh.end[0] to i2−1. Scheduler 515 repeats the above process scheduler 515 covers all nodes 115 in grid 110. The above process does not result in a unique set of free meshes. Looping in a different order tends to generate a different set of free meshes, but only if two or more free meshes share a boundary with each other. A free mesh entirely surrounded by nodes 115 in is always unique. FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrate a difference between using a y axis as an inner loop and an x axis as an inner loop in a two dimensional case. FIG. 9 illustrates two free meshes constructed using a y axis as an inner loop, and FIG. 10 illustrates two free meshes constructed using an x axis as an inner loop. In FIG. 9, area 530 includes nodes 115 in use, area 532a is a first free mesh, and area 532b is a second free mesh. Similarly, in FIG. 10, area 530 includes nodes 115 in use, area 532a is a first free mesh, and area 532b is a second free mesh. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a first scheduling algorithm to schedule spatial requests, a second scheduling algorithm to schedule compact requests, and a third scheduling algorithm to schedule any requests. The first and second scheduling algorithms are similar to each other, but use scan algorithms that are relatively different from each other. If scheduler 515 schedules a job 150, scheduler 515 lists nodes 150 allocated to job 150 in AssignedNodeList according to MPI Rank, i.e., AssignedNodeList[i] has MPI Rank i. To schedule a spatial request having size {Sx,Sy,Sz}, scheduler 515 uses a scan algorithm to search for a start point in NodeInUse for the spatial request. The following example logic provides an example description of an example scan algorithm. PartStart is a start point and PartEnd is an end point of a partition and Tx, Ty, and Tz are torus sizes in x,y, and z dimensions, respectively. For x = PartStart[0] to PartEnd[0] For y = PartStart[1] to PartEnd[1] For z = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] Hit = True For i = x to x+Sx−1 For j = y to y+Sy−1 For k = z to z+Sz−1 If (NodeInUse[i mod Tx, j mod Ty, k mod Tz) = NODE_IN_USE Hit = False End If End For End For End For If (Hit = True) Return True End If End For End For End For Return False In particular embodiments, a scan algorithm applicable to a compact request replaces the above Hit flag with a Count value incremented in an innermost loop as follows: Count = 0 For i = x to x+Sx−1 For j = y to y+Sy−1 For k = z to z+Sz−1 If (NodeInUse[i mod Tx,j mod Ty, k mod Tz) = NODE_NOT_IN_USE Count = Count + 1 End If End For End For End For If (Count ≧ RequestedNodes) Return True End If The above logic is relatively inefficient, since scheduler 515 evaluates each point in NodeInUse up to Sx×Sy×Sz times. In the above scan of a compact request, as a z loop increments from, say, z1 to z1+1, i and j inner loops do not change and a k loop changes only at end points. As a result, a two dimensional mesh from {x,y,z1} to {x+Sx,y+Sy−1,z1} is excluded from further calculations and scheduler 515 adds a two dimensional mesh from {x,y,(z1+1)+Sz−1} to {x+Sx−1,y+Sy−1,(z1+1)+Sz−1} to further calculations. i,j, and k inner loops count free nodes 115 in a sequence of two dimensional meshes along a z axis of size {Sx,Sy,1}. A z loop removes one mesh and adds another. At a y loop, a similar effect occurs along a y axis. FreeX and FreeY (which both include arrays) facilitate reducing processing time. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses the following algorithm to scan a compact request: Define an array, zPlane[TorusSize[2]], to store two dimensional mesh counts. Compute an end point of x, y, and z loops as follows: For i = 0 to 2 If PartWraps[i] = True, end[i] = PartEnd[i] Else end[i] = PartEnd[i] − Size[i] Now x will loop from PartStart[0] to End[0] and so on. x loop For each z = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2], re-compute zPlane for meshes {x,PartStart[1],z} to {x+Sx−1,PartStart[1]+Sy−1,z} In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 would use three loop here. FreeY used here reduces a Number of loops to two: one loop for x and one lop for z. FreeY[x,PartStart[1],z] - FreeY[x,PartStart[1]+Sy,2] provides a Number of free nodes 115 along line {x,PartStart[1],z} to {x,PartStart[1]+Sy−1,z} inclusively. Set NewX = True for the below y loop. y loop If NewX = True Do nothing. Else Update zPlane For each z = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2], Subtract free nodes 115 in line segment from {x,y−1,z} to {x+Sx−1,y−1,z} from Zplane[z] Use FreeX[x,y−1,z] − FreeX[x+Sx,y−1,z] to avoid looping over x Add free nodes 115 in line segment from {x,y+Sy−1,z} to {x+Sx−1,y+Sy−1,z} to zPlane[z] Use FreeX[x,y+Sy−1,z] − FreeX[x+Sx,y+Sy−1,z] to avoid looping over x Set NewX = False for a next y increment Set NewY = True for the below z loop z loop If NewY = True Sum zPlane from z = PartStart[2] to z = PartEnd[2] and record results in Count Else Subtract zPlane[z−1] from Count Compute zPlane[z+Sz−1], which is a sum of free nodes 115 in a two dimensional mesh from {x,y,z+Sz−1} to {x+sX−1,y+Sy−1,z+Sz−1}. As described above, use FreeX to reduce a Number of loops from two to one. Add zPlane[z+Sz−1] to Count If Count ≧ RequestedNodes, Return True In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 applies one or more of the following modifications to address a partition wrapping in a dimension: (1) if indices in the dimension exceed array bounds, scheduler 515 applies a modulus function to the indices before any array reference; and (2) if the partition wraps in an x dimension or a y dimension, to compute free nodes 115 for a line segment, e.g., from point a to point b, scheduler 515 computes free nodes 115 for two line segments, one from point a to an end of the partition in the x or y dimension and another from a beginning of the partition to point b. In particular embodiments, a scan algorithm applicable to a spatial request is similar to the above scan algorithm applicable to a compact request. In particular embodiments, differences between a scan algorithm applicable to a spatial request and the above scan algorithm applicable to a compact request include the following: (1) instead of scheduler 515 identifying a point in a mesh having a particular Count, scheduler 515 looks for a point in the mesh at which all nodes 115 are free, which tends to reduce a memory references; and (2) scheduler 515 may need to handle one or more concatenated meshes, since, as described above, scheduler 515 may be dealing with a one dimensional request or a two dimensional request folded to produce a base mesh having up to two additional meshes concatenated onto the base mesh. In particular embodiments, such modifications to the scan algorithm tend to reduce a maximum run time associated with scheduler 515 scheduling a 16×16×16 configuration by one or more orders of magnitude. To schedule a spatial request, scheduler 515 uses a scheduling algorithm that applies a scan algorithm to each Try structure in a list of Try structures until scheduler 515 identifies a Try Structure that is schedulable. If no Try structures in the list are schedulable and an aggressive flag on the spatial request is zero, scheduler 515 returns to cluster management engine 130 without scheduling the spatial request. Otherwise, scheduler 515 uses a compact scheduling algorithm to try to schedule the spatial request. In particular embodiments, scheduling a request according to a spatial algorithm involves up to three transformations: two folds and one rotation. Scheduler 515 keeps track of the transformations using the following fields in Try: Try.rMap is a mapping function for rotation. Try.rMap is an array having three elements that maps indices of a point. As an example and not by way of limitation, Try.rMap={1, 0, 2} means index 0 gets mapped to 1, index 1 gets mapped to 0 and index 2 gets mapped to 2 so that, under the map, {x, y, z}→{y, x, z}. Try.irMap is an inverse of Try.rMap. Try.NumFoldMaps indicates a Number of folds producing a Try Structure. Try.foldLength is an array indicating lengths of folds. Try.foldFrom is an array indicating an index of a folded dimension. As an example and not by way of limitation, Try.foldFrom[i]=2 indicates that an i fold folded a z axis. Try.foldTo is an array indicating an index of a dimension folded into. Try.foldFix is an array indicating an index of a dimension that remained fixed. In particular embodiments, after scheduler 515 determines that a job 150 is schedulable at a starting point in grid 110 using a Try structure, scheduler 515 assigns MPI Ranks as follows: Scheduler 515 applies an inverse rotation map to the starting point to map the starting point to a pretransformed mesh. Scheduler 515 constructs folds to leave the starting point of the mesh fixed so that scheduler 515 need not apply an inverse fold. Scheduler 515 loops through the pretransformed mesh in to generate MPI Rank. As described above, in particular embodiments, an x axis is an outer loop, a y axis is a middle loop, and a z axis is an inner loop. Scheduler 515 applies the transformations applied to the pretransformed mesh to each point {x,y,z} in the loop according to an order scheduler 515 applied the transformations to the pretransformed mesh, i.e., scheduler 515 folds 0, then folds 1, and then rotates the point to get a point, {x′,y′,z′}, in the pretransformed mesh. Scheduler 515 then inserts the node, {x′,y′,z′}, into an end of AssignedNodeList. In particular embodiments, a compact scheduling algorithm applies a scan algorithm to each mesh in a list of Try structures until the compact scheduling algorithm identifies a Try structure that works. A Number of meshes in the list may be relatively large. As an example and not by way of limitation, for a torus including 16×16×16 nodes 115 and a request for one hundred nodes 115, BestFit={4,4,5}, which results in over two thousand meshes in a Try structures list. Although applying a binary search to the Try structures list may be desirable, a binary search of the Try structures list would not work in particular embodiments. A binary search including condition C would not work unless, (1) if C were true for element i, C were true for all j greater than or equal to i and, (2) if C were false for element i, C were false for all j less than or equal to i. In particular embodiments, a binary search of a Try structures list would not work, since a possibility exists that a scan using, for example, mesh M1={4,4,4} would find enough nodes to satisfy a request, while a scan using, for example, mesh M2={2,2,10} would not, despite M2 being above M1 in the Try structures list. In particular embodiments, a binary search of maximum distances works. If scheduler 515 groups meshes in a Try structures list according to maximum distance, then, if scheduler 515 identifies a fit for a mesh in the list having a maximum distance i, for all j greater than or equal to i, at least one mesh in the list having a maximum distance j will also fit. If no mesh in the list having a maximum distance i fits, no mesh in the list having a maximum distance less than or equal to i will fit either. As an example and not by way of limitation, suppose {x,y,z} is a mesh having a maximum distance i that fits. Therefore, {x,y,z+1} has a maximum distance i+1 and, since {x,y,z+1} covers {x, y, z}, {x,y,z+1} also works. Induction applies to all j greater than or equal to i. If no mesh in the list having a maximum distance i works, with respect to any mesh {x,y,z} having a maximum distance i−1, {x,y,z+1} has a maximum distance i and also does not fit. Neither does {x,y,z} since {x,y,z+1} covers {x,y,z}. Accordingly, Scheduler 515 constructs MaxDistance[NumMaxDistances,2] during initialization. In particular embodiments, a binary search of meshes in Fit does not guarantee a best fit, but provides a reasonably good upper bound on a best fit. In particular embodiments, a binary search of meshes in Fit is efficient, e.g., generating approximately ten scans for approximately one thousand meshes. Scheduler 515 may use an upper bound to run a binary search on maximum lengths or run a linear search downward from the upper bound. In particular embodiments, a linear search downward tends to be more efficient. Scheduler 515 runs a binary search on Fit and returns HighFit and HighStart[3]. HighFit is an index of Fit satisfying a request, and HighStart is a starting point of a fit in grid 110. An algorithm for running a linear search downward begins with HighFit and HighStart. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 decrements a maximum distance of a current HighFit mesh. Scheduler 515 then loops through all meshes including the maximum distance until scheduler 515 identifies a mesh satisfying the request. If scheduler 515 identifies a mesh satisfying the request, scheduler 515 sets the mesh to HighFit, decremented the maximum distance again, and repeats the process. If scheduler 515 identifies no such meshes, the algorithm exits and a current HighFit is a best fit. If scheduler 515 cannot identify a fit for a particular maximum distance, then scheduler 515 cannot identify a fit for a shorter maximum distance. Scheduler 515 loops through a Fit mesh and inserts one or more nodes 115 into an end of AssignedNodeList. An order of the three loops depends on how scheduler 515 mapped a switch-based torus to a node-based torus. If scheduler mapped the switch-based torus using a 4×1 configuration in one dimension, the one dimension is an inner loop. If scheduler 515 mapped the switch-based torus using a 2×2 configuration in two dimensions, the two dimensions are innermost loops. To schedule an any request, scheduler 515 loops through FreeMesh and fills the any request until scheduler 515 has assigned a requested Number of nodes 115 to the any request Scheduler 515 inserts nodes 115 into AssignedNodeList incrementally as scheduler 515 loops through FreeMesh. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 loops through FreeMesh as follows: A z axis is an innermost loop. Scheduler 515 expanded the z axis by a factor of four when scheduler 515 converted a switch-based torus to a node-based torus. Using the z axis as an innermost loop tends to avoid fragmentation of CPUs 164 coupled to a switch 116. A smaller one of two remaining dimensions in FreeMesh is a middle loop, and a larger one of the two remaining dimensions is an outermost loop. Scheduler 515 lists selected nodes 115 using node-based coordinates in AssignedNodeList according to MPI Rank. AssignedNodeList[i,0] is a x coordinate of a node 115 of MPI Rank i, AssignedNodeList[i,1] is a y coordinate of node 115 of MPI Rank i, and AssignedNodeList[i,2] is a z coordinate of node 115 of MPI Rank i. FreeNodeList is a list of available nodes 115 passed to scheduler 515 in switch-based coordinates. In particular embodiments, to set an mpiRank field in FreeNodeList, scheduler 515 uses the following example algorithm: For i=0 to NumFreeNodes−1 Convert AssignedNodeList[i] to switch-based coordinates and add them to To[4] Apply InverseTorusMap to first three elements of To For j=0 to NumFreeNodes−1 If To[k]=FreeNodeList[j].coordinate[k] for all k=0,1,2,3 FreeNodeList[j].mpiRank=i Exit j loop The following example logic describes particular embodiments of scheduler 515. In particular embodiments, when cluster management engine 130 calls scheduler 515 to schedule a job 150, cluster management engine 130 communicates values for the following input parameters to scheduler 515: RequestedNodes: Indicates a Number of nodes 115 requested. RequestType: Indicates a request type. Set to SPATIAL, COMPACT, or ANY. RequestSize: An array having three elements indicating a request size. Valid only for SPATIAL requests. AggressiveFlag: A floating-point number between zero and one indicating a degree of leeway allotted to scheduler 515 for purposes of allocating nodes 115 to job 150. TorusSize: An array having three elements indicating a switch-based size of grid 110. NodesPerSwitch: A Number of CPUs 164 coupled to each switch 166 in grid 110. NumFreeNodes: A Number of nodes 115 in FreeNodeList. FreeNodeList: A list of FreeNode structures indicating switch-based coordinates of nodes 115 available for scheduling. In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 returns one of the following after scheduler 515 attempts to schedule a job 150: PQS_ASSIGNED: Indicates scheduler 515 has scheduled job 150. PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_AT_SPECIFIED_TIME: Indicates scheduler 515 has not schedule job 150. PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_FOR_JOB_CATEGORY: Indicates scheduler 515 can never schedule job 150, even if all nodes 115 in grid 110 are available. If scheduler 515 schedules job 150, scheduler 515 sets mpiRank fields of FreeNode structures accordingly. In particular embodiments, a wrapper function between cluster management engine 130 and scheduler 515 converts input from cluster management engine 130 to a format that scheduler 515 expects and converts output from scheduler 515 to a format that cluster management engine 130 expects. In particular embodiments, setSchedulable, which determines whether a job 150 is theoretically schedulable, encompasses the following example logic: If setSchedulable( )=False Return PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_FOR_JOB_CATEGORY End If If initScheduler( )=False Return PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_AT_SPECIFIED_TIME End If If RequestedNodes>NumFreeNodes ret=False Else ret=scheduleJob( ) End If If ret=True setMpiRank( ) Return PQS_ASSIGNED Else Return PQS_NO_ASSIGNMENT_AT_SPECIFIED_TIME End If In particular embodiments, Rank, which scheduler 515 calls to rank job sizes, encompasses the following example logic. Input to Rank includes a one dimensional array, In[3], having three elements. Output from Rank includes a one dimensional array, Rank[3], having three elements indicating, in increasing size, indices of In. In[Rank[0]<In[Rank[1]]<In[Rank[2]. In particular embodiments, Rank includes a bubble algorithm. Rank[0] = 0 Rank[1] = 1 Rank[2] = 2 For i = 0 to 2 For j = i+1 to 2 If In[Rank[j] < In[Rank[i] k = Rank[j] Rank[j] = Rank[i] Rank[i] = k End If End For End For In particular embodiments, setSchedulable, which determines whether a job 150 is theoretically schedulable, encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 2 If TorusSize[i] ≦ 1 Return False End For If RequestedNodes > TorusSize[0] × TorusSize[1] × TorusSize[2] × NodesPerSwitch Return False End If If NodesPerSwitch not equal to four Return False; End If If RequestType = SPATIAL factor[0] = 2 factor[1] = 2 Rank(TorusSize, tRank) Rank(RequestedSize,jRank) NumJobDim = 0 NumExceed = 0 For i = 0 to 2 If RequestedSize[i] > 1) NumJobDim = NumJobDim + 1 Else If RequestedSize[i] < 1 Return False End If If RequestedSize[jRank[i]] > TorusSize[tRank[i]] Exceed[NumExceed] = i NumExceed = NumExceed + 1 End If End For If NumExceed = 0 Return True Else If NumExceed = 1 If RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[0]] ≦ NodesPerSwitch × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[0]] Return True End If If NumJobDim < 3 Return True End If Return False Else If RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[0]] ≦ factor[0] × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[0] and RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[1]] ≦ factor[1] × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[1]] Return True End If If NumJobDim < 3 and (RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[0]] ≦ NodesPerSwitch × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[0]] or RequestedSize[jRank[Exceed[1]] ≦ NodesPerSwitch × TorusSize[tRank[Exceed[1]]) Return True End If return False End If return True In particular embodiments, initScheduler, which sets allowed scheduling types., encompasses the following example logic. If a job 150 requests only one node 115, initScheduler sets an allowed type to Any, regardless of an original request: If RequestedNodes = 1 or RequestType = Any AnyAllowed = True SpatialAllowed = False CompactAllowed = False Else If RequestType = Compact CompactAllowed = True AnyAllowed = False SpatialAllowed = False Else If RequestType = Spatial SpatialAllowed = True AnyAllowed = False If AggressiveFlag > 0 CompactAllowed = True Else Compact Allowed = False End If End If factor[0] = 2 factor[1] = 2 Rank(TorusSize, tRank) TorusMap[0] = tRank[2] TorusMap[1] = tRank[1] TorusMap[2] = tRank[0] InverseTorusMap[tRank[0]] = 2 InverseTorusMap[tRank[1]] = 1 InverseTorusMap[tRank[2]] = 0 If SpatialAllowed = True If setTorusForSpatial( ) = False Return False End If Else If CompactAllowed = True If setTorusForCompact1( ) = False Return False End If Else If setTorusForAny( ) = False Return False End If End If For i = 0 to NumMapDimensions TorusSize[mapDiminsions[i]] = mapMod[i] × TorusSize[mapDiminsions[i]] End For SetPartition( ) If SpatialAllowed = True buildSpatialTries( ) End If If compactAllowed = True buildCompactFits( ) End If If AnyAllowed = True buildFreeMeshes( ) End If If SpatialAllowed = True or CompactAllowed = True InitScan( ) End If return True In particular embodiments, setTorusForSpatial, which maps a switch-based torus to a node-based torus for a spatial request, encompasses the following example logic: Rank(RequestedSize, jRank) NumDim = 0 dNdx = 0 For i = 0 to 2 If RequestedSize[i] > 1) twoD[NumDim] = i NumDim = NumDim + 1 Else oneD[dNdx] = i dNdx = dNdx + 1 End If End For If NumDim = 1 Return setTorusFor1D( ) Else If NumDim = 2 Return setTorusFor2D( ) Else Return setTorusFor3D( ) End If In particular embodiments, setTorusFor1D, which multiplies grid 110 by two factors in two largest dimensions of job 150,jRank[2] and jRank[1], encompasses the following example logic: NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = jRank[2] mapDiminsions[1] = jRank[1] mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[0] For i = 0 to 3 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[TorusMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 3 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For For i = 0 to 3 RequestedSize[i] = OriginalSize[jRank[i]] JobMap[jRank[i]] = i End For Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusFor2D maps a switch-based torus to a node-based torus in one of six ways: 1. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{[T[0], 2×T[1], 2×T[2]} 2. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{2×T[0], T[1], 2×T[2]} 3. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{2×T[0], 2×T[1], T[2]} 4. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{T[0], T[1], 4×T[2]} 5. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{T[0], 4×T[1], T[2]} 6. {T[0], T[1], T[2]}→{4×T[0], T[1], T[2]} T is TorusSize. The first three configurations result from scheduler 515 configuring nodes 115 per switch 166 as 2×2 nodes 115. The last three configurations result from scheduler 515 configuring nodes 115 per switch 166 as 1×1nodes 115. In particular embodiments, setTorusFor2D counts Try structures that scheduler 515 would generate for each map and selects a map that would generate a greatest number of Try structures. In the event of a tie, setTorusFor2D selects a map according to the above order. Scheduler 515 constructs-pSize[6,4] to include: pSizes[i, 0]=size of the partition in the x dimension for configuration i. pSizes[i, 1]=size of the partition in the y dimension for configuration i. pSizes[i, 2]=size of the partition in the z dimension for configuration i. pSizes[i, 3]=the Number of tries that would be generated for configuration i. In particular embodiments, setTorusFor2D encompasses the following example logic: max = −1 maxNdx = −1 For i = 0 to 2 For j = i+1 to 3 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (i+j) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (i+j+1) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i + j −1, 2] = testPartSize[2] pSizes[i + j −1, 1] = testPartSize[1] pSizes[i + j −1, 0] = testPartSize[0] pSizes[i + j −1][3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize) If pSizes[i + j − 1][3] > max max = pSizes[i + j − 1][3] maxNdx = i + j − 1 End If End For End For For i = 0 to 3 NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = 2 − i mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i+3, 2] = testspSize[2] pSizes[i+3, 1] = testspSize[1] pSizes[i+3, 0] = testspSize[0] pSizes[i+3][3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize) if pSizes[i+3][3] > max max = pSizes[i+3][3] maxNdx = i+3 End If End For If max ≦ 0 if CompactAllowed = True SpatialAllowed = False Return setTorusForCompact( ) Else return False End If Else For i = 0 to 2 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[TorusMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 2 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For If maxNdx < 3 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (maxNdx+1) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (maxNdx+2) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[0]] JobMap[jRank[1]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[1] JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3− mapDiminsions[0]− mapDiminsions[1] Else NumMod = 1 NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = (5 − maxNdx) mod 3 mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid If mapDiminsions[0] = 2 i = 1 Else i = 2 End If RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[i] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] RequestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i] = OriginalSize[jRank[0]] JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[1]] = i JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i End If End If Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusFor3D encompasses the following example logic: max = −1 maxNdx = −1 For i = 0 to 2 For j = i+1 to 2 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (i+j) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (i+j+1) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i + j − 1, 2] = testPartSize[2] pSizes[i + j − 1, 1] = testPartSize[1] pSizes[i + j − 1, 0] = testPartSize[0] pSizes[i + j − 1, 3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize) If (pSizes[i + j − 1,3] > max) max = pSizes[i + j − 1, 3] maxNdx = i + j − 1 End If End For End For For i = 0 to 2 NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = 2 − i mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid; setTestPartSize(testPartSize) pSizes[i+3, 2] = testPartSize[2] pSizes[i+3, 1] = testPartSize[1] pSizes[i+3, 0] = testPartSize[0] pSizes[i+3], 3] = cnt2DTries(testPartSize, RequestedSize If pSizes[i+3][3] > max max = pSizes[i+3, 3] maxNdx = i+3 End If End For If max ≦ 0 If CompactAllowed = True SpatialAllowed = False Return setTorusForCompact( ) Else return False End If Else For i = 0 to 2 ntSize[i] = TorusSize[TorusMap[i]] End For For i = 0 to 2 TorusSize[i] = ntSize[i] End For If maxNdx < 3 NumMod = 2 mod[0] = (maxNdx+1)mod 3 mod[1] = (maxNdx+2) mod 3 NumMapDiminsions = 2 mapDiminsions[0] = (maxNdx+1) mod 3 mapDiminsions[1] = (maxNdx+2) mod 3 mapMod[0] = factor[0] mapMod[1] = factor[1] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − mapDiminsions[1]] = OriginalSize[jRank[0]] JobMap[jRank1]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank2]] = mapDiminsions[1] JobMap[jRank0]] = 3 − mapDiminsions[0] − mapDiminsions[1] Else NumMod = 1 mod[0] = 2 − (maxNdx − 3) NumMapDiminsions = 1 mapDiminsions[0] = (5 − maxNdx) mod 3 mapMod[0] = NodesperGrid If mapDiminsions[0] = 2 i = 1 Else i = 2 End If RequestedSize[mapDiminsions[0]] = OriginalSize[jRank[2]] RequestedSize[i] = OriginalSize[jRank[1]] requestedSize[3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i] = originalSize[jRank[0]]; JobMap[jRank[2]] = mapDiminsions[0] JobMap[jRank[1]] = i JobMap[jRank[0]] = 3 − mapDiminsions[0] − i End If End If Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusForCompact, which sets a z dimension of a compact request to a 4×1 configuration, encompasses the following example logic: For i=0 to 3 ntSize[i]=TorusSize[tMap[i]] End For For i=0 to 3 TorusSize[i]=ntSize[i] End For NumMapDiminsions=1 mapDiminsions[0]=2 mapMod[0]=NodesperGrid Return True In particular embodiments, setTorusForAny, which sets a z dimension of an any request to a 4×1 configuration, encompasses the following example logic: For i=0 to 3 ntSize[i]=TorusSize[tMap[i]] End For For i=0 to 3 TorusSize[i]=ntSize[i] End For NumMapDiminsions=1 mapDiminsions[0]=2 mapMod[0]=NodesperGrid Return True In particular embodiments, setPartition encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to TorusSize[0] − 1 For j = 0 to TorusSize[1] − 1 For k = 0 to TorusSize[2] − 1 NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_IN_USE End For End For End For For i = 0 to 2 PartStart[i] = TorusSize[i] PartEnd[i] = 0 End For For i = 0 to NumFreeNodes − 1 To[0] = FreeNodes[i].coordinate[TorusMap[0]] To[1] = FreeNodes[i].coordinate[TorusMap[1]] To[2] = FreeNodes[i].coordinate[TorusMap[2]] If NumMapDimensions = 1 To[MapDimension[0]] = To[MapDimension[0]] × MapMod[0] + FreeNodes[i].coordinate[3] Else To[MapDimension[0]] = To[MapDimension[0]] × MapMod[0] + FreeNodes[i].coordinate[3] / MapMod[1] To[MapDimension[1]] = To[MapDimension[1]] × MapMod[1] + FreeNodes[i].coordinate[3] mod MapMod[1] End If NodeInUse[To[0]], To[1], To[2]] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE For j = 0 to 2 If To[j] < PartStart[j] PartStart]j] = To[j] End If If To[j] < PartStart[j] PartStart]j] = To[j] End If End For End For For i = 0 to 2 If PartStart[i] = 0 and PartEnd[i] = TorusSize[i] − 1 PartWraps[i] = True Else PartWraps[i] = False End If PartSize[i] = PartEnd[i] − PartStart[i] + 1 End For In particular embodiments, initScan, which constructs FreeY and FreeX, encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to TorusSize[0] − 1 For k = 0 to TorusSize[2]− 1 Count = 0 For j = TorusSize[1] − 1 to 0 by −1 If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE Count = Count + 1 End If FreeY[i,j,k] = Count End For End For End For For j = 0 to TorusSize[1] − 1 For k = 0 to TorusStSize[2]− 1 Count = 0 For i = TorusSize[0] − 1 to 0 by −1 If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE Count = Count + 1 End If FreeX[i,j,k] = Count End For End For End For In particular embodiments, buildSpatialTries, which determines a Number of dimensions in a request, encompasses the following example logic: NumDim = 0 For i = 0 to 2 If RequestedSize[i] > 1) NumDim = NumDim + 1 End If End For If NumDim = 1 build1DTry( ) Else If NumDim = 2 build2DTry( ) Else for i = 0 to 2 Try.baseSize[i] RequestedSize[i] End For Try.NumConcats = 0 Try.NumFoldMaps = 0 NumberOfTries = 0 build3Dtry(Try, NumberOfTries) End If In particular embodiments, build3Dtry, which builds TryList for a three dimensional request and builds Try structures for each fold in a one dimensional request or a two dimensional request, encompasses the following example logic: setOrient(Try, NumOrient, orient) if NumOrient > 0 For (i = 0 to NumOrient − 1 ++NumTries; For j = 0 to 2 TryList[NumberOfTries].baseSize[j] = Try.baseSize[orient[i, j]] End For TryList[NumberOfTries].NumConcats = Try.NumConcats; For j = 0 to TryList[NumberOfTries].NumConcats − 1 For k = 0 to 2 TryList[NumberOfTries.concatSize[j, k] = Try.concatSize[j,orient[i, k]]; TryList[NumberOfTries].concatStartNode[j, k] = Try.concatStartNode[j, orient[i, k]]; End For End For TryList[NumberOfTries].NumFoldMaps = Try.NumFoldMaps; For j = 0 to TryList[NumberOfTries].NumFoldMaps TryList[NumberOfTries].foldLength[j] = Try.foldLength[j] TryList[NumberOfTries].foldFrom[j] = Try.foldFrom[j] TryList[NumberOfTries].foldTo[j] = Try.foldTo[j] TryList[NumberOfTries].foldFix[j] = Try.foldFix[j] End For For k = 0 to 2 TryList[NumberOfTries].rMap[k] = orient[i, k] TryList[NumberOfTries].irMap[orient[i, k]] = ; End For NumberOfTries = NumberOfTries + 1 In particular embodiments, setOrient, which calculates a Number of unique rotations, NumOrient, for a Try structure and an indices map for each rotation, encompasses the following example logic: NumOrient = 0; If try.NumberOfConcatanations > 0 For i = 0 to 2 size[i] = try.baseSize[i]; For j = 0 to try.NumConcats − 1 If try.concatStartNode[j, i] ≧ size[i] size[i] = Try.concatStartNode[j, i] + Try.concatSize[j, i]; Else If Try.concatStartNode[j, i] < 0 size[i] = size[i] − try.concatStartNode[j, i] End If End For End For If size[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[1] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[2] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[0] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[2] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[0] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[0] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If size[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and size[1] ≦ PartSize[1] andsize[0] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else If Try.baseSize[0] = Try.baseSize[1] If try.baseSize[0] = try.baseSize[2] If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If End if Else if Try.baseSize[0] = Try.baseSize[2] If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else Tf Try.baseSize[1] = Try≧baseSize[2]) If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If Else If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[2] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 2 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[1] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 0 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 1 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If If Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] and Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartSize[1] and Try.baseSize[2] ≦ PartSize[0] orient[NumOrient, 0] = 2 orient[NumOrient, 1] = 1 orient[NumOrient, 2] = 0 NumOrient = NumOrient + 1 End If End If In particular embodiments, build2Dtry encompasses the following example logic: Rank(PartSize, pRank) build2DFold(PartSize, pRank, RequestedSize, NumFolds, FoldList) For i = 0 to NumFolds − 1 d1 = RequestedSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] + FoldList[i].foldLengtht + FoldList[i].NumFolds If FoldList[i].remainder not equal 0 d1 = d1 + 1 End If For j = i + 1 to NumFolds − 1 D2 = RequestedSize[FoldList[j].fixDimension] + FoldList[j].foldLengtht + FoldList[j].NumFolds If FoldList[j].remainder not equal 0 D2 = d2 + 1 End If If d2 < d1 TempFold = FoldList[j] FoldList[j] = FoldList[i] FoldList[i] = tempFold d1 = d2 End If End For End For NumberOfTries = 0 For i = 0 to NumFolds − 1 try.baseSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] = RequestedSize[FoldList[i].fixDimension] try.baseSize[FoldList[i].foldDimension = FoldList[i].foldLength try.baseSize[FoldList[i].oneDimension] = FoldList[i].NumFolds If FoldList[i].remainder not equal 0 try.NumConcats = 1 If FoldList[i].NumFolds is odd Try.concatStartNode[0, FoldList[i]. foldDimension] = FoldList[i].foldLength − FoldList[i].remainder Else Try.concatStartNode[0, FoldList[i]. foldDimension] = 0 End If try.concatStartNode[0,FoldList[i]. fixDimension] = 0 try.concatStartNode[0,FoldList[i]. oneDimension] = FoldList[i].NumFolds try.concatSize[0,FoldList[i]. fixDimension] = try.baseSize[FoldList[i]. fixDimension] try.concatSize[0, FoldList[i]. foldDimension] = FoldList[i]. remainder try.concatSize[0,FoldList[i]. oneDimension] = 1 Else try.NumConcats = 0 End If try.NumFoldMaps = 1 try.foldLength[0] = FoldList[i].foldLength try.foldFrom[0] = FoldList[i].foldDimension try.foldTo[0] = FoldList[i]. oneDimension try.foldFix[0] = FoldList[i].fixDimension build3Dtry(Try, NumberOfTries) End For In particular embodiments, build2Dfold, which builds all possible folds of a two dimensional mesh, encompasses the following example logic: j = 0 oneD = −1 For i = 0 to 2 If size[i] = 1 and oneD = −1 oneD = i Else twoD[j] = I j = j + 1 End If End For If size[twoD[1]] ≧ size[twoD[0]] bigD = twoD[1] littleD = twoD[0] Else bigD = twoD[0] littleD = twoD[1] End If startFoldB = sqrt(size[bigD]) If startFoldB × startFoldB not equal size[bigD] or startFoldB = 1 StartFoldB = startFoldB + 1 End If endFoldB = size[bigD] / 2 startFoldL = sqrt(size[littleD]) If startFoldL × startFoldL not equal size[littleD]or startFoldL = 1 StartFoldL = startFoldL + 1 if size[bigD] not equal size[littleD] endFoldL = size[littleD] / 2 else endFoldL = 1 End If NumFolds = 1 If endFoldB ≧ startFoldB NumFolds= NumFolds +(endFoldB − startFoldB+1) End If If endFoldL ≧ startFoldL NumFolds= NumFolds +(endFoldL − startFoldL+1) End If foldIndex = 0; FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength =size[littleD] FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds = 1 FoldList[foldIndex].remainder = 0 FoldList[foldIndex].foldD = littleD FoldList[foldIndex].fixD = bigD FoldList[foldIndex].oneD = oneD An array, t, constructed according to the example logic below, is a mesh size of a resulting Try. Scheduler 515 records a Rank of t in an array, tRank. t[littleD] = size[bigD] t[bigD] = FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds rank(t, tRank) hit = False For i1 = 0 to 2 while hit = False If t[tRank[i1]] > PartSize[pRank[i1]] hit = True End If If hit = False foldIndex = foldIndex + 1 End If For i = startFoldB to endFoldB FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength = i FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds = size[bigD] / i FoldList[foldIndex].remainder = size[bigD] mod i FoldList[foldIndex].foldD = bigD FoldList[foldIndex].fixD = littleD FoldList[foldIndex].oneD = oneD t[littleD] = size[littleD] t[bigD] = FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength If (FoldList[foldIndex].remainder not equal 0 t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds + 1 Else t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds End If Rank(t, tRank) hit = False For i1 = 0 to 2 while hit = False If t[tRank[i1]] > PartSize[pRank[i1]] hit = True End If End For if hit = False foldIndex = foldIndex + 1 End If End For For i = startFoldL to endFoldL FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength = i FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds = size[littleD] / i FoldList[foldIndex].remainder = size[littleD] mod i FoldList[foldIndex].foldD = littleD FoldList[foldIndex].fixD = bigD FoldList[foldIndex].oneD = oneD t[bigD] = size[bigD] t[littleD] = FoldList[foldIndex].foldLength If FoldList[foldIndex].remainder not equal 0 t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds + 1 Else t[oneD] = FoldList[foldIndex].NumFolds End If Rank(t, tRank) hit = False for i1 = 0 to 2 while hit = False If t[tRank[i1]] > PartSize[pRank[i1]] hit = True End If End For If hit = False FoldIndex = foldIndex + 1 End If End For In particular embodiments, build1Try generates a list of folds of a one dimensional request and, for each fold, calls build2DFold to generate a list of one or more additional folds. build1Try records the list of folds in the OneDFoldList, which encompasses the following example structure: Structure oneDFold Fold Structure oneD Fold Structure twoD[x] integer NumTwoDFolds integer twoDFoldSize[3] End Structure In particular embodiments, oneD includes a first fold. In particular embodiments, twoD includes a list of folds generated from the first fold. NumTwoDFolds indicates a Number of folds in twoD. In particular embodiments, twoDFoldSize indicates a mesh size passed to build2Dfold. Scheduler 515 generates Try structures for elements of twoD and calls build3Dtry to build all possible rotations of each Try structure. In particular embodiments, build1Try encompasses the following example logic: Rank(PartSize, pRank) Rank(RequestedSize, jRank[0]) end = sqrt(RequestedSize[jRank[2]]) start = 2 OneDFoldList[0].oneD.foldLength = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] OneDFoldList[0].oneD.NumFolds = 1 OneDFoldList[0].oneD.remainder = 0 OneDFoldList[0].oneD.foldD = jRank[2] OneDFoldList[0].oneD.oneD = jRank[1] OneDFoldList[0].oneD.fixD = jRank[0] OneDFoldList[0].twoDFoldSize[jRank[2]] = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] OneDFoldList[0].twoDFoldSize[jRank[1]] = 1 OneDFoldList[0].twoDFoldSize[jRank[0]] = 1 hit = False For j = 0 to 2 while hit = False if RequestedSize[jRank[j]] > PartSize[pRank[j]] hit = True End If End For If hit = False build2DFold(PartSize, pRank, RequestedSize, OneDFoldList[0].twoD, OneDFoldList[0].nTwoDFolds) OneDFoldList[0].nTwoDFolds = 1 Num1DFolds = 1; Else Num1DFolds = 0 End If gotRemZero = False For i = start to end OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.foldLength = i OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.NumFolds = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] / i OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.remainder = RequestedSize[jRank[2]] mod i OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.foldD = jRank[2] (OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.oneD = jRank[1] OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.fixD = jRank[0] OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize[jRank[2]] = OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.foldLength OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize[jRank[1]] = OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.NumFolds OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize[jRank[0]] = 1 If OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.remainder not equal 0 or gotRemZero = False If OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].oneD.remainder = 0 gotRemZero = True End If build2DFold(PartSize, pRank, RequestedSize, OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoDFoldSize, OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].twoD, OneDFoldList[Num1DFolds].nTwoDFolds) Num1DFolds = Num1DFolds + 1 End If End For NumberOfTries = 0 For i = 0 to Num1DFolds For j = 0 to OneDFoldList[i].nTwoDFolds If OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD not equal OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD or OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder = 0 try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoDFoldSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds; if OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].remainder not equal 0 try.NumConcats = 1 if OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds is odd try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength − OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].remainder Else try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = 0 End If try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] = 0 try.concatStartNode[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds try.concatSize[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] = try.baseSize[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD] try.concatSize[0, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].remainder try.concatSize[0 OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD] = 1; Else try.NumConcats = 0 End If If OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder not equal 0 if OneDFoldList[i].oneD.NumFolds is odd try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength − OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder Else try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD] = 0 End If try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.fixD]= 0 try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.NumFolds try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.fixD] = 1 try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.remainder try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD] = 1 oneDEnd[0] = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 0] + try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 0] − 1 oneDEnd[1] = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 1] + try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 1] − 1 oneDEnd[2] = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 2] + try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 2] − 1 k = try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] l = oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] If OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].NumFolds is odd try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength − 1 − (k mod OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength) oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength − 1 − (l mod OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength) Else try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = k mod OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD] = l mod OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength End If try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats,OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD]= k / OneDFoldList[i].twoD.foldLength oneDEnd[OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD] = l / OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 0] = oneDEnd[0] − try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 0] + 1 try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 1] = oneDEnd[1] − try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 1] + 1 try.concatSize[try.NumConcats, 2] = oneDEnd[2] − try.concatStartNode[try.NumConcats, 2] + 1 try.NumConcats = try.NumConcats + 1 End If try.NumFoldMaps = 2 try.foldLength[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldLength try.foldFrom[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.foldD try.foldTo[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.oneD try.foldFix[0] = OneDFoldList[i].oneD.fixD try.foldLength[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldLength try.foldFrom[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].foldD try.foldTo[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].oneD try.foldFix[1] = OneDFoldList[i].twoD[j].fixD build3Dtry(Try, NumberOfTries) End For End For NumDeleted = 0 For i = 0 to NumberOfTries − 1 curMax = TryList[i].baseSize[0] + TryList[i].baseSize[1] + TryList[i].baseSize[2] if TryList[i].NumConcats > 0 curMax = curMax + 1 End If For j = i +1toNumberOfTries − 1 duplicate = True For i1 = 0 to 2 while duplicate = True If TryList[j].baseSize[i1] not equal TryList[i].baseSize[i] duplicate = False End If End For If duplicate = True and TryList[j].NumConcats = TryList[i].NumConcats) For i1 = 0 to TryList[i].NumConcats while duplicate = True For j1 = 0 to 2 while duplicate = True If TryList[j].concatStartNode[i1, j1] not equal TryList[i].concatStartNode[i1, j1] duplicate = False Else If TryList[j].concatSize[i1, j1] not equal TryList[i].concatSize[i1, j1] duplicate = False End For End For End If If duplicate = True For i1 = 0 to 2 TryList[j].baseSize[i1] = TorusSize[i1] + 1 End For NumDeleted = NumDeleted + 1 Else nxtMax = TryList[j].baseSize[0] + TryList[j].baseSize[1] + TryList[j].baseSize[2] If TryList[j].NumConcats > 0 nxtMax = nxtMax + 1 End If If nxtMax < curMax TempTry = TryList[j] TryList[j] = TryList[i] TryList[i] = tempTry curMax = nxtMax End If End If End For End For NumberOfTries = NumberOfTries − NumDeleted In particular embodiments, buildCompactFits, which constructs BestFit[3], encompasses the following example logic: Rank(PartSize,PartRank) l = QubeRoot(ResuestedNodes) hit = False For i = 1 to l+1 while hit = False For j = i to l+1 while hit = False For (k = j to l+1 while hit = False If i × j × k ≧ RequestedNodes t[0] = i t[1] = j t[2] = k hit = True End If End For End For End For If t[0] ≦ PartSize[PartRank[0]] If t[1] > PartSize[PartRank[1]] t[1] = t[1] − 1 hit = False For t[2] = RequestedNodes / (t[0] × t[1]) to PartSize[PartRank[2]] while hit = False If t[0] × t[1] × t[2] ≧ RequestedNodes Hit = True End If End For End If Else t[0] = PartSize[PartRank[0]] l = sqrt(RequestedNodes / t[0]) hit = False; For j = l to l + 1 while hit = False For (k = j to l + 1 while hit = False If (t[0] × j × k ≧ RequestedNodes t[1] = j t[2] = k hit = True End If End For End For if t[1] > PartSize[PartRank[1]] t[1] = PartSize[PartRank[1]] t[2] = RequestedNodes / (t[0] × t[1]) If t[0] × t[1] × t[2] < RequestedNodes t[2] = t[2] + 1 End If End If End If bestFit[pRank[0]] = t[0]; bestFit[pRank[1]] = t[1]; bestFit[pRank[2]] = t[2]; NumberOfFits = 0 For i = BestFit[0] to PartSize[0] For j = BestFit[1] to PartSize[1] For k = BestFit[2] to PartSize[2] Fit[NumberOfFits,0] = i Fit[NumberOfFits,1] = j Fit[NumberOfFits,2] = k Hit = True If (i not equal to PartSize[0]) and(j not equal to PartSize[0]) and (k not equal to PartSize[0]) For m = 0 to NumMapDimensions While Hit = True If Fit[NumberOfFits,MapDimension[m]] mod MapMod[m] not equal to 0 Hit = False End If End For End If If Hit = True NumberOfFits = NumberOfFits + 1 End If End For End For End For For i = 0 to NumBerOfFits − 1 d1 = Fit[i, 0] + Fit[i, 1] + Fit[i, 2] For j = i + 1 to NumBerOfFits − 1 d2 = Fit[j, 0] + Fit[j, 1] + Fit[j, 2] if d2 < d1 k = Fit[j, 0] Fit[j, 0] = Fit[i, 0] Fit[i, 0] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k d1 = d2 Else If d2 = d1 Rank(Fit[i], iRank) Rank(Fit[j], jRank) hit = 0 For (k = 0 to 2 while hit = 0 If Fit[j, jRank[k] > Fit[i, iRank[k] hit = 1 Else If Fit[j, jRank[k] < Fit[i, iRank[k] Hit = −1 End For If hit = 1 k = Fit[j, 0] Fit[j, 0] = Fit[i, 0] Fit[i, 0] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k k = Fit[j, 1] Fit[j, 1] = Fit[i, 1] Fit[i, 1] = k d1 = d2 End If End If End For End For lastMax = 0 NumMaxDistances = 0 For i = 0 NumberOfFits − 1 currentMax = Fit[i, 0] + Fit[i, 1] + Fit[i, 2] If currentMax not equal lastMax MaxDistance[NumberOfMaxDistance, 0] = i MaxDistance[NumberOfMaxDistance, 1] = currentMax NumberOfMaxDistance = NumberOfMaxDistance + 1 End If End For In particular embodiments, buildFreeMeshes Function encompasses the following example logic: NumFreeMeshes = 0 For i = partStart[0] to PartEnd[0] For j = PartStart[1] to PartEnd[1] For k = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_ON_HOLD meshStart[0] = i meshStart[1] = j meshStart[2] = k inMesh = True for mz = k + 1 to PartEnd[2] and inMesh = True if NodeInUse[i,j,mz] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For If inMesh = True mEnd[2] = mz − 1 Else mEnd[2] = mz − 2 If PartWraps[2] and meshStart[2] = 0 and meshEnd[2] not equal PartEnd[2] inMesh = True; For mz = PartEnd[2 to meshEnd[2] by −1 and inMesh = True If NodeInUse [i,j,mz] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For If inMesh = True mz = mz + 1 Else mz = mz + 2 End If if mz ≦ PartEnd[2] meshStart[2] = mz; meshEnd[2] =meshEnd[2] + TorusSize[2] End If End If inMesh = True For my = j + 1 to PartEnd[1] and inMesh = True For mz = meshStart[2 tomeshEnd[2] an inMesh = True If NodeInUse[i, my, mz mod TorusSize[2]] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For If inMesh = True meshEnd[1] = my − 1 Else meshEnd[1] = my − 2 End If If PartWraps[1] and meshStart[1] = 0 and meshEnd[1] not equal PartEnd[1] inMesh = True For my = PartEnd[1] to meshEnd[1] by −1 and inMesh = True For mz = meshStart[2] to meshEnd[2] and inMesh = True If NodeInUse[i,my,mz mod Torus Size[2] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For End For If inMesh = True My = my + 1 Else my = my + 2 End If if my ≦ PartEnd[1] meshStart[1] = my meshEnd[1] =meshEnd[1] + TorusSize[1] End If End If End For inMesh = True for mx = i + 1 to PartEnd[0] and inMesh = True for my = meshStart[1] to meshEnd[1] and inMesh = True for mz = mStart[2] to mEnd[2] and inMesh = True If NodeInUse[mx,my mod TorusSize[1],mz mod TorusSize[2]] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For End For End For If inMesh = True meshEnd[0] = mx − 1 Else meshEnd[0] = mx − 2 End If If partWraps[0] and meshStart[0] = 0 and meshEnd[0] not equal PartEnd[0] inMesh = True For mx = partEnd[0] to meshEnd[0] by −1 and inMesh = True For my = meshStart[1] to meshEnd[1] and inMesh = True For mz = meshStart[2] to meshEnd[2] and inMesh = True If NodeInUse[mx,my mod TorusSize[1],mz Mod TorusSize[2]] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE inMesh = False End If End For End For End For If inMesh = True Mx = mx + 1 Else Mx = mx + 2 End If If mx ≦ PartEnd[0] meshStart[0] = mx meshEnd[0] = meshEnd[0] + TorusSize[0] End If End If FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Start[0] = meshStart[0] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Start[1] = meshStart[1] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Start[2] = meshStart[2] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].end[0] = meshEnd[0] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].end[1] = meshEnd[1] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].end[2] = meshEnd[2] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].NumNodes = (meshEnd[0] − meshStart[0] + 1) ×(meshEnd[1] − meshStart[1] + 1) ×(meshEnd[2] − meshStart[2] + 1) For mx = meshStart[0] to meshEnd[0] mx1 = mx mod TorusSize[0] For my = meshStart[1] to meshEnd[1] my1 = my mod TorusSize[1] For mz = meshStart[2] to meshEnd[2] mz1 = mz mod TorusSize[2] NodeInUse[mx1], my1], mz1] = NODE_ON_HOLD End For End For End For For i = 0 to 2 FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[i] = 2 − l; End For For l = 0 to 2 For m = l+1 to 3 l1 = FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[l] m1 = FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[m] If meshEnd[m1] − meshStart[m1] <meshEnd[l1] − meshStart[l1] FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes].Rank[l] = m1 FreeMeshRank[m] = l1 End If End For End For NumFreeMeshes = NumFreeMeshes + 1 End If End For End For End For For i = partStart[0] to PartEnd[0] For j = PartStart[1] to PartEnd[1] For k = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_ON_HOLD NodeInUse[i,j,k] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE End If End For End For End For For i = 0 to NumFreeMeshes − 1 For j = i +1 to NumFreeMeshes − 1 hit = False if FreeMesh[j].NumNodes < freeMesh[i].NumNodes hit = True; Else If FreeMesh[j].NumNodes = freeMesh[i].NumNodes hit = True For l = 0 to 2 while hit = True If FreeMesh[j].Rank[l] > freeMesh[i].Rank[l]) Hit = False End If End For End If If hit = True TempMesh = FreeMesh[j] FreeMesh[j] = FreeMesh[i] FreeMesh[i] = TempMesh End If End For End For In particular embodiments, ScheduleJob, which returns True if scheduler 515 successfully schedules a job 150, encompasses the following example logic: If SpatialAllowed = True If scheduleSpatial( ) = True return True Else If CompactAllowed = True return scheduleCompact( ) End If Else If CompactAllowed = True return scheduleCompact( ) Else Return scheduleAny( ) End If In particular embodiments, scheduleSpatial encompasses the following example logic: GotFit = False For i = 0 to NumberOfTries − 1 while GotFit = False If scanSpatial(TryList[i],Start) = True GotFit = True setSpatialNodeInUse(Try, Start) End If End For Return GotFit In particular embodiments, setSpatialNodeInUse, which builds AssignedNodeList, encompasses the following example logic: NodeIndex = 0 For (cNode[0] = 0 to OriginalSize[0] − 1 For cNode[1] = 0 to OriginalSize[1] − 1 For cNode[2] = 0 to OriginalSize[2] − 1 For i = 0 to 2 jcNode[jobMap[i]] = cNode[i] End For If Try.NumFoldMaps = 1 mNode[0, Try.foldFix[0]] =jcNode[Try.foldFix[0]] mNode[0, Try.foldTo[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] / Try.foldLength[0] If mNode[0, Try.foldTo[0]] is odd mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = Try.foldLength[0] − 1 − (jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0]) Else mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0] End If For i = 0 to 2 node[i] = mNode[0, Try.rMap[l]] End For Else mNode[0, Try.foldFix[0]] =jcNode[Try.foldFix[0]] mNode[0,Try.foldTo[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] / Try → foldLnt[0] If mNode[0, Try.foldTo[0]] is odd mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = Try.foldLength[0] − 1 − (jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0]) Else mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[0]] = jcNode[Try.foldFrom[0]] mod Try.foldLength[0] End If mNode[1, Try.foldFix[1]] =mNode[0, Try.foldFix[1]] mNode[1, Try.foldTo[1]] = mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[1]] / Try.foldLength[1] If mNode[1, Try.foldTo[1]] is odd mNode[1, Try.foldFrom[1]] = Try.foldLength[1] − 1 − (mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[1]] mod Try.foldLength[1]) Else mNode[1, Try.foldFrom[1]] = mNode[0, Try.foldFrom[1]] modTry → foldLnt[1] For i = 0 to 2 node[i] = mNode[1, Try.rMap[i]] End For End If For i = 0 to 2 Node[i] = node[i] mod TorusSize[i] End For NodeInUse[node[0], node[1], node[2]] = NODE_IN_USE AssignedNodeList[NodeIndex, 0] = node[0] AssignedNodeList[NodeIndex, 1] = node[2] AssignedNodeList[Nodelndex, 2] = node[2] NodeIndex = NodeIndex + 1 End For End For End For In particular embodiments, scanSpatial encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 2 If PartWraps[i]) End[i] =PartEnd[i] Else End[i] = PartEnd[i] − Try.baseSize[i] + 1 End If End For zPlaneCnt = Try.baseSize[0] × Try.baseSize[1]; For i = PartStart[0] to End[0] newX = True For (n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] zPlane[n] = 0 End For For l = i to i+try.baseSize[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] l1 = l mod TorusSize[0] m1 = PartStart[1] m2 = (m1 + Try.baseSize[1]) mod TorusSize[1] If PartStart[1] + Try.baseSize[1] ≦ PartEnd[1] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeY[l1,m1,n] − FreeY[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n]+ FreeY[i1,m1,n] End If End For End For For j = PartStart[1] to End[1] if newX = False l1 = i mod TorusSize[0] l2 = (i + Try.baseSize[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = (j − 1) mod TorusSize[1] if PartWraps[0] = False or i+try.baseSize[0]) PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If i+Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX[l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l2,m1,n]) Else zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − FreeX[l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX[l1,m1,n]+ (FreeX[0,m1,n] − FreeX[l2,m1,n])) End For End If l1 = i mod TorusSize[0] l2 = (i + Try.baseSize[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = (j + Try.baseSize[1]) mod TorusSize[1] If PartWraps[0] = False or i+try.baseSize[0]) ≦ PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If i + Try.baseSize[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n]) + FreeX[0,m2,n]) − FreeX[l1,m2,n] End For End If Else newX = False; k = PartStart[2]; while k ≦ End[2]) hit = True; For n = k; to k + Try.baseSize[2] − 1 while hit = True If zPlane[n mod TorusSize[2]] not equal zPlaneCnt hit = False; End If End For if hit = True Start[0] = i; Start[1] = j; Start[2] = k; For cNdx = 0 to try.NumConcats − 1 while hit = True For m = 0 to 2 while hit = True cStart[m] = Start[m] + Try.concatStartNode[cNdx, m] cEnd[m] = cStart[m] + Try.concatSize[cNdx, m] − 1; if (cEnd[m] ≧ TorusSize[m] && PartWraps[m] = False hit = False; End For For l = cStart[0] to cEnd[0] while hit = True For m = cStart[1] to cEnd[1] while hit = True For n = cStart[2] to cEnd[2] while hit = True l1 = l mod TorusSize[0] m1 = m mod TorusSize[1] n1 = n mod TorusSize[2] If NodeInUse[l1,m1,n1] not equal NODE_NOT_IN_USE hit = False; End If End For End For End For If hit = True Return True; Else K = k + 1 End If Else k = n + 1 End If End If End For End For Return False In particular embodiments, scheduleCompactFunction, which runs a binary search on Fit, encompasses the following example logic: HighFit = NumberOfFits − 1 For i = 0 to 2 HighStart[i] = PartStart[i] End For LowFit = −1 While True CurrentFit = LowFit + (HighFit − LowFit) / 2 If scanCompact(NumberOfNodes, Fit[CurrentFit], HighStart) = True HighFit = CurrentFit Else LowFit = CurrentFit End If If HighFit = LowFit + 1 Return End If End While Hit = False For i = 0 to NumMaxDistances − 1 While Hit = False If HighFit ≧ MaxDistance[i,0] HigMaxDistance = i Hit = True End If End For Hit = True For i = HighMaxDistance − 1 to 0 by −1 StartFit = MaxDistance[i,0] If i =NumMaxDistance − 1 EndFit = NumberOfFits − 1 Else EndFit = MaxDistance[i+1,0] − 1 End If Hit = False For j = StartFit to EndFit While Hit = False If scanCompact(NumberOfNodes, Fit[j], HighStart)= True HighFit = j HighMaxDistance = I Hit = True End If End For End For setCompactNodeInUse(Fit(HighFit), HighStart) In particular embodiments, setComPactNodeInUse encompasses the following example logic: node = 0 For i = 0 to 2 if Start[i] ≧ TorustSize[i] Start[i] = Start[i] mod TorusSize[i] End[i] = Start[i] + Size[i] − 1 End If End For If NumMapDiminsions = 1 If MapDiminsion[0] = 0 order[0] = 1 order[1] = 2 order[2] = 0 Else If MapDiminsion[0] = 1 order[0] = 0 order[1] = 2 order[2] = 1 Else order[0] = 0 order[1] = 1 order[2] = 2 End If Else order[0] = 3 − MapDiminsion[0] − MapDiminsion[1] order[1] = MapDiminsion[0] order[2] = MapDiminsion[1] End If count = 0 For i = Start[order[0]] to end[order[0]] and count < RequestedNodes index[order[0]] = i mod TorusSize[order[0]] For j = Start[order[1]] to end[order[1]] and count < RequestedNodes index[order[1]] = j mod TorusSize[order[1]] For k = Start[order[2]] to end[order[2]] and count < RequestedNodes index[order[2]] = k mod TorusSize[order[2]] If NodeInUse[index[0], index[1], index[2]] = NODE_NOT_IN_USE NodeInUse[index[0], index[1], index[2]] = NODE_IN_USE AssignedNodeList[node, order[0] = index[order[0]] AssignedNodeList[node, order[1] = index[order[2]] AssignedNodeList[node, order[2] = index[order[2]] node = node + 1 End If End For End For End For In particular embodiments, ScanCompact encompasses the following example logic: For i = 0 to 2 If PartWraps[i] = True end[i] =PartEnd[i] Else end[i] = PartEnd[i] − Start[i] + 1 End If For i = PartStar[0] to end[0] newX = True For n = 0 to TorusSize[2] ZPlane[n] = 0 End For for (l = i to i + size[0] for (n = pStart[2]; n ≦ pEnd[2]; n++) l1 = l mod TorusSize[0]; m1 = PartStart[1] m2 = (PartStart[1] + size[1]) mod TorusSize[1] If PartStart[1]+size[1] ≦ PartEnd[1]) ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] +FreeY[l1,m1,n] − FreeY[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] +FreeY[l1,m1,n] End If End For End For For j = PartStart[1] to End[1] newY = True If newX = False l1 = i l2 = (i + size[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = j − 1 If PartWraps[0] = False or i+Start[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If i+size[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX [l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l2,m1,n]) else zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − FreeX [l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] zPlane[n] = zPlane[n] − (FreeX [l1,m1,n] + (FreeX[0,m1,n] − FreeX [l2,m1,n])) End For End If l1 = i l2 = (i + Start[0]) mod TorusSize[0] m1 = (j + size[1] − 1) mod TorusSize[1] If PartWraps[0] = False or i + Start[0]) ≦ PartEnd[0] For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] If (i + Start[0] ≦ PartEnd[0]) ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + (FreeX[l1,m1,n] − FreeX[l1,m2,n] Else ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + FreeX[l1,m1,n] End If End For Else For n = PartStart[2] to PartEnd[2] ZPlane[n] = zPlane[n] + (FreeX[l1,m1,n] + (FreeX[0,m1,n] − FreeX[l1,m2,n])) End For End If Else newX = False End If For k = PartStart[2] to end[2] if newY = True newY = False count = 0; For n = k to k + size[2] count = count + zPlane[n mod TorusSize[2]] End For Else count = count − zPlane[k − 1] k1 = (k + size[2] − 1) mod TorusSize[2] zPlane[k1] = 0 l1 = i l2 = (i + size[0]) mod TorusSize[0] If PartWraps[0] = False or i + size[0]) ≦ PartEnd[0] For m = j to j + size[1] m1 = m mod TorusSize[1] If i + size[0] ≦ PartEnd[0] ZPlane[k1] = zPlane[k1] + (FreeX[l1,m1,k1] − FreeX[l2,m1,k1]) Else ZPlane[k1] = zPlane[k1] + FreeX[l1,m1,k1] End For Else For m = j to j + size[1] ZPlane[k1] = zPlane[k1] + FreeX[l1,m1,k1] + (FreeX[0,m1,k1] − FreeX[l2,m1,k1]) End For End If count= count + zPlane[k1] End If If count ≧ NumberOf Nodes Start[0] = i Start[1] = j Start[2] = k return True End If End For End For End For End For return False In particular embodiments, scheduleAny encompasses the following logic: Node = 0 Remainder = RequestedNodes For m = 0 to NumFreeMeshes while Remainder > 0 If FreeMesh[m].Rank[0] = 2 iNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[2] jNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[1] Else If FreeMesh[m].Rank[1] = 2 iNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[2] jNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[0] Else iNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[1] jNdx = FreeMesh[m].Rank[0] End If For i = FreeMesh[m].Start[iNdx] toFreeMesh[m].end[iNdx] while Remainder > 0 For j = FreeMesh[m].Start[jNdx] to FreeMesh[m].end[jNdx] while Remainder > 0 For k = FreeMesh[m].Start[2] to FreeMesh[m].end[2] while Remainder > 0 i1 = i mod TorusSize[iNdx] j1 = j mod TorusSize[iMod] k1 = k mod TorusSize[2] If iNdx = 0 NodeInUse[i1,j1,k1] = NODE_IN_USE Else NodeInUse[j1,i1,k1] = NODE_IN_USE End If AssignedNodeList[Node].[iNdx] = i1 AssignedNodeList[Node].[jNdx] = j1 AssignedNodeList[Node, 2] = k1 Node = Node + 1 End For End For End For End For In particular embodiments, setMpiRank encompasses the following logic: For node = 0 to RequestedNodes − 1 to[0] = AssignedNodeList[node, 0] to[1] = AssignedNodeList[node, 1] to[2] = AssignedNodeList[node, 2] If NumMapDiminsions = 1 to[MapDiminsion[0]] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDimension[0]] /MapMod[0] to[3] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[0]] mod MapMod[0] Else to[MapDiminsion[0]] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[0]] / MapMod[0] to[MapDiminsion[1]] = AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[1]] / MapMod[1] to[3] = (AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[0]] mod MapMod[0]) × MapMod[1] + AssignedNodeList[node, MapDiminsion[1]] mod MapMod[1] End If hit = False for (node1 = 0 to NumFreeNodes − 1 while hit = False If to[0] = FreeNodeList[node1],coordinate[0] and to[1] = FreeNodeList[node1].coordinate[1] and to[2] = FreeNodeList[node1].coordinate[2] and to[3] = FreeNodeList[node1].coordinate[3] FreeNodeList[node1].mpiRank = node Hit = True End If End For End For In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses the following example structures, which are defined as follows, to allocate nodes 115 to jobs 150. As described above, cluster management engine 130 communicates a list of FreeNode structures to scheduler 515 along with a job 150. The list includes all nodes 115 available for scheduling. In the list, switch-based coordinates identify available nodes 115 in the list. If scheduler 515 schedules job 150, scheduler 515 sets mpiRank before returning. Structure FreeNode integer coordinate[4] integer mpiRank End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a Fold Structure to record how scheduler 515 folds one dimensional and two dimensional spatial requests. Structure Fold integer foldLength integer numFolds integer remainder integer foldDimension integer fixDdimension integer oneDimension End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a Try structure to store information on meshes used for scheduling a spatial job 150. A Try structure includes information on a base mesh and up to two concatenated meshes. Structure Try integer baseSize[3] integer numConcats integer concatSize[2,3] integer concatStartNode[2,3] integer rMap[3] integer irMap[3] integer numFoldMaps integer foldLength[2] integer foldFrom[2] integer foldTo[2] integer foldFix[2] End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses a FreeMesh structure to store information on meshes in grid 110 available for scheduling. Scheduler 515 uses FreeMesh to schedule “any” requests. Structure FreeMesh integer start[3] integer end[3] integer size[3] integer rank[3] integer numberOfNodes End Structure In particular embodiments, scheduler 515 uses the following example variables, which are defined as follows, to allocate nodes 115 to jobs 150. RequestedNodes: a number of nodes requested for a job 150. RequestType: a type of job request: SPATIAL, COMPACT, or ANY. OriginalSize[3]: if RequestType=SPATIAL, a size of a job 150. AggressiveFlag: a floating-point number between zero and one indicating a degree of leeway allotted to scheduler 515 for purposes of allocating nodes 115 to a job 150. JobMap[3]: if RequestType=SPATIAL, a mapping of indices of OriginalSize to an order more suitable to scheduler 515. RequestedSize[3]: if RequestType=SPATIAL, size of a job 150 after scheduler 515 has applied JobMap. TorusSize[3]: size of grid 110 in terms of CPUs 164. NodesPerSwitch: number of nodes 115 per switch 166. NumFreeNodes: number of nodes 115 available for scheduling. FreeNodeList[NumFreeNodes]: list of nodes 115 available for scheduling passed to scheduler 515. SpatialAllowed: set to True if spatial scheduling allowed. CompactAllowed: set to True if compact scheduling allowed. AnyAllowed: set to True if any scheduling allowed. TorusMap[3]: a mapping of indices from a switch-based torus to an order more suitable to scheduler 515. InverseTorusMap[3]: an inverse of TorusMap; applied to all output nodes 115 before returning to cluster management engine 130. NumMapDimesions: number of dimensions modified when going from a switch-based torus to a node base torus; possible values are one and two. MapDimensions[2]: indices of dimensions modified when going from a switch-based torus to the node base torus. MapMod[2]: multipliers used when going from a switch-based torus to a node-based torus; possible values are MapMod[0]=4 for NumMapDimesions=1 and MapMod[0]=2 and MapMode[1]=2 for NumMapDimesions=2. PartSize[3]: size of a partition. PartStart[3]: start coordinate of a partition. PartEnd[3]: end coordinate of a partition. PartWraps[3]: PartWraps[i] =True if a partition wraps in dimension i. NodeInUse[TorusSize[0],TorusSize[1],TorusSize[2]]: NodeInUse[i,j,k] indicates a state of a node 115; possible values include NODE_IN_USE (node 115 assigned to another job 150), NODE_NOT_IN_USE (node 115 available), and NODE_ON_HOLD (a temporary state used when assigning nodes 115 to a job 150). FreeY[TorusSize[0],TorusSize[1],TorusSize[2]]: FreeY[i,j,k] indicates a number of free nodes 115 in line {i,j,k} through {i,TorusSize[1]−1,k} inclusively. A scan routine uses FreeY. FreeX[TorusSize[0],TorusSize[1],TorusSize[2]]: FreeX[i,j,k] indicates a number of free nodes in the line {i,j,k} through {TorusSize[0]−1j,k} inclusively. A scan routine uses FreeX. NumberOfTries: a number of Try structures constructed for a spatial request. TryList[NumberOfTries]: a list of Try structures for a spatial request. NumberOfFits: a number of meshes constructed for a compact request. Fit[NumberOfFits,[3]: a list of meshes constructed for a compact request. Fit[i,0]=size of mesh i in an x dimension. Fit[i,1]=size of mesh i in ay dimension. Fit[i,2]=size of mesh i in a z dimension. NumMaxDistances: a number of unique maximum distances in Fit. MaxDistance[NumMaxDistances,2]: a list of unique maximum distances in Fit. For any 0≦i<NumMaxDistances, MaxDistance[i,0]=index into Fit of a first mesh with maximum distance=MaxDistance[I,1]. NumFreeMeshes: a number of free meshes in grid 110. A free mesh is a mesh including only free nodes 115. FreeMesh[NumFreeMeshes]: an array of FreeMesh structures. AssignedNodeList[RequestedNodes,3]: a list of nodes 115 assigned to a job 115 in MPI rank order. Cluster management engine 130, such as through scheduler 515, may be further operable to perform efficient check-pointing. Restart dumps typically comprise over seventy-five percent of data written to disk. This I/O is often done so that processing is not lost to a platform failure. Based on this, a file system's I/O can be segregated into two portions: productive I/O and defensive I/O. Productive I/O is the writing of data that the user calls for to do science such as, for example, visualization dumps, traces of key physics variables over time, and others. Defensive I/O is performed to manage a large simulation run over a substantial period of time. Accordingly, increased I/O bandwidth greatly reduces the time and risk involved in check-pointing. Returning to engine 130, local memory 520 comprises logical descriptions (or data structures) of a plurality of features of system 100. Local memory 520 may be stored in any physical or logical data storage operable to be defined, processed, or retrieved by compatible code. For example, local memory 520 may comprise one or more eXtensible Markup Language (XML) tables or documents. The various elements may be described in terms of SQL statements or scripts, Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM) files, flat files, binary data files, Btrieve files, database files, or comma-separated-value (CSV) files. It will be understood that each element may comprise a variable, table, or any other suitable data structure. Local memory 520 may also comprise a plurality of tables or files stored on one server 102 or across a plurality of servers or nodes. Moreover, while illustrated as residing inside engine 130, some or all of local memory 520 may be internal or external without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Illustrated local memory 520 includes physical list 521, virtual list 522, group file 523, policy table 524, and job queue 525. But, while not illustrated, local memory 520 may include other data structures, including a job table and audit log, without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Returning to the illustrated structures, physical list 521 is operable to store identifying and physical management information about node 115. Physical list 521 may be a multidimensional data structure that includes at least one record per node 115. For example, the physical record may include fields such as “node,” “availability,” “processor utilization,” “memory utilization,” “temperature,” “physical location,” “address,” “boot images,” and others. It will be understood that each record may include none, some, or all of the example fields. In one embodiment, the physical record may provide a foreign key to another table, such as, for example, virtual list 522. Virtual list 522 is operable to store logical or virtual management information about node 115. Virtual list 522 may be a multidimensional data structure that includes at least one record per node 115. For example, the virtual record may include fields such as “node,” “availability,” “job,” “virtual cluster,” “secondary node,” “logical location,” “compatibility,” and others. It will be understood that each record may include none, some, or all of the example fields. In one embodiment, the virtual record may include a link to another table such as, for example, group file 523. Group file 523 comprises one or more tables or records operable to store user group and security information, such as access control lists (or ACLs). For example, each group record may include a list of available services, nodes 115, or jobs for a user. Each logical group may be associated with a business group or unit, a department, a project, a security group, or any other collection of one or more users that are able to submit jobs 150 or administer at least part of system 100. Based on this information, cluster management engine 130 may determine if the user submitting job 150 is a valid user and, if so, the optimum parameters for job execution. Further, group table 523 may associate each user group with a virtual cluster 220 or with one or more physical nodes 115, such as nodes residing within a particular group's domain. This allows each group to have an individual processing space without competing for resources. However, as described above, the shape and size of virtual cluster 220 may be dynamic and may change according to needs, time, or any other parameter. Policy table 524 includes one or more policies. It will be understood that policy table 524 and policy 524 may be used interchangeably as appropriate. Policy 524 generally stores processing and management information about jobs 150 and/or virtual clusters 220. For example, policies 524 may include any Number of parameters or variables including problem size, problem run time, timeslots, preemption, users' allocated share of node 115 or virtual cluster 220, and such. Job queue 525 represents one or more streams of jobs 150 awaiting execution. Generally, queue 525 comprises any suitable data structure, such as a bubble array, database table, or pointer array, for storing any Number (including zero) of jobs 150 or reference thereto. There may be one queue 525 associated with grid 110 or a plurality of queues 525, with each queue 525 associated with one of the unique virtual clusters 220 within grid 110. In one aspect of operation, cluster management engine 130 receives job 150, made up of N tasks which cooperatively solve a problem by performing calculations and exchanging information. Cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 and assigns each' of the N tasks to one particular node 115 using any suitable technique, thereby allowing the problem to be solved efficiently. For example, cluster management engine 130 may utilize job parameters, such as job task placement strategy, supplied by the user. Regardless, cluster management engine 130 attempts to exploit the architecture of server 102, which in turn provides the quicker turnaround for the user and likely improves the overall throughput for system 100. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 then selects and allocates nodes 115 according to any of the following example topologies: Specified 2D (x,y) or 3D (x,y,z)—Nodes 115 are allocated and tasks may be ordered in the specified dimensions, thereby preserving efficient neighbor to neighbor communication. The specified topology manages a variety of jobs 150 where it is desirable that the physical communication topology match the problem topology allowing the cooperating tasks of job 150 to communicate frequently with neighbor tasks. For example, a request of 8 tasks in a 2×2×2 dimension (2, 2, 2) will be allocated in a cube. For best-fit purposes, 2D allocations can be “folded” into 3 dimensions, while preserving efficient neighbor to neighbor communications. Cluster management engine 130 may be free to allocate the specified dimensional shape in any orientation. For example, a 2×2×8 box may be allocated within the available physical nodes vertically or horizontally Best Fit Cube—cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 in a cubic volume. This topology efficiently handles jobs 150 allowing cooperating tasks to exchange data with any other tasks by minimizing the distance between any two nodes 115. Best Fit Sphere—cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 in a spherical volume. For example, the first task may be placed in the center node 115 of the sphere with the rest of the tasks placed on nodes 115 surrounding the center node 115. It will be understood that the placement order of the remaining tasks is not typically critical. This topology may minimize the distance between the first task and all other tasks. This efficiently handles a large class of problems where tasks 2−N communicate with the first task, but not with each other. Random—cluster management engine 130 allocates N nodes 115 with reduced consideration for where nodes 115 are logically or physically located. In one embodiment, this topology encourages aggressive use of grid 110 for backfilling purposes, with little impact to other jobs 150. It will be understood that the prior topologies and accompanying description are for illustration purposes only and may not depict actual topologies used or techniques for allocating such topologies. Cluster management engine 130 may utilize a placement weight, stored as a job 150 parameter or policy 524 parameter. In one embodiment, the placement weight is a modifier value between 0 and 1, which represents how aggressively cluster management engine 130 should attempt to place nodes 115 according to the requested task (or process) placement strategy. In this example, a value of 0 represents placing nodes 115 only if the optimum strategy (or dimensions) is possible and a value of 1 represents placing nodes 115 immediately, as long as there are enough free or otherwise available nodes 115 to handle the request. Typically, the placement weight does not override administrative policies 524 such as resource reservation, in order to prevent starvation of large jobs 150 and preserve the job throughput of HPC system 100. The preceding illustration and accompanying description provide an exemplary modular diagram for engine 130 implementing logical schemes for managing nodes 115 and jobs 150. However, this figure is merely illustrative and system 100 contemplates using any suitable combination and arrangement of logical elements for implementing these and other algorithms. Thus, these software modules may include any suitable combination and arrangement of elements for effectively managing nodes 115 and jobs 150. Moreover, the operations of the various illustrated modules may be combined and/or separated as appropriate. FIG. 11 illustrates an example interface 104. Interface 104 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components providing an interface between network 106 and HPC server 102. In particular embodiments, interface 104 includes an instantiation manager 534 and instantiation data 536. Instantiation manager 534 includes a hardware, software, or embedded logic component or a combination of two or more such components dynamically instantiating hosts at nodes 115 in response to connection requests from clients 120. In particular embodiments, connection requests from clients 120 are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection requests. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 functions as a router or an interface to a router that maps host names and port numbers advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 to host names and port numbers internal to HPC server 102. Instantiation manager 534 may interact with one or more components of cluster management engine 130 (such as, for example, physical manager 505, virtual manager 510, or both) to dynamically instantiate one or more hosts at one or more nodes 115 in response to a connection request from a client 120, according to particular needs. Instantiation data 536 includes data for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 in response to connection requests from clients 120. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 includes one or more lists of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102. Reference to a service encompasses an application, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. Reference to a list of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 may encompass a routing table, where appropriate, and vice versa, where appropriate. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 sets up and maintains such routing tables. In particular embodiments, an entry in a list of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 specifies (1) a service, (2) a host name and a port number advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 corresponding to the service, and (3) a host name and a port number internal to HPC server 102 corresponding to a host that, when instantiated, provides the service. The entry may also specify rules, conditions, or both governing when the host should be made available, when instantiation of the host should take place, and when the host should be made unavailable. As an example and not by way of limitation, a host may provide a web server. If instantiation manager 534 receives no HTTP requests at an HTTP port corresponding to the web server during business hours, the host may remain uninstantiated during business hours and one or more resources (such as nodes 115 in grid 110) that the host would use if instantiated may be available for other hosts, services, or both. If a user at a client 120 uses a web browser to access the web server during business hours, instantiation manager 534 may instantiate the host to provide the web server to client 120. If the user at client 120 uses a web browser to access the web server outside business hours, instantiation manager 534 blocks the HTTP port corresponding to the web server to prevent the host from providing the web server to client 120. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 includes one or more boot images for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 to provide services. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 also includes one or more file systems for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 to provide services. In particular embodiments, instantiation data 536 also includes one or more OS configuration files for instantiating hosts at nodes 115 to provide services. As an example and not by way of limitation, in response to instantiation manager 534 receiving a connection request from a client 120 specifying an port number advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102 that corresponds to a service advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102, instantiation manager 534 may boot an available node 115 in grid 110 using a boot image and one or more file systems for the service to initialize a host for the service at node 115. Instantiation manager 534 may also update one or more of local routing tables and one or more OS configuration files to route IP traffic from client 120 to node 115. In particular embodiments, to decrease time requirements associated with HPC server 102 responding to a connection request from a client 120, instantiation manager 534 spoofs an IP/MAC address of a target host and starts a TCP/IP connection sequence on behalf of the target host. The TCP/IP connection sequence between client 120 and instantiation manager 534 takes place while the target host is booting. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 tracks whether each host at HPC server 102 is active or inactive. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 also controls whether each host at HPC server 102 is active or inactive. In particular embodiments, instantiation manager 534 may determine whether a service should be available. If instantiation manager 534 determines that a service should no longer be available, instantiation manager 534 shuts down, idles, or otherwise makes unavailable one or more nodes 115 at which instantiation manager 534 instantiated a host to provide the service and updates one or more routing tables accordingly. FIG. 12 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 600 for dynamically processing a job submission in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. Generally, FIG. 12 describes method 600, which receives a batch job submission, dynamically allocates nodes 115 into a job space 230 based on the job parameters and associated policies 524, and executes job 150 using the allocated space. The following description focuses on the operation of cluster management module 130 in performing method 600. But system 100 contemplates using any appropriate combination and arrangement of logical elements implementing some or all of the described functionality, so long as the functionality remains appropriate. Method 600 begins at step 605, where HPC server 102 receives job submission 150 from a user. As described above, in one embodiment the user may submit job 150 using client 120. In another embodiment, the user may submit job 150 directly using HPC server 102. Next, at step 610, cluster management engine 130 selects group 523 based upon the user. Once the user is verified, cluster management engine 130 compares the user to the group access control list (ACL) at step 615. But it will be understood that cluster management engine 130 may use any appropriate security technique to verify the user. Based upon determined group 523, cluster management engine 130 determines if the user has access to the requested service. Based on the requested service and hostname, cluster management engine 130 selects virtual cluster 220 at step 620. Typically, virtual cluster 220 may be identified and allocated prior to the submission of job 150. But, in the event virtual cluster 220 has not been established, cluster management engine 130 may automatically allocate virtual cluster 220 using any of the techniques described above. Next, at step 625, cluster management engine 130 retrieves policy 524 based on the submission of job 150. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 may determine the appropriate policy 524 associated with the user, job 150, or any other appropriate criteria. Cluster management engine 130 then determines or otherwise calculates the dimensions of job 150 at step 630. It will be understood that the appropriate dimensions may include length, width, height, or any other appropriate parameter or characteristic. As described above, these dimensions are used to determine the appropriate job space 230 (or subset of nodes 115) within virtual cluster 220. After the initial parameters have been established, cluster management 130 attempts to execute job 150 on HPC server 102 in steps 635 through 665. At decisional step 635, cluster management engine 130 determines if there are enough available nodes to allocate the desired job space 230, using the parameters already established. If there are not enough nodes 115, then cluster management engine 130 determines the earliest available subset 230 of nodes 115 in virtual cluster 220 at step 640. Then, cluster management engine 130 adds job 150 to job queue 125 until the subset 230 is available at step 645. Processing then returns to decisional step 635. Once there are enough nodes 115 available, then cluster management engine 130 dynamically determines the optimum subset 230 from available nodes 115 at step 650. It will be understood that the optimum subset 230 may be determined using any appropriate criteria, including fastest processing time, most reliable nodes 115, physical or virtual locations, or first available nodes 115. At step 655, cluster management engine 130 selects the determined subset 230 from the selected virtual cluster 220. Next, at step 660, cluster management engine 130 allocates the selected nodes 115 for job 150 using the selected subset 230. According to one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of nodes 115 in virtual node list 522 from “unallocated” to “allocated”. Once subset 230 has been appropriately allocated, cluster management engine 130 executes job 150 at step 665 using the allocated space based on the job parameters, retrieved policy 524, and any other suitable parameters. At any appropriate time, cluster management engine 130 may communicate or otherwise present job results 160 to the user. For example, results 160 may be formatted and presented to the user via GUI 126. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 700 for dynamically backfilling a virtual cluster 220 in grid 110 in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. At a high level, method 700 describes determining available space in virtual cluster 220, determining the optimum job 150 that is compatible with the space, and executing the determined job 150 in the available space. The following description will focus on the operation of cluster management module 130 in performing this method. But, as with the previous flowchart, system 100 contemplates using any appropriate combination and arrangement of logical elements implementing some or all of the described functionality. Method 700 begins at step 705, where cluster management engine 130 sorts job queue 525. In the illustrated embodiment, cluster management engine 130 sorts the queue 525 based on the priority of jobs 150 stored in the queue 525. But it will be understood that cluster management engine 130 may sort queue 525 using any suitable characteristic such that the appropriate or optimal job 150 will be executed. Next, at step 710, cluster management engine 130 determines the Number of available nodes 115 in one of the virtual clusters 220. Of course, cluster management engine 130 may also determine the Number of available nodes 115 in grid 110 or in any one or more of virtual clusters 220. At step 715, cluster management engine 130 selects first job 150 from sorted job queue 525. Next, cluster management engine 130 dynamically determines the optimum shape (or other dimensions) of selected job 150 at 720. Once the optimum shape or dimension of selected job 150 is determined, then cluster management engine 130 determines if it can backfill job 150 in the appropriate virtual cluster 220 in steps 725 through 745. At decisional step 725, cluster management engine 130 determines if there are enough nodes 115 available for the selected job 150. If there are enough available nodes 115, then at step 730 cluster management engine 130 dynamically allocates nodes 115 for the selected job 150 using any appropriate technique. For example, cluster management engine 130 may use the techniques describes in FIG. 6. Next, at step 735, cluster management engine 130 recalculates the Number of available nodes in virtual cluster 220. At step 740, cluster management engine 130 executes job 150 on allocated nodes 115. Once job 150 has been executed (or if there were not enough nodes 115 for selected job 150), then cluster management engine 130 selects the next job 150 in the sorted job queue 525 at step 745 and processing returns to step 720. It will be understood that while illustrated as a loop, cluster management engine 130 may initiate, execute, and terminate the techniques illustrated in method 700 at any appropriate time. FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating an example method 800 for dynamically managing failure of a node 115 in grid 110 in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. At a high level, method 800 describes determining that node 115 failed, automatically performing job recovery and management, and replacing the failed node 115 with a secondary node 115. The following description will focus on the operation of cluster management module 130 in performing this method. But, as with the previous flowcharts, system 100 contemplates using any appropriate combination and arrangement of logical elements implementing some or all of the described functionality. Method 800 begins at step 805, where cluster management engine 130 determines that node 115 has failed. As described above, cluster management engine 130 may determine that node 115 has failed using any suitable technique. For example, cluster management engine 130 may pull nodes 115 (or agents 132) at various times and may determine that node 115 has failed based upon the lack of a response from node 115. In another example, agent 132 existing on node 115 may communicate a “heartbeat” and the lack of this “heartbeat” may indicate node 115 failure. Next, at step 810, cluster management engine 130 removes the failed node 115 from virtual cluster 220. In one embodiment, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of node 115 in virtual list 522 from “allocated” to “failed”. Cluster management engine 130 then determines if a job 150 is associated with failed node 115 at decisional step 815. If there is no job 150 associated with node 115, then processing ends. As described above, before processing ends, cluster management engine 130 may communicate an error message to an administrator, automatically determine a replacement node 115, or any other suitable processing. If there is a job 150 associated with the failed node 115, then the cluster management engine 130 determines other nodes 115 associated with the job 150 at step 820. Next, at step 825, cluster management engine 130 kills job 150 on all appropriate nodes 115. For example, cluster management engine 130 may execute a kill job command or use any other appropriate technique to end job 150. Next, at step 830, cluster management engine 130 de-allocates nodes 115 using virtual list 522. For example, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of nodes 115 in virtual list 522 from “allocated” to “available”. Once the job has been terminated and all appropriate nodes 115 de-allocated, then cluster management engine 130 attempts to re-execute the job 150 using available nodes 115 in steps 835 through 850. At step 835, cluster management engine 130 retrieves policy 524 and parameters for the killed job 150 at step 835. Cluster management engine 130 then determines the optimum subset 230 of nodes 115 in virtual cluster 220, at step 840, based on the retrieved policy 524 and the job parameters. Once the subset 230 of nodes 115 has been determined, then cluster management engine 130 dynamically allocates the subset 230 of nodes 115 at step 845. For example, cluster management engine 130 may change the status of nodes 115 in virtual list 522 from “unallocated” to “allocated”. It will be understood that this subset of nodes 115 may be different from the original subset of nodes that job 150 was executing on. For example, cluster management engine 130 may determine that a different subset of nodes is optimal because of the node failure that prompted this execution. In another example, cluster management engine 130 may have determined that a secondary node 115 was operable to replace the failed node 115 and the new subset 230 is substantially similar to the old job space 230. Once the allocated subset 230 has been determined and allocated, then cluster management engine 130 executes job 150 at step 850. The preceding flowcharts and accompanying description illustrate exemplary methods 600, 700, and 800. In short, system 100 contemplates using any suitable technique for performing these and other tasks. Accordingly, many of the steps in this flowchart may take place simultaneously and/or in different orders than as shown. Moreover, system 100 may use methods with additional steps, fewer steps, and/or different steps, so long as the methods remain appropriate. FIG. 15 illustrates an example method for on-demand instantiation in HPC system 100. The method begins at step 900, where interface 104 receives a connection request from a client 120 specifying a port number and a host name advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102. At step 902, in response to the connection request, instantiation manager 534 accesses instantiation data 536 providing a list of services advertised externally with respect to HPC server 102. At step 904, instantiation manager 534 uses the list of services to identify a service corresponding to the port number and the host name specified in the connection request. At step 906, instantiation manager 534 determines, according to the list of services, whether the identified service is available to client 120. As described above, whether the identified service is available to client 120 may depend on a time associated with the connection request, an identity of a user at client 120, or other aspect of the connection request. At step 906, if the identified service is available to client 120, the method proceeds to step 908. At step 908, instantiation manager 534 uses instantiation data 536 indicating a host name and a port number internal to HPC server 102 corresponding to the identified service to instantiate the host at one or more nodes 115 in grid 110 to provide the identified service to client 120. As described above, instantiation manager 534 may also use instantiation data 536 including a boot image, a file system, and an OS configuration to instantiate the host at nodes 115, at which point the method ends. At step 906, if the identified service is unavailable to client 120, the method proceeds to step 910. At step 910, instantiation manager 534 blocks the port specified in the connection request to prevent client 120 from accessing the identified service, at which point the method ends. Although particular steps in the method illustrated in FIG. 15 have been illustrated and described as occurring in a particular order, any suitable steps in the method illustrated in FIG. 15 may occur in any suitable order. Although this disclosure has been described in terms of certain embodiments and generally associated methods, alterations and permutations of these embodiments and methods will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the above description of example embodiments does not define or constrain this disclosure. Other changes, substitutions, and alterations are also possible without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>High-performance computing (HPC) is often characterized by the computing systems used by scientists and engineers for modeling, simulating, and analyzing complex physical or algorithmic phenomena. Currently, HPC machines are typically designed using Numerous HPC clusters of one or more processors referred to as nodes. For most large scientific and engineering applications, performance is chiefly determined by parallel scalability and not the speed of individual nodes; therefore, scalability is often a limiting factor in building or purchasing such high-performance clusters. Scalability is generally considered to be based on i) hardware, ii) memory, input/output (I/O), and communication bandwidth; iii) software; iv) architecture; and v) applications. The processing, memory, and I/O bandwidth in most conventional HPC environments are normally not well balanced and, therefore, do not scale well. Many HPC environments do not have the I/O bandwidth to satisfy high-end data processing requirements or are built with blades that have too many unneeded components installed, which tend to dramatically reduce the system's reliability. Accordingly, many HPC environments may not provide robust cluster management software for efficient operation in production-oriented environments. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention may reduce or eliminate disadvantages, problems, or both associated with HPC systems. In one embodiment, a method for on-demand instantiation in a high-performance computing (HPC) system includes receiving a connection request from a client specifying a first port number and a first host name advertised externally with respect to an HPC server including a cluster of nodes, identifying a service at the HPC server corresponding to the first port number and the first host name, determining whether the identified service is available, and, if the identified service is available, instantiating a host providing the identified service at one or more nodes in the cluster. Particular embodiments of the present invention may provide one or more technical advantages. As an example, particular embodiments may enable clients to request services at an HPC server. In particular embodiments, a service at an HPC server are available to a client only if a request from the client to access the service meets one or more criteria for access to the service. Particular embodiments provide high availability of hosts in a virtual cluster. Particular embodiments dynamically monitor Internet service requests and map such requests to and instantiate hosts providing the requested services. Particular embodiments of the present invention provide all, some, or none of the above technical advantages. Particular embodiments may provide one or more other technical advantages, one or more of which may be readily apparent to a person skilled in the art from the figures, description, and claims herein. | 20041117 | 20120814 | 20060601 | 71887.0 | G06F1100 | 1 | KIM, HEE SOO | ON-DEMAND INSTANTIATION IN A HIGH-PERFORMANCE COMPUTING (HPC) SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,004 |
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10,992,170 | ACCEPTED | Compliant interconnect assembly | An apparatus and method for making a compliant interconnect assembly adapted to electrically couple a first circuit member to a second circuit member. The first dielectric layer has a first major surface and a plurality of through openings. A plurality of electrical traces are positioned against the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The electric traces include a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the first dielectric layer. The first distal ends are adapted to electrically couple with the first circuit member. The second dielectric layer has a first major surface positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The second dielectric layer has a plurality of through openings through which the electric traces electrically couple with the second circuit member. | 1. A compliant interconnect assembly adapted to electrically couple a first circuit member to a second circuit member, the compliant interconnect assembly comprising: a first dielectric layer having a first major surface and a plurality of through openings; a plurality of electrical traces positioned against the first major surface of the first dielectric layer, the electric traces comprising a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the first dielectric layer, the first distal ends adapted to electrically couple with the first circuit member; and a second dielectric layer having a first major surface positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer, the second dielectric layer having a plurality of through openings through which the electric traces electrically couple with the second circuit member. 2. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the first distal ends are deformed to project through an opening in the first dielectric layer. 3. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the first distal ends extend above a second major surface of the first dielectric layer. 4. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the first distal ends comprise a plurality of distal ends. 5. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the first distal end comprises a curvilinear shape. 6. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein at least a portion of the conductive compliant member comprises first distal ends deformed to project into openings in the first dielectric layer and second distal ends deformed to project into openings in the second dielectric layer. 7. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 comprising at least a portion of the conductive compliant members comprise second distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the second dielectric layer, the second distal ends adapted to electrically couple with the second circuit member. 8. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the electrical traces are attached to the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. 9. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the electrical traces are attached to a flexible circuit member. 10. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 comprising a solder ball attached to the electrical traces to electrically couple with the second circuit member. 11. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 comprising an additional circuitry plane attached to a second major surface of the second dielectric layer, the additional circuitry plane comprising a plurality of through openings aligned with a plurality of the through openings in the second dielectric layer. 12. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 11 wherein the additional circuitry plane comprises one of a ground plane, a power plane, or an electrical connection to other circuit members. 13. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 12 comprising one or more discrete electrical components electrically coupled to the electrical traces. 14. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 13 wherein the one or more discrete electrical components comprise capacitors. 15. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein a portion of the first electrical traces extends beyond the compliant interconnect assembly to permit electrical coupling with another circuit member. 16. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the electrical traces are singulated so that a portion of the conductive compliant members are electrically isolated from the electrical traces. 17. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein a portion of the conductive compliant members are electrically coupled to form a ground plane or a power plane. 18. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the first distal ends of the conductive compliant members are adapted to engage with a connector member selected from the group consisting of a flexible circuit, a ribbon connector, a cable, a printed circuit board, a ball grid array (BGA), a land grid array (LGA), a plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), a pin grid array (PGA), a small outline integrated circuit (SOIC), a dual in-line package (DIP), a quad flat package (QFP), a leadless chip carrier (LCC), a chip scale package (CSP), or packaged or unpackaged integrated circuits. 19. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the second dielectric layer is attached to a printed circuit board and a plurality of the conductive compliant members are electrically coupled to contact pads on the printed circuit board through the openings in the second dielectric layer. 20. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein a portion of the first electrical traces extend beyond the compliant interconnect assembly to form a stacked configuration other compliant interconnect assemblies. 21. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the dielectric layer comprises a rigid material. 22. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the dielectric layer comprises a flexible material. 23. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 1 wherein the plurality of electrical traces comprises: a first set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of openings in the first dielectric layer; a second set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members having second distal ends aligned with a plurality of openings in the second dielectric layer; and an electrical connection between one or more of the conductive compliant members on the first set of electrical traces and one or more of the conductive compliant members on the second set of electrical traces. 24. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 23 comprising a dielectric layer located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. 25. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 23 wherein the electrical connection comprises one of solder, a conductive plug, a conductive rivet, conductive adhesive, a heat stake, spot weld, and ultrasonic weld, a compression joint, or electrical plating. 26. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 23 comprising an additional circuitry plane located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. 27. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 26 wherein at least one major surface of the additional circuitry plane comprises one of a dielectric layer, a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a bare die device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, or a rigid circuit. 28. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 23 comprising one or more discrete electrical components located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. 29. A compliant interconnect assembly comprising: a first circuit member; a second circuit member; a first dielectric layer having a first major surface and a plurality of through openings; a plurality of electrical traces positioned against the first major surface of the first dielectric layer, the electric traces comprising a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the first dielectric layer, the first distal ends adapted to electrically couple with the first circuit member; and a second dielectric layer having a first major surface positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer, the second dielectric layer having a plurality of through openings through which the electric traces electrically couple with the second circuit member. 30. The compliant interconnect assembly of claim 29 wherein the first circuit member comprises one of a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a bare die device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, or a rigid circuit. 31. A method of making a compliant interconnect assembly, the method comprising the steps of: positioning a plurality of electrical traces against the first major surface of a first dielectric layer, the electric traces comprising a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of through openings in the first dielectric layer; positioning a first major surface of a second dielectric layer against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer, the second dielectric layer having a plurality of through openings; electrically coupling the first distal ends to a first circuit member; and electrically coupling a second circuit member to a second circuit member through the openings in the second dielectric layer. 32. The method of claim 31 comprising positioning at least a portion of the first distal ends to project through an opening in the first dielectric layer. 33. The method of claim 31 comprising positioning at least a portion of the first distal ends above a second major surface of the first dielectric layer. 34. The method of claim 31 comprising: positioning at least a portion of the first distal ends to project into openings in the first dielectric layer; and positioning second distal ends of the conductive compliant members to project into openings in the second dielectric layer. 35. The method of claim 34 comprising electrically coupling the second circuit member with the second distal ends of the conductive compliant members. 36. The method of claim 31 comprising attaching the electrical traces to the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. 37. The method of claim 31 comprising attaching the electrical traces to a flexible circuit member. 38. The method of claim 31 comprising attaching a solder ball to the electrical traces to electrically couple with the second circuit member. 39. The method of claim 31 comprising locating an additional circuitry plane along a second major surface of the second dielectric layer, the additional circuitry plane comprising a plurality of through openings aligned with a plurality of the through openings in the second dielectric layer. 40. The method of claim 39 wherein the additional circuitry plane comprises one of a ground plane, a power plane, or an electrical connection to other circuit members. 41. The method of claim 39 comprising locating one or more discrete electrical components between the first and second dielectric layers and electrically coupled to the electrical traces. 42. The method of claim 31 comprising singulating at least a portion of the electrical traces. 43. The method of claim 31 comprising electrically coupling a portion of the conductive compliant members to form a ground plane or a power plane. 44. The method of claim 31 comprising forming the first distal ends of the conductive compliant members to engage with a connector member selected from the group consisting of a flexible circuit, a ribbon connector, a cable, a printed circuit board, a ball grid array (BGA), a land grid array (LGA), a plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), a pin grid array (PGA), a small outline integrated circuit (SOIC), a dual in-line package (DIP), a quad flat package (QFP), a leadless chip carrier (LCC), a chip scale package (CSP), or packaged or unpackaged integrated circuits. 45. The method of claim 31 comprising: attaching the second dielectric layer to a printed circuit board; electrically coupling a plurality of the conductive compliant members to contact pads on the printed circuit board through the openings in the second dielectric layer. 46. The method of claim 31 comprising forming a plurality of the compliant interconnect assemblies into a stacked configuration. 47. The method of claim 31 comprising selecting the first and second circuit members from one of a dielectric layer, a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a bare die device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, or a rigid circuit. 48. The method of claim 31 comprising the steps of: aligning a first set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members with first distal ends with a plurality of openings in the first dielectric layer; aligning a second set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members with second distal ends with a plurality of openings in the second dielectric layer; and electrically coupling one or more of the conductive compliant members on the first set of electrical traces with one or more of the conductive compliant members on the second set of electrical traces. 49. The method of claim 48 comprising locating a dielectric layer between the first and second sets of electrical traces. 50. The method of claim 48 comprising electrically coupling one or more of the conductive compliant members on the first set of electrical traces with one or more of the conductive compliant members on the second set of electrical traces using one of solder, a conductive plug, a conductive rivet, conductive adhesive, a heat stake, spot weld, and ultrasonic weld, a compression joint, or electrical plating. 51. The method of claim 48 comprising locating an additional circuitry plane between the first and second sets of electrical traces. 52. The method of claim 48 comprising locating one or more discrete electrical components between the first and second sets of electrical traces. | REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/453,322 filed Jun. 3, 2003 entitled “Compliant Interconnect Assembly”, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/169,431 filed Jun. 26, 2002 entitled “Flexible Compliant Interconnect Assembly”, which claims priority to PCT/US01/00872 filed Jan. 11, 2001, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/177,112 filed Jan. 20, 2000, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a method and apparatus for achieving a compliant, solderless or soldered interconnect between circuit members. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The current trend in connector design for those connectors utilized in the computer field is to provide both high density and high reliability connectors between various circuit devices. High reliability for such connections is essential due to potential system failure caused by misconnection of devices. Further, to assure effective repair, upgrade, testing and/or replacement of various components, such as connectors, cards, chips, boards, and modules, it is highly desirable that such connections be separable and reconnectable in the final product. Pin-type connectors soldered into plated through holes or vias are among the most commonly used in the industry today. Pins on the connector body are inserted through plated holes or vias on a printed circuit board and soldered in place using conventional means. Another connector or a packaged semiconductor device is then inserted and retained by the connector body by mechanical interference or friction. The tin lead alloy solder and associated chemicals used throughout the process of soldering these connectors to the printed circuit board have come under increased scrutiny due to their environmental impact. Additionally, the plastic housings of these connectors undergo a significant amount of thermal activity during the soldering process, which stresses the component and threatens reliability. The soldered contacts on the connector body are typically the means of supporting the device being interfaced by the connector and are subject to fatigue, stress deformation, solder bridging, and co-planarity errors, potentially causing premature failure or loss of continuity. In particular, as the mating connector or semiconductor device is inserted and removed from the present connector, the elastic limit on the contacts soldered to the circuit board may be exceeded causing a loss of continuity. These connectors are typically not reliable for more than a few insertions and removals of devices. These devices also have a relatively long electrical length that can degrade system performance, especially for high frequency or low power components. The pitch or separation between adjacent device leads that can be produced using these connectors is also limited due to the risk of shorting. Another electrical interconnection method is known as wire bonding, which involves the mechanical or thermal compression of a soft metal wire, such as gold, from one circuit to another. Such bonding, however, does not lend itself readily to high-density connections because of possible wire breakage and accompanying mechanical difficulties in wire handling. An alternate electrical interconnection technique involves placement of solder balls or the like between respective circuit elements. The solder is reflown to form the electrical interconnection. While this technique has proven successful in providing high-density interconnections for various structures, this technique does not facilitate separation and subsequent reconnection of the circuit members. An elastomeric material having a plurality of conductive paths has also been used as an interconnection device. The conductive elements embedded in the elastomeric sheet provide an electrical connection between two opposing terminals brought into contact with the elastomeric sheet. The elastomeric material must be compressed to achieve and maintain an electrical connection, requiring a relatively high force per contact to achieve adequate electrical connection, exacerbating non-planarity between mating surfaces. Location of the conductive elements is generally not controllable. Elastomeric connectors may also exhibit a relatively high electrical resistance through the interconnection between the associated circuit elements. The interconnection with the circuit elements can be sensitive to dust, debris, oxidation, temperature fluctuations, vibration, and other environmental elements that may adversely affect the connection. The problems associated with connector design are multiplied when multiple integrated circuit devices are packaged together in functional groups. The traditional way is to solder the components to a printed circuit board, flex circuit, or ceramic substrate in either a bare die silicon integrated circuit form or packaged form. Multi-chip modules, ball grids, array packaging, and chip scale packaging have evolved to allow multiple integrated circuit devices to be interconnected in a group. One of the major issues regarding these technologies is the difficulty in soldering the components, while ensuring that reject conditions do not exist. Many of these devices rely on balls of solder attached to the underside of the integrated circuit device which is then reflown to connect with surface mount pads of the printed circuit board, flex circuit, or ceramic substrate. In some circumstances, these joints are generally not very reliable or easy to inspect for defects. The process to remove and repair a damaged or defective device is costly and many times results in unusable electronic components and damage to other components in the functional group. Many of the problems encountered with connecting integrated circuit devices to larger circuit assemblies are compounded in multi-chip modules. Multi-chip modules have had slow acceptance in the industry due to the lack of large scale known good die for integrated circuits that have been tested and burned-in at the silicon level. These dies are then mounted to a substrate, which interconnect several components. As the number of devices increases, the probability of failure increases dramatically. With the chance of one device failing in some way and effective means of repairing or replacing currently unavailable, yield rates have been low and the manufacturing costs high. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a method and apparatus for achieving a fine pitch interconnect between first and second circuit members. The connection with the first and second circuit members can be soldered or solderless. The circuit members can be printed circuit boards, another flexible circuit, a bare-die device, an integrated circuit device, an organic or inorganic substrate, a rigid circuit and virtually any other type of electrical component. In one embodiment, compliant interconnect assembly include a first dielectric layer having a first major surface and a plurality of through openings. A plurality of electrical traces are positioned against the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The electric traces include a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the first dielectric layer. The first distal ends are adapted to electrically couple with the first circuit member. The second dielectric layer has a first major surface positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The second dielectric layer has a plurality of through openings through which the electric traces electrically couple with the second circuit member. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal ends are deformed to project through an opening in the first dielectric layer. In another embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal ends extend above a second major surface of the first dielectric layer. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal ends comprise a plurality of distal ends. In yet another embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal end comprises a curvilinear shape. At least a portion of the conductive compliant members preferably have second distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the second dielectric layer to electrically couple with the second circuit member. The electrical traces can optionally be attached to the first major surface of the first dielectric layer or to a flexible circuit member. In one embodiment, a solder ball is attached to the electrical traces to electrically couple with the second circuit member. In some embodiments, an additional circuitry plane is attached to a second major surface of the second dielectric layer. The additional circuitry plane comprises a plurality of through openings aligned with a plurality of the through openings in the second dielectric layer. The additional circuitry plane can be one of a ground plane, a power plane, or an electrical connection to other circuit members. One or more discrete electrical components are optionally electrically coupled to the electrical traces. The electrical traces are preferably singulated so that a portion of the conductive compliant members are electrically isolated from the electrical traces. In one embodiment, a portion of the conductive compliant members are electrically coupled to form a ground plane or a power plane. The first distal ends of the conductive compliant members are preferably adapted to engage with a connector member selected from the group consisting of a flexible circuit, a ribbon connector, a cable, a printed circuit board, a ball grid array (BGA), a land grid array (LGA), a plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), a pin grid array (PGA), a small outline integrated circuit (SOIC), a dual in-line package (DIP), a quad flat package (QFP), a leadless chip carrier (LCC), a chip scale package (CSP), or packaged or unpackaged integrated circuits. In one embodiment, the second dielectric layer is attached to a printed circuit board and a plurality of the conductive compliant members are electrically coupled to contact pads on the printed circuit board through the openings in the second dielectric layer. In another embodiment, a portion of the first electrical traces extend beyond the compliant interconnect assembly to form a stacked configuration other compliant interconnect assemblies. The dielectric layers can be rigid or flexible. In one embodiment, the plurality of electrical traces includes a first set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of openings in the first dielectric layer. A second set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members having second distal ends are aligned with a plurality of openings in the second dielectric layer. An electrical connection is formed between one or more of the conductive compliant members on the first set of electrical traces and one or more of the conductive compliant members on the second set of electrical traces. A dielectric layer is optionally located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. The electrical connection can be one of solder, a conductive plug, a conductive rivet, conductive adhesive, a heat stake, spot weld, and ultrasonic weld, a compression joint, or electrical plating. An additional circuitry plane is optionally located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. One or more discrete electrical components are optionally located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. The first and second circuit member can be one of a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a bare die device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, or a rigid circuit. The present invention is also directed to a method of making a compliant interconnect assembly. A plurality of electrical traces are positioned against the first major surface of a first dielectric layer, the electric traces comprising a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of through openings in the first dielectric layer. A first major surface of a second dielectric layer is positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The second dielectric layer has a plurality of through openings. The first distal ends are electrically coupled to the first circuit member. The second circuit member is electrically coupled to a second circuit member through the openings in the second dielectric layer. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a substrate used for making a compliant interconnect in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a side sectional of the substrate of FIG. 1 with a masking material applied in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of the substrate and masking material of FIG. 2 with an additional hole in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of a compliant material applied to the substrate of FIG. 3. FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of a method of modifying the electrical interconnect of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a side sectional view of an electrical contact modified in accordance with the method of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of a compliant interconnect assembly in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 6 is a side sectional view of the compliant interconnect assembly of FIG. 5 in a compressed state in accordance with the present invention. FIGS. 7-9 are side sectional views of an alternate compliant interconnect in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 10A is a perspective view of a flexible circuit member in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 10B is a perspective view of an alternate flexible circuit member in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 10C is a perspective view of another alternate flexible circuit member in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 10D is a top view of electrical traces of a flexible circuit member prior to singulation. FIG. 10E is a top view of the flexible circuit member of FIG. 10D after singulation. FIG. 10F is a top view of electrical traces of a flexible circuit member prior to singulation. FIG. 10G is a top view of electrical traces of a flexible circuit member prior to singulation. FIG. 10H is a top view of electrical traces of a flexible circuit member prior to singulation. FIG. 101 is a top view of electrical traces of a flexible circuit member prior to singulation. FIG. 11 is a side sectional view of a compliant interconnect assembly in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12A is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly in a stacked configuration in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12B is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly with a spring member in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12C is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly with a sheet of spring members in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12D is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly using one of the flexible circuit members of FIGS. 10D-10I. FIG. 13 is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly with a carrier in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 14A is a side sectional view of a compliant interconnect assembly on an integrated circuit device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 14B is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly on an integrated circuit device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 15A is a side sectional view of a compliant interconnect assembly with a carrier and an integrated circuit device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 15B is a side sectional view of a compliant interconnect assembly packaged with an integrated circuit device in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 16 is a replaceable chip module using the compliant interconnect assembly in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 17 is a side sectional view of a plurality of compliant interconnect assemblies in a stacked configuration in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 18 is a top view of a compliant interconnect assembly with the flexible circuit members extending therefrom in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 19 is a side sectional view of a plurality of circuit members in a stacked configuration coupled using a compliant interconnect assembly in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 20 is a side sectional view of various structures on a flexible circuit member for electrically coupling with a circuit member. FIG. 21 is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly using one of the flexible circuit members of FIGS. 10D-10I. FIG. 22 is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly using one of the flexible circuit members of FIGS. 10F-10I. FIG. 23 is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly using a pair of the flexible circuit members, such as illustrated in FIGS. 10D-10I, in a back to back configuration. FIG. 24 is a side sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly using a pair of the flexible circuit members, such as illustrated in FIGS. 10D-10I, in a back to back configuration. FIG. 25 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly generally as illustrated in FIG. 21 with an additional circuitry plane is added to the structure. FIG. 26 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly generally as illustrated in FIG. 24 with an additional circuitry plane is added to the structure. FIG. 27 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly generally as illustrated in FIG. 21 with an additional circuitry plane is added to the structure. FIGS. 28A-28D illustrate an alternate compliant interconnect assembly constructed with a plurality of discrete compliant members. FIG. 29 illustrate a variation of the compliant interconnect assembly of FIG. 28A. FIG. 30 is a top view of a compliant interconnect assembly generally as illustrated in FIGS. 21-29. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIGS. 1-4 illustrate a method of preparing a compliant interconnect 22 in accordance with the present invention (see FIG. 5). The Figures disclosed herein may or may not be drawn to scale. The substrate 20 is perforated to include one or more through holes 24. The holes 24 can be formed by a variety of techniques, such as molding, stamping, laser drilling, or mechanical drilling. The holes 24 can be arranged in a variety of configurations, including one or two-dimensional arrays. As will be discussed below, some embodiments do not require the holes 24. The substrate 20 is typically constructed from a dielectric material, such as plastics, ceramic, or metal with a non-conductive coating. In some of the embodiments discussed below, an electrically active circuit member (see FIG. 11) is substituted for the electrically inactive substrate 20. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the substrate 20 is then flooded with one or more masking materials 26, such as a solder mask or other materials. Through careful application and/or subsequent processing, such as planarization, the thickness of the masking material at locations 28, 30 is closely controlled for reasons that will become clearer below. The additional holes 32 shown in FIG. 3 are then drilled or perforated in the substrate 20 and masking material 24 at a predetermined distance 36 from the existing through hole 24. While there is typically a hole 32 adjacent each of the holes 24, there is not necessarily a one-to-one correlation. The holes 32 can be arranged in a variety of configurations, which may or may not correlate to the one or two-dimensional array of holes 24. The holes 32 are then filled with a compliant material 38, as shown in FIG. 4. The thickness of the compliant material 38 is typically determined by the thickness of the masking material 26. Suitable compliant materials include elastomeric materials such as Sylgard™ available from Dow Corning Silicone of Midland, Mich. and MasterSyl '713, available from Master Bond Silicone of Hackensack, N.J. The compliant interconnect 22 of FIGS. 2-4 can optionally be subjected to a precision grinding operation, which results in very flat surfaces, typically within about 0.0005 inches. The grinding operation can be performed on both sides at the same time using a lapping or double grinding process. In an alternate embodiment, only one surface of the compliant interconnect 22 is subject to the planarization operation. The present method permits the accurate manufacture of raised portions 40 having virtually any height. Once the compliant encapsulant 38 is cured, the masking material 26 is removed to yield the compliant interconnect 22 illustrated in FIG. 5. The compliant interconnect 22 illustrated in FIG. 5 includes the substrate 20, one or more compliant raised portions 40 of the compliant encapsulant 38 extending above the substrate 20, and the through holes 24. The compliant raised portions can be, for example, the non-conductive encapsulant 38 in FIG. 5 or the conductive member 171C of FIG. 12C. The substrate can be a carrier or a circuit member, such as a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a bare die device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, or a rigid circuit. The through holes are optionally added for some applications. FIG. 5 illustrates a compliant interconnect assembly 34 in accordance with the present invention. The compliant interconnect assembly 34 includes the compliant interconnect 22 and one or more flexible circuit members 50, 70. The first flexible circuit member 50 is located along one surface of the compliant interconnect 22. The first flexible circuit member 50 includes a polymeric sheet 52 and a series of electrical traces 54. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, the traces 54 terminate at a contact pad 56. The electrical trace 54 terminates in a solder ball 64. The contact pad 56 is positioned to engage with a contact pad 60 on a first circuit member 62. The solder ball 64 is positioned adjacent to through hole 65. As used herein, “circuit member” refers to a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a packaged or unpackaged bare die silicon device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, a rigid circuit, or a carrier (discussed below). The region of the polymeric sheet 52 adjacent to the contact pad 56 includes singulation 58. The singulation 58 is a complete or partial separation of the terminal from the sheet 52 that does not disrupt the electrical integrity of the conductive trace 54. In the illustrated embodiment, the singulation 58 is a slit surrounding a portion of the contact pad 56. The slit may be located adjacent to the perimeter of the contact pad 56 or offset therefrom. The singulated flexible circuit members 50, 70 control the amount of force, the range of motion, and assist with creating a more evenly distributed force vs. deflection profile across the array. As used herein, a singulation can be a complete or partial separation or a perforation in the polymeric sheet and/or the electrical traces. Alternatively, singulation may include a thinning or location of weakness of the polymeric sheet along the edge of, or directly behind, the contact pad. The singulation releases or separates the contact pad from the polymeric sheet, while maintaining the interconnecting circuit traces. The singulations can be formed at the time of manufacture of the polymeric sheet or can be subsequently patterned by mechanical methods such as stamping or cutting, chemical methods such as photolithography, electrical methods such as excess current to break a connection, a laser, or a variety of other techniques. In one embodiment, a laser system, such as Excimer, CO2, or YAG, creates the singulation. This structure is advantageous in several ways, where the force of movement is greatly reduced since the flexible circuit member is no longer a continuous membrane, but a series of flaps or bond sites with a living hinge and bonded contact (see for example FIG. 10). The second flexible circuit member 70 is likewise positioned on the opposite side of the compliant interconnect 22. Electrical trace 72 is electrically coupled to contact pad 74 positioned to engage with a contact pad 76 on a second circuit member 78. Solder ball 80 is located on the opposite end of the electrical trace 72. Polymeric sheet 82 of the second flexible circuit member 70 also includes a singulation 84 adjacent to the contact pad 74. The contact pads 56, 74 can be part of the base laminate of the flexible circuit members 50, 70, respectively. Alternatively, discrete contact pads 56, 74 can be formed separate from the flexible circuit members 50, 70 and subsequently laminated or bonded in place. For example, an array of contact pads 56, 74 can be formed on a separate sheet and laminated to the flexible circuit members 50, 70. The laminated contact pads 56, 74 can be subsequently processed to add structures (see FIG. 20) and/or singulated. The contact pads 60, 76 may be a variety of structures such as, for example, a ball grid array, a land grid array, a pin grid array, contact points on a bare die device, etc. The contact pads 60, 76 can be electrically coupled with the compliant interconnect assembly 34 by compressing the components 62, 78, 34 together (solderless), by reflowing solder or solder paste at the electrical interface, by conductive adhesive at the electrical interface, or a combination thereof. As illustrated in FIG. 6, the first and second flexible circuit members 50, 70 are compressed against the compliant interconnect assembly 34. The solder balls 64, 80 are reflown and create an electrical connection between the first and second flexible circuit members 50, 70, generally within through hole 65. Adhesive 90 may optionally be used to retain the first and second flexible circuit members 50, 70 to the substrate 20. Contact pads 56, 74 are abutted against raised portion 40 of the compliant material 38. The singulations 58, 84 permit the raised portions 40 to push the contact pads 56, 74 above the surface of the substrate 20, without damaging the first and second flexible circuit members 50, 70, respectively. The raised portion 40 also deforms outward due to being compressed. The contact pads 56, 74 may optionally be bonded to the raised compliant material 40. The raised compliant material 40 supports the flexible circuit members 50, 70, and provides a contact force that presses the contact pads 56, 74 against the contact pads 60, 76 as the first and second circuit members 62, 78, respectively are compressed against the compliant interconnect assembly 34. The movement of the contact pads 56, 74 is controlled by the raised portion 40 of the compliant material 38 and the resiliency of the flexible circuit members 50, 70. These components are engineered to provide a desired level of compliance. The raised portions 40 provide a relatively large range of compliance of the contact pads 56, 74. The nature of the flexible circuit members 50, 70 allow fine pitch interconnect and signal escape routing, but also inherently provides a mechanism for compliance. In the illustrated embodiment, the electric trace 54 extends between solder ball 64 and contact pad 56. Similarly, the electric trace 72 extends between the solder ball 80 and the contact pad 74. Consequently, the compliant interconnect assembly 34 operates as a pass-through connector between the contact pad 60 on the first circuit member 62 and the contact pad 76 on the second circuit member 78. FIG. 7 illustrates an alternate substrate 100 with an array of through holes 102. In the illustrated embodiment, masking material 104 is applied to only one surface of the substrate 100 and the through hole 102. Additional holes 106 are prepared in the masking material 104 and substrate 100 a fixed distance 108 from the hole 102, as illustrated in FIG. 8. The hole 106 is only drilled partially into the substrate 100. A compliant material 110 is then deposited in the hole 106. After the masking material 104 is removed, the resulting compliant interconnect 112 includes a raised compliant material only on one surface (see generally FIG. 1). FIG. 10A is a perspective view of a flexible circuit member 120A suitable for use in the present invention. The flexible circuit member 120A includes a series of electrical traces 122A deposited on a polymeric sheet 124A and terminating at an array of contact pads or terminals 126A. As used herein “terminal” refers to an electrical contact location or contact pad. In the illustrated embodiment, the terminals 126A include a singulation 128A. The degree of singulation 128A can vary depending upon the application. For example, in some embodiments the flexible circuit member 120A stretches in order to comply with the raised portions. In other embodiments a greater degree of singulation minimizes or eliminates stretching of the flexible circuit member 120A due to engagement with the raised portions. In some embodiments, the terminals 126A include one or more locations of weakness 130A. As used herein, “locations of weakness” include cuts, slits, perforations or frangible portions, typically formed in the polymeric sheet 124A and/or a portion of the electrical trace 122A forming the terminal 126A. The locations of weakness facilitate interengagement of an electrical contact, such as a ball contact on a BGA device, with the terminal 126A (see FIG. 19). The terminals 126A can optionally include an aperture 132A to further facilitate engagement with an electrical contact. In another embodiment, a portion 134A of the trace 122A protrudes into the aperture 132A to enhance electrical engagement with the electrical contact. In other embodiments, a compliant raise portion is attached to the rear of the flexible circuit member 120A opposite the terminal 126A (see FIG. 11). When the flexible circuit member 120A is pressed against a surface (such as a printed circuit board), the raised compliant material lifts the singulated terminal 126A away from the surface. FIG. 10B is a top plan view of an alternate flexible circuit member 120B with an elongated singulation 128B. Contact pads 126B are located on the top of the polymeric sheeting 124B and the solder ball bonding sites 125B are located on the bottom. The contact pads 126B are offset from the solder ball-bonding site 125B by the portion 127B of the polymeric sheeting 124B. An electrical trace can optionally connect the contact pads 125B with the contact pads 126B along the portion 127B. The portion 127B permits the contact pads 126B to be raised up or deflected from the flexible circuit member 120B in order to comply with the motion of the flexure (see for example FIGS. 11-15) with minimal or no deformation or stretching of the surrounding polymeric sheeting 124B. The contact pads 126B can optionally include locations of weakness. FIG. 10C is a top plan view of an alternate flexible circuit member 120C with an irregularly shaped singulation 128C. Contact pads 126C are located on the top of the polymeric sheeting 124C and the solder ball bonding sites 125C are located on the bottom. The contact pads 126C are offset from the solder ball-bonding site 125C by the irregularly shaped portion 127C of the polymeric sheeting 124C. The shape of the portion 127C determines the force required to raise up or deflect the contact pads 126C from the flexible circuit member 120C in order to comply with the motion of the flexure (see for example FIGS. 11-15). Again, minimal or no deformation or stretching of the surrounding polymeric sheeting 124C is experienced. An electrical trace 121C can optionally connect some of the contact pads 125C with the contact pads 126C along the portion 127C. Additionally, trace 129C can connect two or more contact pads 125C, such as for a common ground plane. FIG. 10D is a top plan view of a pattern of electrical traces 122D of a flexible circuit member 120D prior to singulation. In the embodiment of FIG. 10D, the electrical traces 122D include tie bars 124D interconnecting a plurality of compliant members 126D. As will be discussed below, distal ends 128D of the compliant members 126D can be easily deformed out of the plane of the tie bars 124D to electrically couple with other circuit members. For example, the distal ends 128D are configured to electrically couple with contact pads on an LGA device, while proximal ends 130D can electrically couple with a BGA device. Although the distal end 128D is generally linear, it can be configured with a variety of non-linear features, such as curvilinear or serpentine portions (see e.g., FIGS. 10F-10I). The electrical traces 122D are preferably constructed from a copper alloy formed by chemical etching, laser ablation, mechanical stamping or a variety of other techniques. The electrical traces 122D can optionally be attached to a polymeric sheet, such as illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10C. In another embodiment, the electrical traces 122D are attached to a carrier, such as illustrated in FIG. 12C. The carrier can be rigid, semi-rigid, or flexible. The electrical traces 122D can be attached to a carrier using a variety of techniques, such as lamination with or without adhesives, over molding, insert molding, and a variety of other techniques. In some embodiments, portions of the electrical traces 122D are sufficiently thick to operate as freestanding compliant members, such as illustrated in FIG. 12B. In the preferred embodiment, the electrical traces 122D are supported by a carrier that maintains the relative position of the individual compliant members 126D after singulation. Singulation is typically accomplished by cutting or removing selected tie bars 124D using chemical etching, laser ablation or mechanical processes. One advantage of the present embodiment is the ability to process an entire field of compliant members 126D as a group. Many different geometries of electrical traces 122D are possible and are shaped based upon the type of terminal to which it must connect. FIG. 10E is a top plan view of a pattern of electrical traces 122D of a flexible circuit member 120D of FIG. 10D after singulation. The electrical traces 122D are attached to a carrier (see e.g. FIG. 21) so that the relative position of the compliant members 126D remains substantially unchanged even if all tie bars 124D are removed during singulation. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10E, selected tie bars 124D are removed by chemical etching or laser ablation. The compliant members 132D connected by tie bars 124D form a ground plane or power plane. The compliant members 134D that are disconnected from the electrical traces 122D (i.e., discrete compliant members) typically carry electrical signals between the first and second circuit members (see FIG. 21). FIG. 10F is a top plan view of a pattern of electrical traces 122F of a flexible circuit member 120F prior to singulation. The electrical traces 122F include tie bars 124F interconnecting a plurality of compliant members 126F. In the embodiment of FIG. 10F, each compliant member 126F includes a pair of distal ends 128F, 130F. The distal ends 128F, 130F of the compliant members 126F can be easily deformed out of the plane of the tie bars 124F to electrically couple with other circuit members. The distal ends 128F, 130F can be deformed in the same or different directions, depending upon the application (see e.g., FIG. 22). The curved portions 132F, 134F of the distal ends 128F, 130F are particularly well suited to electrically couple with a BGA device. The curved portions 132F, 134F are adapted to create a snap-fit attachment to a ball on BGA circuit member. Members 136F, 138F on the inside edge of the curved portions 132F, 134F facilitate electrical coupling to a BGA device. FIG. 10G is a top plan view of a pattern of electrical traces 122G of a flexible circuit member 120G prior to singulation. Each compliant member 126G includes a pair of distal ends 128G, 130G. The distal ends 128G, 130G of the compliant members 126G can be easily deformed out of the plane of the tie bars 124G to electrically couple with other circuit members. FIG. 10H similarly shows a top plan view of a pattern of electrical traces 122H of a flexible circuit member 120H prior to singulation. Each compliant member 126H includes a pair of distal ends 128H, 130H. FIG. 11 is a top plan view of a pattern of electrical traces 1221 where each compliant member 1261 includes a pair of curved distal ends 1281, 1301. The curved portions 1321, 1341 of the distal ends 1281, 1301 are particularly well suited to electrically couple with a BGA device. The curved portions 1321, 1341 are adapted to create a snap-fit attachment to a ball on BGA circuit member. FIG. 11 is a sectional view of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 140 in accordance with the present invention. The raised compliant material 142 is formed directly on second circuit member 144, which in the embodiment of FIG. 11 is a printed circuit board. In an alternate embodiment, the raised compliant material 142 are formed separate from the second circuit member 144 and subsequently bonded thereto using a suitable adhesive or other bonding technique. In another embodiment, the raised portion 142 is formed on, or bonded to, the rear of flexible circuit member 146. In the illustrated embodiment, the printed circuit board 144 serves the function of both the substrate 20 and the second circuit member 78 illustrated in FIG. 5. The embodiment of FIG. 11 does not require through holes in the circuit member 144. Flexible circuit member 146 includes a solder ball 148 that is typically reflown to electrically couple bonding pad 150 to the contact pad 152 on the circuit board 144. Alternatively, solder paste can be applied to both the bonding pad 150 and the contact pad 152. Electrical trace 154 electrically couples the solder bonding pad 150 to contact pad 156. Contact pad 156 may optionally include a rough surface to enhance the electrical coupling with the contact pad 160 on the first circuit member 162. The flexible circuit member 146 is singulated so that the raised compliant material 142 lifts the contact pad 156 away from the circuit member 144. When the circuit member 162 is compressed against the compliant interconnect assembly 140, the raised compliant material 142 biases the contact pad 156 against the first circuit member 162. In the compressed state, the compliant interconnect assembly 140 can have a height of about 0.3 millimeters or less. Alternatively, the contact pad 160 can be electrically coupled with the contact pad 156 by reflowing solder or solder paste at the electrical interface, by conductive adhesive at the electrical interface, or either of the above in combination with compression. The raised compliant material 142 can optionally be doped or filled with rigid or semi-rigid materials to enhance the integrity of the electrical contact created with the contact pad 160 on the first circuit member 162. Bonding layer 164 is optionally provided to retain the contact pad 156 to the raised compliant material 142. FIG. 12A illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 170 using a compliant interconnect generally as illustrated in FIGS. 7-9. Raised compliant material 172 is attached to a carrier 174 that is interposed between first and second circuit members 176, 178. The carrier 174 can be rigid or flexible. An additional support layer 182 can optionally be added to the carrier 174 to increase rigidity and/or compliance. In one embodiment, the raised compliant material 172 has a first modulus of elasticity and the additional support layer 182 has a second modulus of elasticity different from the first modulus of elasticity. In another embodiment, the raised compliant material 172 is attached to the rear surface of flexible circuit member 184. Flexible circuit member 184 is electrically coupled to the contact pad 186 on second circuit member 178 by solder ball or solder paste 188. When the first circuit member 176 is compressively engaged with the compliant interconnect assembly 170, raised compliant material 172 biases contact pad 190 on the flexible circuit member 184 against contact pad 192 on the first circuit member 176. In an embodiment where the carrier 174 has compliant properties, the combined compliant properties of the carrier 174 and raised compliant material 172 provides the bias force. In another embodiment, the flexible circuit member 184 extends to a second interconnect assembly 170A. Any of the interconnect assemblies disclosed herein can be used as the interconnect assembly 170A. In the illustrated embodiment, raised compliant material 172A is attached to a carrier 174A that is interposed between first circuit members 176 and a third circuit member 194. The carrier 174A can be rigid or flexible. An additional support layer 182A can optionally be added to the carrier 174A to increase rigidity and/or compliance. The third circuit member 194 can be an integrated circuit device, such as the LGA device illustrated in FIG. 12A, a PCB or a variety of other devices. The entire assembly of circuit members 176, 178, 194 can be stacked together and the solder then mass reflowed during final assembly. FIG. 12B illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 170B generally as illustrated in FIG. 12A, except that the raised compliant material 172B attached to a carrier 174B is an elongated compliant member 171B. The compliant member 171B can be spring member or a rigid member attached to a compliant carrier 174B, such as a beryllium copper spring. An additional support layer 182B can optionally be added to the carrier 174B to increase rigidity and/or compliance. The compliant members 171B provide reactive support to urge the contact pad 190B on the flexible circuit member 184B against the contact pad 192B on the first circuit member 176B. The compliant member 171B can be formed in the carrier 174B or formed separately and attached thereto. The compliant member 171B can alternatively be a coil spring or a variety of other structures. FIG. 12C illustrates another alternate compliant interconnect assembly 170C generally as illustrated in FIG. 12B, except that the raised compliant material 172C is an elongated compliant member 171C supporting the flexible circuit member 184C. Substrate 174C includes a series of compliant spring members 171C positioned under the flexible circuit member 184C. The upper surface of the flexible circuit member 184C is patterned with a series of rough contact pads 190C. The lower surface of the flexible circuit member 184C is prepared to receive solder paste or solder ball 194C. The rigid substrate 174C also includes a series of solder deposit alignment openings 175C through which solder ball 194C can couple the lower surface of the flexible circuit member 184C with second circuit member 198C. The compliant members 171C provide reactive support to bias the flexible circuit member 184C against contact pad 192C on first circuit member 176C. FIG. 12D illustrates another alternate compliant interconnect assembly 170D generally as illustrated in FIG. 12C, except that the raised compliant material 172D operates without the polymeric sheeting of a flexible circuit member. The thickness of the compliant member 172D can be engineered to provide the desired amount of resiliency. Substrate 174D includes a series of conductive compliant members 171D positioned to engage with the contact pad 192D on the first circuit member 176D. The lower surface of the conductive compliant member 171D is prepared to receive solder paste or solder ball 194D. The substrate 174D also includes a series of solder deposit alignment openings 175D through which solder ball 194D can couple the lower surface of the conductive compliant members 171D with second circuit member 198D. FIG. 13 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 200 in accordance with the present invention. A pair of discrete compliant raised portions 202, 204 are attached to a carrier 206. In the illustrated embodiment, the carrier 206 is a multi-layered structure. First and second flexible circuit members 210, 212 are positioned on opposite sides of the compliant interconnect assembly 200, generally as illustrated in FIG. 6. Solder ball 214 connects solder ball pads 216, 218 on the respective flexible circuit members 210, 212. The solder ball 214 can be replaced by a variety of connection methods such as wedge bonding, ultrasonic bonding, resistance bonding, wire bonding, or iso-tropic/anisotropic conductive adhesives. Contact pads 220, 222 on the respective flexible circuit members 210, 212 are singulated. Adhesive 221 can optionally be used to bond contact pads 220, 222 to the raised compliant material 202, 204. The flexible circuit members 210, 212 can optionally be bonded to the carrier 206. The resulting compliant interconnect assembly 200 is interposed between first and second circuit members 226, 228 in a compressive relationship so that contact pads 220, 222 are compressively engaged with respective contact pads 230, 232. FIG. 14A illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 300 in accordance with the present invention. The raised compliant material 302 is located on the first circuit member 304. The raised compliant material 302 can be bonded to both the first circuit member 304 and the rear of contact pad 314. In the illustrated embodiment, the first circuit member 304 is a packaged integrated circuit device. The first circuit member 304 can alternately be a printed circuit board, another flexible circuit, a bare-die device, an integrated circuit device, an organic or inorganic substrate, a rigid circuit and virtually any other type of electrical component. Solder ball pad 306 on the flexible circuit member 308 is electrically coupled to contact pad 310 on the first circuit device 304 by solder ball 312. Contact pad 314 on the flexible circuit member 308 is supported by raised compliant material 302. The contact pad 314 can be compressively engaged with pad 316 on the second circuit member 318. In an alternate embodiment, FIG. 14A illustrates a connector-on-package 320 in accordance with the present invention. The first circuit device 304 forms a substrate for package 322 containing bare die device 324. In the illustrated embodiment, the bare die device 324 is a flip chip and/or wire bond integrated circuit structure, although any packaged integrated circuit device can be used in the present connector on package 320 embodiment. The compliant interconnect assembly 300 is formed on the substrate 304 as discussed above, yielding a packaged integrated circuit 324 with an integral connector 300. FIG. 14B illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 300B generally as shown in FIG. 14A. Contact pad 305B on the flexible circuit member 308B is electrically coupled directly to the contact pad 310B on the first circuit member 304B. The raised compliant material 302B is attached to the circuit member 304B and is reduced in height to compensate for the height loss due to removal of the solder ball. The first circuit member 304B can be a printed circuit board, another flexible circuit, a bare-die device, an integrated circuit device, an organic or inorganic substrate, a rigid circuit and virtually any other type of electrical component. FIG. 15A illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 400 in accordance with the present invention. Raised compliant material 402 is mounted on a carrier 404 that is positioned adjacent to the first circuit member 406. In the illustrated embodiment, the first circuit member 406 is a packaged integrated circuit device. The carrier 404 can be optionally bonded to the first circuit member 406. Ball grid array (BGA) solder ball 408 (or solder paste) is used to electrically couple contact pad 410 on the first circuit member 406 with the solder ball pad 412 on the flexible circuit member 414. The singulated contact pad 416 on the flexible circuit member 414 is supported by the raised compliant material 402 for compressive engagement with contact pad 418 on the second circuit member 420. In one application, the embodiment of FIG. 15A can be used to “connectorize” a conventional BGA device 422 by adding the compliant interconnect assembly 400. In essence, the compliant interconnect assembly 400 can be merged into an existing BGA device 422 to form an assembly 401 comprising the packaged integrated circuit 406 and the compliant interconnect assembly 400. The contact pads 416 can simply be pushed against the PCB 420 to create a solderless connection without actually mounting a connector on the PCB 420. Alternately, solder at the interface of the contact pads 416, 418 can be reflowed. The assembly 401 can be provided as a conversion kit for integrated circuit devices, thereby eliminating the need for a connector on the printed circuit board 420. The connectorized embodiment of FIG. 15A can be used with any type of packaged integrated circuit, such as an LGA, PLCC, PGA, SOIC, DIP, QFP, LCC, CSP, or other packaged or unpackaged integrated circuits. FIG. 15B illustrates an alternate connectorized integrated circuit device 424 in accordance with the present invention. The compliant interconnect 434 includes raised compliant material 425 mounted on a carrier 426. Singulated contact pad 427 on flexible circuit member 428 is supported by the raised compliant material 426 for compressive engagement with contact pad 429 on the first circuit member 430. The connection between the contact pads 427, 429 can be created by compression or the reflow of solder. Integrated circuit device 431 is direct connected to the flexible circuit member 428. The integrated circuit device 431 can be electrically coupled to the flexible circuit member 428 by flip chip bumps 432 and/or wire bonds 433. Alternatively, terminals 436 on the integrated circuit device 431 can include locations of weakness (see FIG. 10A) that permit the bumps 432 to be snap-fit with the flexible circuit member 428 (see FIG. 19). The integrated circuit device can be an unpackaged bare die device. In one embodiment, the integrated circuit device 431, the compliant interconnect 434 and a portion of the flexible circuit member 428 can be retained in package 435. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of a replaceable chip module 440 coupled to a flexible circuit member 454 using a compliant interconnect assembly in accordance with the present invention. The housing 442 includes a plurality of device sites 444, 446, 448, 450 configured to receive various first circuit members. The housing 442 can be an insulator housing or an alignment frame, typically constructed from plastic or shielded metal. In one embodiment, the replaceable chip module 440 illustrated in FIG. 16 includes a second circuit member 451, such as a PCB, having a 168 DIMM edge card connector 452 along one edge. Flex circuit member 454 is interposed between the second circuit member 451 and the housing 442 to form compliant interconnect assemblies 458 at one or more of the device sites 444, 446, 448, 450. Various integrated circuit devices can be located at the device sites 444, 446, 448, 450. The flexible circuit member 454 may extend across the entire second circuit member 451, or just a portion thereof. Any of the compliant interconnect assemblies disclosed herein can be used for this purpose. The raised compliant material can correspondingly be formed on the first or second circuit members, or the substrate (see for example FIG. 5). In another embodiment, the second circuit member 451 is an extension of the flexible circuit member 454. Stiffener 443 is optionally provided behind the flexible circuit member 451. The housing 442 includes a device site 444 for receiving a microprocessor device. Along one edge of the housing 442 are a series of device sites 446 configured to receive flash memory integrated circuit devices. Device sites 448, 450 are provided along the other edges of the housing 442 for receiving other circuit members supportive of the microprocessor. Each of the device sites 444, 446, 448, 450 optionally include appropriate covers 456a-456c. The covers 456a-456c have beveled edges 449 for sliding engagement with a corresponding lips 453 on the housing 442. The flexible circuit member 454 extends beyond the housing 442, permitting it to perform more functions than simple providing an interconnect between the first and second circuit members. For example, the flexible circuit member 454 can include integrated ground planes; buried passive functions such as capacitance; redistribution of terminal routing or pitch; and/or leads to bring in other signals or power from external sources to the device being connected without having to come in through the PCB 451. Using the flexible circuit member to perform other functions reduces the number of terminals need to be connected to the main PCB 451 since all of the ground pins from the first circuit members can be coupled to the flex circuit and/or the substrate. Another advantage of this embodiment is that it is possible to alter the signals or power coming in through the flexible circuit member 454, such as filtering, amplifying, decoupling etc. FIG. 17 is a side sectional view of an assembly 468 comprising multiple compliant interconnect assemblies 470, 472 arranged in a stacked configuration with multiple circuit members 474, 476, 478 in accordance with the present invention. The interconnect assemblies 470, 472 correspond generally with those illustrated in FIG. 6, although any of the interconnect assemblies disclosed herein can be arranged in a stacked configuration. The circuit members 474, 476, 478 can be printed circuit boards, flexible circuits, bare-die devices, integrated circuit devices, organic or inorganic substrates, rigid circuits or combinations thereof. The assembly 468 is typically located in a housing (see FIG. 16) to maintain alignment and a compressive relationship with the various components. The four flexible circuit members 480, 482, 484, 486 can be arrange parallel to each other or at various angles. Additionally, the flexible circuit members 480, 482, 484, 486 can be connected to each other, such as the connection 498 connecting flexible circuit member 482 to flexible circuit member 484. FIG. 18 illustrates one possible arrangement of the flexible circuit members 480, 482, 484, 486 layered together with the circuit member 474 on top of the assembly 468. Distal ends 490, 492, 494, 496 of the various flexible circuit members 480, 482, 484, 486 are free to connect to other circuits. FIG. 19 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 500 using a compliant interconnect generally as illustrated in FIG. 12A. Raised compliant material 502 is attached to a carrier 504 that is interposed between first and second circuit members 506, 508. The carrier 504 can be rigid or flexible. An additional support layer 510 can optionally be added to the carrier 504 to increase rigidity and/or compliance. Flexible circuit member 512 is electrically coupled to the contact pad 514 on second circuit member 508 by solder ball or solder paste 516. When the first circuit member 506 is compressively engaged with the compliant interconnect assembly 500, raised compliant material 502 biases contact pad 518 on the flexible circuit member 512 against contact pad 520 on the first circuit member 506. In one embodiment, the flexible circuit member 512 extends to a third circuit member 522. The third circuit member 522 can be electrically coupled using any of the techniques disclosed herein, including the connectorized approach illustrated in FIG. 15B. In the illustrated embodiment, terminals 524 on the flexible circuit 512 include an aperture 526 and a plurality of locations of weakness 528 (see FIG. 10A). The locations of weakness 528 permit solder ball 530 to snap-fit into aperture 526 to form a strong mechanical interconnect. The solder ball 530 can optionally be reflowed to further bind with the terminal 524. If the solder ball 530 is reflowed, the segmented portions of the terminal 524 will flex into the molten solder. When the solder solidifies, the terminal 524 will be at least partially embedded in the solder ball 530. The third circuit member 522 can be an integrated circuit device, such as an LGA device, BGA device, CSP device, flip chip, a PCB or a variety of other devices. FIG. 20 is a schematic illustration of various conductive structures 556 formed on the contact pads 554 of flexible circuit member 550. The conductive structures 556 facilitate electrical coupling with various types of contact pads on a circuit member. The structures 556 can be metal pieces soldered to the contact pads 554, a build-up of solder or conductive adhesive or other conductive members bonded to the contact pads 554. Structures 560 and 562 include generally flat upper surfaces 564 suitable to engage with an LGA device. Structure 566 includes a recess 568 generally complementary to the contact pads on a BGA device. Structure 570 includes a series of small protrusions 572 designed to frictionally engage with various contact pads. Structure 558 is a solder bump, such as may be found on a BGA device. The conductive structures 556 can be coupled with a circuit member using compression and/or reflowing the solder. FIG. 21 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 600 using an electrical trace 602 generally as illustrated in FIGS. 10D-10I. The electrical trace 602 is attached to carrier 604. The carrier 604 can be a rigid or a flexible dielectric material. After the electrical trace 602 is singulated, a second dielectric carrier 606 can optionally be located on the opposite surface. Distal ends 608 of the compliant members 610 are deformed to extend through openings 612 in the carrier 604. In the illustrated embodiment, the distal end 608 is deformed in a first direction and a solder ball 614 is electrically coupled to the proximal end of the compliant member 610. When a first circuit member 616 is compressively engaged with the compliant interconnect assembly 600, distal end 608 of the compliant member 610 electrically couples with contact pad 618 on the first circuit member 616. Solder ball 614 is preferably melted to electrically couple with contact pad 620 on second circuit member 622. The embodiment of FIG. 21 is particularly suited to releasably attaching a bare die device 616 to a printed circuit board 622. The compliant interconnect assembly 600 is typically constructed by etching electrical trace 602. A photoresist is printed onto tie bars that are to be removed. The distal ends 608 are then deformed and the electrical trace 602 is plated. The photoresist is then removed and the electrical trace 602 is laminated to the carrier 604. An acid bath is used to etch away the tie bars that were previously covered with the photoresist. The carrier 604 holds the compliant members 610 in position. The second dielectric carrier 606 is then optionally laminated to the opposite side of the electrical trace 602. FIG. 22 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 630 using an electrical trace 632 generally as illustrated in FIGS. 10F-I. The electrical trace 632 is attached to carrier 634. After the electrical trace 632 is singulated, a second dielectric carrier 636 can optionally be located on the opposite surface. In the embodiment of FIG. 22, each compliant member 638 includes at least two distal ends 640, 642. The distal end 640 is deformed to extend through openings 644 in the carrier 634 and the distal end 642 is deformed to extend through the opening 646 in the carrier 636. When a first circuit member 648 is compressively engaged with the compliant interconnect assembly 630, distal end 640 electrically couples with contact pad 650 on the first circuit member 648. Similarly, a second circuit member 652 can be compressively engaged with the distal end 642 to electrically couples with contact pad 654 on the second circuit member 652. FIGS. 23 and 24 illustrate a compliant interconnect assembly 660 with a first electrical trace 662 attached to carrier 664. The first electrical trace 662 is singulated and the distal ends 666 of the compliant members 668 are deformed. Similarly, a second electrical trace 670 is attached to a carrier 672, singulated and the distal ends 674 of the compliant members 676 deformed. The electrical traces 662, 670 are placed in a back to back configuration so that the respective compliant members 668, 676 are electrically coupled. In the embodiment of FIG. 23, the compliant members 668, 674 include holes 686, 688 that can be electrically coupled using a mechanical connection such as a conductive plug or rivet, a heat stake, spot or ultrasonic welding, solder, compression, a coined feature that flattens against the opposing compliant member, electrical plating, or a variety of other methods. In the embodiment of FIG. 24, the compliant members 668, 676 are electrically coupled by melting solder 690 between the joint, using the carriers 664, 672 as a solder mask to prevent solder from wicking up the distal ends 666, 674. Alternatively, the compliant members 668, 676 can be electrically coupled using compression, solder paste, conductive adhesive, spot or ultrasonic welding, a coined feature that flattens against the opposing compliant member, or a variety of other techniques. In one embodiment. The distal ends 666, 674 are electrically coupled with contact pads 678, 680 on respective first and second circuit members 682, 684, as discussed in connection with FIGS. 21 and 22. FIG. 25 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 700 generally as illustrated in FIG. 21, except that an additional circuitry plane 702 is added to the structure. For example, the circuitry plane 702 can be a power plane, a ground plane, or a connection to an external integrated circuit device 704. The circuitry plane 702 is preferably electrically isolated between carriers 708, 710, although some of the compliant members 713 can be electrically coupled to the circuitry plane 702. Optional carrier 706 can be provided. In the illustrated embodiment, the circuitry plane 702 extends beyond the boundaries of the compliant interconnect assembly 700 to facilitate connection to a power source, a ground plane, or an external devices 704. For example, the compliant interconnect assembly 700 can be inserted into the replaceable chip module 400 of FIG. 16, electrically coupling the circuitry plane 702 to the flexible circuit member 454 or the edge card connector 452. As discussed in connection with FIG. 10E, a portion of the electrical trace 712 can serve as a ground plane or power plane in some embodiments. The present compliant interconnect assembly 700 provides for internal or embedded passive features such as decoupling capacitance as a result of the layered power plane 702 and the ground plane provided by a portion of the electrical trace 712. In yet another embodiment, discrete electrical components 714, such as capacitors, can be added to the present compliant interconnect assembly 700. The circuitry plane 702 of the present embodiment improves the operating performance of the first and second circuit members 716, 718. FIG. 26 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 750 generally as illustrated in FIGS. 23 and 24, except that an additional circuitry plane 752 is added to the structure. Again, the circuitry plane 752 can be a power plane, a ground plane, or a connection to an external integrated circuit device 754. The circuitry plane 752 preferably extends beyond the boundaries of the compliant interconnect assembly 750 to facilitate connection to a power source or external devices 754. The circuitry plane 752 is preferably electrically isolated between dielectric layers 762, 764. The present compliant interconnect assembly 750 provides for internal or embedded passive features such as decoupling capacitance as a result of the layered power plane 752 and the ground plane provided by a portion of the electrical traces 756, 758. Discrete electrical components 760, such as capacitors, can optionally be added to the present compliant interconnect assembly 750. FIG. 27 illustrates an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 770 generally as illustrated in FIG. 22, except that an additional circuitry plane 772 is added to the structure. Again, the circuitry plane 772 can be a power plane or a connection to an external integrated circuit device 774. The circuitry plane 772 preferably extends beyond the boundaries of the compliant interconnect assembly 770 to facilitate connection to a power source or external devices 774. The present compliant interconnect assembly 770 provides for internal or embedded passive features such as decoupling capacitance as a result of the layered power plane 772 and the ground plane provided by a portion of the electrical traces 776 attached to carrier 782. The circuitry plane 772 is preferably sandwiched between layers of dielectric material 778, 780. Discrete electrical components 784, such as capacitors, can optionally be added to the present compliant interconnect assembly 770. FIGS. 28A-28D illustrate various aspects of an alternate compliant interconnect assembly 800 in accordance with the present invention. As discussed in connection with FIGS. 21-27, the flexible circuit member is preferably attached to a carrier before singulation so to retain the spatial relationship of the compliant members (see FIGS. 10D-10I). In the embodiment of FIGS. 28A-28D, the flexible circuit member, which is typically a sheet of conductive material, is singulated prior to attachment to carrier 806 to form a plurality of discrete compliant members 804. The discrete compliant members 804 are attached to a carrier 806 using a variety of techniques, such as thermal or ultrasonic bonding, adhesives, mechanical attachment, and the like. In the illustrated embodiment, the carrier 806 includes pairs of adjacent slots 808, 810. Center portion 812 of the carrier 806 between the slots 808, 810 acts as a torsion bar. A discrete compliant member 804 is inserted though the slot 808 and attached to the center portion 812, preferably by crimping. Alternatively, the compliant members 804 can be attached to the carrier 806 through single slot 814. Upper and lower dielectric layers 816, 818 are preferably added to the top and bottom of the compliant interconnect assembly to prevent shorting or contact rollover during compression. An additional circuitry plane 820 and dielectric covering layer 822, as discussed above, can also be added to the present compliant interconnect assembly 800. As best illustrated in FIGS. 28C and 28D, the center portion 812 twists and/or deforms to permit the compliant members 804 to compensate for non-planarity in the first and second circuit members 824, 826 (see FIG. 28a). Distal ends 828, 830 of the compliant members 804 also flex when compressed by the first and second circuit members 824, 826. The amount of displacement and the resistance to displacement can be adjusted by changing the size and shape of the center portion 812 on the carrier 806, and/or by constructing the carrier 806 from a more rigid or less rigid material that resists displacement of the compliant members 804. In one embodiment, a flexible circuit member, such as shown in FIGS. 10D-10I is attached to the carrier 806. The combination of the flexible circuit member and the discrete compliant members provides maximum flexibility in constructing the present compliant interconnect assembly 800. FIG. 29 illustrates a variation of the compliant interconnect assembly 800 of FIGS. 28A-28D. The compliant interconnect assembly 840 includes a plurality of discrete compliant members 842 attached to a carrier 844 as discussed above. Distal end 846 is positioned to electrically couple with contact pad 848 on first circuit member 850. Solder ball 852 replaces the distal end 830 in FIG. 28A. The solder ball 852 is positioned to electrically couple with contact pad 854 on second circuit member 856. FIG. 30 is a top view of a compliant interconnect assembly 900 as shown in FIGS. 21-29. Carrier 902 includes an array of holes 904 through which distal ends of the compliant members extend to engage with circuit members (see FIGS. 21-29). Any additional circuit planes (see FIGS. 25-26) are preferably ported from the side of the compliant interconnect assembly 900, preferably by flexible circuit members 906, 908. The embodiments disclosed herein are basic guidelines, and are not to be considered exhaustive or indicative of the only methods of practicing the present invention. There are many styles and combinations of properties possible, with only a few illustrated. Each connector application must be defined with respect to deflection, use, cost, force, assembly, & tooling considered. Patents and patent applications disclosed herein, including those cited in the background of the invention, are hereby incorporated by reference. Other embodiments of the invention are possible. It is to be understood that the above description is intended to be illustrative, and not restrictive. Many other embodiments will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description. The scope of the invention should, therefore, be determined with reference to the appended claims, along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The current trend in connector design for those connectors utilized in the computer field is to provide both high density and high reliability connectors between various circuit devices. High reliability for such connections is essential due to potential system failure caused by misconnection of devices. Further, to assure effective repair, upgrade, testing and/or replacement of various components, such as connectors, cards, chips, boards, and modules, it is highly desirable that such connections be separable and reconnectable in the final product. Pin-type connectors soldered into plated through holes or vias are among the most commonly used in the industry today. Pins on the connector body are inserted through plated holes or vias on a printed circuit board and soldered in place using conventional means. Another connector or a packaged semiconductor device is then inserted and retained by the connector body by mechanical interference or friction. The tin lead alloy solder and associated chemicals used throughout the process of soldering these connectors to the printed circuit board have come under increased scrutiny due to their environmental impact. Additionally, the plastic housings of these connectors undergo a significant amount of thermal activity during the soldering process, which stresses the component and threatens reliability. The soldered contacts on the connector body are typically the means of supporting the device being interfaced by the connector and are subject to fatigue, stress deformation, solder bridging, and co-planarity errors, potentially causing premature failure or loss of continuity. In particular, as the mating connector or semiconductor device is inserted and removed from the present connector, the elastic limit on the contacts soldered to the circuit board may be exceeded causing a loss of continuity. These connectors are typically not reliable for more than a few insertions and removals of devices. These devices also have a relatively long electrical length that can degrade system performance, especially for high frequency or low power components. The pitch or separation between adjacent device leads that can be produced using these connectors is also limited due to the risk of shorting. Another electrical interconnection method is known as wire bonding, which involves the mechanical or thermal compression of a soft metal wire, such as gold, from one circuit to another. Such bonding, however, does not lend itself readily to high-density connections because of possible wire breakage and accompanying mechanical difficulties in wire handling. An alternate electrical interconnection technique involves placement of solder balls or the like between respective circuit elements. The solder is reflown to form the electrical interconnection. While this technique has proven successful in providing high-density interconnections for various structures, this technique does not facilitate separation and subsequent reconnection of the circuit members. An elastomeric material having a plurality of conductive paths has also been used as an interconnection device. The conductive elements embedded in the elastomeric sheet provide an electrical connection between two opposing terminals brought into contact with the elastomeric sheet. The elastomeric material must be compressed to achieve and maintain an electrical connection, requiring a relatively high force per contact to achieve adequate electrical connection, exacerbating non-planarity between mating surfaces. Location of the conductive elements is generally not controllable. Elastomeric connectors may also exhibit a relatively high electrical resistance through the interconnection between the associated circuit elements. The interconnection with the circuit elements can be sensitive to dust, debris, oxidation, temperature fluctuations, vibration, and other environmental elements that may adversely affect the connection. The problems associated with connector design are multiplied when multiple integrated circuit devices are packaged together in functional groups. The traditional way is to solder the components to a printed circuit board, flex circuit, or ceramic substrate in either a bare die silicon integrated circuit form or packaged form. Multi-chip modules, ball grids, array packaging, and chip scale packaging have evolved to allow multiple integrated circuit devices to be interconnected in a group. One of the major issues regarding these technologies is the difficulty in soldering the components, while ensuring that reject conditions do not exist. Many of these devices rely on balls of solder attached to the underside of the integrated circuit device which is then reflown to connect with surface mount pads of the printed circuit board, flex circuit, or ceramic substrate. In some circumstances, these joints are generally not very reliable or easy to inspect for defects. The process to remove and repair a damaged or defective device is costly and many times results in unusable electronic components and damage to other components in the functional group. Many of the problems encountered with connecting integrated circuit devices to larger circuit assemblies are compounded in multi-chip modules. Multi-chip modules have had slow acceptance in the industry due to the lack of large scale known good die for integrated circuits that have been tested and burned-in at the silicon level. These dies are then mounted to a substrate, which interconnect several components. As the number of devices increases, the probability of failure increases dramatically. With the chance of one device failing in some way and effective means of repairing or replacing currently unavailable, yield rates have been low and the manufacturing costs high. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a method and apparatus for achieving a fine pitch interconnect between first and second circuit members. The connection with the first and second circuit members can be soldered or solderless. The circuit members can be printed circuit boards, another flexible circuit, a bare-die device, an integrated circuit device, an organic or inorganic substrate, a rigid circuit and virtually any other type of electrical component. In one embodiment, compliant interconnect assembly include a first dielectric layer having a first major surface and a plurality of through openings. A plurality of electrical traces are positioned against the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The electric traces include a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the first dielectric layer. The first distal ends are adapted to electrically couple with the first circuit member. The second dielectric layer has a first major surface positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The second dielectric layer has a plurality of through openings through which the electric traces electrically couple with the second circuit member. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal ends are deformed to project through an opening in the first dielectric layer. In another embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal ends extend above a second major surface of the first dielectric layer. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal ends comprise a plurality of distal ends. In yet another embodiment, at least a portion of the first distal end comprises a curvilinear shape. At least a portion of the conductive compliant members preferably have second distal ends aligned with a plurality of the openings in the second dielectric layer to electrically couple with the second circuit member. The electrical traces can optionally be attached to the first major surface of the first dielectric layer or to a flexible circuit member. In one embodiment, a solder ball is attached to the electrical traces to electrically couple with the second circuit member. In some embodiments, an additional circuitry plane is attached to a second major surface of the second dielectric layer. The additional circuitry plane comprises a plurality of through openings aligned with a plurality of the through openings in the second dielectric layer. The additional circuitry plane can be one of a ground plane, a power plane, or an electrical connection to other circuit members. One or more discrete electrical components are optionally electrically coupled to the electrical traces. The electrical traces are preferably singulated so that a portion of the conductive compliant members are electrically isolated from the electrical traces. In one embodiment, a portion of the conductive compliant members are electrically coupled to form a ground plane or a power plane. The first distal ends of the conductive compliant members are preferably adapted to engage with a connector member selected from the group consisting of a flexible circuit, a ribbon connector, a cable, a printed circuit board, a ball grid array (BGA), a land grid array (LGA), a plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), a pin grid array (PGA), a small outline integrated circuit (SOIC), a dual in-line package (DIP), a quad flat package (QFP), a leadless chip carrier (LCC), a chip scale package (CSP), or packaged or unpackaged integrated circuits. In one embodiment, the second dielectric layer is attached to a printed circuit board and a plurality of the conductive compliant members are electrically coupled to contact pads on the printed circuit board through the openings in the second dielectric layer. In another embodiment, a portion of the first electrical traces extend beyond the compliant interconnect assembly to form a stacked configuration other compliant interconnect assemblies. The dielectric layers can be rigid or flexible. In one embodiment, the plurality of electrical traces includes a first set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of openings in the first dielectric layer. A second set of electrical traces having a plurality of conductive compliant members having second distal ends are aligned with a plurality of openings in the second dielectric layer. An electrical connection is formed between one or more of the conductive compliant members on the first set of electrical traces and one or more of the conductive compliant members on the second set of electrical traces. A dielectric layer is optionally located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. The electrical connection can be one of solder, a conductive plug, a conductive rivet, conductive adhesive, a heat stake, spot weld, and ultrasonic weld, a compression joint, or electrical plating. An additional circuitry plane is optionally located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. One or more discrete electrical components are optionally located between the first and second sets of electrical traces. The first and second circuit member can be one of a printed circuit board, a flexible circuit, a bare die device, an integrated circuit device, organic or inorganic substrates, or a rigid circuit. The present invention is also directed to a method of making a compliant interconnect assembly. A plurality of electrical traces are positioned against the first major surface of a first dielectric layer, the electric traces comprising a plurality of conductive compliant members having first distal ends aligned with a plurality of through openings in the first dielectric layer. A first major surface of a second dielectric layer is positioned against the electric traces and the first major surface of the first dielectric layer. The second dielectric layer has a plurality of through openings. The first distal ends are electrically coupled to the first circuit member. The second circuit member is electrically coupled to a second circuit member through the openings in the second dielectric layer. | 20041118 | 20061003 | 20050512 | 94233.0 | 1 | NGUYEN, TRUC T | COMPLIANT INTERCONNECT ASSEMBLY | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,992,266 | ACCEPTED | Stable polymorph of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6, 7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, methods of production, and pharmaceutical uses thereof | The present invention relates to a stable crystalline form of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride designated the B polymorph, its production in essentially pure form, and its use. The invention also relates to the pharmaceutical compositions containing the stable polymorph B form of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine as hydrochloride, as well other forms of the compound, and to methods of treating hyperproliferative disorders, such as cancer, by administering the compound. | 1-54. (canceled) 55. A method of monotherapy for a subject suffering from abnormal cell growth expressing the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) which comprises orally administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a crystalline polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine so as to treat the subject. 56. The method of claim 55, wherein the abnormal cell growth is brain cancer, squamous cell cancer, bladder cancer, gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, hepatic cancer, glioblastoma multiforme breast cancer, head cancer, neck cancer, esophageal cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, renal cancer, kidney cancer, ovarian cancer, gynecological cancer, thyroid cancer, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), refractory ovarian cancer, or head and neck cancer. 57. The method of claim 55, wherein the abnormal cell growth is non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). 58. The method of claim 55, wherein the abnormal cell growth is refractory ovarian cancer. 59. The method of claim 55, wherein the abnormal cell growth is head and neck cancer. 60. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/kg/day. 61. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 1 to about 35 mg/kg/day. 62. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 1 to about 7000 mg/day. 63. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 5 to about 2500 mg/day. 64. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 5 to about 200 mg/day. 65. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from about 25 to about 200 mg/day. 66. The method of claim 55, wherein the treatment is a palliative or neo-adjuvant/adjuvant monotherapy. 67. The method of claim 55, wherein the EGFR receptor is the EGFRvIII receptor. 68. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is from 100 to 1600 mg/week. 69. The method of claim 55, wherein the therapeutically effective amount is orally administered weekly. | This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/206,420, filed May 23, 2000, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/193,191, filed Mar. 30, 2000, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/164,907, filed Nov. 11, 1999, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Throughout this application various publications are referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference into this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, in either its hydrochloride or mesylate forms, or in an anhydrous and hydrous form, is useful in the treatment of hyperproliferative disorders, such as cancers, in mammals. U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498, issued May 5, 1998, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, refers, in Example 20, to [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)amine hydrochloride, which, the patent discloses, is an inhibitor of the erbB family of oncogenic and protooncogenic protein tyrosine kinases, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and is therefore useful for the treatment of proliferative disorders, such as cancers, in humans. The mesylate form, described in PCT International Publication No. WO 99/55683 (PCT/IB99/00612, filed Apr. 8, 1999), the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference, and assigned to a common assignee, and shown in formula 1 below: is useful for the treatment of proliferative disorders, and more preferred with parenteral methods of administration, as compared to the hydrochloride compound, i.e. with greater effectiveness in solution. The mesylate compounds are more soluble in aqueous compositions than the hydrochloride compound, and thus the mesylate compounds are easily delivered according to parenteral methods of administration. The hydrochloride compound is however preferred with respect to solid administration such as with tablets and oral administration. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to polymorphs, and methods for the selective production of polymorphs of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, particularly in the stable polymorph form. The present invention also relates to novel uses of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, in either its hydrochloride or mesylate forms, in an anhydrous or hydrous form, as well as in its various polymorph forms, in the treatment of hyperproliferative disorders, such as cancers, in mammals. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 The X-ray powder diffraction patterns for the hydrochloride polymorph A, the thermodynamically less stable form, over a larger range to show the first peaks. FIG. 2 The X-ray powder diffraction patterns for the hydrochloride polymorph A, the thermodynamically less stable form, are over a shorter range to show more detail. FIG. 3 The X-ray powder diffraction patterns for the hydrochloride polymorph B, the thermodynamically more stable form, over a larger range to show the first peaks. FIG. 4 The X-ray powder diffraction patterns for the hydrochloride polymorph B, the thermodynamically more stable form, over a shorter range to show more detail. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Disclosed is a substantially homogeneous crystalline polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine designated the B polymorph that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 6.26, 12.48, 13.39, 16.96, 20.20, 21.10, 22.98, 24.46, 25.14 and, 26.91. The polymorph is also characterized by the X-ray powder diffraction pattern shown in FIG. 3. Disclosed is a crystalline polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine designated the B polymorph that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 6.26, 12.48, 13.39, 16.96, 20.20, 21.10, 22.98, 24.46, 25.14 and, 26.91, which is substantially free of the polymorph designated the A polymorph. The polymorph is also characterized by the X-ray powder diffraction pattern shown in FIG. 3. The polymorph designated the B polymorph may be in substantially pure form, relative to the A polymorph. Also disclosed is a composition comprising a substantially homogeneous crystalline polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 6.26, 12.48, 13.39, 16.96, 20.20, 21.10, 22.98, 24.46, 25.14 and, 26.91. The hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine also exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately the values show in Table 3 or in Table 4 below. And, the N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in the polymorph B form may characterized by the X-ray powder diffraction pattern shown in FIG. 3. Also disclosed is a composition comprising a crystalline polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine designated the B polymorph that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 6.26, 12.48, 13.39, 16.96, 20.20, 21.10, 22.98, 24.46, 25.14 and, 26.91 in a weight % of the B polymorph relative to the A polymorph which is at least 70%. This composition may comprise at least 75% polymorph B, by weight; at least 80% polymorph B, by weight; at least 85% polymorph B, by weight; at least 90% polymorph B, by weight; at least 95% polymorph B, by weight; at least 97% polymorph B, by weight; at least 98% polymorph B, by weight; or at least 99% polymorph B, by weight relative to the A polymorph. Further disclosed is a process for producing the polymorph B of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine by recrystallization of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in a solvent comprising alcohol and water. In the process, the recrystallization may comprise the steps of: a) heating to reflux alcohol, water and the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine so as to form a solution; b) cooling the solution to between about 65 and 70° C.; c) clarifying the solution; and d) precipitating polymorph B by further cooling the clarified solution. In the process, the N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride is prepared by the steps of: coupling a compound of formula 6 with a compound of formula 4 The compound of formula 6 is prepared by reacting a compound of formula formula 5 in a suspension of metal alkali and solvent and with heating. The compound of formula 4 is prepared by chlorinating a compound of formula 3 Also disclosed is a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of a hyperproliferative disorder in a mammal which substantially comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the polymorph B and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The pharmaceutical composition may be adapted for oral administration. It may be in the form of a tablet. Also disclosed is a method of treating a hyperproliferative disorder in a mammal which comprises administering to said mammal a therapeutically effective amount of the polymorph B. The method may be for the treatment of a cancer selected from brain, squamous cell, bladder, gastric, pancreatic, breast, head, neck, oesophageal, prostate, colorectal, lung, renal, kidney, ovarian, gynecological and thyroid cancer. The method may also be for the treatment of a cancer selected from non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), refractory ovarian cancer, head and neck cancer, colorectal cancer and renal cancer. In the method, the therapeutically effective amount may be from about 0.001 to about 100 mg/kg/day, or from about 1 to about 35 mg/kg/day. In the method, the therapeutically effective amount may also be from about 1 to about 7000 mg/day; from about 5 to about 2500 mg/day; from about 5 to about 200 mg/day; or from about 25 to about 200 mg/day. Further disclosed is a method for the treatment of a hyperproliferative disorder in a mammal which comprises administering to said mammal a therapeutically effective amount of the polymorph B in combination with an anti-tumor agent selected from the group consisting of mitotic inhibitors, alkylating agents, anti-metabolites, intercalating antibiotics, growth factor inhibitors, cell cycle inhibitors, enzymes, topoisomerase inhibitors, biological response modifiers, anti-hormones, and anti-androgens. Yet further disclosed is a method of making a composition which composition comprises substantially homogeneous crystalline polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine designated the B polymorph that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 6.26, 12.48, 13.39, 16.96, 20.20, 21.10, 22.98, 24.46, 25.14 and, 26.91, comprising admixing the crystalline polymorph desiganted the B polymorph with a carrier. The carrier may be a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Also disclosed is a method of preparing polymorph B of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride which comprises the step of recrystallizing N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in a solvent comprising alcohol. In the method the solvent may further comprises water. In the method, the N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride is prepared by coupling a compound of formula 6 with a compound of formula 4 In the method, the compound of formula 6 is prepared by reacting a compound of formula 5 in a suspension of metal alkali and solvent and with heating. In the method, the compound of formula 4 is prepared by chlorinating a compound of formula 3 Further disclosed is a method for the production of the polymorph B of claim 1 comprising the steps of: a) substitution chlorination of starting quinazolinamine compound of formula 3 having an hydroxyl group, to provide a compound of formula 4 by reaction thereof in a solvent mixture of thionyl chloride, methylene chloride and dimethylformamide, b) preparation of a compound of formula 6 in situ from starting material of compound of formula 5 by reaction of the latter in a suspension of metal alkali and solvent and with heating; c) reaction of the compound of formula 6 in situ with the compound of formula 4 wherein the compound of formula 6 replaces the chlorine in the compound of formula 4 to give the N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride; d) recrystallizing the N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, in alcohol, into the polymorph B form. In this method, the substitution chlorination may be quenched in the presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide; aqueous sodium bicarbonate; aqueous potassium hydroxide; aqueous potassium bicarbonate; aqueous potassium carbonate; aqueous sodium carbonate, or a mixture thereof. Yet further disclosed is a method for the production of polymorph B of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine by recrystallization comprising the steps of: a) heating to reflux alcohol, water and the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine so as to form a solution; b) cooling the solution to between about 65 and 70° C.; c) clarifying the solution; and d) precipitating polymorph B by further cooling the clarified solution. Further disclosed is a composition consisting essentially of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in the form of polymorph A, which is characterized by the following peaks in its X-ray powder diffraction pattern shown in FIG. 1. Also disclosed is a composition consisting essentially of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in the form of polymorph A, which is characterized by the peaks shown is Table 1 or Table 2 below. A prodrug of any of the compound herein is also disclosed. Further disclosed is a method of inducing differentiation of tumor cells in a tumor comprising contacting the cells with an effective amount of any of the compounds or compositions disclosed herein. Also discosed is a method for the treatment of NSCLC (non small cell lung cancer), pediatric malignancies, cervical and other tumors caused or promoted by human papilloma virus (HPV), melanoma, Barrett's esophagus (pre-malignant syndrome), adrenal and skin cancers and auto immune, neoplastic cutaneous diseases and atherosclerosis in a mammal comprising administering to said mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprised of at least one of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof in anhydrous and hydrate forms. The treatment may further comprise a palliative or neo-adjuvant/adjuvant monotherapy; or comprises blocking epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR). The method of may also be used in the treatment of tumors that express EGFRvIII. The method may further comprise a combination with any of chemotherapy and immunotherapy; or treatment with either or both anti-EGFR and anti-EGF antibodies; or administration to said mammal of a member of the group consisting of inhibitors of MMP (matrix-metallo-proteinase), VEGFR (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor), farnesyl transferase, CTLA4. (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4) and erbB2, MAb to VEGFr, rhuMAb-VEGF, erbB2 MAb and avb3 Mab. The pharmaceutical compounds used may be radiation sensitizers for cancer treatment or in combination with anti-hormonal therapies, or for the inhibition of tumor growth in humans in a regimen with radiation treatment. Further disclosed is a method for the chemoprevention of basal or squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in areas exposed to the sun or in persons of high risk to said carcinoma, said method comprising administering to said persons a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprised of at least one of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof in anhydrous and hydrate forms. Also is a method of inducing differentiation of tumor cells in a tumor comprising contacting the cells with an effective amount of the compound of at least one of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof in anhydrous and hydrate forms. It is accordingly an object of the present invention to provide a method for the production of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine in HCl form (Formula 2): making it more suitable for tablet and oral administration and consisting essentially of the stable polymorphic form (polymorph form B) as well as the compound in such polymorph B form and the intermediate polymorph A in essentially pure form. It is a further object of the present invention to provide such stable polymorph form B in a pharmaceutical orally administered composition. Stability of the hydrochloride compound is of concern for its use in the treatment of patients since variations will affect effective dosage level and administration. It has been discovered that the hydrochloride of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine exists in two polymorph states, polymorph A and B. This contrasts with the mesylate compounds which exist in three polymorph states (mesylate polymorphs A, B and C). Polymorph B of the hydrochloride was found to be the thermodynamically most stable and desirable form and the present invention comprises the polymorph B compound in the substantially pure polymorphic B form and pharmaceutical compositions of the substantially pure form of polymorph B, particularly in tablet form and a method of the selective production of the compound. The hydrochloride compound disclosed in the U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498 actually comprised a mixture of the polymorphs A and B, which, because of its partially reduced stability (i.e., from the polymorph A component) was not more preferred for tablet form than the mesylate salt forms. Specifically, the present invention relates to methods of producing the hydrochloride compound forms of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine and for producing the stable form B in high yield. The mesylate salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine has been discovered to exist in at least three polymorphic forms which have been designated A, B, and C, of increasing stability with different X-ray powder diffraction patterns. The X-ray powder diffraction patterns for the hydrochloride polymorph A (A1 and A2) and B (B1 and B2) forms are shown in FIGS. 1-4 as follows: graphs of FIGS. 1 and 3 are over a larger range to fully show the first peaks for A and B, respectively, and graphs of FIGS. 2 and 4 are over a shorter range to show more overall detail for A and B, respectively. The data contained in the above X-ray diffraction patterns of FIG. 1-4 are tabulated in the following Tables 1-4: TABLE 1 Polymorph A Anode: Cu - Wavelength 1: 1.54056 Wavelength 2: 1.54439 (Rel Intensity: 0.500) Range# 1 - Coupled: 3.000 to 40.000 StepSize: 0.040 StepTime: 1.00 Smoothing Width: 0.300 Threshold: 1.0 d(A) l(rel) 15.82794 100.0 14.32371 3.9 11.74376 1.5 11.03408 1.2 10.16026 1.4 8.98039 13.1 7.85825 7.8 6.63179 1.7 5.84901 2.1 5.69971 2.3 5.46922 2.4 5.21396 3.6 4.80569 3.5 4.70077 12.2 4.54453 4.8 4.19685 4.7 4.16411 4.4 3.97273 4.7 3.91344 12.4 3.78223 24.2 3.67845 8.8 3.61674 8.2 3.50393 9.3 3.40200 6.0 3.35174 5.3 3.29005 4.2 3.05178 7.1 2.97750 3.0 2.91238 3.5 2.73148 3.7 2.60193 1.8 2.48243 1.3 2.40227 2.2 2.31297 1.7 TABLE 2 Polymorph A Anode: Cu - Wavelength 1: 1.54056 Wavelength 2: 1-54439 (Rel Intensity: 0.500) Range#1 - Coupled: 3.000 to 40.000 StepSize: 0.040 StepTime: 1.00 Smoothing Width: 0.300 Threshold: 1.0 2-Theta l(rel) 5.579 100.0 6.165 3.9 7.522 1.5 8.006 1.2 8.696 1.4 9.841 13.1 11.251 7.8 13.340 1.7 15.135 2.1 15.534 2.3 16.193 2.4 16.991 3.6 18.447 3.5 18.862 12.2 19.517 4.8 21.152 4.7 21.320 4.4 22.360 4.7 22.703 12.4 23.502 24.2 24.175 8.8 24.594 8.2 25.398 9.3 26.173 6.0 26.572 5.3 27.080 4.2 29.240 7.1 30.007 3.0 30.673 3.5 32.759 3.7 34.440 1.8 36.154 1.3 37.404 2.2 38.905 1.7 TABLE 3 Polymorph B Anode: Cu - Wavelength 1 1.54056 Wavelength 2: 1.54439 (Rel Intensity: 0.500) Range # 1 - Coupled 3.000 to 40.040 StepSize: 0.040 StepTime 1.00 Smoothing Width: 0.300 Threshold: 1.0 d(A) l(rel) 14.11826 100.0 11.23947 3.2 9.25019 3.9 7.74623 1.5 7.08519 6.4 6.60941 9.6 5.98828 2.1 5.63253 2.9 5.22369 5.5 5.01567 2.5 4.87215 0.7 4.72882 1.5 4.57666 1.0 4.39330 14.4 4.28038 4.2 4.20645 14.4 4.06007 4.7 3.95667 4.5 3.86656 4.8 3.76849 2.3 3.71927 3.0 3.63632 6.8 3.53967 10.0 3.47448 3.7 3.43610 3.9 3.35732 2.8 3.31029 5.6 3.23688 0.9 3.16755 1.5 3.11673 4.3 3.07644 1.4 2.99596 2.1 2.95049 0.9 2.89151 1.6 2.83992 2.2 2.81037 2.4 2.74020 1.7 2.69265 1.7 2.58169 1.5 2.51043 0.8 2.47356 1.0 2.43974 0.6 2.41068 1.1 2.38755 1.4 2.35914 1.7 TABLE 4 Polymorph B Anode: Cu - Wavelength 1 1.54056 Wavelength 2: 1.54439 (Rel Intensity: 0.500) Range# 1 - Coupled: 3.000 to 40.040 StepSize 0.040 StepTime: 1.00 Smothing Width: 0.300 Threshold: 1.0 2-Theta l(rel) 6.255 100.0 7.860 3.2 9.553 3.9 11.414 1.5 12.483 6.4 13.385 9.6 14.781 2.1 15.720 2.9 16.959 5.5 17.668 2.5 18.193 0.7 18.749 1.5 19.379 1.0 20.196 14.4 20.734 4.2 21.103 14.4 21.873 4.7 22.452 4.5 22.982 4.8 23.589 2.3 23.906 3.0 24.459 6.8 25.138 10.0 25.617 3.7 25.908 3.9 26.527 2.8 26.911 5.6 27.534 0.9 28.148 1.5 28.617 4.3 29.000 1.4 29.797 2.1 30.267 0.9 30.900 1.6 31.475 2.2 31.815 2.4 32.652 1.7 33.245 1.7 34.719 1.5 35.737 0.8 36.288 1.0 36.809 0.6 37.269 1.1 37.643 1.4 38.114 1.7 It is to be understood that the X-ray powder diffraction pattern is only one of many ways to characterize the arrangement of atoms comprising the compound N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, and that other methods well known in the art, e.g. single crystal X-ray diffraction, may be used to identify in a sample, composition or other preparation the presence of polymorph B of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine. The present invention relates to a compound which is polymorph B of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 6.26, 12.48, 13.39, 16.96, 20.20, 21.10, 22.98, 24.46, 25.14 and, 26.91. This invention also relates to a polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately the values shown in Table 4 above. This invention also relates to a compound which is polymorph A of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately 5.58, 9.84, 11.25, 18.86, 22.70, 23.50, 24.18, 24.59, 25.40 and 29.24. This invention also relates to a polymorph of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine that exhibits an X-ray powder diffraction pattern having characteristic peaks expressed in degrees 2-theta at approximately the values shown in Table 2 above. Method of Production The polymorph B in substantially pure form of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride (compound of formula 1) is prepared, in accordance with the method of the present invention, by the steps of; 1) substitution chlorination of starting quinazolinamine compound (formula 3): having an hydroxyl group, such as by reaction thereof in a solvent mixture of thionyl chloride, methylene chloride, and dimethylformamide, and finally quenching the reaction with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide or sodium bicarbonate. The compound of formula 4: is produced in high yield with replacement of the hydroxyl group with chlorine; 2) preparation of compound of formula 6: from starting material of formula 5: by reaction of the latter in a suspension of NaOH (or KOH, or a combination) in toluene with heating; 3) reaction of the compound of formula 6 with the compound of formula 4 of step 1 wherein the compound of formula 6 replaces the chlorine to give the N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride (compound of formula 2) with a. 97% yield. 4) recrystallization of the compound of formula 2 (comprising both polymorph A and polymorph B) into the more stable polymorph B in a solvent comprising alcohol (e.g. 2B-ethanol) and water, generally in high yield, e.g., about 85%. Accordingly, the present invention relates to a method of preparing polymorph B of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride which comprises recrystallization of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in a solvent comprising alcohol and water. In one embodiment, the method comprises the steps of heating to reflux alcohol, water and the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine so as to form a solution; cooling the solution to between about 65 and 70° C.; clarifying the solution; and precipitating polymorph B by further cooling the clarified solution. In an embodiment, the alcohol is ethanol. In a preferred embodiment, the ratio of ethanol to water is about 4:1. It is to be expected that other lower alcohols, e.g., C1-C4 alcohols, are also suitable for recrystallization of polymorph B with adjustment of the alcohol to water ratio as needed. In another preferred embodiment, the compound to be recrystallized is present in an amount relative to the total volume of solvent at a weight to volume ratio of about 0.05. In an embodiment, N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride is prepared by coupling a compound of formula 6 with a compound of formula 4. In another embodiment, the compound of formula 6 is prepared by reacting a compound of formula 5 in a suspension of metal alkali and solvent, with heating. In an embodiment, the compound of formula 4 is prepared by chlorinating a compound of formula 3 by reaction of the latter in a solvent mixture of thionyl chloride, methylene chloride and dimethylformide, and subsequently quenching the reaction with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. Alternatively, an aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate can be substituted for the sodium hydroxide solution. This invention relates to polymorph B of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine prepared by the above methods. In an embodiment, the polymorph B is prepared by using the starting materials described herein. In a preferred embodiment, polymorph B is prepared by reaction of the starting materials described herein with the reagents and conditions according to the methods described herein and in the Examples which follow. General Synthesis N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride has been found to exist in two distinct anhydrous polymorphic forms A and B. The production method for the various polymorphs is with components separately reacted in accordance with the following scheme: Uses As described in the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498 and PCT International Publication No. WO 99/55683, the compounds made in accordance with the present invention are useful for the treatment of a hyperproliferative disorder in a mammal which comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the hydrochloride or mesylate form of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The term “compound(s) of the invention” referred to herein is preferably the polymorph B form of the hydrochloride salt of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, but is not meant to exclude the mesylate form and its three polymorphs, or polymorph A of the hydrochloride form, or a mixture of polymorphs B and A of the hydrochloride form or other non-crystalline forms of the compound. The term “treating” as used herein, unless otherwise indicated, means reversing, alleviating, inhibiting the progress of, or preventing the disorder or condition to which such term applies, or one or more symptoms of such disorder or condition. The term “treatment”, as used herein, refers to the act of treating, as “treating” is defined immediately above. “Abnormal cell growth”, as used herein, refers to cell growth that is independent of normal regulatory mechanisms (e.g., loss of contact inhibition), including the abnormal growth of normal cells and the growth of abnormal cells. This includes, but is not limited to, the abnormal growth of: (1) tumor cells (tumors), both benign and malignant, expressing an activated Ras oncogene; (2) tumor cells, both benign and malignant, in which the Ras protein is activated as a result of oncogenic mutation in another gene; (3) benign and malignant cells of other proliferative diseases in which aberrant Ras activation occurs. Examples of such benign proliferative diseases are psoriasis, benign prostatic hypertrophy, human papilloma virus (HPV), and restenosis. “Abnormal cell growth” as used herein also refers to and includes the abnormal growth of cells, both benign and malignant, resulting from activity of the enzymes farnesyl protein transferase, protein kinases, protein phosphatases, lipid kinases, lipid phosphatases, or activity or trascription factors, or intracellular or cell surface receptor proteins. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is additionally used for the treatment of a variety of additional human tumors containing hyperproliferating cells that are activated by the signal transduction pathways stimulated by EGFR, whether by overexpression (e.g. due to one or more of—altered transcription, altered mRNA degradation or gene amplification) of the EGFR protein itself, another receptor protein with which EGFR can form active heterodimers, or one of the ligands that activate EGFR (e.g. EGF, TGFα, amphiregulin, β-cellulin, heparin-binding EGF, or epiregulin) or a heterodimerizing receptor, or due to a dependence or partial dependence on the activity of a “normal” level of EGFR protein, whether activated by extracellular ligand, intracellular signal transduction pathways and/or genetic alterations or polymorphisms that result in amino acid substitutions that produce increased or ligand-independent activity (e.g. EGFRvIII, Archer G. E. et. al. (1999) Clinical Cancer Research 5:2646-2652). Such tumors, including both benign and malignant, include renal (such as kidney, renal cell carcinoma, or carcinoma of the renal pelvis), liver, kidney, bladder (particularly invasive tumors), breast (including estrogen receptor negative and positive tumors, and progesterone receptor negative and positive tumors), gastric, esophageal (including Barrett's mucosa, squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas), larynx, ovarian, colorectal (particularly deeply invasive tumors), including anal, prostate, pancreatic, lung (particularly non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) adenocarcinomas, large cell tumors and squamous cell carcinomas, but also reactive (squamous metaplasia and inflammatory atypia) as well as precancerous (dysplasia and carcinoma in situ) bronchial lesions associated with both NSCLC adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas), gynecological, including vulval, endometrial, uterine (e.g, sarcomas), cervical, vaginal, vulval, and fallopian tube cancers, thyroid, hepatic carcinomas, skin cancers, sarcomas, brain tumors, including glioblastomas (including gliobastoma multiforme), astrocytomas, schwanomas, ependymonas, medulloblastomas, meningiomas and pituitary adenomas, and various other head and neck tumors (particularly squamous cell carcinomas), and metastases of all of the above. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is also used for the treatment of a variety of additional human hyperplastic conditions containing hyperproliferating cells that are activated by the signal transduction pathways capable of stimulation by EGFR, such as benign hyperplasia of the skin (e.g. psoriasis) or prostate (e.g. BPH), chronic pancreatitis, or reactive hyperplasia of pancreatic ductal epithelium, or kidney disease (including proliferative glomerulonephritis and diabetes-induced renal disease) in a mammal which composition comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the hydrochloride of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, preferably the polymorph B form, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In addition, pharmaceutical compositions including the compounds made in accordance with the present invention provide for the prevention of blastocyte implantation in a mammal, which composition comprises a therapeutically effective amount of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, preferably the polymorph B form, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. [6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy) quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is also used for the treatment of additional disorders in which cells are activated by the signal transduction pathways stimulated by EGFR, whether by overexpression (due to one or more of—altered transcription, altered mRNA degradation or gene amplification) of the EGFR protein itself, another receptor protein with which it can form active heterodimers, or one of the ligands that activate EGFR (e.g. EGF, TGFα, amphiregulin, β-cellulin, heparin-binding EGF, or epiregulin) or a heterodimerizing receptor, or due to a dependence or partial dependence on the activity of a “normal” level of EGFR protein, whether activated by extracellular ligand, intracellular signal transduction pathways and/or genetic alterations or polymorphisms that result in amino acid substitutions that produce increased or ligand-independent activity (e.g. EGFRvIII, Archer G. E. et. al. (1999) Clinical Cancer Research 5:2646-2652). Such disorders may include those of a neuronal, glial, astrocytal, hypothalamic, and other glandular, macrophagal, epithelial, stromal, or blastocoelic nature in which aberrant or ‘normal’ function, expression, activation or signalling via EGFR may be involved. Such disorders may furthermore involve the modulation by EGF (or other ligands that activate EGFR or heterodimerizing receptors) of adipocyte lipogenesis, bone resorption, hypothalamic CRH release, hepatic fat accumulation, T-cell proliferation, skin tissue proliferation or differentiation, corneal epithelial tissue proliferation or differentiation, macrophage chemotaxis or phagocytosis, astroglial proliferation, wound healing, polycystic kidney disease, lung epithelial proliferation or differentiation (e.g. associated with asthmatic airway remodeling or tissue repair), inflammatory arthritis (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus-associated arthritis, psoriatis arthritis) testicular androgen production, thymic epithelial cell proliferation, uterine epithelial cell proliferation, angiogenesis, cell survival, apoptosis, NFκB activation, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, restenosis or lung liquid secretion. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is also used for the treatment of a range of leukemias (chronic and acute) and lymphoid malignancies (e.g. lymphocytic lymphomas), diabetes, diabetic and other retinopathies, such as retinophay or prematurity, age-related macular degeneration, solid tumors of childhood, glioma, hemangiomas, melanomas, including intraocular or uveal melanomas, Kaposi's sarcoma, Hodgkin's disease, epidermoid cancers, cancers of the endocrine system (e.g. parathyroid, adrenal glands), bone small intestine, urethra, penis and ureter, atherosclerosis, skin diseases such as eczema and scleroderma, mycoses fungoides, sarcomas of the soft tissues and neoplasm of the central nervous system (e.g. primary CNS lymphoma, spinal axis tumors, brain stem gliomas, or pituitary adenomas). The treatment of any of the hyperproliferative or additional disorders described above may be applied as a monotherapy, or may involve in addition to [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, application with one or more additional drugs or treatments (e.g. radiotherapy, chemoradiotherapy) that are anti-hyperproliferative, anti-tumor or antihyperplastic in nature. Such conjoint treatment may be achieved by way of simultaneous, sequential, cyclic or separate dosing of the individual components of the treatment. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is typically used at doses of 1-7000 mg/day, preferably 5-2500 mg/day, most preferably 5-200 mg/day, for any of the above treatments. Furthermore, the various forms of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine including the mesylate and hydrochloride forms (all polymorph forms) as well as other pharmaceutically acceptable salt forms, and anhydrous and hydrate forms, can be used for treatment, with a therapeutically-effective amount of the aforementioned compounds and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, of the specific conditions of NSCLC (non small cell lung cancer), pediatric malignancies, cervical and other tumors caused or promoted by human papilloma virus (HPV), melanoma, Barrett's esophagus (pre-malignant syndrome) and adrenal and skin cancers as well as auto immune and neoplastic cutaneous diseases such as mycoses fungoides, in a mammal, as well as for the chemoprevention of basal or squamous cell carcinomas of the skin, especially in areas exposed to the sun or in persons known to be at high risk for such cancers. In addition, the aforementioned compounds are useful in treatment of atherosclerosis, with epidermal growth factor having been implicated in the hyperproliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells responsible for atherosclerotic plaques (G. E. Peoples et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 92:6547-6551, 1995). The compounds of the present invention are potent inhibitors of the erbB family of oncogenic and protooncogenic protein tyrosine kinases such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), erbB2, HER3, or HER4 and thus are all adapted to therapeutic use as antiproliferative agents (e.g., anticancer) in mammals, particularly in humans. The compounds of the present invention are also inhibitors of angiogenesis and/or vasculogenesis. The compounds of the present invention may also be useful in the treatment of additional disorders in which aberrant expression ligand/receptor interactions or activation or signalling events related to various protein tyrosine kinases are involved. Such disorders may include those of neuronal, glial, astrocytal, hypothalamic, glandular, macrophagal, epithelial, stromal, or blastocoelic nature in which aberrant function, expression, activation or signalling of the erbB tyrosine kinases are involved. In addition, the compounds of the present invention may have therapeutic utility in inflammatory, angiogenic and immunologic disorders involving both identified and as yet unidentified tyrosine kinases that are inhibited by the compounds of the present invention. In addition to direct treatment of the above ailments with the compounds, the utilization and treatment in these and general applications may be as palliative or neo-adjuvant/adjuvant monotherapy, in blocking epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR) and for use in treatment of tumors that express a variant form of EGFR known as EGFRvIII as described in the scientific literature (e.g., D K Moscatello et al. Cancer Res. 55:5536-5539, 1995), as well as in a combination with chemotherapy and immunotherapy. As described in more detail below, treatment is also possible with both anti-EGFR and anti-EGF antibody combinations or with combination of inhibitors of MMP (matrix-metallo-proteinase), other tyrosine kinases including VEGFR (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor), farnesyl transferase, CTLA4. (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4) and erbB2. Further treatments include MAb to VEGFr, and other cancer-related antibodies including rhuMAb-VEGF (Genentech, Phase III), the erbB2 MAb available as Herceptin (Genentech, Phase III), or the avb3 MAb available as Vitaxin (Applied Molecular Evolution/MedImmune, Phase II). The invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition and a method of treating any of the mentioned disorders in a mammal which comprises administering to said mammal a therapeutically effective amount of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, preferably in hydrochloride polymorph B form, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Combination Therapy The active compound may be applied as a sole therapy or may involve one or more other materials and treatment agents such as both anti-EGFR and anti-EGF antibody combinations or with combination of inhibitors of MMP (matrix-metallo-proteinase), other tyrosine kinases including VEGFR (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor), farnesyl transferase, CTLA4. (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4) and erbB2, as well as MAb to VEGFr, and other cancer-related antibodies including rhuMAb-VEGF, the erbB2 MAb, or avb3. Thus, the active compound may be applied with one or more other anti-tumor substances, for example those selected from, for example, mitotic inhibitors, for example vinblastine; alkylating agents, for example cis-platin, carboplatin and cyclophosphamide; anti-metabolites, for example 5-fluorouracil, cytosine arabinoside and hydroxyurea, or, for example, one of the preferred anti-metabolites disclosed in European Patent Application No. 239362 such as N-(5-[N-(3,4-dihydro-2-methyl-4-oxoquinazolin-6-ylmethyl)-N-methylamino]-2-thenoyl)-L-glutamic acid; growth factor inhibitors; cell cycle inhibitors; intercalating antibiotics, for example adriamycin and bleomycin; enzymes, for example interferon; and anti-hormones, for example anti-estrogens such as Nolvadex® (tamoxifen) or, for example anti-androgens such as Casodex® (4′-cyano-3-(4-fluorophenylsulphonyl)-2-hydroxy-2-methyl-3′-(trifluoromethyl)propionanilide). In a further embodiment, the compounds of the invention may be administered in conjunction with an anti-angiogenesis agent(s) such as a MMP-2 (matrix-metalloproteinase-2) inhibitor(s), a MMP-9 (matrix-metalloproteinase-9) inhibitor(s), and/or COX-II (cyclooxygenase II) inhibitor(s) in the methods of treatment an compositions described herein. For the combination therapies and pharmaceutical compositions described herein, the effective amounts of the compound of the invention and of the chemotherapeutic or other agent useful for inhibiting abnormal cell growth (e.g., other antiproliferative agent, anti-angiogenic, signal transduction inhibitor or immune-system enhancer) can be determined by those of ordinary skill in the art, based on the effective amounts for the compound described herein and those known or described for the chemotherapeutic or other agent. The formulations and routes of administration for such therapies and compositions can be based on the information described herein for compositions and therapies comprising the compound of the invention as the sole active agent and on information provided for the chemotherapeutic or other agent in combination therewith. The invention also relates to production of compounds used in a method for the treatment of a hyperproliferative disorder in a mammal which comprises administering to said mammal a therapeutically effective amount of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride in combination with an anti-tumor agent selected from the group consisting of mitotic inhibitors, alkylating agents, anti-metabolites, intercalating antibiotics, growth factor inhibitors, cell cycle inhibitors, enzymes, topoisomerase inhibitors, bioloical response modifiers, anti-hormones, and anti-androgens. The compounds are also useful as radiation sensitizers for cancer treatment and may be combined with anti-hormonal therapies. Parameters of adjuvant radiation therapies are for example contained in PCT/US99/10741, as published on 25 Nov. 1999, in International Publication No. WO 99/60023, the disclosure of which is included herein by reference thereto. With such mode of treatment for example, for inhibiting tumor growth, a radiation dosage of 1-100 Gy is utilized preferably in conjunction with at least 50 mg of the pharmaceutical compound, in a preferred dosage regimen of at least five days a week for about two to ten weeks. Thus, this invention further relates to a method for inhibiting abnormal cell growth in a mammal which method comprises administering to the mammal an amount of the compound of the invention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate or prodrug thereof, in combination with radiation therapy, wherein the amount of the compound, salt, solvate or prodrug is in combination with the radiation therapy effective in inhibiting abnormal cell growth in the mammal. Techniques for administering radiation therapy are known in the art, and these techniques can be used in the combination therapy described herein. Anti-angiogenesis agents, such as MMP-2 (matrix-metalloproteinase 2) inhibitors, MMP-9 (matrix-metalloproteinase 9) inhibitors, and COX-II (cyclooxygenase II) inhibitors, can be used in conjunction with the compound of the invention in the methods and pharmaceutical compositions described herein. Examples of useful COX-II inhibitors include CELEBREX™ (alecoxib), valdecoxib, and rofecoxib. Examples of useful matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors are described in WO 96/33172 (published Oct. 24, 1996), WO 96/27583 (published Mar. 7, 1996), European Patent Application No. 97304971.1 (filed Jul. 8, 1997), European Patent Application No. 99308617.2 (filed Oct. 29, 1999), WO 98/07697 (published Feb. 26, 1998), WO 98/03516 (published Jan. 29, 1998), WO 98/34918 (published Aug. 13, 1998), WO 98/34915 (published Aug. 13, 1998), WO 98/33768 (published Aug. 6, 1998), WO 98/30566 (published Jul. 16, 1998), European Patent Publication 606,046 (published Jul. 13, 1994), European Patent Publication 931,788 (published Jul. 28, 1999), WO 90/05719 (published May 331, 1990), WO 99/52910 (published Oct. 21, 1999), WO 99/52889 (published Oct. 21, 1999), WO 99/29667 (published Jun. 17, 1999), PCT International Application No. PCT/IB98/01113 (filed Jul. 21, 1998), European Patent Application No. 99302232.1 (filed Mar. 25, 1999), Great Britain patent application number 9912961.1 (filed Jun. 3, 1999), U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/148,464 (filed Aug. 12, 1999), U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,949 (issued Jan. 26, 1999), U.S. Pat. No. 5,861,510 (issued Jan. 19, 1999), and European Patent Publication 780,386 (published Jun. 25, 1997), all of which are incorporated herein in their entireties by reference. Preferred MMP-2 and MMP-9 inhibitors are those that have little or no activity inhibiting MMP-1. More preferred, are those that selectively inhibit MMP-2 and/or MMP-9 relative to the other matrix-metalloproteinases (i.e. MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-4, MMP-5, MMP-6, MMP-7, MMP-8, MMP-10, MMP-11, MMP-12, and MMP-13). Some specific examples of MMP inhibitors useful in the present invention are AG-3340, RO 32-3555, RS 13-0830, and the compounds recited in the following list: 0.3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(1-hydroxycarbamoyl-cyclopentyl)-amino]-propionic acid; 3-exo-3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-8-oxa-bicyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; (2R, 3R) 1-[4-(2-chloro-4-fluoro-benzyloxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 4-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-pyran-4-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(1-hydroxycarbamoyl-cyclobutyl)-amino]-propionic acid; 4-[4-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-pyran-4-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; (R) 3-[4-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-pyran-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; (2R, 3R) 1-[4-(4-fluoro-2-methyl-benzyloxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(1-hydroxycarbamoyl-1-methyl-ethyl)-amino]-propionic acid; 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(4-hydroxycarbamoyl-tetrahydro-pyran-4-yl)-amino]-propionic acid; 3-exo-3-[4-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-8-oxa-bicyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 3-endo-3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-8-oxa-bicyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; and (R) 3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-furan-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates of said compounds. Other anti-angiogenesis agents, including other COX-II inhibitors and other MMP inhibitors, can also be used in the present invention. The compound of the present invention can also be used with signal transduction inhibitors, such as other agents that can inhibit EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) responses, such as EGFR antibodies, EGF antibodies, and other molecules that are EGFR inhibitors; VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) inhibitors, such as VEGF receptors and molecules that can inhibit VEGF; and erbB2 receptor inhibitors, such as other organic molecules or antibodies that bind to the erbB2 receptor, for example, HERCEPTIN™ (Genentech, Inc. of South San Francisco, Calif., USA). EGFR inhibitors are described in, for example in WO 95/19970 (published Jul. 27, 1995), WO 98/14451 (published Apr. 9, 1998), WO 98/02434 (published Jan. 22, 1998), and other compounds described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498 (issued May 5, 1998), and such substances can be used in the present invention as described herein. EGFR-inhibiting agents include, but are not limited to, the monoclonal antibodies C225 and anti-EGFR 22Mab (ImClone Systems Incorporated of New York, N.Y., USA), the compounds ZD-1839 (AstraZeneca), BIBX-1382 (Boehringer Ingelheim), MDX-447 (Medarex Inc. of Annandale, N.J., USA), and OLX-103 (Merck & Co. of Whitehouse Station, N.J., USA), VRCTC-310 (Ventech Research) and EGF fusion toxin (Seragen Inc. of Hopkinton, Mass.). These and other EGFR-inhibiting agents can be used in the present invention. VEGF inhibitors, for example SU-5416 and SU-6668 (Sugen Inc. of South San Francisco, Calif., USA), can also be combined with the compound of the present invention. VEGF inhibitors are described in, for example in WO 99/24440 (published May 20, 1999), PCT International Application PCT/IB99/00797 (filed May 3, 1999), in WO 95/21613 (published Aug. 17, 1995), WO 99/61422 (published Dec. 2, 1999), U.S. Pat. No. 5,834,504 (issued Nov. 10, 1998), WO 98/50356 (published Nov. 12, 1998), U.S. Pat. No. 5,883,113 (issued Mar. 16, 1999), U.S. Pat. No. 5,886,020 (issued Mar. 23, 1999), U.S. Pat. No. 5,792,783 (issued Aug. 11, 1998), WO 99/10349 (published Mar. 4, 1999), WO 97/32856 (published Sep. 12, 1997), WO 97/22596 (published Jun. 26, 1997), WO 98/54093 (published Dec. 3, 1998), WO 98/02438 (published Jan. 22, 1998), WO 99/16755 (published Apr. 8, 1999), and WO 98/02437 (published Jan. 22, 1998), all of which are incorporated herein in their entireties by reference. Other examples of some specific VEGF inhibitors useful in the present invention are IM862 (Cytran Inc. of Kirkland, Wash., USA); anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody of Genentech, Inc. of South San Francisco, Calif.; and angiozyme, a synthetic ribozyme from Ribozyme (Boulder, Colo.) and Chiron (Emeryville, Calif.). These and other VEGF inhibitors can be used in the present invention as described herein. ErbB2 receptor inhibitors, such as GW-282974 (Glaxo Wellcome plc), and the monoclonal antibodies AR-209 (Aronex Pharmaceuticals Inc. of The Woodlands, Tex., USA) and 2B-1 (Chiron), can furthermore be combined with the compound of the invention, for example those indicated in WO 98/02434 (published Jan. 22, 1998), WO 99/35146 (published Jul. 15, 1999), WO 99/35132 (published Jul. 15, 1999), WO 98/02437 (published Jan. 22, 1998), WO 97/13760 (published Apr. 17, 1997), WO 95/19970 (published Jul. 27, 1995), U.S. Pat. No. 5,587,458 (issued Dec. 24, 1996), and U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,305 (issued Mar. 2, 1999), which are all hereby incorporated herein in their entireties by reference. ErbB2 receptor inhibitors useful in the present invention are also described in U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/117,341, filed Jan. 27, 1999, and in U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/117,346, filed Jan. 27, 1999, both of which are incorporated in their entireties herein by reference. The erbB2 receptor inhibitor compounds and substance described in the aforementioned PCT applications, U.S. patents, and U.S. provisional applications, as well as other compounds and substances that inhibit the erbB2 receptor, can be used with the compound of the present invention in accordance with the present invention. The compound of the invention can also be used with other agents useful in treating abnormal cell growth or cancer, including, but not limited to, agents capable of enhancing antitumor immune responses, such as CTLA4 (cytotoxic lymphocyte antigen 4) antibodies, and other agents capable of blocking CTLA4; and anti-proliferative agents such as farnesyl protein transferase inhibitors. Specific CTLA4 antibodies that can be used in the present invention include those described in U.S. Provisional Application 60/113,647 (filed Dec. 23, 1998) which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, however other CTLA4 antibodies can be used in the present invention. Such conjoint treatment may be achieved by way of the simultaneous, sequential or separate dosing of the individual components of the treatment. It is expected that the compound of the invention can render abnormal cells more sensitive to treatment with radiation for purposes of killing and/or inhibiting the growth of such cells. Accordingly, this invention further relates to a method for sensitizing abnormal cells in a mammal to treatment with radiation which comprises administering to the mammal an amount of the compound of the invention, pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or prodrug thereof, which amount is effective in sensitizing abnormal cells to treatment with radiation. The amount of the compound, salt, solvate, or prodrug in this method can be determined according to the means for ascertaining effective amounts of the compound of the invention described herein. The subject invention also includes isotopically-labelled compounds, which compounds are identical to the above recited compound of the invention, but for the fact that one or more atoms thereof are replaced by an atom having an atomic mass or mass number different from the atomic mass or mass number usually found in nature. Examples of isotopes that can be incorporated into the compound of the invention include isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, such as 2H, 3H, 13C, 14C, 15N, 18O and 17O, respectively. Compounds of the present invention, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds which contain the aforementioned isotopes and/or other isotopes of other atoms are within the scope of this invention. Certain isotopically-labelled compounds of the present invention, for example those into which radioactive isotopes such as 3H and 14C are incorporated, are useful in drug and/or substrate tissue distribution assays. Tritiated, i.e., 3H, and carbon-14, i.e., 14C, isotopes are particularly preferred for their ease of preparation and detectability. Further, substitution with heavier isotopes such as deuterium, i.e., 2H, can afford certain therapeutic advantages resulting from greater metabolic stability, for example increased in vivo half-life or reduced dosage requirements and, hence, may be preferred in some circumstances. Isotopically labelled compounds of this invention can generally be prepared by carrying out the procedures disclosed in the Methods and/or the examples below, and substituting a readily available isotopically labelled reagent for a non-isotopically labelled reagent, using methods well known in the art. Accordingly, reference to the compound of the invention for use in the therapeutic methods and pharmaceutical compositions described herein also encompasses isotropically-labelled forms of the compound. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is typically used at doses of 1-7000 mg/day, preferably 5-2500 mg/day, most preferably 5-200 mg/day, for any of the above treatments. Patients that can be treated with the compound of the invention, alone or in combination, include, for example, patients that have been diagnosed as having psoriasis, BPH, lung cancer, bone cancer, pancreatic cancer, skin cancer, cancer of the head and neck, cutaneous or intraocular melanoma, ovarian cancer, rectal cancer, cancer of the anal region, stomach cancer, colon cancer, breast cancer, gynecologic tumors (e.g., uterine sarcomas, carcinoma of the fallopian tubes, carcinoma of the endometrium, carcinoma of the cervix, carcinoma of the vagina or carcinoma of the vulva), Hodgkin's disease, cancer of the esophagus, cancer of the small intestine, cancer of the endocrine system (e.g., cancer of the thyroid, parathyroid or adrenal glands), sarcomas of soft tissues, cancer of the urethra, cancer of the penis, prostate cancer, chronic or acute leukemia, solid tumors of childhood, lymphocytic lymphonas, cancer of the bladder, cancer of the kidney or ureter (e.g., renal cell carcinoma, carcinoma of the renal pelvis), or neoplasms of the central nervous system (e.g., primary CNS lymphona, spinal axis tumors, brain stem gliomas or pituitary adenomas). Activity The in vitro activity of the compounds of the present invention in inhibiting the receptor tyrosine kinase (and thus subsequent proliferative response, e.g., cancer) may be determined by the following procedure. The activity of the compounds of the present invention, in vitro, can be determined by the amount of inhibition of the phosphorylation of an exogenous substrate (e.g., Lys3-Gastrin or polyGluTyr (4:1) random copolymer (I. Posner et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267 (29), 20638-47 (1992)) on tyrosine by epidermal growth factor receptor kinase by a test compound relative to a control. Affinity purified, soluble human EGF receptor (96 ng) is obtained according to the procedure in G. N. Gill, W. Weber, Methods in Enzymology 146, 82-88 (1987) from A431 cells (American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, Md.) and preincubated in a microfuge tube with EGF (2 μg/ml) in phosphorylation buffer+vanadate (PBV: 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.4; 125 mM NaCl; 24 mM MgCl2; 100 μM sodium orthovanadate), in a total volume of 10 μl, for 20-30 minutes at room temperature. The test compound, dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), is diluted in PBV, and 10 μl is mixed with the EGF receptor/EGF mix, and incubated for 10-30 minutes at 30° C. The phosphorylation reaction is initiated by addition of 20 μl 33P-ATP/substrate mix (120 μM Lys3-Gastrin (sequence in single letter code for amino acids, KKKGPWLEEEEEAYGWLDF), 50 mM Hepes pH 7.4, 40 μM ATP, 2 μCi γ-[33P]-ATP) to the EGFr/EGF mix and incubated for 20 minutes at room temperature. The reaction is stopped by addition of 10 μl stop solution (0.5 M EDTA, pH 8; 2 mM ATP) and 6 μl 2N HCl. The tubes are centrifuged at 14,000 RPM, 4° C., for 10 minutes. 35 μl of supernatant from each tube is pipetted onto a 2.5 cm circle of Whatman P81 paper, bulk washed four times in 5% acetic acid, 1 liter per wash, and then air dried. This results in the binding of substrate to the paper with loss of free ATP on washing. The [33P] incorporated is measured by liquid scintillation counting. Incorporation in the absence of substrate (e.g., lys3-gastrin) is subtracted from all values as a background and percent inhibition is calculated relative to controls without test compound present. Such assays, carried out with a range of doses of test compounds, allow the determination of an approximate IC50 value for the in vitro inhibition of EGFR kinase activity. Other methods for determining the activity of the compounds of the present invention are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein. Pharmaceutical Compositions The pharmaceutical composition may, for example and most preferably, be in a form suitable for oral administration as a tablet, capsule, pill, powder, sustained release formulations, solution, and suspension. Less preferred (with the mesylate form being the preferred form) are compositons for parenteral injection as a sterile solution, suspension or emulsion, for topical administration as an ointment or cream or for rectal administration as a suppository. The pharmaceutical composition may be in unit dosage forms suitable for single administration of precise dosages. The pharmaceutical composition will include a conventional pharmaceutical carrier or excipient and a compound according to the invention as an active ingredient. In addition, it may include other medicinal or pharmaceutical agents, carriers, adjuvants, etc. Exemplary parenteral administration forms include solutions or suspensions of active compounds in sterile aqueous solutions, for example, aqueous propylene glycol or dextrose solutions. Such dosage forms can be suitably buffered, if desired. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers include inert diluents or fillers, water and various organic solvents. The pharmaceutical compositions may, if desired, contain additional ingredients such as flavorings, binders, excipients and the like. Thus for oral administration, tablets containing various excipients, such as citric acid may be employed together with various disintegrants such as starch, alginic acid and certain complex silicates and with binding agents such as sucrose, gelatin and acacia. Additionally, lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate, sodium lauryl sulfate and talc are often useful for tableting purposes. Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed in soft and hard filled gelatin capsules. Preferred materials, therefor, include lactose or milk sugar and high molecular weight polyethylene glycols. When aqueous suspensions or elixirs are desired for oral administration the active compound therein may be combined with various sweetening or flavoring agents, coloring matters or dyes and, if desired, emulsifying agents or suspending agents, together with diluents such as water, ethanol, propylene glycol, glycerin, or combinations thereof. Additionally, it is also possible to administer the compound of the invention topically and this may be done by way of creams, jellies, gels, pastes, ointments and the like, in accordance with standard pharmaceutical practice. The compound of the invention may also be administered to a mammal other than a human. The dosage to be administered to a mammal will depend on the animal species and the disease or disorder being treated. The compound may be administered to animals in the form of a capsule, bolus, tablet or liquid drench. The compound may also be administered to animals by injection or as an implant. Such formulations are prepared in a conventional manner in accordance with standard veterinary practice. As an alternative, the compound may be administered with the animal feedstuff, and for this purpose a concentrated feed additive or premix may be prepared for mixing with the normal animal feed. Methods of preparing various pharmaceutical compositions with a specific amount of active compound are known, or will be apparent, to those skilled in this art. For examples, see Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Company, Easter, Pa., 15th Edition (1975). Administration and Dosage Administration of the compounds of the present invention (hereinafter the “active compound(s)”) can be effected by any method that enables delivery of the compounds to the site of action. These methods preferably include oral routes such as in the form of tablets, intraduodenal routes, parenteral injection (including intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravascular or infusion), topical, and rectal administration. While parenteral administration is usually preferred, oral administration is preferred for the hydrochloride B polymorph. The amount of the active compound administered will be dependent on the subject being treated, the severity of the disorder or condition, the rate of administration and the judgement of the prescribing physician. However, an effective dosage is in the range of about 0.001 to about 100 mg per kg body weight per day, preferably about 1 to about 35 mg/kg/day, in single or divided doses. For a 70 kg human, this would amount to about 0.05 to about 7 g/day, preferably about 0.2 to about 2.5 g/day. In some instances, dosage levels below the lower limit of the aforesaid range may be more than adequate, while in other cases still larger doses may be employed without causing any harmful side effect, provided that such larger doses are first divided into several small doses for administration throughout the day. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, at doses of 1-7000 mg/day, preferably 5-2500 mg/day, most preferably 5-200 mg/day, is also useful for the treatment of patients (as measured, for example, by increased survival times) by using combination therapies, for example in NSCLC. (IIIb/V), as a 1st line therapy with carboplatin/paclitaxel or gemcitabine/cisplatin, in NSCLC (IIIb/V), as a 2nd line therapy with taxotere, and in head and neck cancers, as a 2nd line therapy with methotrexate for patients refractory to 5 FU/cisplatin. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, at doses of 1-7000 mg/day, preferably 5-2500 mg/day, most preferably 5-200 mg/day, is also useful for the treatment of patients with additional conditions, including pancreatic cancer, with or without gemcitabine co-treatment, as first line therapy, for renal cancer, gastric cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer (e.g. as a 2nd line therapy for patients who have failed 5 FU/LCV/Irinotecan therapy), and also for hepatocellular, bladder, brain, ovarian, breast, and cervical cancers. For such treatments, in advanced disease patients with refractory disease, treatment effectiveness is readily monitored by an increased response rate, an increased time to progression or an increase in survival time. [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride, preferably the stable polymorph B form, is typically used at doses of 1-7000 mg/day, preferably 5-2500 mg/day, most preferably 5-200 mg/day, for any of the above treatments. The examples and preparations provided below further illustrate and exemplify the compounds of the present invention and methods of preparing such compounds. This invention will be better understood from the Experimental Details which follow. However, one skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the specific methods and results discussed are merely illustrative of the invention as described more fully in the claims which follow thereafter. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Example 1 Preparation of Compound of Formula 4 The following materials were used in the synthesis of the compound of formula 4: Equivalents/ Materials Quantity Units Volumes Compound of formula 3 88.0 kg 1 equivalent Thionyl chloride 89.0 kg 2.5 equivalents Dimethylformamide 11 kg 0.5 equivalent methylene chloride 880.0 L 10 L/kg 50% sodium hydroxide solution as required L 1 equivalent Heptane 880.0 L 10 L/kg The following procedure is exemplary of the procedure to follow in the synthesis of the formula 4 compound: 88.0 kg of the compound of formula 3, 880.0 L methylene chloride, and 11.0 kg of dimethylformamide were charged to a clean, dry, glass-lined vessel under nitrogen atmosphere. 89 Kg of thionyl chloride were added to the mix while it is maintained at a temperature of a less than 30° C. during the charge. The contents of the reaction vessel were then heated for a minimum of five hours at reflux temperature before sampling for reaction completion and the pH is adjusted to be maintained between 7.0 to 8.0, by using 50% NaOH, as required and the temperature of the reaction mixture is maintained at less than 25° C. The biphasic mixture is stirred for fifteen to twenty minutes and allowed to settle for a minimum of thirty minutes. The layers were separated and the organic layer was concentrated to ⅓ of its volume by removing methylene chloride. 880 L heptane was added with continued distillation of the remaining methylene chloride until the distillate reaches a temperature between 65 and 68° C. The mixture was then cooled to between 10 to 15° C. over 5 hours and granulated for a minimum of 1 hour with the solids being isolated by filtration and washed with 220 L heptane. The solids (formula 4 compound) were dried in a vacuum drier at 45 to 50° C. Example 2 Alternative Preparation of Compound of Formula 4 In the reaction shown in Example 1, sodium bicarbonate may successfully be used instead of sodium hydroxide as shown in this Example. Equivalents/ Materials Quantity Units Volumes Compound of formula 3 30.0 kg 1 equivalent Thionyl chloride 36.4 kg 3 equivalents Dimethylformamide 3.75 kg 0.5 equivalent methylene chloride 300 L 10 L/kg 50% sodium hydroxide solution as L required Heptane 375 L 12.5 L/kg Heptane (wash) 90 L 3 L/kg Sodium Bicarbonate 64.2 Kg 7.5 equivalents 30.0 kg of the compound of formula 3, 300.0L methylene chloride, and 3.75 kg of dimethylformamide were charged to a clean, dry, glass-lined vessel under a nitrogen atmosphere. 36.4 kg of thionyl chloride was added to the mix while it was maintained at a temperature of less than 30° C. during the charge. The contents of the reaction vessel were then heated at reflux temperature for 13 h before sampling for reaction completion. The reaction mixture was cooled to 20-25° C. and added slowly to a stirred solution of sodium bicarbonate 64.2 kg and water 274L cooled to 4° C. so that the temperature was maintained at less than 10° C. The final pH of the mixture was adjusted to within the range 7.0 to 8.0 by using 50% sodium hydroxide solution as required. The biphasic mixture was stirred for fifteen to twenty minutes and allowed to settle for a minimum of thirty minutes at 10-20° C. The layers were separated and the organic layer was concentrated to ⅓ of its volume by removing methylene chloride. 375L of heptane was added with continued distillation of the remaining methylene chloride until the distillate reached a temperature between 65 and 68° C. The mixture was then cooled to 0 to 5° C. over 4 hour and granulated for a minimum of 1 hour with the solids being isolated by filtration and washed with 90L heptane. The solids (formula 4 compound) were dried in a vacuum drier at 45 to 50° C. Example 3 Preparation of Compound of Formulas 6 and 2 (Step 2): The following materials were used in the synthesis of the compound of formula 6, as intermediate, and the compound of formula 2: Equivalents/ Materials Quantity Units Volumes Compound of formula 5 61.1 kg 1.2 equivalents Toluene 489 L 8 L/kg (WRT to formula 5 c'mpd) Sodium hydroxide pellets 4.5 kg 0.16 equivalents Filteraid 0.5 kg 0.017 kg/kg (WRT to c'mpd 5) Compound of formula 4 90.8 kg 1.0 equivalent Acetonitrile 732 L 12 L/kg (WRT to c'mpd 5) Example 4 Preparation of Compound of Formula 2 The following procedure is exemplary of the procedure to follow in the synthesis of the formula 2 compound and intermediate compound of formula 6: 61.1 kg of formula 5 compound, 4.5 kg sodium hydroxide pellets and 489 L-toluene were charged to a clean, dry, reaction vessel under nitrogen atmosphere and the reaction temperature is adjusted to between 105 to 108° C. Acetone was removed over four hours by atmospheric distillation while toluene is added to maintain a minimum volume of 6 L of solvent per kg of formula 5 compound. The reaction mixture was then heated at reflux temperature, returning distillates to pot, until the reaction was complete. The mixture was then cooled to between 20 to 25° C., at which time a slurry of 40.0 L toluene and 0.5 kg filteraid was charged to the reaction mixture and the mixture was agitated for ten to fifteen minutes. The resultant material was filtered to remove filteraid, and the cake is washed with 30 L toluene (compound of formula 6). The filtrate (compound of formula 6) was placed in a clean, dry reaction vessel under nitrogen atmosphere, and 90.8 kg of the compound of formula 4 was charged into the reaction vessel together with 732 L acetonitrile. The reaction vessel was heated to reflux temperature and well agitated. Agitator speed was lowered when heavy solids appear. When the reaction was complete, the contents of reaction vessel were cooled to between 19 to 25° C. over three to four hours and the contents were agitated for at least one hour at a temperature between 20 and 25° C. The solids (compound of formula 2, polymorph A form, or mixture of polymorph A and B) were then isolated by filtration and the filter cake was washed with two portions of 50 L acetonitrile and dried under vacuum at a temperature between 40 and 45° C. It has been discovered that the production of the A polymorph is favored by the reduction of the amount of acetonitrile relative to toluene, and particularly favored if isopropanol is used in place of acetonitrile. However, the use of isopropanol or other alcohols as cosolvents is disfavored because of the propensity to form an ether linkage between the alcoholic oxygen and the 4-carbon of the quinazoline, instead of the desired ethynyl phenyl amino moiety. It has been further discovered that adjusting the pH of the reaction to between pH 1 and pH 7, preferably between pH 2 and pH 5, more preferably between pH 2.5 and pH 4, most preferably pH 3, will improve the rate of the reaction. Example 5 Recrystallization of Compound of Formula 2 (Which may be in Polymorph A form or a Mixture of Polymorphs A and B) to Polymorph B (Step 3) The following materials were used in the conversion of polymorph A (or mixtures of polymorphs A and B) to polymorph B of the compound of formula 2: Materials Quantity Units Equivalents/Volumes Polymorph A (formula 2) 117.6 kg 1 equivalent 2B-ethanol 1881.6 L 16 L/kg Water 470.4 L 4 L/kg The following procedure is exemplary of procedures used to convert polymorph A (or mixtures of polymorphs A and B) into the more thermodynamically stable polymorph B of the compound of formula 2: 117.6 kg of the polymorph A (or mixtures of polymorphs A and B) were charged to a clean, dry, reaction vessel together 1881.6 L 2B-ethanol and 470.4 L water under a nitrogen atmosphere. The temperature was adjusted to reflux (˜80° C.) and the mixture was agitated until the solids dissolve. The solution was cooled to between 65 and 70° C. and clarified by filtration. With low speed agitation, the solution was further cooled to between 50 and 60° C. over a minimum time of 2 hours and the precipitate was granulated for 2 hours at this temperature. The mixture was further cooled to between 0 and 5° C. over a minimum time of 4 hours and granulated for a minimum of 2 hours at this temperature. The solids (polymorph B) were isolated by filtration and washed with at least 100 L 2B-ethanol. The solids were determined to be crystalline polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride substantially free of the polymorph A from. The solids obtained by this method are substantially homogeneous polymorph B form crystals relative to the polymorph A form. The method allows for production of polymorph B in an amount at least 70% by weight, at least 80% by weight, at least 90% by weight, at least 95% by weight, and at least 98% by weight relative to the weight of the polymorph A. It is to be understood that the methods described herein are only exemplary and are not intended to exclude variations in the above parameters which allow the production of polymorph B in varying granulations and yields, according to the desired storage, handling and manufacturing applications of the compound. The solids were vacuum dried at a temperature below 50° C. and the resultant product was milled to provide the polymorph B in usable form. Example 6 Clinical Studies Utilizing Treatment with the Stable Polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine Hydrochloride The stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride is a potent, selective and orally active inhibitor of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EFGR) protein-tyrosine kinase, an oncogene that has been associated with the aberrant growth that is characteristic of cancer cells. This compound is being evaluated in clinical trials in normal healthy volunteers and in cancer patients in order to assess its safety profile and effectiveness. Phase I Clinical Studies Phase I clinical studies of the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride have been effectively completed in volunteers, initially, and subsequently in cancer patients, at single doses ranging from 25-200 mg/day or 100-1600 mg/week. Data from these studies revealed no adverse events that were greater than moderate in severity for a dose of 150 mg/day. In a daily dosing regimen study the dose limiting toxicity at 200 mg/day was diarrhea. This observed side effect was effectively controlled at the 150 mg daily dose level using Loperamide (Imodium®). The second adverse event observed in these studies, and most significant toxicity at 150 mg daily, was a monomorphic acneiform rash analogous to that reported for other EGFR inhibitor agents in clinical trials. This rash had an “above-waist” distribution including face, scalp, neck, arms, chest and back. The rash has a unique histopathology of PMN infiltration with mild epidermal hyperproliferation. It is not consistent with drug hypersensitivity nor does it appear to be a “named” dermatological condition. This rash has not been a significant impediment to patients staying on the Phase II trials. The stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride has been tested in a total of 290 patients in Phase I and ongoing Phase II studies and demonstrates a well tolerated safety profile. Furthermore, preliminary evidence of effectiveness was observed in Phase I studies. For example, in one Phase I study of 28 patients, 8 patients remain alive over a year after inception of treatment and 12 patients remained alive from 9-22 months. In order to establish a suitable safety profile, the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride is also used at doses of 1-7000 mg/day, preferably 5-2500 mg/day, most preferably 5-200 mg/day, in Phase I clinical combination studies with one or more additional drugs or treatments, preferably selected from one of the following group—Taxol, Gemcitabine, Taxotere, Capcitabine, 5 FU, Cisplatin, Temozolomide, radiation treatment, and chemoradiation treatment. Phase II and Phase III Clinical Studies Three Phase II single agent studies of the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride in refractory non-small cell lung cancer, advanced head and neck cancer and refractory ovarian cancer, at a 150 mg daily dose were initiated. Indications of single agent anti-tumor activity for the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride was seen in patients with advanced cancers in several different tumor types. For example, initial findings indicate that the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride is a well-tolerated oral medication that is active as a monotherapy when administered to patients with advanced head and neck cancer. In preliminary results 3 patients had objective partial responses, while another 9 patients showed evidence of a stabilization of their disease status. The acneiform rash, which is apparently characteristic of all the anti-EGFR inhibitors undergoing clinical testing, was reported in approximately 70% of the first group of patients in this study. The early data emerging from the 48 patient Phase II study in refractory non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients also indicates the effectiveness of treatment with the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride as a single agent anti-tumor drug for NSCLC. Of the first 19 evaluable patients in the study, 5 had objective partial responses, while another 4 patients showed evidence of a stabilization of their disease status. Partial responses were observed in two patients who had been treated previously with two and three different chemotherapy regimens. Thus it appears that the stable polymorph B form of [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)-amine hydrochloride is a well tolerated, oral medication which is active in non-small cell lung cancer. Qualification criteria for the open label, single agent study required the patients to have failed platinum-based chemotherapy and to have tumors that are histopathologically confirmed to be EGFR positive. The primary endpoint in the study is response rate with stable disease and time-to-progression amongst the secondary end-points. Evidence of anti-tumor activity can also be seen in the patients with ovarian cancer in the on-going Phase II study. In preliminary results 2 patients had objective partial responses, while another 4 patients showed evidence of a stabilization of their disease status. Documented evidence of anti-tumor activity was also seen in other EGFR positive tumor types, including colorectal and renal cell carcinoma, from Phase I studies in cancer patients with multiple tumor types. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis (2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, in either its hydrochloride or mesylate forms, or in an anhydrous and hydrous form, is useful in the treatment of hyperproliferative disorders, such as cancers, in mammals. U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498, issued May 5, 1998, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, refers, in Example 20, to [6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-quinazolin-4-yl]-(3-ethynylphenyl)amine hydrochloride, which, the patent discloses, is an inhibitor of the erbB family of oncogenic and protooncogenic protein tyrosine kinases, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and is therefore useful for the treatment of proliferative disorders, such as cancers, in humans. The mesylate form, described in PCT International Publication No. WO 99/55683 (PCT/IB99/00612, filed Apr. 8, 1999), the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference, and assigned to a common assignee, and shown in formula 1 below: is useful for the treatment of proliferative disorders, and more preferred with parenteral methods of administration, as compared to the hydrochloride compound, i.e. with greater effectiveness in solution. The mesylate compounds are more soluble in aqueous compositions than the hydrochloride compound, and thus the mesylate compounds are easily delivered according to parenteral methods of administration. The hydrochloride compound is however preferred with respect to solid administration such as with tablets and oral administration. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to polymorphs, and methods for the selective production of polymorphs of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine hydrochloride, particularly in the stable polymorph form. The present invention also relates to novel uses of N-(3-ethynylphenyl)-6,7-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-quinazolinamine, in either its hydrochloride or mesylate forms, in an anhydrous or hydrous form, as well as in its various polymorph forms, in the treatment of hyperproliferative disorders, such as cancers, in mammals. | 20041118 | 20060808 | 20050428 | 96018.0 | 8 | MCKENZIE, THOMAS C | TREATING ABNORMAL CELL GROWTH WITH A STABLE POLYMORPH OF N-(3-ETHYNYLPHENYL)-6,7-BIS (2-METHOXYETHOXY)-4-QUINAZOLINAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,992,637 | ACCEPTED | Sensor element | A sensor element (30) measures a Hall voltage generated by a movable magnet (16). For this purpose, the sensor element (30) comprises a ceramic base element (40) which has connected therewith a detector element (46). The detector element (46) is protected with the aid of a cover element (42) against an aggressive environment produced by fuel or fuel vapors in a fuel tank (34) of a motor vehicle. The detector element (46) has connected therewith electric conductors (60) which are routed through the cover element (42) and/or the base element (40) for connecting the detector element (46) with a voltage source and/or an evaluation unit. The cover element (42) and possibly the base element (40) reliably encapsulate the detector element (46) against the aggressive environment such that by simple constructive measures the service life of the sensor element (30) is increased. | 1. A sensor element for measuring a magnetic field generated by a movable magnet, comprising a base element made from an electrically insulating material, a detector element connected with the base element, a metal cover element connected with the base element at a distance to the detector element and, electric conductors, which are connected with the detector element and routed through the cover element and/or the basis element, for connection with a voltage source and/or an evaluation unit. 2. The sensor element according to claim 1, wherein the detector element comprises a Hall effect sensor and/or an AMR sensor and/or a GMR sensor. 3. The sensor element according to claim 1, wherein a cover capsule comprises the cover element connected with a lid. 4. The sensor element according to claim 1, wherein the base element is completely arranged inside the cover element. 5. The sensor element according to claim 1, wherein the cover element and/or the base element comprise a projection preferably configured as a shoulder, which extends away from the detector element and is in particular provided around the circumference, for limiting the insertion depth of the cover element in an opening. 6. The sensor element according to claim 4, wherein the projection forms a concave right angle together with the outside facing away from the detector element. 7. The sensor element according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the electric conductors is configured as a conductor conduit arranged in the base element. 8. The sensor element according to claim 1, wherein the cover element comprises at least one contact element for conducting electric current. 9. A contactlessly operating level indicator, in particular for a fuel tank in a motor vehicle, comprising a rotatably supported lever connected with a float and a magnet, and a sensor element according to claim 1, wherein the magnet connected with the lever is arranged between the sensor element and a rotary axis of the lever such that, as a function of the position of the float, the magnetic field measured by the sensor element is changed. 10. The level indicator according to claim 9, wherein an intermediate piece has rotatably connected therewith the lever and comprises an opening, wherein the sensor element is arranged in the opening such that the detector element is associated with the side of the intermediate piece facing the lever, and in particular the projection of the sensor element bears, in the form of a stopper, on the side of the intermediate piece facing away from the lever. 11. A level indicator assembly comprising a fuel tank and a level indicator according to claim 9, wherein the fuel tank comprises a receiving opening for receiving a sensor element or an intermediate piece, the sensor element being guided through the receiving opening such that the detector element is arranged inside the fuel tank and conductor ends of the electric conductors are arranged outside the fuel tank. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a sensor element for contactlessly measuring a magnetic field in an aggressive environment, in particular for use in a fuel tank of a motor vehicle. 2. Description of the Related Art From DE 101 42 618 A1 a contactlessly operating level indicator is known which uses a Hall effect sensor as a sensor element for measuring a fill level in a fuel tank, said Hall effect sensor detecting the magnetic field of a magnet. The magnet is connected via a lever with a float such that the measured magnetic field of the magnet varies as a function of the fill level in the fuel tank. The lever is rotatably supported via a rotary axis. The rotary axis is partially embraced by the magnet configured as a ring magnet. The ring magnet is arranged between the Hall effect sensor and the rotary axis. The magnet is disposed in a two-piece housing, wherein the housing halves are closed in a liquid-proof manner by means of cast resin. To protect the Hall effect sensor against the aggressive environment in the fuel tank, the sensor is arranged in a pocket formed in a housing, said pocket also being filled with cast resin. A drawback of such a sensor element is that considerable constructive efforts are required for protection of the sensor element. It is necessary to use components with complicated geometries which are difficult and expensive to manufacture. Further, the cast resin does not offer sufficient protection since fuel, which flows along the housing wall thus coming in contact with the cast resin, gradually diffuses through the cast resin such that the sensor element becomes, for example, damaged by corrosion, which results in a relatively short service life of the sensor element. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to provide a sensor element which has a longer service life in an aggressive environment. According to the invention, a sensor element, which measures a magnetic field generated by a movable magnet, comprises a base element made from an electrically insulating material, in particular a ceramic material, such as Al2O3. The base element has connected therewith a detector element which detects the direction and/or the strength of the magnetic field via a physical effect, e. g. a Hall effect. Further, the base element is connected with a metal cover element. The cover element is arranged at a distance to the detector element, i. e. the detector element is covered by the cover element without any direct electrical contact and is thus protected against the environment. The detector element has connected therewith electric conductors which are routed through the cover element and/or the base element to establish a connection with a voltage source and/or an evaluation unit. The cover element and possibly also the base element isolate the detector element to a large extent from the environment. The metal cover element and possibly the base element are diffusion-resistant at least towards fuel, i. e. a diffuse substance transport through the cover element and possibly the base element is, in contrast to cast resin or plastic material, not detectable. Where joint connections exist between the cover element and the base element, which are accessible from the aggressive environment, the connection of the cover element and the base element is preferably an integral connection made, for example, by soldering such that the joint connections, too, are diffusion-resistant at least towards fuel. To improve the solderability of the metal cover element to the base element, the base element is made, for example, from a solderable metallized ceramic material such that at least the metal constituents of the ceramic material can be fused to create the integral connection. The detector element is sufficiently protected against an aggressive environment, which is produced in particular by fuel vapors in a fuel tank, by the configuration according to the invention of the sensor element such that the service life is considerably increased. Further, the cover element and the base element may have a particularly simple geometry such that the manufacture of the sensor element according to the invention is simplified and thus less expensive. In addition, it is not absolutely necessary that the detector element is sheathed with cast resin for protection purposes. For better fixing of the position of the detector element it may be advantageous to fill the free space in the cover element with a fluid which is capable of flowing, not electrically conducting and capable of curing. The detector element comprises in particular a Hall effect sensor for detecting the magnetic field of the magnet via the Hall effect by measuring a Hall voltage. Preferably, the detector element additionally or alternatively comprises an AMR sensor (anisotropic magneto-resistance sensor) and/or a GMR sensor (giant magneto-resistance sensor). In the case of the AMR/GMR sensor the electrical resistance, in particular that of an inexpensive ferrite, e. g. a ferromagnetic layer, is changed by the magnetic field and/or the direction of the magnetic field of the magnet, wherein the change is essentially independent of the field strength of the magnet. Thus special requirements regarding the field strength of the magnet used need not be met. The magneto-resistance effect of the AMR/GMR sensor can be measured with the aid of a bridge circuit and, as in the case of a Hall effect sensor, be converted into a voltage change. Further, the AMR/GMR sensor can be made considerably smaller than a Hall effect sensor. The sensor element preferably comprises a cover capsule. The cover capsule comprises the cover element and a lid connected therewith. The cover capsule encapsulates the detector element, possibly together with the base element, i. e. it offers protection against an aggressive environment. The lid is preferably made from the same material as the cover element and is connected, for example by soldering, with the latter in particular via an integral connection. Preferably, the base element is completely arranged inside the cover element. This allows the base element to be positioned relative to the cover element without an unintended change in the position of the base element occurring, for example when the lid is being connected with the cover element. It is further possible to connect the lid and the cover element at a front side or narrow side of the cover element. This allows the joint connection face between the lid and the cover element to be made particularly small. Further, the lid and the cover element may be connected, if possible, at a location which is particularly far away from the aggressive environment. This further improves the protection of the detector element and increases the service life. In a preferred embodiment the cover element and/or the base element comprise a projection extending away from the detector element. The projection serves for limiting an insertion depth of the cover element in an opening. For this purpose, the projection is, for example, configured as a protruding nose such that, when the sensor element passes through an opening, the projection abuts against the component comprising the opening, whereby the maximum insertion depth is defined. The projection allows the sensor element according to the invention to be used as an independent module for a contactlessly operating level indicator by employing particularly simple constructive means. The projection may, for example, be configured as a shoulder formed by a thickened portion of the material or bulging-out of the material. Thus a step is formed which may act as a stopper to limit the insertion depth. In particular, the projection forms, together with an outside of the cover element and/or the base element, a concave right angle. Thus the stopper face and the outside are disposed orthogonally to each other which results in a pointed fillet. In the fillet, i. e. in the right angle, a seal, such as an O-ring, can be arranged in a defined position. Preferably, the projection is arranged around the circumference such that the projection does not only act as a stopper but also as a splash guard which diverts aggressive media, such as fuel, from that portion of the sensor element which faces away from the aggressive medium. When the cover element is connected with the lid or the like behind the projection, as seen from the aggressive medium, an additional protection of the encapsulated detector element is obtained. The electric conductors of the sensor element according to the invention may be cables which are routed, for example, through an opening to the outside, wherein the opening is sealed in particular by a corrosion-resistant and diffusion-resistant seal. Preferably, at least one of the electric conductors is configured as a conductor conduit arranged in the base element. The base element is thus of similar configuration as a printed circuit board, wherein said “circuit board” is of multi-layer configuration to sheath the conductors preferably around the overall circumferential surface. The detector element can be connected with the respective conductor via individual solder joints. Additionally and/or alternatively, the cover element and/or a lid connected with the cover element may comprise a contact element for conducting electric current. The contact element is preferably electrically insulated towards the cover element and/or the lid and has in particular an electrical resistance which is as low as possible. The contact element allows electric current to pass the cover element, the cover capsule and/or the lid, wherein the ingress of aggressive media is prevented. The invention further relates to a contactlessly operating level indicator, in particular for a fuel tank in a motor vehicle. The level indicator comprises a rotatably supported lever which is connected with a float and a magnet. In dependence on the position of the float the lever is rotated, whereby the position of the magnet is changed. Between the magnet and a rotary axis a sensor element is arranged which is in particular configured as described above. The sensor element is arranged such that the magnetic field measured by the sensor element changes as a function of the position of the float. Due to the fact that the sensor element is arranged between the rotary axis and the magnet and not the magnet between the rotary axis and the sensor element, the movable magnet is located farther away from the rotary axis such that the magnet travels a larger distance when the position of the float is changed. Due to the longer path travelled by the magnet, the magnetic field measured by the sensor element changes to a larger extent at a comparable change in the position of the float. The sensor element can thus be of smaller and compacter configuration and can measure the fill level with a higher accuracy. Further, it is sufficient to protect only the detector element of the sensor element against fuels and fuel vapors or the like since the other components do not comprise any sensitive electric elements. The contactlessly operating level indicator can thus be of simple configuration. The magnet is preferably configured at least as a segment of a ring magnet. This results in a relatively uniform and undisturbed magnetic field which is measured by the sensor element. For further disturbance elimination the sensor element may be provided with disturbance-elimination modules, whereby the measuring accuracy is improved. In a preferred embodiment the level indicator comprises an intermediate piece with which the lever is rotatably connected. Further, the intermediate piece comprises an opening for receiving the sensor element. The sensor element is arranged in the opening such that the detector element of the sensor element is associated with the side of the intermediate piece facing the lever. The sensor element can thus, for example, be guided outside the fuel tank through the opening of the intermediate piece and, in particular partly, into the fuel tank. In particular the sensor element comprises a projection which, in the form of a stopper, bears on the side of the intermediate piece facing away from the lever. This in particular allows the detector element to be arranged in a completely encapsulated condition at the side of the intermediate piece facing the lever, wherein the connection with the lid and the conductor ends of the conductors are disposed at the side of the intermediate piece facing away from the lever. Owing to this arrangement the detector element of the sensor element is further protected by the intermediate piece, for example due to the fact that the intermediate piece acts as a splash guard. The invention further relates to a level indicator assembly comprising a fuel tank and a level indicator connected therewith, which is in particular configured as described above. The fuel tank comprises a receiving opening for receiving a sensor element or an intermediate piece. The sensor element disposed in the receiving opening such that the detector element is arranged inside the fuel tank and the conductor ends of the electric conductors are arranged outside the fuel tank. If existing, in particular the connection between a cover element and a lid of the sensor element is also disposed outside the fuel tank. With this arrangement a reliable protection of the detector element against the fuel in the fuel tank can be realized with the aid of simple constructive means. The improved protection of the detector element against fuel and/or fuel vapors increases the service life of the level indicator assembly. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Hereunder preferred embodiments of the invention are explained in detail with reference to the appended drawings in which: FIG. 1 shows a schematic perspective exploded view of a contactlessly operating level indicator according to the invention, FIG. 2 a schematic perspective view of the level indicator shown in FIG. 1, FIG. 3 a schematic sectional view of a first embodiment of a sensor element according to the invention in built-in condition, FIG. 4 a schematic sectional view of a second embodiment of the built-in sensor element, FIG. 5 a schematic sectional view of a third embodiment of the built-in sensor element, FIG. 6 a schematic sectional view of a fourth embodiment of the built-in sensor element, and FIG. 7 a schematic sectional view of a fifth embodiment of the built-in sensor element. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION The contactlessly operating level indicator 10 according to the invention comprises a lever 12 connected with a float 14 and a magnet 16 which is in particular configured as a segment of a ring magnet. The magnet 16 is indirectly connected via a first housing portion 18 with the lever 12. The lever 12 is, together with the first housing portion 18 and the magnet 16, connected with an intermediate piece 22, whereby they are pivotable about a rotary axis 20. The intermediate piece 22 comprises a tubular boss 24 via which the lever 12 is supported. For this purpose, the lever 12 and/or the first housing portion 18 comprise a bolt which is, for example, rotatably connected with the boss 24 by means of clips. For additionally stabilizing the rotary movement of the lever 12 the intermediate piece 22 comprises a second housing portion 26 which supports the first housing portion 18. Further, the first housing portion 18 and the second housing portion 26 prevent fuel, which might splash against the level indicator, from entering into the interior of the housing portions 18,26. The intermediate piece 22 further comprises an opening 28 for receiving a sensor element 30. The sensor element 30 is arranged in the opening 28 such that it is located between the magnet 16 and the rotary axis 20 and measures in an almost hysteresis-free manner the magnetic field generated by the magnet 16. The intermediate piece 22 further comprises a connecting element 32 for connecting the level indicator 10 with a fuel tank 34. Thus the intermediate piece 22 forms in particular a part of the fuel tank 34. The intermediate piece 22 may include a lead-through opening 36 for routing electric terminals 38 of the sensor element 30 to a voltage source and/or an evaluation unit. In the evaluation unit the characteristic curve taken up by the sensor element 30 can be further processed by, for example, programming and/or calibrating the characteristic curve. In the first embodiment of the sensor element 30 (FIG. 3) a metal cover element 42 is soldered to a base element 40. Inside an encapsulated space 44 formed by the base element 40 and the cover element 42 a detector element 46 is arranged. The detector element 46 may be a Hall effect element and/or an AMR sensor and/or a GMR sensor. The detector element 46 is placed onto the ceramic base element 40. The base element 40 comprises conductor conduits 48 which are connected via solder joints 50 with the detector element 46. The sensor element 30 is arranged in an opening which may be the opening 28 of the intermediate piece 22 or a receiving opening 52 of the fuel tank 34. The sensor element 30 is disposed in the opening 28 and/or the receiving opening 52 such that the detector element 46 is arranged inside the fuel tank 34. Thereby the conductor ends 54 of the conductor conduits 48 are arranged outside the fuel tank 34, whereby the conductor ends 54 can be soldered, outside the fuel tank 34 in a non-aggressive environment, via solder joints or the like to electric cables or terminals 38. In FIG. 3 the cover element 42 is inserted from the right into the opening 28,52. For positioning purposes, the cover element 42 comprises a shoulder 56 which, in the form of a stopper, limits the insertion depth of the sensor element 30. This allows the detector element 46 to be arranged centrally relative to the magnet 16. The detector element 46 and the magnet 16 are thus essentially aligned with each other such that the detector element 46 is arranged in an essentially homogeneous and undisturbed magnetic field. In the second embodiment of the Hall effect sensor element 30 (FIG. 4) the cover element 42 comprises contact elements 58 which are connected via electric conductors 60 with the detector element 46. Each contact element 58 is connected, for example by soldering, with an electric terminal 38. The contact elements 58 are insulated towards the remaining cover element 42 with the aid of an insulating means 62 such that short-circuits are prevented. The cover element 42 comprises a projection 64 which is arranged at a right angle to a surface 66 of the cover element 42. Thus a right angle 68 is formed between the projection 64 and the surface 66. During assembly the sensor element 30 is inserted, in FIG. 4, from the left into the opening 28,52 such that the projection 64, acting as a stopper, limits the insertion depth. Due to the right angle 68 both the projection 64 and the surface 66 are, in the built-in condition, in contact with the intermediate piece 22 and/or the fuel tank 34. In the third embodiment of the sensor element 30 (FIG. 5) the sensor element 30 is provided with a cover capsule comprising the cover element 42 and a lid 70. The base element 40 is completely arranged inside the cover capsule. The cover element 42 comprises a nose 72 which is arranged at a distance to the bottom 74 of the cover element 42, which corresponds to the thickness of the base element 40. This allows the base element 40 to be connected, in a fixed positional arrangement, with the cover element such that soldering is not necessary. Accordingly, the lid 70 comprises a recess 76 which also corresponds to the thickness of the base element 40. The base element 40 is held by both the cover element 42 and the lid 70. The lid 70 and the cover element 42 are preferably integrally connected with each other, in particular by soldering. To connect the detector element 46 with an evaluation unit and/or a voltage source, the lid 70 further comprises a connecting opening 78 through which the conductors 60 can be routed. In the fourth embodiment of the sensor element 30 (FIG. 6) the base element 40, which comprises conductor conduits 48, is guided through a correspondingly large connecting opening 78 of the cover 70 such that the conductor ends 54 are arranged outside the fuel tank 34. In contrast to the embodiment of the sensor element 30 shown in FIG. 5, the recess 76 is configured as a connecting opening 78 extending through the lid 70, whereby a processing step during the manufacture of the lid 70 is made superfluous. In contrast to the previously described embodiments, the sensor element 30 may be installed in a condition as turned by 90° (FIG. 7). This arrangement of the sensor element 30 is in particular suitable when an AMR/GMR sensor is used as the detector element 46. The detector element 46 and the magnet 16 are preferably arranged centrally relative to the rotary axis 20 such that, when the magnet 16 is rotated in the direction indicated by an arrow 80, the direction of the magnetic field generated by the magnet 16 is changed. The change in the direction of the magnetic field is detected by the detector element 46. In this arrangement, the level indicator 10 can comprise a rotary shaft 82 instead of the lid-shaped housing portion 18, the rotary shaft 82 being connected with the magnet 16. In this embodiment, the magnet 16 may in particular be a bar magnet such that a ring-shaped embodiment is not required. Further, the sensor element 30 can be connected at its rear side, i. e. at the side facing away from the magnet 16, with a film, in particular an adhesive film. This allows the sensor element 30 to be connected with the intermediate piece 22 and/or the fuel tank 34 in a particularly simple manner. Although the invention has been described and illustrated with reference to specific illustrative embodiments thereof, it is not intended that the invention be limited to those illustrative embodiments. Those skilled in the art will recognize that variations and modifications can be made without departing from the true scope of the invention as defined by the claims that follow. It is therefore intended to include within the invention all such variations and modifications as fall within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a sensor element for contactlessly measuring a magnetic field in an aggressive environment, in particular for use in a fuel tank of a motor vehicle. 2. Description of the Related Art From DE 101 42 618 A1 a contactlessly operating level indicator is known which uses a Hall effect sensor as a sensor element for measuring a fill level in a fuel tank, said Hall effect sensor detecting the magnetic field of a magnet. The magnet is connected via a lever with a float such that the measured magnetic field of the magnet varies as a function of the fill level in the fuel tank. The lever is rotatably supported via a rotary axis. The rotary axis is partially embraced by the magnet configured as a ring magnet. The ring magnet is arranged between the Hall effect sensor and the rotary axis. The magnet is disposed in a two-piece housing, wherein the housing halves are closed in a liquid-proof manner by means of cast resin. To protect the Hall effect sensor against the aggressive environment in the fuel tank, the sensor is arranged in a pocket formed in a housing, said pocket also being filled with cast resin. A drawback of such a sensor element is that considerable constructive efforts are required for protection of the sensor element. It is necessary to use components with complicated geometries which are difficult and expensive to manufacture. Further, the cast resin does not offer sufficient protection since fuel, which flows along the housing wall thus coming in contact with the cast resin, gradually diffuses through the cast resin such that the sensor element becomes, for example, damaged by corrosion, which results in a relatively short service life of the sensor element. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the invention to provide a sensor element which has a longer service life in an aggressive environment. According to the invention, a sensor element, which measures a magnetic field generated by a movable magnet, comprises a base element made from an electrically insulating material, in particular a ceramic material, such as Al 2 O 3 . The base element has connected therewith a detector element which detects the direction and/or the strength of the magnetic field via a physical effect, e. g. a Hall effect. Further, the base element is connected with a metal cover element. The cover element is arranged at a distance to the detector element, i. e. the detector element is covered by the cover element without any direct electrical contact and is thus protected against the environment. The detector element has connected therewith electric conductors which are routed through the cover element and/or the base element to establish a connection with a voltage source and/or an evaluation unit. The cover element and possibly also the base element isolate the detector element to a large extent from the environment. The metal cover element and possibly the base element are diffusion-resistant at least towards fuel, i. e. a diffuse substance transport through the cover element and possibly the base element is, in contrast to cast resin or plastic material, not detectable. Where joint connections exist between the cover element and the base element, which are accessible from the aggressive environment, the connection of the cover element and the base element is preferably an integral connection made, for example, by soldering such that the joint connections, too, are diffusion-resistant at least towards fuel. To improve the solderability of the metal cover element to the base element, the base element is made, for example, from a solderable metallized ceramic material such that at least the metal constituents of the ceramic material can be fused to create the integral connection. The detector element is sufficiently protected against an aggressive environment, which is produced in particular by fuel vapors in a fuel tank, by the configuration according to the invention of the sensor element such that the service life is considerably increased. Further, the cover element and the base element may have a particularly simple geometry such that the manufacture of the sensor element according to the invention is simplified and thus less expensive. In addition, it is not absolutely necessary that the detector element is sheathed with cast resin for protection purposes. For better fixing of the position of the detector element it may be advantageous to fill the free space in the cover element with a fluid which is capable of flowing, not electrically conducting and capable of curing. The detector element comprises in particular a Hall effect sensor for detecting the magnetic field of the magnet via the Hall effect by measuring a Hall voltage. Preferably, the detector element additionally or alternatively comprises an AMR sensor (anisotropic magneto-resistance sensor) and/or a GMR sensor (giant magneto-resistance sensor). In the case of the AMR/GMR sensor the electrical resistance, in particular that of an inexpensive ferrite, e. g. a ferromagnetic layer, is changed by the magnetic field and/or the direction of the magnetic field of the magnet, wherein the change is essentially independent of the field strength of the magnet. Thus special requirements regarding the field strength of the magnet used need not be met. The magneto-resistance effect of the AMR/GMR sensor can be measured with the aid of a bridge circuit and, as in the case of a Hall effect sensor, be converted into a voltage change. Further, the AMR/GMR sensor can be made considerably smaller than a Hall effect sensor. The sensor element preferably comprises a cover capsule. The cover capsule comprises the cover element and a lid connected therewith. The cover capsule encapsulates the detector element, possibly together with the base element, i. e. it offers protection against an aggressive environment. The lid is preferably made from the same material as the cover element and is connected, for example by soldering, with the latter in particular via an integral connection. Preferably, the base element is completely arranged inside the cover element. This allows the base element to be positioned relative to the cover element without an unintended change in the position of the base element occurring, for example when the lid is being connected with the cover element. It is further possible to connect the lid and the cover element at a front side or narrow side of the cover element. This allows the joint connection face between the lid and the cover element to be made particularly small. Further, the lid and the cover element may be connected, if possible, at a location which is particularly far away from the aggressive environment. This further improves the protection of the detector element and increases the service life. In a preferred embodiment the cover element and/or the base element comprise a projection extending away from the detector element. The projection serves for limiting an insertion depth of the cover element in an opening. For this purpose, the projection is, for example, configured as a protruding nose such that, when the sensor element passes through an opening, the projection abuts against the component comprising the opening, whereby the maximum insertion depth is defined. The projection allows the sensor element according to the invention to be used as an independent module for a contactlessly operating level indicator by employing particularly simple constructive means. The projection may, for example, be configured as a shoulder formed by a thickened portion of the material or bulging-out of the material. Thus a step is formed which may act as a stopper to limit the insertion depth. In particular, the projection forms, together with an outside of the cover element and/or the base element, a concave right angle. Thus the stopper face and the outside are disposed orthogonally to each other which results in a pointed fillet. In the fillet, i. e. in the right angle, a seal, such as an O-ring, can be arranged in a defined position. Preferably, the projection is arranged around the circumference such that the projection does not only act as a stopper but also as a splash guard which diverts aggressive media, such as fuel, from that portion of the sensor element which faces away from the aggressive medium. When the cover element is connected with the lid or the like behind the projection, as seen from the aggressive medium, an additional protection of the encapsulated detector element is obtained. The electric conductors of the sensor element according to the invention may be cables which are routed, for example, through an opening to the outside, wherein the opening is sealed in particular by a corrosion-resistant and diffusion-resistant seal. Preferably, at least one of the electric conductors is configured as a conductor conduit arranged in the base element. The base element is thus of similar configuration as a printed circuit board, wherein said “circuit board” is of multi-layer configuration to sheath the conductors preferably around the overall circumferential surface. The detector element can be connected with the respective conductor via individual solder joints. Additionally and/or alternatively, the cover element and/or a lid connected with the cover element may comprise a contact element for conducting electric current. The contact element is preferably electrically insulated towards the cover element and/or the lid and has in particular an electrical resistance which is as low as possible. The contact element allows electric current to pass the cover element, the cover capsule and/or the lid, wherein the ingress of aggressive media is prevented. The invention further relates to a contactlessly operating level indicator, in particular for a fuel tank in a motor vehicle. The level indicator comprises a rotatably supported lever which is connected with a float and a magnet. In dependence on the position of the float the lever is rotated, whereby the position of the magnet is changed. Between the magnet and a rotary axis a sensor element is arranged which is in particular configured as described above. The sensor element is arranged such that the magnetic field measured by the sensor element changes as a function of the position of the float. Due to the fact that the sensor element is arranged between the rotary axis and the magnet and not the magnet between the rotary axis and the sensor element, the movable magnet is located farther away from the rotary axis such that the magnet travels a larger distance when the position of the float is changed. Due to the longer path travelled by the magnet, the magnetic field measured by the sensor element changes to a larger extent at a comparable change in the position of the float. The sensor element can thus be of smaller and compacter configuration and can measure the fill level with a higher accuracy. Further, it is sufficient to protect only the detector element of the sensor element against fuels and fuel vapors or the like since the other components do not comprise any sensitive electric elements. The contactlessly operating level indicator can thus be of simple configuration. The magnet is preferably configured at least as a segment of a ring magnet. This results in a relatively uniform and undisturbed magnetic field which is measured by the sensor element. For further disturbance elimination the sensor element may be provided with disturbance-elimination modules, whereby the measuring accuracy is improved. In a preferred embodiment the level indicator comprises an intermediate piece with which the lever is rotatably connected. Further, the intermediate piece comprises an opening for receiving the sensor element. The sensor element is arranged in the opening such that the detector element of the sensor element is associated with the side of the intermediate piece facing the lever. The sensor element can thus, for example, be guided outside the fuel tank through the opening of the intermediate piece and, in particular partly, into the fuel tank. In particular the sensor element comprises a projection which, in the form of a stopper, bears on the side of the intermediate piece facing away from the lever. This in particular allows the detector element to be arranged in a completely encapsulated condition at the side of the intermediate piece facing the lever, wherein the connection with the lid and the conductor ends of the conductors are disposed at the side of the intermediate piece facing away from the lever. Owing to this arrangement the detector element of the sensor element is further protected by the intermediate piece, for example due to the fact that the intermediate piece acts as a splash guard. The invention further relates to a level indicator assembly comprising a fuel tank and a level indicator connected therewith, which is in particular configured as described above. The fuel tank comprises a receiving opening for receiving a sensor element or an intermediate piece. The sensor element disposed in the receiving opening such that the detector element is arranged inside the fuel tank and the conductor ends of the electric conductors are arranged outside the fuel tank. If existing, in particular the connection between a cover element and a lid of the sensor element is also disposed outside the fuel tank. With this arrangement a reliable protection of the detector element against the fuel in the fuel tank can be realized with the aid of simple constructive means. The improved protection of the detector element against fuel and/or fuel vapors increases the service life of the level indicator assembly. | 20041118 | 20080101 | 20050707 | 60524.0 | 1 | AURORA, REENA | SENSOR ELEMENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,992,887 | ACCEPTED | Umbrella support device and serving trays | The present invention provides a support device associated with an object such as a vehicle tailgate or a residential deck for holding an umbrella with an umbrella pole supporting at least one serving tray to provide shade from the sun for a user occupying a portion of the object. The support device comprises a bent plate support in contact with the object. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the object. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole. At least one support collar is welded to the bent plate to receive and support the umbrella pole support. Additional accessories and applications are also realized within the scope of this invention including a fishing pole holder, a bowl holder and a light assembly for night use. | 1. A combination sun screen and user serving assembly comprising: an umbrella supported by an umbrella pole; a support device attached to an object for holding said umbrella pole in a generally vertical position to shade at least a portion of said object and the user from the sun; and at least one serving tray held and supported by said umbrella pole to serve the needs of the user in the shade of the umbrella. 2. The assembly of claim 1 wherein said object is a vehicle having a tailgate. 3. The assembly of claim 1 wherein said object is a deck having a top rail. 4. The assembly of claim 1 wherein said support device includes: a bent plate support in contact with and connected to said object; at least one retainer strap with a hook at each end for holding said bent plate in contact with said object; an umbrella pole support connected to said bent plate support to receive and help hold said umbrella pole; and at least one support collar affixed to said bent plate support to receive said umbrella pole support. 5. The assembly of claim 4 wherein said bent plate support includes: an end portion made integrally with both a main contact portion and a bottom portion; a first retainer portion made integrally with said top portion; and a second retainer portion made integrally with said bottom portion. 6. The assembly of claim 5 wherein said first and second retainer portions each have an aperture to receive a respective hook of said retainer strap. 7. The assembly of claim 4 wherein said umbrella pole support includes: a vertical rod extending generally parallel with and adjacent to said umbrella pole; a connector arm affixed to said vertical rod for connecting said vertical rod to said at least one support collar of said bent plate support; and top and bottom eyelets made integrally with said vertical rod to receive and support said umbrella pole. 8. The assembly of claim 7 wherein said bent plate support carries a second support collar to receive a fishing pole holder and a third support collar to receive a fishing pole holder. 9. The assembly of claim 4 wherein said bent plate includes: an end portion made integrally with a main contact portion and a bottom portion; an aperture in said top plate to receive a screw fastener for attachment of said bent plate to said object; and a threaded rod extending through a nut welded to said bottom portion, said threaded rod being adjustable in length to contact said object and help hold said bent plate attached to said object. 10. The assembly of claim 1 wherein said at least one serving tray includes: a rectangular-shaped food tray for supporting food products and the like; a rectangular-shaped drink holder made integrally with said food tray; a first support arm made integrally with said drink holder; and a pair of second support arms extending from said drink holder, wherein said first and second support arms contact said umbrella pole to support and hold said serving tray connected to said umbrella pole. 11. The assembly of claim 10 wherein said rectangular-shaped food tray and said drink holder are made of metal rods welded together and coated with a plastic coating. 12. The assembly of claim 10 wherein said rectangular-shaped food tray- and drink holder are made of a plastic material molded together as a unit. 13. The assembly of claim 1 wherein said at least one serving tray includes: a circular-shaped food tray for supporting food products and the like; a circular-shaped drink holder extending from said drink holder made integrally with said food tray; an upper support arm extending from said circular-shaped drink holder to partially encircle said umbrella pole; and a pair of lower support arms extending from said circular-shaped drink holder, wherein said upper and lower support arms contact said umbrella pole to support and hold said serving tray connected to said umbrella pole. 14. The assembly of claim 13 wherein said circular-shaped food tray and drink holder are made of metal rods welded together and coated with a plastic material. 15. The assembly of claim 13 wherein said circular-shaped food tray and drink holder are made of a plastic material molded together as a unit. 16. The assembly of claim 4 including a contact cushion placed between said bent plate and said object to protect said object from damage. 17. A support device associated with an object is provided for holding an umbrella with an umbrella pole supporting at least one serving tray to provide shade from the sun for a user occupying a portion of the object and using the serving tray; said support device comprises: a bent plate support in contact with and connected to said object; at least one retainer strap with a hook at each end for holding said bent plate in contact with said object; an umbrella pole support connected to said bent plate support to receive and help hold said umbrella pole; and at least one support collar welded to said bent plate support to receive and support said umbrella pole support. 18. The device of claim 17 wherein said bent plate support includes: an end portion made integrally with both a main contact portion and a bottom portion; a first retainer portion made integrally with said top portion; and a second retainer portion made integrally with said bottom portion, wherein said first and second retainer portions each have an aperture to receive a respective hook of said at least one retainer strap. 19. The device of claim 17 wherein said umbrella pole support includes: a vertical rod extending generally parallel with and adjacent to the umbrella pole; a connector arm affixed to said vertical rod for connecting said vertical rod to said bent plate; and top and bottom eyelets made integrally with said vertical rod to receive and support the umbrella pole. 20. The device of claim 18 including: a light assembly carried by the umbrella pole; a fishing pole holder attached to a second support collar of said bent plate support; and a telescoping umbrella pole. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention is directed to providing shade from the direct rays of the sun and more particularly to providing a support device and umbrella for tailgating or for a wooden deck or patio and the like. The support device further holds the umbrella pole vertically for installing serving trays on the umbrella pole for eating and drinking in the shade of the umbrella. Tailgating is a popular activity prior to and after a sporting activity, such as a football game. The family and friends arrive in their vehicle prior to the game to avoid heavy traffic near the game site. A good parking space is found near the game site and the food is prepared and consumed using the family vehicle as a base for eating and drinking the prepared food. Most times the parking space is not protected from the sun by shade trees or other structures and the family and friends need to provide their own sun shade means. A sun shade structure can be in the form of an open tent structure or lean-to and is generally erected at the rear or tail end of the vehicle. Many vehicles such as a sport utility vehicle, a mini van or a pickup and the like have a tail gate which is opened or lowered to assist the tailgating activity and the support of the sun shade. Generally speaking, there is no device for supporting a conventional umbrella at the rear end of a vehicle. Most families have an umbrella to use in providing protection from the sun. A need exists for being able to support an umbrella at the rear end of a vehicle to eliminate the need to purchase an additional sun shade structure for tailgating. Serving the prepared food while tailgating requires a plate for holding the food and a tray or table for supporting the plate. A seat or folding chair is generally provided for family and friends to sit while they eat. A need exists for using a sun shade structure which can help support the plate and provide a seat without purchasing and transporting additional tables and chairs. Conventional sun shade screens and supporting structure found in the industry for tailgating with vehicles are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,232,133; 5,857,741; 5,950,617; 6,314,891; and 6,357,710. The umbrella supports of '741 and '617 use the hitch receiver of the vehicle to support the umbrella. The use of an umbrella on the deck of a private residence for a sun screen structure is generally associated with conventional picnic or umbrella table having a center hole and lower support structure to support the umbrella pole vertically. The table also provides a conventional support for plates and the like when serving food or reading. A need exists for being able to support the umbrella from the deck structure alone to eliminate the expense of the table. The conventional handrail of the deck is available to help support the umbrella pole and serving trays can be supported from the umbrella pole to carry plates and the like. Typical umbrella supports from a picnic table are also disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,232,133 and 6,314,891. A need exists to support a conventional umbrella and umbrella pole from the rear tailgate of a vehicle using a support device to provide a sun screen structure when tailgating at a sporting event or a concert. Serving trays can also be supported from the umbrella pole to eliminate the need of separate tables. The support device needs to support the umbrella pole with serving trays so the tailgate of the vehicle can be used as a seat to support someone using the serving trays without the need for additional chairs. The support device also needs to provide alternate usage for an umbrella and umbrella pole supported from the handrail of a conventional deck. The addition of serving trays further eliminates the need for an umbrella table. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a support device that allows an umbrella with an umbrella pole to provide a sun screen structure when supported vertically at the rear end of a vehicle using a tail gate of the vehicle. Another object of the present invention is to provide serving trays supported by the umbrella pole to eliminate the need for a separate table when eating or drinking under the umbrella. Yet another object of the present invention is to locate the umbrella at the rear end of the vehicle so that the tail gate of the vehicle can be used as a seat when the serving trays are being used. A further object of the present invention is to provide the support device that also allows the umbrella and umbrella pole to be supported from the handrail of a deck or similar structure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The above objectives are accomplished according to the present invention by providing a combination sun screen and serving assembly. The invention is used to provide shade protection from the sun as well as protection from the weather by providing an umbrella supported by an umbrella pole held in place by attaching it to an object. The particular applications of interest in this invention are associated with sporting events, or using the umbrella for periods of relaxation on the deck of a residence. Sporting events include football games and fishing where the user makes use of his of her vehicle to travel to the event and for periods of other activities, such as resting and eating. Support for the umbrella pole is provided by a support device connected to an available object or, in this case, the vehicle. Preferably the tailgate is lowered for access to the vehicle from the outside and to provide a place to sit. The tailgate provides a convenient object for connecting the support device to the vehicle so that the umbrella is thereby located to provide protection for someone sitting on the tailgate. The umbrella pole serves a dual purpose in this invention by helping support serving trays to serve the needs of the user. Serving trays, as provided in this invention, are designed to be supported by the umbrella pole. This makes it unnecessary to provide either a chair or a table for the user. The same support device used with a vehicle can be used on the deck of a residence. The support device can be attached to and supported by one of the rails of the deck handrail. The same serving trays are again supported from the umbrella pole. Again, this invention helps eliminate the need on a deck for a picnic table or other means for serving food or providing other table functions, such as a magazine rack. The invention provides a combination sun screen and serving assembly for a user. The invention comprises a combination umbrella supported by an umbrella pole. A support device is attached to an object for holding the umbrella pole in a generally vertical position to shade at least a portion of the object and the user from the sun. At least one serving tray is held and supported by the umbrella pole to serve the needs of the user in the shade of the umbrella. In one embodiment of the invention the object is a vehicle having a tailgate and the support device includes a bent plate supported in contact with the tailgate. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the tailgate. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole. The bent plate includes an end portion made integral with both a main contact portion and a bottom portion. A first retainer portion is made integral with the main contact portion and a second retainer is made integral with the bottom portion. Each retainer portion has an aperture to receive a respective hook of the retainer strap. In another embodiment of the invention the object is a residential deck having a top rail and the support device includes a bent plate supported in contact with the top rail. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the top rail. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole on the residential deck. The invention further provides a support device associated with an object for holding an umbrella with an umbrella pole supporting at least one serving tray to provide shade from the sun for a user occupying a portion of the object and using the serving tray. The support device comprises a bent plate support in contact with the object. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the object. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole. At least one support collar is welded to the bent plate to receive and support the umbrella pole support. Additional accessories and applications are also realized within the scope of this invention. Accessories include a fishing pole holder and a bowl holder that are attached to one of the support collars of the support device. In addition a light assembly is added to the umbrella pole for at night time illumination of the object area. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The construction designed to carry out the invention will hereinafter be described, together with other features thereof. The invention will be more readily understood from a reading of the following specification and by reference to the accompanying drawings forming a part thereof, wherein an example of the invention is shown and wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a conventional umbrella and umbrella pole being supported by a support device from a tail gate of a vehicle for providing a sun screen structure with serving trays for tailgating; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an umbrella and umbrella pole being supported by the support device from a top rail of a deck for providing a sun screen structure with serving trays for a conventional deck; FIG. 3A is a plan view of a support device attached to the tail gate of a vehicle having a bent plate support, support collars, an umbrella pole support connected to the support collars and a retainer strap; FIG. 3B is a side elevation view of the support device attached to the tail gate of FIG. 3A; FIG. 4 is a front elevation view of the support device attached to the tail gate of FIG. 3A; FIG. 5A is a side elevation view of the support device attached to a top rail of a residential wood deck having a bent plate support, a support collar, an umbrella pole support connected to the support collar and a retainer strap; FIG. 5B is a side elevation view of an alternate attachment means having a screw and a threaded rod; FIG. 6A is a plan view of a rectangular serving tray of this invention having a food tray and a drink holder as well as a first support arm and a second support arm for supporting the serving tray from the umbrella pole; FIG. 6B is a side elevation view of the rectangular serving tray of FIG. 6A; FIG. 6C is a front elevation view of the rectangular serving tray of FIG. 6A; FIG. 7A is a plan view of a circular serving tray of this invention having a food tray and a drink holder as well as an upper support arm and a pair of lower support arms for supporting the serving tray from the umbrella pole; FIG. 7B is a side elevation view of the serving tray of FIG. 7A; FIG. 7C is a front elevation view of the serving tray of FIG. 7A; FIG. 8A is a perspective view at the rear of a vehicle showing a fishing pole being held by a fishing pole holder supported by one of the support collars of the support device of this invention attached to the vehicle tailgate; FIG. 8B is a perspective view of the fishing pole holder of FIG. 8A; FIG. 9A is a perspective view of a light holder being supported by the umbrella pole which is supported by one of the support collars of the support device of this invention attached to the tailgate of a vehicle; FIG. 9B is a plan view of the light being supported by a light support carried by the umbrella pole so that the light can be rotated about the umbrella pole; and FIG. 10 is a perspective view of a bowl holder with a bowl connector arm for placement in one of the support collars of the support device. DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now in more detail to the drawings, the invention will now be described in more detail. A first embodiment of a combination screen and serving assembly of this invention is illustrated in FIG. 1. The screen is a sun screen provided by an umbrella 10 supported from an articulated umbrella pole 12 by an object. The umbrella can be used to provide protection from the sun (sun screen) as well as protection from the weather. In the illustration of FIG. 1, the object is a vehicle 5 and the umbrella is supported at the rear of the vehicle with the umbrella pole sitting on the ground. A pickup with a tailgate 14 is used as the vehicle in the illustration. The tailgate provides a seat for the user to sit while resting or eating. Other type vehicles with tailgates including sport utility vehicles, mini vans and station wagons can also be provided with the sun screen and serving assembly of this invention. The umbrella pole is supported by a support device 20 attached to the tailgate of the vehicle. The serving assembly of this invention is provided by using umbrella pole 12 to support and hold at least one serving tray. The illustration of FIG. 1 shows both a rectangular serving tray 40 and a circular serving tray 60 being provided. The serving tray allows the user to have a horizontal surface to use for eating or placing papers and other articles at a convenient location. When used with the tailgate of a vehicle, as in FIG. 1, the user can sit on the tailgate and have a place to support food and beverages, as with a table. Details of the rectangular and circular serving trays are illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7 and are discussed in detail in the following sections. A second embodiment of the combination screen and serving assembly of this invention is illustrated in FIG. 2. In the second embodiment, umbrella 10 is supported by umbrella pole 12 deployed on a deck 16 of a residence. The object supporting the umbrella and umbrella pole is the deck having a top rail 17. The same support device 20 as used with the tailgate of a vehicle is connected to the top rail of the deck. The umbrella pole is placed in a sleeve 5 that rests on a deck floor 18. The sleeve provides an adjustment in the height of the umbrella above the deck floor. A set screw 15a holds the umbrella pole at a desired height as it telescopes up or down. Alternately, a telescoping umbrella pole can be used within the scope of this invention. The same serving trays 40 and 60 are used in this application. The serving trays replace the need of a table. This is an effective means to provide refreshments and shade or shelter during a party when using the deck to provide added space and serving tables for party members exterior to the residence. Support device 20 is illustrated in more detail in FIGS. 3A and 3B for the embodiment being tailgate 14 of the vehicle. The main components of the support device include a bent plate support 22, an umbrella pole support 30 and a retainer strap 24. The umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support using a support collar 28 affixed to the bent plate support. The umbrella pole support includes a connector arm 38 affixed to a vertical rod 32 that is inserted in the support collar and held in place by a connector arm retainer 39. Alternately, the umbrella pole support can be a curved rod 33 welded directly to the bent plate support within the scope of this invention. The umbrella pole support further includes a top eyelet 34 and a bottom eyelet 36 built integrally with the vertical rod. Umbrella pole 12 is placed through the top and bottom eyelets to hold the umbrella pole in a generally vertical position. The bent plate support is preferably made of metal where the umbrella pole support is preferably made of a heavy wire gauge or bent rods coated with a plastic material. The retainer strap is preferably made of a woven plastic material. Bent plate support 22 is integrally formed to provide a main contact portion 22a, an end portion 22b and bottom portion 22c. The bent plate support fits around tailgate 14 so that the bent plate support can be attached to and supported by the tailgate. A contact cushion 26 is placed between bent plate support portions 22a, 22b and 22c and tailgate 14 to protect the tailgate from being damaged by the bent plate support. Generally speaking, the bent plate support is coated or lined with rubber or to protect the object from being scratched. The contact cushion is preferably made of a sponge rubber or felt material. Support collar 28 is affixed to the end portion of the bent plate support for this tailgate attachment embodiment. A first retainer portion 22d of the bent plate support is made integrally with main contact portion 22a, and a second retainer portion 22e is made integrally with the bottom portion and provide apertures for using a retainer strap 24 to attach the bent plate support to the tailgate object. A retainer hook 23 connected at each end of the retainer strap is placed in a respective aperture 23a of first and second retainer portions 22d and 22e. Alternately, there can be two retainer straps with each extending to different component of the vehicle, such as a standard hitch receiver (not shown). The retainer strap or straps can also include ratchet devices within the scope of this invention to tighten the straps and better secure support device 20 to the object supporting the support device. An elevation view of support device 20 is shown in FIG. 4. A portion of umbrella pole 12 between top and bottom eyelets 34 and 36 has been removed so that the location of bent plate support 22 can be observed. Vertical rod 32 is formed integrally with the eyelets. Three support collars 28 are shown affixed to end portion 22b of the bent plate support. Either one of the support collars can be used to connect umbrella pole support 30 to the bent plate support. Main contact portion 22a rests on the top of the tailgate and bottom portion 22c extends below the tailgate. First and second retainer portions 22d and 22e have apertures 23a for receiving the retainer hooks interconnected by the retainer strap to hold the bent plate support in position attached to tailgate 12. Details of the use of bent plate support 22 for the second embodiment of FIG. 2 is shown in FIG. 5A. Once again, the object used for attaching the support device is top rail 17 of the deck. The top rail shown has a top member 17a and a vertical member 17b. For this configuration the bent plate support is used in a vertical position to wrap around the vertical member of the top rail. Another support collar 29 is added to main contact portion 22a of the bent plate support to receive connector arm 38 of umbrella pole support 30 and maintain the umbrella pole support in a vertical position. Support collars 28 can remain affixed to the bent plate support without affecting its use. The same umbrella pole support 30 is used as in the first embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3A, including vertical rod 32 with top eyelet 34 and bottom eyelet 36 supporting the umbrella pole 12. The same retainer strap 24 with hooks 23 can also be used with this second embodiment of FIG. 5A. Another aspect of this second embodiment allows the bent plate support to be directly attached to vertical member 17b of top rail 17, as illustrated in FIG. 5B. A positive attachment to the top rail can be realized by providing a screw fastener 27 through main contact portion 22a of the bent plate support into the vertical member of the top rail. A through bolt with a nut can also be used for providing this positive attachment. In addition, a threaded and bent rod 25 with a nut 25a can be added to bottom portion 22c of the bent plate support. The threaded rod is adjustable to contact the vertical member and help hold the bent plate support attached to the top rail. The serving trays of this invention are now discussed in more detail. Rectangular serving tray 40 is illustrated in detail in the plan view of FIG. 6A, the side elevation view of FIG. 6B and the front elevation view of FIG. 6C. The rectangular serving-tray is made from an assembly of circular members interconnected together. Preferably the members are straight and bent metal wires or rods welded together and coated with a plastic coating to prevent dirt and corrosion from being a problem. Alternately, the rectangular serving tray can be made of a stainless steel, a corrosive resistant steel alloy or formed as a unit from a plastic sheet. Preferably the rectangular serving tray comprises a food tray 42 and a drink holder 44. The members are formed so that the rectangular serving tray can be place on umbrella pole 12 and held on the umbrella pole by the weight of the rectangular serving tray itself. A first support arm 46 formed from the upper members of the drink holder combine with second support arms 48 formed from the lower members of the drink holder to support the rectangular serving tray. The rectangular serving tray is held on the umbrella pole by friction without the need for additional fasteners or any special protrusions or indentations in umbrella pole 12. Circular serving tray 60 is illustrated in detail in the plan view of FIG. 7A, the side elevation view of FIG. 7B and the front elevation view of FIG. 7C. The circular serving tray is also made from an assembly of circular members interconnected together. Preferably the members are straight and bent metal wires or rods welded together and coated with a plastic coating to prevent dirt and corrosion from being a problem. Alternately, the circular serving tray can be made of a stainless steel, a corrosive resistant steel alloy or formed as a unit from a plastic sheet. Preferably the circular serving tray comprises a circular food tray 62 and a circular drink holder 64. The members are formed so that the circular serving tray can be place on umbrella pole 12 and held on the umbrella pole by the weight of the circular serving tray itself. An upper support arm 66 formed as an extension of the upper members of the circular drink holder combine with lower support arms 68 formed from the lower members of the circular drink holder to support the circular serving tray. The circular serving tray is held on the umbrella pole by friction without the need for additional fasteners or any special protrusions or indentations in umbrella pole 12. Serving trays 40 and 60 can be configured to place drink holders 44 and 64 in an alternate location within the scope of this invention. In one alternate location the drink holders are placed in the center of food trays 42 and 62 respectfully. In a second alternate location the drink holders are placed at the edge of the food trays opposite the location of the umbrella pole. For the first and second alternate locations support arms 46, 48, 66 and 68 are made as extensions of the members of the food trays. Additional accessories and applications are also realized within the scope of this invention. With the umbrella supported by umbrella pole 12 at the rear of vehicle 5 by support device 20, a fisherman can park the vehicle at the edge of a body of water and fish. A sun screen is provided by the umbrella (not shown) and tailgate 14 provides a seat for the fisherman, as illustrated in FIG. 8A. Umbrella pole support 30 is shown to have a curved rod 33 in this application. The support device of this invention includes additional support collars 28 (see FIG. 3A) which can be used to support a fishing pole holder 70 for a fishing pole 6. The fishing pole holder carries the fishing pole to assist the fisherman from having to hold the fishing pole. Details of the fishing pole holder are illustrated in FIG. 8B. The fishing pole holder is formed with a top loop 74 and a bottom loop 76 formed integrally with a holder rod 72. A holder connector arm 78 is placed in support collar 28 of support device 20 so that the fishing pole holder can carry the fishing pole without assistance from the fisherman. Another accessory realized within the scope of this invention is the addition of a light assembly 80 supported by the umbrella pole at the rear of vehicle 5. Some sporting activities where tailgating is commonly practiced continue after dark. The light assembly can be used for these and other activities. Possibly the umbrella pole alone is all that is necessary after dark. Umbrella pole 12 connected to tailgate 14 using support device 20, with umbrella pole support 30, is an excellent support for the light assembly, as illustrated in FIG. 9A. Details of the light assembly are illustrated in FIG. 9B. The light assembly includes a light 82 and a light support 84. The light is preferably a twelve volt white light with a standard trailer hookup plug 89. The light support has a top hook 83 and a bottom hook 85 that are connected together to hold the light assembly on the umbrella pole. The light support also includes a pivot arm 86 that extends to form a pivot connector 88 with the light. A winged nut 87 allows the direction of the light to be adjusted vertically up and down around the pivot arm. Moving the light support around umbrella pole 12 allows the direction of the light to be adjusted laterally. A further accessory easily made to use another one of the support collars of support device 20 is the bowl holder 90, illustrated in FIG. 10. A bowl connector arm 98 is made to fit into support collar 28 and support the bowl holder. The bowl holder has a circular top ring 92 and a support ring 94 to support a standard cereal bowl. This accessory is a companion to the serving trays disclosed and discussed above for eating or having snacks. While a preferred embodiment of the invention has been described using specific terms and a particular prior art reference, such description is for illustrative purposes only, and it is to be understood that changes and variations may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention is directed to providing shade from the direct rays of the sun and more particularly to providing a support device and umbrella for tailgating or for a wooden deck or patio and the like. The support device further holds the umbrella pole vertically for installing serving trays on the umbrella pole for eating and drinking in the shade of the umbrella. Tailgating is a popular activity prior to and after a sporting activity, such as a football game. The family and friends arrive in their vehicle prior to the game to avoid heavy traffic near the game site. A good parking space is found near the game site and the food is prepared and consumed using the family vehicle as a base for eating and drinking the prepared food. Most times the parking space is not protected from the sun by shade trees or other structures and the family and friends need to provide their own sun shade means. A sun shade structure can be in the form of an open tent structure or lean-to and is generally erected at the rear or tail end of the vehicle. Many vehicles such as a sport utility vehicle, a mini van or a pickup and the like have a tail gate which is opened or lowered to assist the tailgating activity and the support of the sun shade. Generally speaking, there is no device for supporting a conventional umbrella at the rear end of a vehicle. Most families have an umbrella to use in providing protection from the sun. A need exists for being able to support an umbrella at the rear end of a vehicle to eliminate the need to purchase an additional sun shade structure for tailgating. Serving the prepared food while tailgating requires a plate for holding the food and a tray or table for supporting the plate. A seat or folding chair is generally provided for family and friends to sit while they eat. A need exists for using a sun shade structure which can help support the plate and provide a seat without purchasing and transporting additional tables and chairs. Conventional sun shade screens and supporting structure found in the industry for tailgating with vehicles are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,232,133; 5,857,741; 5,950,617; 6,314,891; and 6,357,710. The umbrella supports of '741 and '617 use the hitch receiver of the vehicle to support the umbrella. The use of an umbrella on the deck of a private residence for a sun screen structure is generally associated with conventional picnic or umbrella table having a center hole and lower support structure to support the umbrella pole vertically. The table also provides a conventional support for plates and the like when serving food or reading. A need exists for being able to support the umbrella from the deck structure alone to eliminate the expense of the table. The conventional handrail of the deck is available to help support the umbrella pole and serving trays can be supported from the umbrella pole to carry plates and the like. Typical umbrella supports from a picnic table are also disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,232,133 and 6,314,891. A need exists to support a conventional umbrella and umbrella pole from the rear tailgate of a vehicle using a support device to provide a sun screen structure when tailgating at a sporting event or a concert. Serving trays can also be supported from the umbrella pole to eliminate the need of separate tables. The support device needs to support the umbrella pole with serving trays so the tailgate of the vehicle can be used as a seat to support someone using the serving trays without the need for additional chairs. The support device also needs to provide alternate usage for an umbrella and umbrella pole supported from the handrail of a conventional deck. The addition of serving trays further eliminates the need for an umbrella table. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a support device that allows an umbrella with an umbrella pole to provide a sun screen structure when supported vertically at the rear end of a vehicle using a tail gate of the vehicle. Another object of the present invention is to provide serving trays supported by the umbrella pole to eliminate the need for a separate table when eating or drinking under the umbrella. Yet another object of the present invention is to locate the umbrella at the rear end of the vehicle so that the tail gate of the vehicle can be used as a seat when the serving trays are being used. A further object of the present invention is to provide the support device that also allows the umbrella and umbrella pole to be supported from the handrail of a deck or similar structure. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The above objectives are accomplished according to the present invention by providing a combination sun screen and serving assembly. The invention is used to provide shade protection from the sun as well as protection from the weather by providing an umbrella supported by an umbrella pole held in place by attaching it to an object. The particular applications of interest in this invention are associated with sporting events, or using the umbrella for periods of relaxation on the deck of a residence. Sporting events include football games and fishing where the user makes use of his of her vehicle to travel to the event and for periods of other activities, such as resting and eating. Support for the umbrella pole is provided by a support device connected to an available object or, in this case, the vehicle. Preferably the tailgate is lowered for access to the vehicle from the outside and to provide a place to sit. The tailgate provides a convenient object for connecting the support device to the vehicle so that the umbrella is thereby located to provide protection for someone sitting on the tailgate. The umbrella pole serves a dual purpose in this invention by helping support serving trays to serve the needs of the user. Serving trays, as provided in this invention, are designed to be supported by the umbrella pole. This makes it unnecessary to provide either a chair or a table for the user. The same support device used with a vehicle can be used on the deck of a residence. The support device can be attached to and supported by one of the rails of the deck handrail. The same serving trays are again supported from the umbrella pole. Again, this invention helps eliminate the need on a deck for a picnic table or other means for serving food or providing other table functions, such as a magazine rack. The invention provides a combination sun screen and serving assembly for a user. The invention comprises a combination umbrella supported by an umbrella pole. A support device is attached to an object for holding the umbrella pole in a generally vertical position to shade at least a portion of the object and the user from the sun. At least one serving tray is held and supported by the umbrella pole to serve the needs of the user in the shade of the umbrella. In one embodiment of the invention the object is a vehicle having a tailgate and the support device includes a bent plate supported in contact with the tailgate. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the tailgate. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole. The bent plate includes an end portion made integral with both a main contact portion and a bottom portion. A first retainer portion is made integral with the main contact portion and a second retainer is made integral with the bottom portion. Each retainer portion has an aperture to receive a respective hook of the retainer strap. In another embodiment of the invention the object is a residential deck having a top rail and the support device includes a bent plate supported in contact with the top rail. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the top rail. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole on the residential deck. The invention further provides a support device associated with an object for holding an umbrella with an umbrella pole supporting at least one serving tray to provide shade from the sun for a user occupying a portion of the object and using the serving tray. The support device comprises a bent plate support in contact with the object. At least one retainer strap with a hook at each end holds the bent plate in contact with the object. An umbrella pole support is connected to the bent plate support to receive and help hold the umbrella pole. At least one support collar is welded to the bent plate to receive and support the umbrella pole support. Additional accessories and applications are also realized within the scope of this invention. Accessories include a fishing pole holder and a bowl holder that are attached to one of the support collars of the support device. In addition a light assembly is added to the umbrella pole for at night time illumination of the object area. | 20041119 | 20080226 | 20060525 | 57921.0 | E04H1502 | 0 | YIP, WINNIE S | UMBRELLA SUPPORT DEVICE AND SERVING TRAYS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | E04H | 2,004 |
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10,993,198 | ACCEPTED | Communication through a financial services network | A method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal includes: receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed, the message being independent of the transaction performed. Apparatus for communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal comprises: a first communication network; a second communication network including a transaction terminal; a computer memory; one or more processors collectively executing a sequence of instructions defining functions of receiving the message over the first communication network; storing the message in the memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message over the second communication network. The recipient may be selected from a target list of recipients identified with a sponsor, wherein the message includes a reference to the target list. | 1. A method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a financial transaction at a transaction terminal, the method comprising: receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; performing the financial transaction at the transaction terminal, using the unique identifier; detecting performance of the financial transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed and any message generated in response to performance of the transaction, the message being independent of the transaction performed. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: storing the unique identifier in a transaction token having memory therefor. 3. The method of claim 2, further comprising: transmitting the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; and searching the memory for the message using the reference to unique identifier to find the message. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the unique identifier is a transaction card number. 5. The method of claim 2, further comprising: transmitting a limited use identifier mapped to the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; determining, by a reverse mapping, the unique identifier; and searching the memory for the message using the unique identifier to find the message. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein receiving further comprises: receiving input to a computer through a browser interface. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the reference to the unique identifier includes a name by which the recipient is known. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the reference to the unique identifier is an e-mail address. 9. A computer-implemented method of enhancing financial transaction services, the method comprising: providing a computer network including a transaction terminal through which financial transactions are communicated; performing a financial transaction; communicating a message from a sender to a recipient through the computer network, wherein the message is transmitted to the recipient through the transaction terminal incidental to performance by the recipient of the financial transaction and any message generated in response to performance of the financial transaction. 10. A method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal, the method comprising: receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to a message retrieval system accessible by dialing a telephone number; and transmitting the telephone number for the message retrieval system to which the message has been transmitted to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising: storing the unique identifier in a transaction token having memory therefor. 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising: transmitting the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; and searching the memory for the message using the reference to unique identifier to find the message. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the unique identifier is a transaction card number. 14. The method of claim 11, further comprising: transmitting a limited use identifier mapped to the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; determining, by a reverse mapping, the unique identifier; and searching the memory for the message using the unique identifier to find the message. 15. The method of claim 10, wherein receiving further comprises: receiving input to a computer through a browser interface. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the reference to the unique identifier includes a name by which the recipient is known. 17. The method of claim 10, wherein the reference to the unique identifier is an e-mail address. 18. Apparatus for communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a financial transaction at a transaction terminal, the apparatus comprising: a first communication network; a second communication network including a transaction terminal; a computer memory; one or more processors collectively executing a sequence of instructions defining functions of: receiving the message over the first communication network; storing the message in the memory; detecting performance by the recipient of the financial transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message over the second communication network together with any message generated in response to performance of the financial transaction. 19. The method of claim 1, further comprising: repeatedly performing the acts of the method using a single message for a plurality of recipients all on a common distribution list. 20. A method of communicating a message to a target list of recipients identified with a sponsor, the method comprising: issuing to each recipient on the target list of recipients a unique identifier by which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal; associating the unique identifier with the sponsor; receiving the message, the message including a reference to the target list; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance, by the recipient on the target list, of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient, incidental to the transaction performed, the message being independent of the transaction performed. 21. The method of claim 20, further comprising: repeating the acts of detecting and transmitting the message for plural recipients on the target list. 22. The method of claim 21, further comprising: setting an expiration time for the message; and ceasing the act of repeating upon reaching the expiration time. 23. The method of claim 20, further comprising: initiating the method in conjunction with a marketing opportunity. | BACKGROUND The present invention relates to methods and apparatus for communicating messages from a sender to a recipient. More particularly, the invention relates to methods and apparatus for communicating with a recipient having access to a transaction terminal, such as a point of sale (POS) terminal or automatic teller machine (ATM) terminal. Modern technological communication methods and apparatus employ many different types of networks. For example, telephone users, including cellular telephone users, communicate over the public switched telephone network (PSTN). A calling party need only know the phone number of the called party in order to establish a connection. If direct communication cannot be established, for example when a called party is not present at the location of the telephone at which they have been called, or when a called party is using a cell phone, but is out of range, voicemail takes over. The calling party can leave a message for the called party to pick up when convenient. But, even when using a cell phone, the called party is only alerted to the presence of a message when in range. Moreover, in order for the called party to receive the message, they must initiate an access of their voicemail system. This is inconvenient or impossible in some locales. Another type of network used for communication is the world-wide Internet network of computers. The Internet is enabling technology for, among other things, email and instant messaging (IMing). With email, if a sender knows the email address of a recipient, a message can be sent that is stored in the recipient's email inbox until it becomes convenient for the recipient to retrieve and read. IMing works a bit more like a phone call, in that a two-way link can be established by the sending party, by simply sending an initial message to the address of the recipient. Some IM systems allow for a sort of stored and forwarded message, like voicemail, for absent recipients, while others do not. In a conventional IM system each sender and recipient communicates through a specialized server. Some common features of all of the systems described above include that the systems utilize a publicly accessible network, and significantly, that the sender and recipient each have access to an addressable communications device. Another type of ubiquitously available communication system is the transaction processing network. Each credit or debit card clearing company, such as Master Card International and Visa International, has constructed and established such a network through which various types of financial transactions pass. These networks are tailored for the private, secure, transmission of financial transaction data, and are not otherwise publicly accessible. POS terminals and ATM terminals communicate financial transaction data privately and securely from the user to the user's financial institution, card issuer, etc. However, such networks do not carry private messages or provide users with addressable communications devices. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to aspects of some embodiments of the invention, a method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal comprising: receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed and any message generated in response to performance of the transaction, the message being independent of the transaction performed. Numerous variations are possible. For example, the method may further comprise storing the unique identifier in a transaction token having memory therefor. The method may yet further comprise transmitting the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; and searching the memory for the message using the reference to unique identifier to find the message. The unique identifier may be a transaction card number. According to another alternative, the method may further comprise transmitting a limited use identifier mapped to the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; determining, by a reverse mapping, the unique identifier; and searching the memory for the message using the unique identifier to find the message. According to other aspects of some embodiments of the invention, a computer-implemented method of enhancing financial transaction services comprises providing a computer network including a transaction terminal through which financial transactions are communicated; communicating a message from a sender to a recipient through the computer network, wherein the message is transmitted to the recipient through the transaction terminal incidental to performance by the recipient of the financial transaction and any message generated in response to performance of the financial transaction. According to yet other aspects of some embodiments of the invention, a method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed, the message being independent of the transaction performed. In a variation, the method further comprises storing the unique identifier in a transaction token having memory therefore. The method may yet further comprise transmitting the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; and searching the memory for the message using the reference to unique identifier to find the message. The unique identifier may be a transaction card number. The method may yet further comprise transmitting a limited use identifier mapped to the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; determining, by a reverse mapping, the unique identifier; and searching the memory for the message using the unique identifier to find the message. Apparatus for communicating a message from a sender to recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal comprises: a first communication network; a second communication network including a transaction terminal; a computer memory; one or more processors collectively executing a sequence of instructions defining functions of receiving the message over the first communication network; storing the message in the memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message over the second communication network together with any message generated in response to performance of the financial transaction. According to aspects of yet other embodiments of the invention, a method of communicating a message to a target list of recipients identified with a sponsor includes: issuing to each recipient on the target list of recipients a unique identifier by which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal; associating the unique identifier with the sponsor; receiving the message, the message including a reference to the target list; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance, by the recipient on the target list, of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient, incidental to the transaction performed, the message being independent of the transaction performed. The acts of the method may be repeated for each member of the target list. The message may have an expiration time, after which no further attempts to sent it will be made. The acts of the method may be initiated in connection with a marketing opportunity, particularly one relevant to the sponsor. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawings, in which like reference designations indicate like elements: FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram of an embodiment of aspects of the invention; FIG. 2 is a more detailed schematic block diagram of the front end elements of the embodiment of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a more detailed schematic block diagram of the back end elements of the embodiments of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a more detailed schematic block diagram of the back end elements of the embodiments of FIG. 1; and FIG. 5 is a more detailed schematic block diagram of the back end elements of the embodiments of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION This invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangement of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or of being carried out in various ways. Also, the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. The use of “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” “containing”, “involving”, and variations thereof herein, is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items. According to embodiments of aspects of the present invention, a message can be transmitted to a traveler or other person who does not have access to a conventional landline or cellular telephone, or to an internet-connected computer or other conventional communication device. Senders input messages to a system which stores the messages and then forwards the messages to the recipients at a transaction terminal, such as a point-of-sale (POS) terminal or an automated teller machine (ATM), where the recipient attempts to perform a financial transaction using a financial transaction card or the like. Advantageously, although the invention does not guarantee delivery of a message within a particular timeframe, it does allow recipients to be reached in locations where conventional telephone, cellular phone or text messaging services do not reach, during ordinary activities in those locations. Embodiments of the present invention may be realized in methods and apparatus that permit a sender to communicate with a recipient, for example by storing a message and later forwarding the message to the recipient when the recipient uses a transaction terminal. In at least some embodiments, the methods and apparatus may rely on networks of computer equipment deployed for the performance of financial transactions, including those initiated by a credit card or a debit card, or another token identified with a credit card number or debit card number. The recipient interface with the equipment may be, for example, a point-of-sale (POS) terminal or automatic teller machine (ATM) terminal. The methods and apparatus further include a sender interface having one or more systems for gathering the information needed to store and forward a message from a sender to a recipient. The information gathered may include the message itself, as well as addressing information by which the recipient is identified. For purposes of illustration, without limiting the invention to the particular example described, it is assumed that the recipient possesses a credit card, or the like, having a unique identifier whereby the recipient ordinarily identifies an account through which a transaction is to be processed. The unique identifier may identify the recipient, which information is then used to identify an account which is the subject of a transaction, or may directly identify the account which is the subject of a transaction. The term “credit card,” as used herein should be understood to include any such card or token having a unique identifier whereby the recipient ordinarily identifies an account through which a transaction is to be processed. Thus, “credit card” includes, but is not limited to both credit and debit cards, as well as other account identification tokens such as the Speedpass™ radio frequency identification (RFID) device (available from Exxon-Mobil Corporation) and devices which generate single-use unique identifiers using encryption, synchronous code generation or other suitable security techniques. Although, as mentioned above, a unique identifier identifies an account through which, or with which, a card holder desires to process a transaction, it may also be used to locate the card holder when the card holder requests a transaction. Law enforcement agencies sometimes use this ability to track fugitive or missing persons, based on the places where their financial transactions are initiated. Because unique identifiers are sometimes unique to an account, but not unique to a person, plural card holders having access to the same account may be indistinguishable in this way, unless each card holder is issued their own unique identifier. Moreover, such activity by law enforcement necessitates subpoenaing records which are later delivered by the record-holder. Real-time tracking is not done. According to aspects of embodiments of the invention, any card holder who may at some time wish to receive messages, i.e. a potential recipient, should preferably have their own unique identifier associated with a credit card, referred to as an enabled credit card, for at least one account. The unique identifier could be shared by plural users of a single account, such as when husband and wife share a credit card account, but some loss of definition of a target message recipient may result. A sender who knows a potential recipient, and who possesses sufficient identifying information about the potential recipient can, using aspects of embodiments of the invention, direct a message to the potential recipient (now, simply a recipient). The sender need not know the recipient's unique identifier, but rather any suitable set of identifying information may be used, e.g., full name and postal code, or an e-mail address. The next time the recipient performs a transaction at a transaction terminal using their enabled credit card, the message will be delivered to the recipient by being displayed on the transaction terminal and/or printed on a transaction receipt. As explained below, alternatively a message directing the recipient how to retrieve the message may be displayed and/or printed. According to aspects of embodiments of the invention, recipients can be grouped into distribution lists, bulk mailing lists, interest groups and the like that constitute defined subsets of all of the enabled credit card holders of a particular issuer. Under such aspects, a common message can be sent to each member of such a list or group upon the next use of their enabled credit cards. Messages can also be assigned expiration times after which they will no longer be delivered, or can be made retractable, by any suitable means, such as are available using some commercial e-mail systems. The foregoing aspects may be better understood upon consideration of a brief example. Specialty credit cards are available, for example, associated with or sponsored by a particular sporting team, entertainer or group, product, manufacturer or service provider. A single issuer, for example a bank, may issue several different specialty cards, such as for supporters of several different sporting teams. Using aspects of embodiments of the invention, the entity sponsoring a specialty card may send a message to a distribution list including all holders of their specialty card, while excluding holders of some other specialty card. For example, when tickets to a sporting event, concert, product upgrades, new products or new services become available, a promotional message can be sent to all specialty card holders whose specialty card identifies an interest in the event, product or service affected. In this way, when a marketing opportunity presents itself, communication of a message targeted to a distribution list of interested specialty card holders can be commenced. Other associations between a targeted message, the entity sponsoring the specialty card, the distribution list and the nature of the interest of the specialty card holders in the message are possible. In this example, the distribution list can be the entire list of specialty card holders of a particular sponsor or some faction thereof, all of which may be a subset of the enabled credit cards issued by a given issuer. A message is prepared and then sent, as described herein, to each member of the distribution list. No special handling of the distribution list is required because the list is broken down to individual addresses for the addressing and transmission of messages. Transmission of messages to individual recipients is described in detail, below. According to aspects of embodiments of the invention, as shown in FIG. 1, a network 100 enabling senders to send messages to recipients includes a front end 101 and a back end 102. The front end 101 collects messages from one or more senders, while the back end 102 passes messages on to recipients through an existing transaction network, the back end 102 being the transaction network in this exemplary embodiment. For security reasons, the front end 101 and the back end 102 can be separated by a strong firewall 103 or other suitable connection limiting device. One way the front end 101 and the back end 102 might be configured to communicate is as follows. Messages are collected by the front end 101 and stored in a memory or on a storage device 104. Periodically, the back end 102 polls the memory or storage device 104 through the firewall 103, to retrieve new messages for delivery. During such queries, a port is opened in the firewall for a reply to the query, which must be properly formatted and directed to the correct port of the firewall. No unsolicited communication initiated by the front end 101 is permitted, only responses to queries from the back end 102, ensuring that the back end 102 is secure and cannot be tampered with. To further ensure security of the system, if desired, the system can limit the permissible types or contents of messages traversing the firewall 103. For example, the back end 102 may be configured to process only simple text messages, entirely lacking formatting or other code. The messages can be encapsulated by the front end 101, transported to the transaction terminal 105 through the back end 102, and then un-encapsulated and displayed and/or printed by the transaction terminal 105. Messages are thus prevented from interacting with the financial transaction network of the back end, but are rather merely transported by the financial transaction network. Of course, any other suitable security measures can alternatively or additionally be implemented. For example, the front end 101 and back end 102 could be physically disconnected at all times, with messages being collected on physical media 104, such as computer disks, and then being moved from the front end 101 to the back end 102 by the physical transportation of the media, such as computer disks, from a computer on the front end to a computer on the back end. Such a method effectively prevents unauthorized, non-message contact with the back end 102 by an intruder that has found a way to violate the firewall 103. As shown in FIG. 2, the front end 101 is a store and forward system that can be embodied in a distributed system using a general-purpose communication network 201 the Internet, for example. Senders with access to a computer terminal 200 or the like can direct their browser software 202 to a World Wide Web site on a front end system 203 at which they enter into a Web page form identifying information pertaining to the recipient to which a message is directed. Alternatively, senders can send an email to an email address at a server on a front end system 203, wherein the email address has previously been assigned to or identifies the recipient to which the message is directed. In yet another alternative, senders can send an email to a common email address serviced by an email server that parses the contents of the email message into information identifying the recipient and a message body containing the message the sender intends the recipient to receive. The email server then stores the message on a storage medium 104 for transport to the recipient through the back end network 103 at an appropriate time. In yet another embodiment, the message itself is stored on the front end system, but not transmitted to the transaction terminal through the back end system. Rather, a message instructing the recipient to call an automated voice response (AVR) system is delivered and displayed or printed at the transaction terminal. When the recipient calls the AVR system and validates their identity to the AVR system, the AVR system then delivers the original message to the recipient, for example by “reading” it aloud using voice synthesis or by playing it back, if the message originated as an audio message. The recipient's call to the AVR system can optionally be charged back to the recipient's transaction account. Instead of an AVR system, any suitable message retrieval system can be used. The message displayed or printed can be any suitable message instructing the recipient to contact the message retrieval system. As shown in FIG. 3, the back end 102 is a financial transaction network, for example a suitable existing or new financial transaction network. The network includes at least one financial transaction processing device 301, for example a transaction server, and at least one transaction terminal 302, connected through a communication network 303. The transaction terminal 302 may be a point of sale (POS) terminal or automatic teller machine (ATM) terminal, or any other suitable transaction terminal. When a recipient uses an enabled credit card to perform a transaction at the transaction terminal 302, a transaction message is sent from the transaction terminal to the transaction server 301 identifying the unique identifier associated with the enabled credit card. The transaction server uses the unique identifier to access associated account information which may be stored on storage device 304, and to perform the requested transaction. The transaction server 301, or optionally a special purpose device connected to the network further uses the unique identifier to retrieve any messages for the recipient by communication through the firewall 103 with the front end system 203 to match the identifying information contained in the messages to the unique identifier supplied with the transaction. Matching and identification can occur on the front end or the back end as may be convenient. As described above, the messages can then be appended to the reply by the transaction processing device to the transaction terminal 302, so that the messages can be displayed or printed on a receipt by the transaction terminal 302. Alternatively, as also described above, a message to call AVR system can be appended to the reply. Various aspects of embodiments according to the invention may be implemented on one or more computer systems. These computer systems, including firewall 103, computer terminal 200, front end system 203, financial transaction processing device 301, and transaction terminal 302, may be, for example, general-purpose computers such as those based on Intel PENTIUM-type processor, Motorola PowerPC, Sun UltraSPARC, Hewlett-Packard PA-RISC processors, or any other type of processor. It should be appreciated that one or more of any type computer system may be used to perform any of the communication or data processing tasks described according to various embodiments of the invention. Further, any part of the system may be located on a single computer or may be distributed among a plurality of computers attached by a communications network. A general-purpose computer system may be configured to perform any of the described functions including but not limited to collecting messages, storing messages, forwarding message and displaying or printing messages. It should be appreciated that the system may perform other functions, including network communication, and the invention is not limited to having any particular function or set of functions. For example, various aspects of the invention may be implemented as specialized software executing in a general-purpose computer system 400 such as that shown in FIG. 4. The computer system 400 may include a processor 403 connected to one or more memory devices 404, such as a disk drive, memory, or other device for storing data. Memory 404 is typically used for storing programs and data during operation of the computer system 400. Components of computer system 400 may be coupled by an interconnection mechanism 405, which may include one or more busses (e.g., between components that are integrated within a same machine) and/or a network (e.g., between components that reside on separate discrete machines). The interconnection mechanism 405 enables communications (e.g., data, instructions) to be exchanged between system components of system 400. Computer system 400 also includes one or more input devices 402, for example, a keyboard, mouse, trackball, microphone, touch screen, and one or more output devices 401, for example, a printing device, display screen, speaker. In addition, computer system 400 may contain one or more interfaces (not shown) that connect computer system 400 to a communication network (in addition or as an alternative to the interconnection mechanism 405. The storage system 406, shown in greater detail in FIG. 5, typically includes a computer readable and writeable nonvolatile recording medium 501 in which signals are stored that define a program to be executed by the processor or information stored on or in the medium 501 to be processed by the program. The medium may, for example, be a disk or flash memory. Typically, in operation, the processor causes data to be read from the nonvolatile recording medium 501 into another memory 502 that allows for faster access to the information by the processor than does the medium 501. This memory 502 is typically a volatile, random access memory such as a dynamic random access memory (DRAM) or static memory (SRAM). It may be located in storage system 406, as shown, or in memory system 404, not shown. The processor 403 generally manipulates the data within the integrated circuit memory 404, 502 and then copies the data to the medium 501 after processing is completed. A variety of mechanisms are known for managing data movement between the medium 501 and the integrated circuit memory element 404, 502, and the invention is not limited thereto. The invention is not limited to a particular memory system 404 or storage system 406. The computer system may include specially-programmed, special-purpose hardware, for example, an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Aspects of the invention may be implemented in software, hardware or firmware, or any combination thereof. Further, such methods, acts, systems, system elements and components thereof may be implemented as part of the computer system described above or as an independent component. Although computer system 400 is shown by way of example as one type of computer system upon which various aspects of the invention may be practiced, it should be appreciated that aspects of the invention are not limited to being implemented on the computer system as shown in FIG. 4. Various aspects of the invention may be practiced on one or more computers having a different architecture or components that that shown in FIG. 4. Computer system 400 may be a general-purpose computer system that is programmable using a high-level computer programming language. Computer system 400 may be also implemented using specially programmed, special purpose hardware. In computer system 400, processor 403 is typically a commercially available processor such as the well-known Pentium class processor available from the Intel Corporation. Many other processors are available. Such a processor usually executes an operating system which may be, for example, the Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000 (Windows ME) or Windows XP operating systems available from the Microsoft Corporation, MAC OS System X operating system available from Apple Computer, the Solaris operating system available from Sun Microsystems, or UNIX operating systems available from various sources. Many other operating systems may be used. The processor and operating system together define a computer platform for which application programs in high-level programming languages are written. It should be understood that the invention is not limited to a particular computer system platform, processor, operating system, or network. Also, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention is not limited to a specific programming language or computer system. Further, it should be appreciated that other appropriate programming languages and other appropriate computer systems could also be used. One or more portions of the computer system may be distributed across one or more computer systems coupled to a communications network. These computer systems also may be general-purpose computer systems. For example, various aspects of the invention may be distributed among one or more computer systems configured to provide a service (e.g., servers) to one or more client computers, or to perform an overall task as part of a distributed system. For example, various aspects of the invention may be performed on a client-server or multi-tier system that includes components distributed among one or more server systems that perform various functions according to various embodiments of the invention. These components may be executable, intermediate (e.g., IL) or interpreted (e.g., Java) code which communicate over a communication network (e.g., the Internet) using a communication protocol (e.g., TCP/IP). It should be appreciated that the invention is not limited to executing on any particular system or group of systems. Also, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited to any particular distributed architecture, network, or communication protocol. Various embodiments of the present invention may be programmed using an object-oriented programming language, such as SmallTalk, Java, C++, Ada, or C# (C-Sharp). Other object-oriented programming languages may also be used. Alternatively, functional, scripting, and/or logical programming languages may be used. Various aspects of the invention may be implemented in a non-programmed environment (e.g., documents created in HTML, XML or other format that, when viewed in a window of a browser program, render aspects of a graphical-user interface (GUI) or perform other functions). Various aspects of the invention may be implemented as programmed or non-programmed elements, or any combination thereof. Having thus described several aspects of at least one embodiment of this invention, it is to be appreciated various alterations, modifications, and improvements will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Such alterations, modifications, and improvements are intended to be part of this disclosure, and are intended to be within the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the foregoing description and drawings are by way of example only. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention relates to methods and apparatus for communicating messages from a sender to a recipient. More particularly, the invention relates to methods and apparatus for communicating with a recipient having access to a transaction terminal, such as a point of sale (POS) terminal or automatic teller machine (ATM) terminal. Modern technological communication methods and apparatus employ many different types of networks. For example, telephone users, including cellular telephone users, communicate over the public switched telephone network (PSTN). A calling party need only know the phone number of the called party in order to establish a connection. If direct communication cannot be established, for example when a called party is not present at the location of the telephone at which they have been called, or when a called party is using a cell phone, but is out of range, voicemail takes over. The calling party can leave a message for the called party to pick up when convenient. But, even when using a cell phone, the called party is only alerted to the presence of a message when in range. Moreover, in order for the called party to receive the message, they must initiate an access of their voicemail system. This is inconvenient or impossible in some locales. Another type of network used for communication is the world-wide Internet network of computers. The Internet is enabling technology for, among other things, email and instant messaging (IMing). With email, if a sender knows the email address of a recipient, a message can be sent that is stored in the recipient's email inbox until it becomes convenient for the recipient to retrieve and read. IMing works a bit more like a phone call, in that a two-way link can be established by the sending party, by simply sending an initial message to the address of the recipient. Some IM systems allow for a sort of stored and forwarded message, like voicemail, for absent recipients, while others do not. In a conventional IM system each sender and recipient communicates through a specialized server. Some common features of all of the systems described above include that the systems utilize a publicly accessible network, and significantly, that the sender and recipient each have access to an addressable communications device. Another type of ubiquitously available communication system is the transaction processing network. Each credit or debit card clearing company, such as Master Card International and Visa International, has constructed and established such a network through which various types of financial transactions pass. These networks are tailored for the private, secure, transmission of financial transaction data, and are not otherwise publicly accessible. POS terminals and ATM terminals communicate financial transaction data privately and securely from the user to the user's financial institution, card issuer, etc. However, such networks do not carry private messages or provide users with addressable communications devices. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to aspects of some embodiments of the invention, a method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal comprising: receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed and any message generated in response to performance of the transaction, the message being independent of the transaction performed. Numerous variations are possible. For example, the method may further comprise storing the unique identifier in a transaction token having memory therefor. The method may yet further comprise transmitting the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; and searching the memory for the message using the reference to unique identifier to find the message. The unique identifier may be a transaction card number. According to another alternative, the method may further comprise transmitting a limited use identifier mapped to the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; determining, by a reverse mapping, the unique identifier; and searching the memory for the message using the unique identifier to find the message. According to other aspects of some embodiments of the invention, a computer-implemented method of enhancing financial transaction services comprises providing a computer network including a transaction terminal through which financial transactions are communicated; communicating a message from a sender to a recipient through the computer network, wherein the message is transmitted to the recipient through the transaction terminal incidental to performance by the recipient of the financial transaction and any message generated in response to performance of the financial transaction. According to yet other aspects of some embodiments of the invention, a method of communicating a message from a sender to a recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal receiving the message from the sender, the message including a reference to the unique identifier; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient incidental to the transaction performed, the message being independent of the transaction performed. In a variation, the method further comprises storing the unique identifier in a transaction token having memory therefore. The method may yet further comprise transmitting the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; and searching the memory for the message using the reference to unique identifier to find the message. The unique identifier may be a transaction card number. The method may yet further comprise transmitting a limited use identifier mapped to the unique identifier from the transaction terminal to a transaction processor in communication with the memory; determining, by a reverse mapping, the unique identifier; and searching the memory for the message using the unique identifier to find the message. Apparatus for communicating a message from a sender to recipient in possession of a unique identifier by use of which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal comprises: a first communication network; a second communication network including a transaction terminal; a computer memory; one or more processors collectively executing a sequence of instructions defining functions of receiving the message over the first communication network; storing the message in the memory; detecting performance by the recipient of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message over the second communication network together with any message generated in response to performance of the financial transaction. According to aspects of yet other embodiments of the invention, a method of communicating a message to a target list of recipients identified with a sponsor includes: issuing to each recipient on the target list of recipients a unique identifier by which the recipient can perform a transaction at a transaction terminal; associating the unique identifier with the sponsor; receiving the message, the message including a reference to the target list; storing the message in a computer memory; detecting performance, by the recipient on the target list, of a transaction at the transaction terminal; and transmitting the message from the computer memory in which it is stored to the transaction terminal for display to the recipient, incidental to the transaction performed, the message being independent of the transaction performed. The acts of the method may be repeated for each member of the target list. The message may have an expiration time, after which no further attempts to sent it will be made. The acts of the method may be initiated in connection with a marketing opportunity, particularly one relevant to the sponsor. | 20041119 | 20090303 | 20050922 | 97458.0 | 1 | APPLE, KIRSTEN SACHWITZ | COMMUNICATION THROUGH A FINANCIAL SERVICES NETWORK | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,217 | ACCEPTED | Wireless interactive headset | A wearable wireless audio device includes a support, an electronics circuit, and a speaker. The support includes a first ear stem and an orbital, and is configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view. The electronics circuit is supported by the support and is configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file. The speaker is supported by the support, and is directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears. The speaker is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. The speaker has a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. The speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. The speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. | 1. A wearable wireless audio device, comprising: a support comprising a first ear stem and an orbital, the support configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view; a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and an electronics circuit supported by the support and configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file. 2. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, wherein the electronics circuit is further configured to process the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. 3. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, further comprising a first speaker supported by the support, directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and configured to convert the audio signal into sound. 4. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 3, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. 5. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 3, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. 6. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 5, wherein the angle is between about 30° and about 90°. 7. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 3, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. 8. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 7, wherein the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. 9. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 3, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, wherein the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. 10. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 3, wherein the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. 11. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, wherein the digital audio file is compressed. 12. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 11, wherein the digital audio file is an MP3 formatted file. 13. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, wherein the support further comprises a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and wherein the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. 14. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, further comprising a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and wherein the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. 15. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, further comprising a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. 16. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, further comprising a second ear stem, wherein the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. 17. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, further comprising a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. 18. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, further comprising a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. 19. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 18, wherein the data port is selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. 20. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, wherein said wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. 21. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 20, wherein said wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. 22. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 21, wherein said data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. 23. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 21, further comprising a protective door, wherein said protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. 24. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, wherein the electronics circuit is further configured to decompress the audio file. 25. A wearable wireless audio device as in claim 1, wherein the electronics circuit is configured to receive at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate. 26. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 25, wherein said data transfer rate is selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. 27. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 1, wherein the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. 28. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 27, wherein said data encoding rate is selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. 29. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 1, wherein the at least′ one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. 30. The wearable wireless audio device of claim 29, wherein said compression format is selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, .ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. 31. A wearable wireless audio device, comprising: a support comprising a first ear stem and an orbital, the support configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view; an electronics circuit supported by the support and configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file; and a first speaker supported by the support, directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and configured to convert the audio signal into sound, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane, wherein the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. 32-56. (canceled) 57. A method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device, comprising: supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; supporting a first speaker with the first ear stem; and directing said first speaker toward at least one of the wearer's ears, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane, wherein the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. 58-82. (canceled) 83. A method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device, the method comprising: supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; providing a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; and generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital. 84-112. (canceled) 113. A wearable wireless audio device, comprising: means for supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; means for providing a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and means for receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; and means for generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital. 114-118. (canceled) 119. A speaker support system, comprising: a support frame, adapted to be carried by a head of a wearer; at least one speaker carried by the support frame, the speaker having a sound propagation axis and a transverse axis, wherein the transverse axis is substantially perpendicular to the sound propagation axis and lies substantially within a speaker plane of the at least one speaker; wherein the support frame holds the at least one speaker substantially adjacent an ear of the wearer such that the transverse axis is inclined at an orientation angle with respect to a tragus-tragus line, wherein the orientation angle is within the range of from about 15 degrees to about 85 degrees. 120. (canceled) | REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/628,831, filed Jul. 28, 2003, which claims priority benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) from U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/399,317, filed Jul. 26, 2002 and 60/460,154, filed Apr. 3, 2003, and which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/004,543, filed Dec. 4, 2001, pending, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/585,593, filed Jun. 2, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,325,507, and the present application claims priority benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 120 to the same. Moreover, the present application incorporates all of the foregoing disclosures herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention is directed to wearable audio devices, and in particular, devices that humans can wear on their heads. 2. Description of the Related Art In the portable audio playback industry, certain devices for remote audio listening have become more popular. Certain companies have begun to widely distribute portable audio playback devices, such as MP3 players, which allow a user to listen to audio files with the use of headphones. For example, a user can wear a headset having speakers connected by a flexible cable to an MP3 player, which can be worn on the belt. However, with such headsets, whenever a user wants to wear glasses or sunglasses, they must adjust or remove the headset from their ears. Further, it is often quite uncomfortable to wear both a headset and a pair of sunglasses at the same time. Such discomfort, when applied for a long period of time, can cause muscular pain and/or headaches. In addition, the flexible cable extending from the MP3 player to the headphones can limit mobility of the wearer; particularly those participating in sporting activities. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one embodiment of the present invention, a wearable wireless audio device, includes a support, a support arm, and an electronics circuit. The support includes a first ear stem and an orbital, and is configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view. The support arm has a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end. The first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis. The first rotation axis and the second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another. The electronics circuit is supported by the support and is configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file. In another embodiment, the electronics circuit is configured to process the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a first speaker supported by the support, is directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. The speaker generally includes a speaker face, and is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. In one embodiment, the angle is between about 300 and about 90°. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In yet another embodiment, the speaker includes a speaker face, and the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In another embodiment, the support includes a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device further includes a second ear stem, the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. The wearable wireless audio device may be removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. In one embodiment, the data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a protective door, wherein the protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In one embodiment, the electronics circuit is further configured to decompress the audio file. The electronics circuit may be configured to receive at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format is selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, .ra, mm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, a wearable wireless audio device includes a support, an electronics circuit and a first speaker. The support comprises a first ear stem and an orbital, and the support is configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view. The electronics circuit is supported by the support and is configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file. The first speaker is supported by the support, is directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. The speaker may comprise a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. The speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. The speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In another embodiment, the electronics circuit is configured to process the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. The speaker generally includes a speaker face, and is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In one embodiment, the angle is between about 300 and about 900. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In another embodiment, the support includes a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device further includes a second ear stem, the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. The wearable wireless audio device may be removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. In one embodiment, the data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a protective door, wherein the protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In one embodiment, the electronics circuit is further configured to decompress the audio file. The electronics circuit may be configured to receive at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format may be selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device comprises: supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; supporting a first speaker with the first ear stem; and directing said first speaker toward at least one of the wearer's ears, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane, wherein the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In one embodiment, the method further comprises processing the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. In one embodiment, the speaker includes a speaker face, and is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In one embodiment, the angle is between about 30° and about 90°. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. The wearable wireless audio device may be removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. In one embodiment, the data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a protective door, wherein the protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In one embodiment, the method further comprises decompressing the audio file. In another embodiment, the receiving is performed at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format may be selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device comprises: supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; providing a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; and generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital. In one embodiment, the method further comprises processing the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. In another embodiment, the method further comprises supporting a first speaker with the support, wherein the first speaker is configured to be directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and wherein the first speaker is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. In one embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. The angle may be between about 30° and about 90°. In one embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In one embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In one embodiment, the method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device further comprises providing a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and wherein the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and wherein the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an EEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. The data port may be selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a protective door, wherein said protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In another embodiment, the method further comprises decompressing the audio file. In another embodiment, the receiving is performed at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In one embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In one embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format may be selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, .ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, a wearable wireless audio device, comprises: means for supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; means for providing a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; means for receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; and means for generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device further comprises means for decompressing the audio file. In one embodiment, the means for receiving at least one digital audio file is configured to receive the at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate, and in another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. In one embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. According to yet another embodiment of the present inventon, a speaker support system, comprises: a support frame, adapted to be carried by a head of a wearer; at least one speaker carried by the support frame, the speaker having a sound propagation axis and a transverse axis, wherein the transverse axis is substantially perpendicular to the sound propagation axis and lies substantially within a speaker plane of the at least one speaker, wherein the support frame holds the at least one speaker substantially adjacent an ear of the wearer such that the transverse axis is inclined at an orientation angle with respect to a tragus-tragus line, and wherein the orientation angle is within the range of from about 15 degrees to about 85 degrees. In one embodiment, the orientation angle is about 25 degrees. Further features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those of skill in the art in view of the detailed description of preferred embodiments which follows, when considered together with the attached drawings and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a front elevational view of a wearable audio device supported by a human head. FIG. 2 is a left side elevational view of an implementation of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 1. FIG. 3A is a front, left side, and top perspective view of a modification of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 3B is a top plan view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 3A. FIG. 3C is a schematic top plan view of the audio device of FIG. 3A worn on the head of a wearer. FIG. 3D is a front, top, and left side perspective view of another modification of the wearable audio devices illustrated in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3A-C. FIG. 3E is a rear, top, and right side perspective view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3F is a right side elevational view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3G is a left side elevational view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3H is a front elevational view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3I is a top plan view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3J is a front, top, and left side perspective and exploded view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3K is an enlarged left side elevational view of one of the speakers of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 3L is an enlarged front elevational view of the speaker illustrated in FIG. 3K. FIG. 3M is a schematic illustration of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 3D. FIG. 4A is a schematic representation of a rear and left side perspective view of a further modification of the wearable audio devices illustrated in FIGS. 1, 2, and 3A-J. FIG. 4B is a schematic representation of a partial sectional and left side elevational view of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 4A worn by a wearer. FIG. 5A is a partial sectional and side elevational view of a modification of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 4A. FIG. 5B is a partial sectional and side elevational view of a modification of the wearable audio device illustrated in FIG. 5A. FIG. 6 is a left side elevational view of a modification of the audio device illustrated in FIGS. 3-5 worn on the head of a user. FIG. 7 is a front elevational view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 6. FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of a front elevational view of a further modification of the audio device illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 worn by a wearer and interacting with source electronics. FIG. 9A is an enlarged schematic representation of a front elevational view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 8. FIG. 9B is a schematic representation of a left side elevational view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 9A. FIG. 10 is a schematic left side elevational view of a modification of the audio device illustrated in FIGS. 8 and 9A, B. FIG. 11 is a front elevational view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 10. FIG. 12 is a top plan view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 10. FIG. 13 is a schematic representation of a partial cross-sectional view of a portion of any of the audio devices illustrated in FIGS. 1-12. FIG. 14 is a schematic representation of a partial cross-sectional view of a modification of the portion illustrated in FIG. 13. FIG. 15 is a left side elevational view of a modification of the audio devices illustrated in FIGS. 8-12. FIG. 16 is a front elevational view of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 15. FIG. 17 is a schematic illustration of communication hardware which can be incorporated into any of the wearable audio device as illustrated in FIGS. 1-16 and the communication hardware of another device. FIG. 18 is a schematic representation showing three output signals, the uppermost signal being the output of a source device, and the lower signals being the representation of the output of an encoder/decoder device illustrated in FIG. 17. FIG. 19 is a schematic illustration of the decoder illustrated in FIG. 17. FIG. 20 is a schematic illustration of a modification of the decoder illustrated in FIG. 19, which can be incorporated into any of the wearable audio devices illustrated in FIGS. 1-16. FIG. 21 is a schematic representation of an audio network. FIG. 22 is a schematic representation of the audio device illustrated in FIG. 21. FIG. 23 is a schematic representation of an audio playback method. FIG. 24 is a right side elevational view of an audio device. FIG. 24A is a detail view of a speaker pivot as in FIG. 24. FIG. 24B is a detail view of an axially extendable speaker support. FIG. 25 is a schematic of a cross-sectional view taken along line 25-25 of FIG. 24. FIG. 26 is a front elevational view of the audio device of FIG. 24. FIG. 27 is a front elevational view of the audio device of FIG. 24 shown in a second configuration. FIG. 28 is a left side elevational view of the audio device of FIG. 27. FIG. 29 is a schematic representation of a top plan view of a wearer's head. FIG. 30 is a schematic representation of a partial horizontal cross-sectional view of the left ear of the wearer's head of FIG. 29. FIG. 31 is a schematic representation of a partial cross-sectional view of the left ear of the wearer's head of FIG. 29, illustrating a speaker positioned therein. FIG. 32 is an elevational perspective view of an audio device in relation to a reference system. FIG. 33 is a top plan view of the audio device and reference system of FIG. 32. FIG. 34 is a front elevational view of the audio device and reference system of FIG. 32. FIG. 35 is a side elevational view of the audio device and reference system of FIG. 32. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT With reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, an audio device 10 includes a support 12 and left and right speakers 14, 16. The audio device 10 is illustrated as being supported on the head 18 of a human. The head 18 includes a nose 19, and left and right ears 20, 22. The schematic representation of human ears 20 and 22 are intended to represent the tissue forming the pinna of a human ear. With reference to FIG. 2, the meatus of the external auditory canal 24 is illustrated schematically as a circle (in phantom) generally at the center of the left ear 20. The support 12 is configured to be supported by the head 18. Thus, the support 12 can be in the form of any of a variety of wearable garments or devices, such as any known headwear. For example, but without limitation, the support-12 can be in the form of a hat, sweatband, tiara, helmet, headphones, visor, and any of a variety of eyewear such as goggles, masks, face shields and eyeglasses. Advantageously, the support 12 is configured to support the speakers 14, 16 at a position juxtaposed to the ears 20, 22, respectively, without applying a force against the ears 20, 22 sufficient for anchoring the speakers 14, 16 in place. Thus, the support 12 contacts the head 18 at a position other than the outer surface of the ears 20, 22. As shown in FIG. 1, the support 12 is supported by the head 18 by a support portion 26 which contacts a portion of the head 18 other than the outer surface of the ears 20, 22. For example, but without limitation, the support 26 can contact the top of the head 18, the sides of the head 18, top of the nose 19, forehead, occipital lobe, etc. The audio device 10 also includes support members 28, 30 which extend from the support 12 to the speakers 14, 16, respectively. The support members 28, 30 are provided with sufficient strength to maintain the position of the speakers 14, 16 such that the speakers 14, 16 are spaced from the outer surface of the ears 20, 22. Optionally, the support members 28, 30 can be made from a flexible material configured to allow the speakers 14, 16 to be moved toward and away from the ears 20, 22, respectively. For example, any of a variety of flexible metallic structures such as wire can be provided with a flexible polymer coating, to permit adjustability of the speakers 14, 16. Metal or polymeric segmented support members 28, 30 can also be provided. In general, the support members in accordance with this aspect of the invention are sufficiently flexible that they may be moved by manual force between a first position in front of the ear of the wearer, and a second position, spaced apart from the first position. The support member 28, 30 are then able to retain the position into which they have been moved. Alternatively, the support members 28, 30 can be mounted relative to the support 12 with a mechanical device configured to allow the speakers 14, 16 to be moved toward and away from the ears 20, 22 respectively. The same mechanical device or an additional mechanical device can also optionally be configured to allow the speakers 14, 16 and/or supports 28, 30 to be translated forward and rearwardly relative to the support 12. Further, such mechanical devices can be used in conjunction with the flexibility provided to the support members 28, 30 from a flexible material noted above. As such, the user can adjust the spacing between the speakers 14, 16 and the ears 20, 22 to provide the desired spacing. As noted above, the speakers 14, 16 are spaced from the ears 20, 22 such that the speakers 14, 16 do not engage the outer surface of the ears 20, 22 with sufficient force to provide an anchoring effect for the speakers 14, 16. Thus, the speakers 14, 16 can make contact with the ears 20, 22, at a pressure less than that sufficient to cause discomfort to the user. Comfort of the user is further enhanced if the support 12 is configured to maintain gaps 32, 34 between the speakers 14, 16 and the ears 20, 22, respectively. As such, the chance of irritation to the user's ears 20, 22 is eliminated. Preferably, the gaps 32, 34 are within the range from about 2 mm to about 3 cm. The gaps 32, 34 can be measured from the inner surface of the speakers 14, 16 and the outer surface of the tragus (small projection along the front edge of a human ear which partially overlies the meatus of the external auditory canal 24) (FIG. 2). Such a spacing can allow the support 12 to be removed and replaced onto the head 18 of the user without rubbing against the ears 20, 22. This makes the audio device 10 more convenient to use. A modification of the audio device 10 is illustrated in FIG. 3A, and referred to generally by the reference numeral 10A. Components of the audio device 10A that are the same as the audio device 10 have been given the same reference numeral, except that a letter “A” has been added thereto. In the illustrated embodiment of the audio device 10A, the support 12A is in the form of an eyeglass 40. The eyeglass 40 comprises a frame 42 which supports left and right lenses 44, 46. Although the present audio device 10A will be described with reference to a dual lens eyeglass, it is to be understood that the methods and principles discussed herein are readily applicable to the production of frames for unitary lens eyeglass systems and protective goggle systems as well. Further, the lenses 44, 46 can be completely omitted. Optionally, at least one of the lenses 44, 46 can be in the form of a view finder or a video display unit configured to be viewable by a wearer of the support 12A. Preferably, the lenses 44, 46 are configured to provide variable light attenuation. For example, each of the lenses 44, 46 can comprise a pair of stacked polarized lenses, with one of the pair being rotatable relative to the other. For example, each lens of the stacked pairs can comprise an iodine stained polarizing element. By rotating one lens relative to the other, the alignment of the polar directions of the lenses changes, thereby changing the amount of light that can pass through the pair. U.S. Pat. No. 2,237,567 discloses iodine stained polarizers and is hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference. Additionally, rotatable lens designs are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,149,780, which is hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, the lenses 44, 46, can comprise photochromic compositions that darken in bright light and fade in lower light environments. Such compositions can include, for example, but without limitation, silver, copper, and cadmium halides. Photochromic compounds for lenses are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,312,811, 5,658,502, 4,537,612, each of which are hereby expressly incorporated by reference. More preferably, the lenses 44, 46 comprise a dichroic dye guest-host device configured to provide variable light attenuation. For example, the lenses 44, 46 can comprise spaced substrates coated with a conducting layer, an alignment layer, and preferably a passivation layer. Disposed between the substrates is a guest-host solution which comprises a host material and a light-absorbing dichroic dye guest. A power circuit (not shown) can be supported by the frame 42. The power circuit is provided with a power supply connected to the conducting layers. Adjustment of the power supply alters the orientation of the host material which in turn alters the orientation of the dichroic dye. Light is absorbed by the dichroic dye, depending upon its orientation, and thus provides variable light attenuation. Such a dichroic dye guest-host device is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,239,778, which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference. Alternatively, the lenses may be pivotably or hingeably connected to the frame, so that they may be partially or completely rotated out of the field of sight. See the discussion of FIGS. 25 and 26, below. The frame 42 also comprises left and right orbitals 48, 50 for supporting the left and right lenses 44, 46, respectively. Although the present invention will be described in the context of a pair of orbitals 48, 50 which surround the respective lenses 44, 46, the principles of the present inventions also apply to eyeglass systems in which the orbitals only partially surround the lens or lenses, or contacts only one edge or a portion of one edge of the lens or each lens as well. In the illustrated embodiment, the orbitals 48, 50 are connected by a bridge portion 52. The eyeglass 40 is also provided with a pair of generally rearwardly extending ear stems 54, 56 configured to retain the eyeglass 40 on the head of a wearer. In addition, an open region 58 is configured to receive the nose of the wearer, as is understood in the art. The open region 58 may optionally be provided with a nose piece, either connected to the lens orbitals 48, 50, or the bridge 52, or directly to the lenses, depending on the particular embodiment. Alternatively, the nose piece may be formed by appropriately sculpting the medial edges of the orbitals 48, 50 and the lower edge of the bridge 52, as in the illustrated embodiment. The frame 42 and the ear stems 54, 56 can be made from any appropriate material, including polymers and metals. Preferably, the frame 42 and the ear stems 54, 56 are manufactured from a polymer. The orbitals 48, 50 can be separately formed and assembled later with a separately manufactured bridge 52, or the orbitals 48, 50 and bridge 52 can be integrally molded or cast. When a metal material is used, casting the eyeglass components directly into the final configuration desirably eliminates the need to bend metal parts. The ear stems 54, 56 are pivotally connected to the frame 42 with hinges 60, 62. Additionally, the ear stems 54, 56 preferably include padded portions 64, 66, respectively. The padded portions preferably comprise a foam, rubber, or other soft material for enhancing comfort for a wearer. The padded portions 64, 66 preferably are positioned such that when the audio device 10A is worn by a wearer, the padded portions 64, 66 contact the wearer between the side of the user's head and the superior crux and/or upper portion of the helix of the wearer's ears. In the illustrated embodiment, the support members 28A, 30A are in the form of support arms 68, 70 extending downwardly from the ear stems 54, 56, respectively. As such, the speakers 14A, 16A can be precisely positioned relative to the ears 20, 22 (FIG. 1) of a wearer's head 18. Because the eyeglass 40 is generally supported at three points of contact with the wearer's head, the alignment of the speakers 14A, 16A with the ears 20, 22 can be reliably repeated. In particular, the eyeglass 40 is supported at the left ear stem in the vicinity of the left ear 20, at the bridge 52 by a portion of the user's head 18 in the vicinity of the nose 19, and at the right ear stem 56 by a portion of the user's head 18 in the vicinity of the ear 22. Optionally, the support arms 68, 70 can be flexible. Thus, users can adjust the spacing 32, 34 (FIG. 1) between the speakers 14A, 16A and the ears 20, 22, respectively. Once a wearer adjusts the spacing of the speakers 14A, 16A from the ears 20, 22, respectively, the spacing will be preserved each time the wearer puts on or removes the eyeglass 40. The various degrees of adjustability for the speakers will be discussed in detail below. Further, the support arms 68, 70 can be attached to the ear stems 54, 56, respectively, with mechanical devices (not shown) configured to allow the support arms 68, 70 to be adjustable. For example, such a mechanical device can allow the support arms 68, 70 to be pivoted, rotated, and/or translated so as to adjust a spacing between the speakers 14A, 16A and the ears 20, 22. The same mechanical devices or other mechanical devices can be configured to allow the support arm 68, 70 to be pivoted, rotated, and/or translated to adjust a forward to rearward alignment and/or an up-down alignment of the speakers 14A, 16A and the ears 20, 22, respectively. Such mechanical devices are described in greater detail below with reference to FIGS. 3D-J and FIGS. 23-30, below. With the configuration shown in FIG. 3A, the audio device 10A maintains the speakers 14A, 16A in a juxtaposed position relative to the ears 20, 22, respectively, and spaced therefrom. Thus, the user is not likely to experience discomfort from wearing and using the audio device 10A. Preferably, the support arms 68, 70 are raked rearwardly along the ear stems 54, 56, respectively. As such, the support arms 68, 70 better cooperate with the shape of the human ear. For example, the helix and the lobe of the human ear are generally raised and extend outwardly from the side of a human head. The helix extends generally from an upper forward portion of the ear, along the top edge of the ear, then downwardly along a rearward edge of the ear, terminating at the lobe. However, the tragus is nearly flush with the side of the human head. Thus, by arranging the support arm 68, 70 in a rearwardly raked orientation, the support arms 68, 70 are less likely to make contact with any portion of the ear. Particularly, the support arms 68, 70 can be positioned so as to be lower than and medial to the upper portion of the helix, above the lobe, and preferably overlie the tragus. Alternatively, the support arms 68, 70 can be attached to the ear stems 54, 56, respectively, at a position rearward from the meatus of the ears 20, 22 when the eyeglass 40 is worn by a user. As such, the support arms 68, 70 preferably are raked forwardly so as to extend around the helix and position the speakers 14A, 16A approximately over the tragus. This construction provides a further advantage in that if a user rotates the eyeglass 40 such that the lenses 44, 46 are moved upwardly out of the field of view of the wearer (such that the eyeglasses are worn across the forehead or across the top of the head), the speakers 14A, 16A can be more easily maintained in alignment with the ears 20, 22 of the wearer. Preferably, the support arms 68, 70 are raked rearwardly so as to form angles 72, 74 relative to an approximate longitudinal axis of the ear stems 54, 56. The angles 72, 74 can be between 0 and 90 degrees. Preferably, the angles 72, 74 are between 10 and 70 degrees. More preferably, the angles 72, 74 are between 20 and 50 degrees. The angles 72, 74 can be between about 35 and 45 degrees. In the illustrated embodiment, the angles 72, 74 are about 40 degrees. Optionally, the support arm 68, 70 can be curved within an anterior-posterior plane. In this configuration, the angles 72, 74 can be measured between the longitudinal axis of the ear stems 54, 56 and a line extending from the point at which the support arm 68, 70 connect to the ear stems 54, 56 and the speakers 14A, 16A. The audio device 10A can be used as an audio output device for any type of device which provides an audio output signal. The audio device 10A can include an audio input terminal or jack disposed anywhere on the eyeglass 40 for receiving a digital or analog audio signal. Preferably, wires connecting the input jack (not shown) with the speakers 14A, 16A extend through the interior of the ear stems 54, 56 so as to preserve the outer appearance of the eyeglass 40. Alternatively, the audio device 10A can include a wireless receiver or transceiver for receiving digital signals from another device. With reference to FIGS. 3D-3J, a modification of the audio devices 10, 10A is illustrated therein and referred to generally by the reference numeral 10A′. The audio device 10A′ can include the same components as the audio devices 10, 10A except as noted below. Components of the audio device 10A′ that are similar to the corresponding components of the audio devices 10, 10A may be identified with the same reference numerals except, that a “′” has been added thereto. The audio device 10A′ is in the form of an eyeglass 12A′ having a frame 40A′. The audio device 10A′ also includes a device for the storage and playback of a sound recording. As noted above, an aspect of at least one of the inventions disclosed herein includes a realization that the forward to rearward spacing of the bridge of a human nose to the auditory canal of the ear falls into a relatively narrow range of distances for large portions of the population. For example, the forward-to-rearward spacing from the bridge of the nose to the auditory canal is normally between about 4⅞ inches to about 5⅛ inches, and often between about 4¾ inches and about 5¼ inches. Corresponding anterior-posterior plane adjustability of the speakers is preferably provided. Thus, with reference to FIG. 3F, the audio device 10A′ is configured such that the supports 68′, 70′, can translate, along a forward to rearward direction, over a range identified generally by the reference numeral Rt. Preferably, the range Rt is at least about ⅛ of one inch. Further, the range Rt can be at least about ¼ of one inch. Further, the range Rt can be in the range of from about 0.25 inches to about 1.5 inches, and in one construction is about 0.75 of one inch. The midpoint of the anterior-posterior range of motion is generally positioned with respect to the bridge of the nose within the range of from about 4⅞ inches to about 5⅛ inches posteriorly of the eyeglass nose bridge. As such, a substantial percentage of the human population will be able to align a Center (C) of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ with their auditory canal. With reference to FIG. 3G, a further advantage is provided where the diameter Ds of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ is greater than about 0.5 inches, such as about 1 inch or greater. As such, an effective range Re (FIG. 3F) over which the speakers 14A′, 16A′ can reach, is significantly enhanced with respect to the above-noted nose bridge to auditory canal spacings for humans. Thus, the connection between the supports 68′, 70′ to the ear stems 54′, 56′, respectively, can be configured to allow a limited anterior-posterior translational range of movement of Rt yet provide a larger range of coverage Re. Preferably, the connection between the support 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′, is configured such that the translational position of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ is maintained when a user removes the audio device 10A′ from their head. For example, the connection between the supports 68′, 70′, and the ear stems 54′, 56′ can generate sufficient friction so as to resist movement due to the weight of the supports 68′, 70′ and the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Alternatively, the connection or an adjustment device can include locks, clips, or other structures to prevent unwanted translational movement of the speakers 14A′, 16A′. As such, a further advantage is provided in that a user can repeatedly remove and replace the audio device 10A′ without having to readjust the translational position of the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Another advantage is provided where the supports 68′, 70′ are made from a material or design that is substantially rigid, at least at room temperature. For example, with reference to FIG. 3F, the angles 72′, 74′ defined between the supports 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′, respectively, can be maintained at a predetermined value while the speakers 14A′, 16A′ can be moved along an anterior-posterior axis over the range Rt. Thus, as noted above with reference to FIG. 3A and the description of the angles 72, 74, the angles 72′, 74′ can be maintained at a desired angle as a user moves the speakers 14A′, 16A′ over the range Rt. Optionally, the supports 68′, 70′ can be made from a material that can be deformed at room temperature. However, more preferably the material is sufficiently rigid such that substantial pressure is required to change the angle 74′. Alternatively, the supports 68′, 70′ can be made from a thermally sensitive material that can be softened with the application of heat. Thus, a wearer of the audio device 10A′ can heat the supports 68′, 70′ and adjust the angle 74′ to optimize comfort for the particular wearer. Such thermal sensitive materials are widely used in the eyewear industry and thus a further description of such materials is not deemed necessary for one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the inventions disclosed herein. Alternatively, the speakers can be pivotably mounted to the supports, and/or the supports can be pivotably mounted to the ear stems, to allow further adjustability in the anterior-posterior plane as well as in the lateral or medial direction. Preferably, the angles 72′, 74′ and lengths of the corresponding supports are selected such that the spacing Vs between the center C of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ and a lower surface of the ear stems 54′, 56′ is within the range of about 0.25 inch to about 1.75 inch, and often within the range of from about 0.75 of an inch to about 1.25 inches. One aspect of at least one of the inventions disclosed herein includes the realization that there is little variation in the spacing for adult humans between the center of the auditory canal and the connecting tissue between the pinna of the ear and the skin on the side of the head. In particular, it has been found that in virtually all humans, the distance between the upper most connection of the ear and the head to the center of the auditory canal is between 0.75 of an inch and 1.25 inches. Thus, by sizing the angles 72′, 74′ such that the spacing Vs is between about 0.75 of an inch and 1.25 inches, the audio device 10A can be worn by virtually any adult human and has sufficient alignment between the wearer's auditory canal and the center C of the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Further, where the diameter Ds of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ is about 1 inch, almost any human can wear the audio device 10A′ without having to adjust the angles 72′, 74′. In other words, the auditory canal of virtually any human would be aligned with a portion of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ although the wearer's auditory canal might not be precisely aligned with the center C of the speakers 14A′, 16A′. With reference to FIG. 3H, the supports 68′, 70′ are configured to allow the speakers 14A′, 16A′, respectively, to pivot toward and away from an ear of a user. For example, as shown in FIG. 3H, the supports 68′, 70′ are connected to the ear stems 54′, 56′, respectively, so as to be pivotable about a pivot axis P. As such, the speakers 14A′, 16A′ can be pivoted or swung about the pivot axis P. The range of motion provided by the connection between the supports 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′ is identified by the angle S in FIG. 3H. In FIG. 3H, the speaker 14A′ is illustrated in an intermediate position in the range of motion provided by the connection between the support 68′ and the ear stem 54′. The illustration of the speaker 16A′ includes a solid line representation showing a maximum outward position of the speaker 16A′ (not to actual scale). Additionally, FIG. 3H includes a phantom illustration of the speaker 16A′ in a maximum inward position. The angle S illustrates a range of motion between a maximum outward position (solid line) and a maximum inward position (phantom line) of the speaker 16A′. Preferably, the range of motion S is sufficiently large to allow any human wearer of the audio device 10A′ to position the speakers 14A′, 16A′ such that sound emitted from the speakers 14A′, 16A′ is clearly audible yet comfortable for the wearer of the audio device 10A′. For example, human ears vary in the precise shape and size of the external anatomy. As such, one wearer of the audio device 10A′ may have outer facing features of their ear that project further than another wearer of the audio device 10A′. Thus, one wearer may prefer the speakers 14A′, 16A′ to be positioned more inwardly than another wearer. Further, some wearers of the audio device 10A′ may prefer to press the speakers 14A′, 16A′ into contact with the outer surfaces of their ears. For example, some users may desire to experience to loudest possible volume or the best possible signal to ambient noise ratio from the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Thus, by pressing the speakers 14A′, 16A′ against their ears, the perceived volume of the sound emitted from the speakers 14A′, 16A′ and the signal to external noise ratio will be the greatest. Alternatively, other users may prefer to have the speakers spaced from the outer surfaces of their ear so as to prevent contact with the ear, yet maintain a close spacing to preserve the perceived volume of the sound emitted from the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Additionally, a user may occasionally wish to move the speakers 14A′, 16A′ further away from their ears, to allow the wearer to better hear other ambient sounds when the speakers 14A′, 16A′ are not operating. For example, a wearer of the audio device 10A′ might wish to use a cellular phone while wearing the audio device 10A′. Thus, the wearer can pivot one of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ to a maximum outward position (e.g., the solid line illustration of speaker 16A′ in FIG. 3H) to allow a speaker of the cell phone to be inserted in the space between the speaker 16A′ and the ear of the wearer. As such, the wearer can continue to wear the audio device 10A′ and use another audio device, such as a cell phone. This provides a further advantage in that, because the audio device 10A′ is in the form of eyeglasses 12A′, which may include prescription lenses or tinted lenses, the wearer of the audio device 10A′ can continue to receive the benefits of such tinted or prescription lenses, as well as audio signal from the other speaker while using the other audio device. Any of the audio devices disclosed herein may additionally be provided with a pause, mute, or on/off switch which is activated by the position of the speakers 14A, 16A. If the wearer laterally advances one of the speakers from a first position adjacent the ear to a second position, spaced apart from the ear such as to permit the use of a cell phone, the signal to both speakers can be automatically stopped such as to permit use of the cell phone without audio interference. Advancing the speaker from the second position back to the first position thereafter automatically resumes delivery of signal to the speakers 14A, 16A. An additional advantage is provided where the pivotal movement of the supports 68′, 70′ is isolated from the translational movement thereof. For example, the connection between the supports 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′ can be configured so as to allow a user to pivot the supports 68′, 70′ without substantially translating the supports 68′, 70′ forwardly or rearwardly. In one embodiment, the connections can be configured to provide more perceived frictional resistance against translational movement than the frictional resistance against pivotal movement about the pivot axis P (FIG. 3H). Thus, a user can easily pivot the speakers 14A′, 16A′ toward and away from their ears without translating the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Thus, the procedure for moving the speakers 14A′, 16A′ toward and away from a wearer's ears can be performed more easily and, advantageously, with one hand. The range of motion S is generally no greater than about 180°, and often less than about 90°. In one preferred embodiment, the range of motion S is no more than about 30° or 40°. The connection between the support 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′, respectively, is generally configured to provide a sufficient holding force for maintaining a rotational orientation of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ about the pivot axis P. For example, the connection between the supports 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′, respectively, can be configured to generate sufficient friction to resist the forces generated by normal movements of a wearer's head. A further advantage is achieved where sufficient friction is generated to prevent the pivotal movement of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ when the audio device 10A′ is removed from the wearer and placed on a surface such that the speakers 14A′, 16A′ support at least some of the weight of the audio device 10A′. For example, when a wearer of the audio device 10A′ removes the audio device 10A′ and places it on a table with the speakers 14A′, 16A′ facing downwardly, the speakers 14A′, 16A′ would support at least some of the weight of the audio device 10A′. Thus, by providing sufficient friction in the connection between the supports 68′, 70′ and the ear stems 54′, 56′, respectively, the position of the speakers 14A′, 16A′ can be maintained. Thus, when the wearer replaces the audio device 10A′, the speakers 14A′, 16A′ will be in the same position, thereby avoiding the need for the wearer to reposition speakers 14A′, 16A′. As noted above, an aspect of one of the inventions disclosed herein includes the realization that where an electronic device that is worn in the same manner as a pair of eyeglasses includes a user operable switch for controlling a function of the electronics, the comfort of the wearer of the audio device can be enhanced where the switches are operable without transferring a substantial load to the head of the wearer. For example, where the electronic device includes buttons for controlling an aspect of the device, a further advantage is provided where a support surface is provided opposite the button such that a user can apply a balancing force to the actuation force applied to the button, thereby preventing a substantial force from being transferred to the head of the wearer. With reference to FIG. 31, the audio device 10A′ can include at least one button 73a. In the illustrated embodiment, the audio device 10A′ includes five buttons; a first button 73a and a second button 73b mounted to the left ear stem 54′, and a third button 73c, a fourth button 73d, and a fifth button 73e mounted to the right ear stem 56′. Of course, this is one preferred embodiment of the arrangement of the buttons 73a, 73b, 73c, 73d, 73e. Other numbers of buttons and other arrangements of buttons are also applicable. As shown in FIG. 3H, the button 73a is mounted on an upwardly facing surface of the ear stem 54′. Additionally, the ear stem 54′ has a lower surface that faces in a generally opposite direction to the direction towards which the upper surface of the ear stem 54′ faces. Thus, as shown in FIG. 3H, the user can use a finger 71 to actuate the button 73a and a thumb 69 to counteract the actuation force of the finger 71 by pressing on the lower surface of the ear stem 54′. As such, the wearer or user of the audio device 10A′ can actuate the button 73a without imparting a substantial load to the wearer of the audio device 10A′. This provides a further advantage in that a repeated application of a force against the audio device 10A′ that is transferred to the head of the wearer of the audio device 10A′ is avoided. For example, where the audio 10A′ is in the form of eyeglasses 12A′, a wearer of the eyeglasses 12A′ can be subjected to irritations if the wearer repeatedly presses the eyeglasses 12A′ to actuate a switch. Further, such repeated loads can cause headaches. Thus, by configuring the ear stems 54A′ such that the button 73a can be depressed without transferring a substantial load to the wearer of the ear glasses 12A′, such irritations and headaches can be avoided. Further, by disposing the button 73a on an upper portion of the ear stems 54A′, and by providing the ear stems 54A′ with an opposite lower surface that faces an opposite direction relative to the upper surface, a wearer can grasp the ear stems 54A′ from the side, as illustrated in FIG. 38, thereby allowing the user to counteract the actuation force required to actuate the button 73a without having to insert a finger between a side of the wearer's head and ear stems 54A′. In any of the embodiments herein, the surface which opposes the buttons may be provided with any of a variety of tactile feedback structures, such as ridges or bumps, that have a predetermined alignment with respect to the buttons. This can assist the user in positioning their thumb in the identical position each time, so that the user, after a learning period, can rapidly reach for the controls, position their hand and identify with which button their fingers are aligned. See, for example, the tactile indicium illustrated in FIG. 24. FIG. 3J illustrates an exploded view of an exemplary embodiment of the audio device 10A′. As shown in FIG. 3J, the left side ear stem 54A′ defines an electronic housing portion 250 which defines an internal cavity 252 configured to receive electronic components. The electronics housing 250 includes an upper surface 254 and lower surface 260. The upper surface 254 extends generally outwardly from the ear stems 54A′ and around the internal cavity 252. The upper surface also includes apertures 256, 258 through which buttons 73a, 73b, respectively, extend. The housing 250 includes a lower surface 260. The lower surface 260 (which may contain ridges, apertures or slots) faces in an opposite direction from the upper surface 254 of the housing 250. Preferably, the lower surface 260 is at least about 0.25 inches, and may be 0.5 inches or 0.75 inches or more wide. As such, the lower surface 260 provides a surface which allows a wearer to easily grasp the ear stem 54A′ so as to balance an actuation force supplied to the button 73a, 73b. A cover member 262 cooperates with the housing 250 to define the closed internal cavity 252. In the illustrated embodiment, the internal cavity 252 includes at least one compartment configured to receive an electronic circuit board 264 which includes at least one switch for each of the buttons 73a, 73b. In an exemplary but non-limiting embodiment, the board 264 can include two switches, one for each of the buttons 73a, 73b, which are configured to control a volume output from the speakers 14A′, 16A′. The cover 262 can be attached to the ear stem 54A′ with any type of fastener, such as, for example, but without limitation, screws, rivets, bolts, adhesive, and the like. In the illustrated embodiment, the housing 250 also defines a hinge recess 266. Additionally, the cover member 262 includes a complimentary hinge recess 268. The recesses 266, 268 are sized to receive a hinge pin 270. In the illustrated embodiment, the hinge pin 270 is hollow and includes an aperture therethrough. The ends of the hinge pin 270 are configured to be engaged with corresponding portions of the frame 42′ so as to anchor the position of the hinge pin 270 relative to the frame 42′. When the cover 262 is attached to the housing 250, with the hinge pin 270 disposed in the recesses 266, 268, the ear stem 54A′ is pivotally mounted to the frame 42′. The aperture extending through the hinge pin 270 provides a passage through which electrical conduits can pass, described in greater detail below. The housing 250 also includes a power source recess (not shown). The power source recess includes an opening 272 sized to receive a power storage device 274. In the illustrated embodiment, the power storage device 274 is in the form of an AAAA-sized battery. Of course, the power storage device 274 can be in the form of any type or any size of battery and can have any shape. However, a further advantage is provided where a standard-sized battery such as an AAAA battery is used. For example, as described in greater detail below, this size battery can be conveniently balanced with other electronic components configured for playback of a sound recording. A door 276 is configured to close the opening 272. In the illustrated embodiment, the door 276 is preferably hingedly connected to a housing 250 so as to allow the door to be rotated between an open position and a closed position. FIGS. 3D-31 illustrate the door 276 in a closed position. The right ear stem 56′ includes a housing 280 defining an internal cavity 282 configured to receive at least one electronic component. The housing 280 also includes upper and lower surfaces (unnumbered) that can be configured identically or similarly to the upper and lower surfaces 254, 260 of the housing 250. However, in the illustrated embodiment, the upper surface of the housing 280 includes 3 apertures configured to receive portions of the buttons 73c, 73d, 73e. Thus, a further description of the housing 280 is not necessary for one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the inventions disclosed herein. The internal cavity 282, in the illustrated embodiment, is configured to receive electronics such as a printed circuit board 284. In the illustrated embodiment, the printed circuit board 284 includes one switch for each of the buttons 73c, 73d, and 73e. Additionally, the printed circuit board 284 includes an audio file storage and playback device 286. The device 286 can be configured to store and playback any desired type of electronic audio and/or video file. In the illustrated embodiment, the device 286 includes a memory, an amplifier, and a processor. The memory, amplifier, and the processor are configured to operate together to function as an audio storage and playback system. For example, the audio storage and playback system can be configured to store MP3 files in a memory and to play back the MP3 files through the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Suitable electronics for enabling and amplifying MP3 storage and playback are well known in the art, and may be commercially available from Sigmatel, Inc. or Atmel, Inc. Thus, further description of the hardware and software for operating the device 286 as a storage and playback device is not necessary for one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the inventions disclosed herein. Advantageously, the printed circuit board 284 also includes or is in electrical communication with a data transfer port 288. In the illustrated embodiment, the housing 280 includes an aperture (not shown) disposed in a position similar to the position of the aperture 272 on the housing 250. In the housing 280, however, the aperture is aligned with the data transfer port 288. Thus, when the printed circuit board 284 is received in the internal cavity 282, the data transfer port 288 is aligned with the aperture. A door 290 is configured to open and close the aperture through which the data port 288 is exposed. Preferably, the door 290 is hingedly engaged to the housing 280, in an identical or similar manner as the door 276. In the illustrated embodiment, the door 290 can be pivoted relative to housing 280, thereby exposing the data transfer port 288. In the illustrated embodiment, the data transfer port is configured to operate according to the universal serial bus (USB) transfer protocol. In one implementation of the invention, the earstem is provided with a mini USB port. The mini USB port enables both downloading of digital music from a source into the eyeglass, as well as charging a rechargeable battery carried by the eyeglass. Optical data ports may alternatively be used. As a further alternative, MP3 files may be uploaded from a source using wireless systems, such as BLUETOOTH® protocols, as is discussed below. Further, the device 286 is configured to receive audio files from another computer, through the data transfer port 288 and to store the files into the memory incorporated into the device 286. A cover 292 is configured to close the internal cavity 282. The cover 292 can be configured in accordance with the description of the cover 262. Similarly to the housing 250 and cover 262, the housing 280 and cover 292 include recesses 294, 296 configured to receive a hinge pin 298. The hinge pin 298 can be constructed identically or similarly to the hinge pin 270. Thus, with the hinge pin 298 engaged with a frame 42′, the cover member 292 can be attached to the housing 280 with the hinge pin 298 received within the recesses 294, 296. As such, the ear stem 56A′ can be pivoted relative to the frame 42′. With continued reference to FIG. 3J, the speakers 14A′, 16A′ can be constructed in a similar manner, as a mirror image of each other. Each of the speakers 14A′, 16A′, include a housing member 300. Each housing member 300 includes a transducer housing 302, a support stem 304, and a guide portion 306. The transducer housing portion 302 includes an internal recess 308 (identified in the illustration of speaker 16A′). The transducer recess 308 can be sized to receive any type of acoustic transducer. For example, but without limitation, the transducer recess 308 can be configured to receive a standard acoustic speaker commonly used for headphones. In a non-limiting embodiment, the speaker transducer (not shown) has an outer diameter of at least about 0.6 inches. However, this is merely exemplary, and other sizes of transducers can be used. With reference to the illustration of the speaker 14A′, the support stem 304 connects the transducer housing 302 with the guide portion 306. The support stem 304 includes an aperture therethrough (not shown) which connects the transducer recess 308 with the guide portion 306. The guide portion 306 includes an aperture 310 which communicates with the aperture extending through the support stem 304. Thus, an electric conduit, described in greater detail below, can extend through the aperture 310, through the stem 304, and then to the transducer recess 308. The guide portion 306 also includes a guide aperture 312. The guide aperture 312 is configured to receive a guide pin 314. The guide pin 314 can be made from any of a variety of materials. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide pin 314 is a rod having an outer diameter of about 0.0625 of an inch. When assembled, the guide pin 314 is disposed within an open recess (not shown) disposed on an under surface of the housing 250. The aperture 312 is sized so as to slidably receive the pin 314. Thus, the guide portion 306 can translate relative to the pin 314 as well as rotate relative to the pin 314. The size of the aperture 312 can be configured to provide a slip fit with sufficient friction to provide the stable positions noted above with reference to FIGS. 3D-3I. In this embodiment, the guide pin 314 and the aperture 312 provide both translational and pivotal movement. Additionally, the guide pin 314 and the aperture 312 can be configured to resistance to both translational movement and pivotal movement, with the resistance to translational movement being greater. For example, the axial length and diameter of the aperture 312, controls the maximum contact area between the guide pin 314 and the guide portion 306 and thus affects the frictional force generated therebetween. Thus, the length and diameter of the aperture 312 can be adjusted to achieve the desired frictional forces. Additionally, with reference to FIG. 3K, when a translational force X is applied to the speaker 14A′, a torque T is created, which results in reaction forces Xr urging the guide portion 306 against the guide pin 314 at the forward and rearward ends thereof. These reaction forces Xr increase the frictional resistance against the translational movement of the speaker 14A′. However, as shown in FIG. 3L, when a pivot force Θ is applied to the speaker 14A′, such reaction forces are not created, and the speaker 14A′ can pivot about the guide pin 314 with seemingly less force applied as compared to the force X required to move the speaker 14A′ in a direction parallel to the guide pin 314. With reference again to FIG. 3J, the recess on the lower surface of the housings 250, 280, are sized so as to allow the guide portion 306 to slide in a forward to rearward direction in the range Rt, described above with reference to FIG. 3F. Additionally, the open recess on the lower surface of the housings 250, 280 is provided with a width to limit the range of motion S of the speakers 14A′, 16A′, described above with reference to FIG. 3H. With reference to FIG. 3E, the frame 42′ includes an interior electrical conduit channel 316 configured to receive an electrical conduit for connecting the speakers 14′, 16′, the printed circuit boards 264, 284, and the power storage device 274. For example, with reference to FIG. 3M, the buttons 73a, 73b, are connected to the device 286 through conduits 73ai, 73bi. The storage device 274 is connected to the device 286 through a power line 274i. Additionally, the speaker 14A′ is connected to the device 286 with an audio output conduit 14Ai′. As illustrated in FIG. 3M, portions of the conduits 73ai, 73bi, 274i and 14Ai′, extend through the channel 316. In an exemplary embodiment, the conduits 73ai, 73bi, 274i, and 14Ai′, can be in the form of a ribbon connector 318 extending through the channel 316. Thus, with reference to FIGS. 3J and 3M, the ribbon connector 318 can extend from the housing 280, into the recesses 294, 296, through an aperture (not shown) in the hinge pin 298 to the upper opening within the hinge pin 298, then through the channel 316 (FIG. 3E), to an upper opening of the hinge pin 270, out through an aperture (not shown) through a side of a hinge pin 270, through the recesses 266, 268 of the housing 250, and then to the speaker 14A′, printed circuit board 264, and the power storage device 274. The conduit 14Ai′ can extend to the aperture 310 in the guide portion 306, through a central aperture of the support stem 304, and into the transducer recess 308, as to connect to a transducer disposed therein. Optionally, the portion of the conduit 14Ai′ that extends out of the housing 250 and into the transducer housing 300 can be formed from an insulated metal conduit, or any other known conduit. The speaker 16A′ can be connected to the printed circuit board 284 in a similar manner. The buttons 73c, 73d, 73e and the data transfer port 288 are connected to the device 286 through printed conduits incorporated into the printed circuit board 284. As noted above, one aspect of at least one of the inventions disclosed herein includes the realization that a desirable balance can be achieved by disposing a power storage device in one ear stem of an eyeglass and play-back device into the second ear stem. Thus, as illustrated in FIGS. 3J and 3K, the power storage device 274 is disposed in the left ear stem 54′ and the storage and play-back device 286 is disposed in the right ear stem 56′. In the illustrated embodiment, the buttons 73a and 73b for controlling the volume of the sound output from the speakers 14A′, 16A′. For example, the button 73a can be used for increasing volume and the button 73b can be used for decreasing volume. Alternatively, the button 73b can be for increasing volume and the button 73a can be for decreasing volume. When a wearer of the audio device 10A′ presses one of the buttons 73a, 73b, a simple on-off signal can be transmitted to the device 286. The device 286 can be configured to interpret the on-off signals from the buttons 73a, 73b as volume control signals and adjust the volume to the speakers 14A′, 16A′ accordingly. Optionally, a third command can be generated by pressing both of the buttons 73a, 73b simultaneously. For example, but without limitation, the device 286 can be configured to interpret simultaneous signals from both the buttons 73a, 73b, as a signal for turning on and off an additional feature. For example, but without limitation, the additional feature can be a bass boost feature which increases the bass of the audio signal transmitted to the speakers 14A′, 16A′. Of course, other functions can be associated with the buttons 73a, 73b. The buttons 73c, 73d, 73e can be figured to operate switches to transmit control signals to the device 286 similarly to the buttons 73a, 73b. For example, but without limitation, the button 73c corresponds to a power button. For example, the device 286 can be configured to recognize a signal from the button 73c as a power on or power off request. In this embodiment, when the device 286 is off, and a signal from the button 73c is received, the device 286 can turn on. Additionally, the device 286, when in an on state, can be configured to turn off when a signal from the button 73c is received. Optionally, the device 286 can be configured to, when in an off or standby state, turn on and begin to play an audio file when a signal from the button 73c is received. Additionally, the device 286 can be configured to pause when another signal from the button 73c is received. In this embodiment, the device 286 can be configured to turn off only if the button 73c is held down for a predetermined amount of time. For example, the device 286 can be configured to turn off if the button 73c is held down for more than two seconds or for three seconds or for other periods of time. The buttons 73d and 73e can correspond to forward and reverse functions. For example, the button 73d can correspond to a track skip function. In an illustrative but non-limiting example, such a track skip function can cause the device 286 to skip to a next audio file in the memory of the device 286. Similarly, the button 73e can correspond to a reverse track skip function in which the device 286 skips to the previous audio file. Optionally, the buttons 73d, 73e can be correlated to fast forward and rewind functions. For example, the device 286 can be configured to fast forward through an audio file, and play the corresponding sounds at a fast forward speed, when the button 73d is held down and to stop and play the normal speed when the button 73d is released. Similarly, the device 286 can be configured to play an audio file backwards at an elevated speed, when the button 73e is held down, and to resume normal forward play when the button 73e is released. This arrangement of the buttons 73a, 73b, 73c, 73d, 73e provides certain advantages noted above. However, other arrangements of the buttons 73a, 73b, 73c, 73d, 73e and the corresponding functions thereof can be modified. With reference to FIGS. 4A-4B, a modification of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′ is illustrated therein and referred to generally by the reference numeral 10A″. The audio device 10A″ can include the same components as the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′ except as noted below. Components of the audio device 10A″ that are similar to corresponding components of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′ are identified with the same reference numerals, except that a “″” has been added thereto. The audio device 10A″ is in the form of a eyeglass 12A″ having a frame 40A″. The audio device 10A″ also includes at least one microphone 75. Advantageously, the microphone 75 is disposed so as to face toward the wearer. FIG. 4B illustrates a partial cross-sectional view of the eyeglass 12A″ on the head 18 of a wearer. The microphone 75 is schematically illustrated and includes a transducer unit 76. In the illustrated embodiment, the transducer 76 is disposed within the frame 40A″ and at least one aperture 77 extends from the transducer unit 76 to the outer surface of the frame 40A″. Alternatively, the transducer can be positioned so as to be exposed on the outer surface of the frame 40A″. Advantageously, the aperture 77 is disposed so as to face toward the head of the user 18. The illustrated aperture 77 faces downward and toward the head 18 of the wearer. By configuring the aperture to extend downwardly and toward the head 18, the aperture is disposed as close as possible to the mouth of the wearer while benefiting from the wind protection provided by positioning the aperture 77 on the portion of the frame 40A′ facing toward the head 18. Alternatively, the aperture can be positioned so as to extend generally horizontally from the transducer 76 to an outer surface of the frame 40A″, this configuration being illustrated and identified by the numeral 78. By configuring the aperture 78 to extending generally horizontally toward the head 18, the aperture 78 is better protected from wind. As another alternative, the aperture can be configured to extend upwardly from the transducer and toward the head 18, this configuration being identified by the numeral 79. By configuring the aperture 79 to extend upwardly from the transducer 76 and toward the head 18, the aperture 79 is further protected from wind which can cause noise. However, in this orientation, the aperture 79 is more likely to collect water that may inadvertently splash onto the aperture 79. Thus, the aperture configuration identified by the numeral 77 provides a further advantage in that water is less likely to enter the aperture 77. Any water that may enter the aperture 77 will drain therefrom due to gravity. The microphone 75 can be disposed anywhere on the frame 40A′, including the orbitals 48A″, 50A″, the bridge 52A″, or the ear stems 54A″, 56A″. Optionally, the microphone 75 can be in the form of a bone conduction microphone. As such, the microphone 75 is disposed such that the when a user wears the audio device 10A′, the microphone 75 is in contact with the user's head 18. For example, but without limitation, the microphone can be positioned anywhere on the anywhere on the frame 40A′, including the orbitals 48A″, 50A″, the bridge 52A″, or the ear stems 54A″, 56A″ such that the microphone contacts the user's head. More preferably, the microphone 75 is positioned such that it contacts a portion of the user's head 18 near a bone, such that vibrations generated from the user's voice and traveling through the bone, are conducted to the microphone. A bone conduction microphone may be built into a nosepad, or into each nosepad, for direct contact with the wearer. In another alternative, the microphone 75 can be configured to be inserted into the meatus 24 (FIG. 2) of the ear canal of the user. Thus, in this modification, the microphone 75 can be substituted for one of the speakers 14, 16. Alternatively, an ear-canal type bone conduction microphone can be combined with a speaker so as to provide two-way communication with the user through a single ear canal. Further, the audio device 10A″ can include noise cancellation electronics (not shown) configured to filter wind-generated noise from an audio signal transmitted from the microphone 75. FIG. 5A illustrates a modification in which the microphone 75 is disposed on the bridge 52A″. Similarly to the configuration illustrated in FIG. 4B, the bridge 52A″ can include an aperture 77 which extends downwardly and toward the nose 19 of the wearer, horizontally extending aperture 78, or an upwardly extending aperture 79. Alternatively, the microphone 75 can include a forwardly facing aperture, as illustrated in FIG. 5B, and a wind sock 81 disposed over the aperture. The wind sock 81 can be made in any known manner. For example, the wind sock 81 can be made from a shaped piece of expanded foam. Configuring the bridge portion 52A′ as such is particularly advantageous because the bridge portion of an eyeglass is typically somewhat bulbous. A wind sock can be shaped complementarily to the bridge portion 52A′. Thus, the sock 81 can be made so as to appear to be part of a normal bridge portion of an eyeglass. The audio device 10A″ can include electrical conduits extending through the frame 40A″ to an audio output jack (not shown). The audio output jack can be disposed at the end of the ear stems 54A″, 56A″, or anywhere else on the frame 40A″. Thus, a user can wear the audio device 10A′ and use the microphone 75 in order to transform the voice of the wearer or other sounds into an electrical signal. The electrical signal can be transmitted to another audio device, such as a palm top computer, a laptop computer, a digital or analog audio recorder, a cell phone, and the like. Additionally, the audio device 10A″ can include speakers, such as the speakers 14A″, 16A″ illustrated in FIG. 3A. As such, the audio device 10A″ can be configured to provide two-way audio for the wearer, e.g., audio input being transmitted to the user through the speakers 14A″, 16A″, and audio output being transmitted from the wearer, through the microphone 75, and out through the audio output jack. As such, a user can use the audio device 10A″ for two-way audio communication in a comfortable manner. With reference to FIGS. 6 and 7, a modification of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′, 10A″ is illustrated therein and referred to generally by the reference numeral 10B. Components of the audio device 10B corresponding to components of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′, 10A″ are identified with the same reference numerals, except that letter “C” has been added thereto. The audio device 10B is in the form of an eyeglass 80. The eyeglass 80 includes a frame 82. The frame 82 includes left and right orbitals 84, 86. Each of the orbitals 84, 86 support a lens 88, 90. The frame 82 also includes a bridge portion 92. Similarly to the bridge portion 52 of the audio device 10A, the bridge portion 92 connects the orbitals 84, 86. Additionally, the bridge portion 92 defines an open space 94 configured to receive the nose 19 of a wearer. The inner sides of the orbitals 84, 86 and/or the bridge portion 92 is configured to support the frames 82 on the nose of a user. The eyeglass 80 also includes support stems 96, 98 extending from the upper portions of the orbitals 84, 86 toward a posterior of a wearer's head. In the illustrated embodiment, the stems 96, 98 extend along an upper surface of the wearer's head. Thus, the stems 96, 98, along with the bridge portion 92, support the eyeglass 80 on the wearer's head 18. The support members 28B, 30B are comprised of support arms 100, 102. With reference to FIGS. 5, 6 and 7, the support arms 100, 102 extend downwardly from the stems 96, 98, respectively. In the illustrated embodiment, the support arms 100, 102 extend in an “L” shape. In particular, the support arm 100 extends from the stem 96 to a point just forward (anterior) from the tragus of the user's ear 20. From this point, the support arm 100 extends rearwardly so as to support the speaker 14B at a position juxtaposed and spaced from the ear 20. Preferably, the speaker 14B is maintained in a position from about 2 mm to 3 cm from the tragus of the ear 20. Similarly to the audio device 10A, the audio device 10B can include an audio input through a wired arrangement or through a wireless transceiver. With reference to FIGS. 8, 9A, and 9B, another modification of the audio device 10 is illustrated therein and referred to generally by the reference numeral 10C. Similar components of the audio device 10C have been given the same reference numerals, except that that a “C” has been added thereto. As illustrated in FIG. 8, the audio device 10C can be worn on the head 18 of a user U. Preferably, the audio device 10C is configured to provide one or two-way wireless communication with a source device, or the source device can be incorporated into the audio device 10C. The source device can be carried by the user U, mounted to a moveable object, stationary, or part of a local area or personal area network. The user U can carry a “body borne” source device B such as, for example, but without limitation, a cellular phone, an MP3 player, a “two-way” radio, a palmtop computer, or a laptop computer. As such, the user U can use the audio device 10C to receive and listen to audio signals from the source device B, and/or transmit audio signals to the source device B. Optionally, the audio device 10C can also be configured to transmit and receive data signals to and from the source device B, described in greater detail below. Optionally, the device B can also be configured to communicate, via long or short range wireless networking protocols, with a remote source R. The remote source R can be, for example, but without limitation, a cellular phone service provider, a satellite radio provider, or a wireless internet service provider. For example, but without limitation, the source device B can be configured to communicate with other wireless data networks such as via, for example, but without limitation, long-range packet-switched network protocols including PCS, GSM, and GPRS. As such, the audio device 10C can be used as an audio interface for the source device B. For example, but without limitation, where the source device B is a cellular phone, the user U can listen to the audio output of the cellular phone, such as the voice of a caller, through sound transducers in the audio device 10C. Optionally, the user U can send voice signals or commands to the cellular phone by speaking into a microphone on the audio device 10C, described in greater detail below. Thus, the audio device 10C may advantageously be a receiver and/or a transmitter for telecommunications. In general, the component configuration of FIG. 8 enables the audio device 10C to carry interface electronics with the user, such as audio output and audio input. However, the source electronics such as the MP3 player, cellular phone, computer or the like may be off board, or located remotely from the audio device 10C. This enables the audio device 10C to accomplish complex electronic functions, while retaining a sleek, low weight configuration. Thus, the audio device 10C is in communication with the off board source electronics device B. The off board source device B may be located anywhere within the working range of the audio device 10C. In many applications, the source electronics B will be carried by the wearer, such as on a belt clip, pocket, purse, backpack, shoe, integrated with “smart” clothing, or the like. This accomplishes the function of off loading the bulk and weight of the source electronics from the headset. The source electronics B may also be located within a short range of the wearer, such as within the room or same building. For example, personnel in an office building or factory may remain in contact with each, and with the cellular telephone system, internet or the like by positioning transmitter/receiver antenna for the off board electronics B throughout the hallways or rooms of the building. In shorter range, or personal applications, the out board electronics B may be the form of a desktop unit, or other device adapted for positioning within relatively short (e.g. no greater than about 10 feet, no greater than about 20 feet, no greater than about 50 feet, no greater than 100 feet) of the user during the normal use activities. In all of the foregoing constructions of the invention, the off board electronics B may communicate remotely with the remote source R. Source R may be the cellular telephone network, or other remote source. In this manner, the driver electronics may be off loaded from the headset, to reduce bulk, weight and power consumption characteristics. The headset may nonetheless communicate with a remote source R, by relaying the signal through the off board electronics B with or without modification. Optionally, the audio device 10C can be configured to provide one or two-way communication with a stationary source device S. The stationary source device can be, for example, but without limitation, a cellular phone mounted in an automobile, a computer, or a local area network. With reference to FIGS. 9A and 9B, the audio device 10C preferably comprises a wearable wireless audio interface device which includes a support 12C supported on the head 18 of a user by the support 26C and includes an interface device 110. The interface device 110 includes a power source 112, a transceiver 114, an interface 116, and an antenna 118. The power source 112 can be in the form of disposable or rechargeable batteries. Optionally, the power source 112 can be in the form of solar panels and a power regulator. The transceiver 114 can be in the form of a digital wireless transceiver for one-way or two-way communication. For example, the transceiver 114 can be a transceiver used in known wireless networking devices that operate under the standards of 802.11a, 802.11b, or preferably, the standard that has become known as BLUETOOTH™. As illustrated in BLUETOOTH™-related publications discussed below, the BLUETOOTH™ standard advantageously provides low-cost, low-power, and wireless links using a short-range, radio-based technology. Systems that employ the BLUETOOTH™ standard and similar systems advantageously allow creation of a short-range, wireless “personal area network” by using small radio transmitters. Consequently, with BLUETOOTH™-enabled systems and similar systems, components within these systems may communicate wirelessly via a personal area network. Personal area networks advantageously may include voice/data, may include voice over data, may include digital and analogue communication, and may provide wireless connectivity to source electronics. Personal area networks may advantageously have a range of about 30 feet; however, longer or shorter ranges are possible. The antenna 118 can be in the form of an onboard antenna integral with the transceiver 114 or an antenna external to the transceiver 114. In another implementation, the transceiver 114 can support data speeds of up to 721 kilo-bits per second as well as three voice channels. In one implementation, the transceiver 114 can operate at least two power levels: a lower power level that covers a range of about ten yards and a higher power level. The higher level covers a range of about one hundred yards, can function even in very noisy radio environments, and can be audible under severe conditions. The transceiver 114 can advantageously limit its output with reference to system requirements. For example, without limitation, if the source electronics B is only a short distance from audio device 10C, the transceiver 114 modifies its signal to be suitable for the distance. In another implementation, the transceiver 114 can switch to a low-power mode when traffic volume becomes low or stops. The interface 116 can be configured to receive signals from the transceiver 114 that are in the form of digital or analog audio signals. The interface 116 can then send the audio signals to the speakers 14C, 16C through speaker lines 120, 122, respectively, discussed in greater detail below. Optionally, the audio device 10C can include a microphone 124. Preferably, the support 12C is configured to support the microphone 124 in the vicinity of a mouth 126 of a user. As such, the support 12C includes a support member 128 supporting the microphone 124 in the vicinity of the mouth 126. The microphone 124 is connected to the interface 116 through a microphone line 130. Thus, the transceiver 114 can receive audio signals from the microphone 124 through the interface 116. As such, the audio device 10C can wirelessly interact with an interactive audio device, such as a cellular phone, cordless phone, or a computer which responds to voice commands. The microphone 124 can also be in any of the forms discussed above with reference to the microphone 75. As noted above with reference to the audio device 10 in FIGS. 1 and 2, by configuring the support 12C to support the speakers 14C, 16C in a position juxtaposed and spaced from the ears 20, 22 of the head 18, the audio device 10C provides enhanced comfort for a user. With reference to FIGS. 10-12, a modification of the audio device 10C is illustrated therein and identified generally by the reference numeral 10D. The components of the audio device 10D which are the same as the components in the audio devices 10, 10A, 10B, and 10C are identified with the same reference numerals, except that a letter “D” has been added. In the audio device 10D, the microphone 124D can be disposed in the frame 42D. In particular, the microphone 124D can be disposed in the bridge portion 52D. Alternatively, the microphone 124D can be disposed along a lower edge of the right orbital 50D, this position being identified by the reference numeral 124D′. Further, the microphone could be positioned in a lower edge of the left orbital 48D, this position being identified by the reference numeral 124D″. Optionally, two microphones can be disposed on the frame 42D at both the positions 124D′ and 124D″. Similarly to the microphone 75, the microphones 124D′, 124D″ preferably are positioned so as to face toward the user. Thus, the microphones 124D′, 124D″ can be protected from wind and noise. The microphones 124D,124D′,124D″ can also be constructed in accordance with any of the forms of the microphone 75 discussed above with reference to FIGS. 4A, 4B, 5A, 5B. With reference to FIG. 12, the interface device 110D can be disposed in one of the ear stems 54D, 56D. Optionally, the components of the interface device 110D can be divided with some of the components being in the ear stem 54D and the remaining components in the ear stem 56D, these components being identified by the reference numeral 110D′. Preferably, the components are distributed between the ear stems 54D, 56D so as to provide balance to the device 10D. This is particularly advantageous because imbalanced headwear can cause muscle pain and/or headaches. Thus, by distributing components of the interface device 110D between the ear stems 54D, 56D, the device 10D can be better balanced. In one arrangement, the transceiver 114, interface 116, and the antenna 118 can be disposed in the left ear stem 54D with the battery 112 being disposed in the right ear stem 56D. This arrangement is advantageous because there are numerous standard battery sizes widely available. Thus, the devices within the ear stem 54D can be balanced with the appropriate number and size of commercially available batteries disposed in the ear stem 56D. In another arrangement, the lenses 44D, 46D can include an electronic variable light attenuation feature, such as, for example, but without limitation, a dichroic dye guest-host device. Additionally, another user operable switch (not shown) can be disposed in the ear stem 56D. Such a user operable switch can be used to control the orientation, and thus the light attenuation provided by, the dichroic dye. Optionally, a further power source (not shown) for the dichroic dye guest-host device can also be disposed in the ear stem 56D. For example, the rear portion 162 of ear stem 56D can comprise a removable battery. Such a battery can provide a power source for controlling the orientation of the dichroic dye in the lenses 44D, 46D. In this modification, the additional user operable switch disposed in the ear stem 56D can be used to control the power from the battery supplied to the lenses 44D, 46D. The appropriate length for the antenna 118D is determined by the working frequency range of the transceiver 114. Typically, an antenna can be approximately 0.25 of the wave length of the signal being transmitted and/or received. In one illustrative non-limiting embodiment, such as in the BLUETOOTH™ standard, the frequency range is from about 2.0 gigahertz to 2.43 gigahertz. For such a frequency range, an antenna can be made with a length of approximately 0.25 of the wavelength. Thus, for this frequency range, the antenna can be approximately 1 inch long. With reference to FIG. 12, the antenna can be formed at a terminal end of one of the ear stems 54D, 56D. In the illustrated embodiment, the antenna 118D is disposed at the terminal end of the left ear stem 54D. In this embodiment, approximately the last inch of the ear stem 54D is used for the antenna 118D. The antenna 118D can be made of any appropriate metal. The antenna can be connected to the transceiver 114 with a direct electrical connection, an inductive connection, or a capacitive connection. With reference to FIG. 13, an inductive type connection is illustrated therein. As shown in FIG. 13, the antenna 118D comprises an inner conductive rod 140 and a coil 142 wrapped helically around the rod 140. The coil 142 is connected to the transceiver 114 in a known manner. The ear stems 54D, 56D can be made from a conductive metal material. Where metal is used, near the terminal end of the ear stem 54D, the metal material is reduced relative to the outer surface of the stem 54D. The coil member is wrapped around the rod 140 and an insulative material 144 is disposed over the coil 142 so as to be substantially flush with the remainder of the ear stem 54D. Thus, the smooth outer appearance of the ear stem 54D is maintained, without comprising the efficiency of the antenna 118D. With reference to FIG. 14, a modification of the antenna 118D is illustrated therein and identified by the reference numeral 118D′. Components of the antenna 118D′ which were the same as the antenna 118D illustrated in FIG. 13, have been given the same reference numeral, except that a “′” has been added. The antenna 118D′ and the stem 54D includes a thin outer layer 146 of a metal material. As known in the antenna arts, it is possible to dispose a thin layer of metal over an antenna without destroying the antenna's ability to transmit and receive signals. This design is advantageous because if the device 10D is constructed of a metal material, including metal such as, for example, without limitation, sintered titanium or magnesium, the thin outer layer 146 can be formed of this material so that the appearance of the device 10D is uniform. Where the stem 54D is made from a metal material, the antennas 118D, 118D′ illustrated in FIGS. 13 and 14 provide an additional advantage in that electrons in the ear stem 54D can be excited by the signal applied to the coil 142. Thus, the ear stem 54D itself becomes part of the antenna 118D, 118D′, and thus can provide better range and/or efficiency for the transmission and reception of signals. Furthermore, if the ear stem 54D is electrically coupled to the frame 42D, the frame 42D would also become excited in phase with the excitations of the antenna 118D, 118D′. Thus, the ear stem 54D and the frame 42D would effectively become part of the antenna, thereby allowing transmission and reception from two sides of the head of the user. Optionally, the ear stem 56D could also be electrically coupled to the frame 42D. Thus, the stem 56D would also become part of the antenna 118D, 118D′, thereby allowing transmission and reception of signals on three sides of the user's head. Thus, where at least a portion of a frame of an eyeglass is used as the antenna for the wireless transceiver 114, the audio device benefits from enhanced antenna efficiency. Optionally, the antenna 118D, 118D′ can be isolated from the remainder of the stem 54D via an insulator 146, thereby preventing interference between the antenna and other devices on the audio device 10D. As such, the remainder of the device 10D can be made from any material, such as, for example, but without limitation, a polymer. Preferably, the audio device 10D includes a user interface device 150 configured to transmit user input signals to the interface 116 and/or the transceiver 114. In the illustrated embodiment, the user interface device 150 is in the form of a 3-way button. The 3-way button 152 is configured to have three modes of operation. Firstly, the button 152 is mounted to pivot about a rocker axis 154. Thus, in one mode of operation, the button 152 can be depressed inwardly on a forward end 156 of the button 152, thereby causing the button 152 to pivot or “rock” about the pivot axis 154. Additionally, the button 152 can be pressed at a rearward end 158, thereby causing the button 152 to pivot about the pivot axis 154 in the opposite direction. Additionally, the button 152 can be mounted so as to be translatable in the medial-lateral direction, identified by the reference numeral 160 (FIG. 11). Appropriate springs can be provided beneath the button 152 to bias the button in an outward protruding and balanced position. Appropriate contacts can be mounted beneath the button 152 so as to be activated individually according to the modes of operation. In one illustrative and non-limiting embodiment, the button 152 can be used to control volume. For example, by pressing on the forward portion 156, a contact can be made causing the transceiver 114 or the interface 116 to increase the volume of the speakers 14D, 16D. Additionally, by pressing on the rearward portion 158 of the button 152, the transceiver 114 or interface 116 could lower the volume of the speakers 14D, 16D. In a further illustrative and non-limiting example, the medial-lateral movement of the button 152, along the directions identified by the arrow 160, can be used to choose different functions performed by the transceiver 114 or the interface 116. For example, an inward movement of the button 152 could be used to answer an incoming phone call where the audio device 10D is used as an audio interface for a cellular phone. Optionally, the power source 112 can comprise portions of the ear stems 54D, 56D which have been formed into batteries. For example, the rear portions 160, 162 of the ear stems 54D, 56D, respectively, can be in the form of custom made batteries, either disposable or rechargeable. Preferably, the rear portions 160, 162 are removable from the forward portions of the ear stems 54D, 56D. This provides a particular advantage in terms of balance. As noted above, imbalanced loads on the head can cause muscular pain and/or headaches. In particular, excessive pressure on the nose can cause severe headaches. Additionally, batteries can have a significantly higher mass density than plastic and lightweight metals, such as sintered titanium or magnesium. Thus, by constructing the rearward portions 160, 162 of the ear stems 54D, 56D of batteries, the weight of these batteries can improve forward-rearward balance of the audio device 10D in that the weight of the interface device 110 can be offset by the batteries. In another embodiment, the ear stems 54D, 56D can define a housing for removable batteries. The audio device 10D can also include power contacts 164 for recharging any rechargeable batteries connected thereto. For example, the power contacts 164 can be disposed on a lower edge of the orbitals 48D, 50D. Thus, with an appropriate recharging cradle (not shown), the audio device 10D can be laid on the cradle, thereby making contact between the power contacts 164 and corresponding contacts in the cradle (not shown). Alternatively, power contacts can be provided in numerous other locations as desired. For example, the power contacts 164 can be disposed at the ends of the ear stems 54D, 56D. A corresponding cradle can include two vertically oriented holes into which the ear stems are inserted for recharging. In this configuration, the lens within the orbitals 48D, 50D would face directly upwardly. In another alternative, the power contacts 164 are disposed on the upper edges of the orbitals 48D, 50D. In this configuration, the audio device 10D is laid in a cradle in an inverted position, such that the contacts 164 make electrical contact with corresponding contacts in the cradle. This position is advantageous because it prevents weight from being applied to the supports 28D, 30D. This prevents misalignment of the speakers 14D, 16D. With reference to FIGS. 8, 9A, and 9B, in another embodiment, the audio device 10C is advantageously adapted to support any of a variety of portable electronic circuitry or devices which have previously been difficult to incorporate into conventional headsets due to bulk, weight or other considerations. For example, but without limitation, the electronics are digital or other storage devices and retrieval circuitry such as for retrieving music or other information from MP3 format memory or other memory devices. The audio device 10C can carry any of a variety of receivers and/or transmitters, such as transceiver 114. For example, but without limitation, the audio device 10C can carry receivers and/or transmitters for music or for global positioning. In another example, the audio device 10C can carry receivers and/or transmitters for telecommunications (e.g., telecommunications devices). As used herein, the term “telecommunications devices” is intended to include telephone components as well as devices for communicating with a telephone. For example, “telecommunications devices” can include one or more transceivers for transmitting an audio signal to a cellular phone to be transmitted by the cellular phone as the speaker's voice, and/or for receiving an audio signal from a cellular phone representing a caller's voice. Of course, other audio, video, or data signals can be transmitted between the audio device 10C and such a cellular phone through such transceivers. In other embodiments, drivers and other electronics for driving heads-up displays, such as liquid crystal displays or other miniature display technology can also be carried by the audio device 10C. The power source 112 can be carried by the audio device 10C. For example, without limitation, the power source 112 can advantageously be replaceable or rechargeable. Other electronics or mechanical components can additionally be carried by the audio device 10C. In other embodiments, the audio device 10C can also be utilized solely to support any of the foregoing or other electronics components or systems, without also supporting one or more lenses in the wearer's field of view. Thus, in any of the embodiments of the audio devices disclosed herein, the lenses and/or lens orbitals can be omitted as will be apparent to those of skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein. In another embodiment, a further modification of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10D is provided wherein the audio devices include at least two banks of microphones, with one bank acting as a speaker of received and one bank providing an ambient noise-cancellation function. The microphone banks can be positioned at any suitable location or combination of locations (e.g., on the audio device, within the audio device, opposing sides of the audio device, or the like). In one embodiment, automatic switching of the speaking-microphone and noise-canceling-microphone banks' functions advantageously enhances ease of use. In a further embodiment, the microphone banks can be arranged in an array to be used in conjunction with algorithms to discern, reduce, and/or eliminate noise for the purpose of voice recognition. For example, in one embodiment, such microphone banks can include ASIC-based noise-canceling technology, such as is available in chips from Andrea Electronics Corporation (AEC), to enable voice recognition in ambient noise up to about 130 Db or more. In another embodiment, microphone banks can be arranged in any suitable combination of linear or non-linear arrays to be used in conjunction with algorithms to discern, reduce, and/or eliminate noise in any suitable manner. In another embodiment, audio/proximity sensors can advantageously trigger the appropriate functionality in a specific bank. In another embodiment, a noise-canceling microphone can be provided in connection with a cord or other microphones described above. For example, without limitation, a series of miniature microphones can be supported down a cord from the audio device, separated by desired distances, and aimed in different directions. In another implementation, one or more of the microphones can be for verbal input from the user, and one or more others of the microphones, or the same microphone, can also be for noise-cancellation purposes. With reference to FIGS. 8, 9A, and 9B, in another embodiment, the transceiver 114 is adapted to employ a wide variety of technologies, including wireless communication such as RF, IR, ultrasonic, laser or optical, as well as wired and other communications technologies. In one embodiment, a body-LAN radio is employed. Other embodiments can employ a flexible-circuit design. Many commercially available devices can be used as transceiver 114. For example, without limitation, Texas Instruments, National Semiconductor, Motorola manufacture and develop single RF transceiver chips, which can use, for example, 0.18 micron, 1.8 V power technologies and 2.4 GHz transmission capabilities. Of course, a variety of transceiver specifications are available and usable, depending on the particular embodiment envisioned. In another implementation, other commercially available products operating at 900 MHz to 1.9 GHz or more can be used. Data rates for information transfer to wearable or other type computing devices will vary with each possible design. In a preferred implementation, a data rate is sufficient for text display. RF products, and other products, ultimately will be capable of updating a full-color display and have additional capabilities as well. Thus, heads-up displays, such as liquid crystal displays or other miniature display technology described above can be employed. In another embodiment, a further modification of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10D is provided wherein the audio devices can include and/or communicate with a variety of sensors, including but not limited to motion, radar, heat, light, smoke, air-quality, oxygen, CO and distance. Medical monitoring sensors are also contemplated. Sensors can be directed inwardly toward the user's body, or outwardly away from the body (e.g., sensing the surrounding environment). Sensors in communication with the audio devices also can be strategically positioned or left behind to facilitate the communication of sensed information. For example, a firefighter entering a burning building can position sensor to communicate the smoke and heat conditions to that firefighter and to others at the sensor-drop location. Remote sensors can also be relatively fixed in position, as in the case of a maintenance worker wearing an audio device that receives various signals from sensors located in machines or other equipment for which the worker is responsible. A blind wearer of audio device can employ a distance sensor to determine distance to surrounding objects, for example, or a GPS unit for direction-finding. Other exemplary sensing capabilities are disclosed on one or more of the following, all of which are incorporated by reference herein: U.S. Pat. No. 5,285,398 to Janik, issued Feb. 9, 1994; U.S. Pat. No. 5,491,651 to Janik, issued Feb. 13, 1996; U.S. Pat. No. 5,798,907 to Janik, issued Aug. 25, 1998; U.S. Pat. No. 5,581,492 to Janik, issued Dec. 3, 1996; U.S. Pat. No. 5,555,490 to Carroll, issued Sep. 10, 1996; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,572,401 to Carroll, issued Nov. 5, 1996. With reference to FIGS. 15 and 16, a further modification of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10D, is illustrated therein and identified generally by the reference numeral 10E. Components that are similar or the same as the components of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10D, have been given the same reference numerals, except that a “E” has been added thereto. The audio device 10E includes a microphone boom 180 extending downwardly from the lower end of the support arm 100E. The microphone 124E is disposed at the lower end of the microphone boom 180. In the illustrated embodiment, the audio device 10E can include the interface device 110E at an upper portion of the stem 96E. In particular, the interface device 110E can be disposed at the point at which the support arm 100E connects to the stem 96E. Optionally, certain components of the interface device 110E can be disposed at a rear portion of the stem 96E, this position being identified by the reference numeral 110E′. In this embodiment, the antenna 118E can be disposed in the frame 82E, the stem 96E, the support arm 100E, or the microphone boom 180E. However, as noted above, it is preferable that at least a portion of the support 12E is used as the antenna. More preferably, the support 12E is made from a metal material, such that at least a portion of the support 12E is excited by the antenna and thereby forms part of the antenna. The transceiver 114 can be in the form of a digital wireless transceiver for one-way or two-way communication. For example, the transceiver 114 can be configured to receive a signal from another transmitter and provide audio output to the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E. Alternatively, the transceiver 114 can be configured to receive an analog audio signal from microphone 75, 124, 124D, 124E, convert the signal to a digital signal, and transmit the signal to another audio device, such as, for example, but without limitation, a cell phone, a palm top computer, a laptop computer or an audio recording device. The over-the-head configuration of the audio device 10E advantageously allows distribution of the load across a wearer's head, as well as positioning of relatively bulky or heavy electronics along the length of (e.g., inside) the audio device 10E or at the posterior aspect of the audio device 10E such as at the occipital end of the audio device 10E. This enables the audio device 10E to carry electronic equipment in a streamlined fashion, out of the wearer's field of view, and in a manner which distributes the weight across the head of the wearer such that the eyewear tends not to shift under the load, and uncomfortable pressure is not placed upon the wearer's nose, ears or temple regions. In this embodiment, additional functional attachments may be provided as desired anywhere along the length of the frame, lenses or orbitals of the audio device 10E. For example, earphones may be directed towards the wearer's ear from one or two earphone supports extending rearwardly from the front of the eyeglass, down from the top of the audio device 10E or forwardly from the rear of the audio device 10E. Similarly, one or more microphones may be directed at the wearer's mouth from one or two microphone supports connected to the orbitals or other portion of the audio device 10E. With reference to FIGS. 17 and 18, a communication protocol between the audio device S, B and the transceiver 114 is described. In this embodiment, the transceiver 114 is configured for one-way communication. The transceiver includes a receiver and decoder 202 and a digital-to-audio converter 204. As noted above with reference to FIG. 8, the audio device S, B can be any one of a number of different audio devices. For example, but without limitation, the audio device S, B can be a personal audio player such as a tape player, a CD player, a DVD player, an MP3 player, and the like. Alternatively, where the transceiver 114 is configured only to transmit a signal, the audio device S, B can be, for example, but without limitation, an audio recording device, a palm top computer, a laptop computer, a cell phone, and the like. For purposes of illustration, the audio device S, B will be configured only to transmit a signal to the transceiver 114. Thus, in this embodiment, the audio device S, B includes an MP3 player 206 and an encoder and transmitter 208. An antenna 210 is illustrated schematically and is connected to the encoder and transmitter 208. As an illustrative example, the MP3 player 206 outputs a signal at 128 kbps (NRZ data). However, other data rates can be used. The encoder and transmitter 208 is configured to encode the 128 kbps signal from the MP3 player and to transmit it through the antenna 210. For example, the encoder and transmitter 208 can be configured to transmit the encoded signal on a carrier signal centered on 49 MHz. The receiver and decoder 202 can be configured to receive the carrier signal of 49 MHz through the antenna 118, decode the digital signal, and transmit the digital signal to the digital-to-audio converter 204. The digital-to-audio converter 204 can be connected to the speakers 14,16 and thereby provide an audio output that is audible to the user. With reference to FIG. 18, the 128 kbps signal from the MP3 player 206 is identified by the reference numeral 212. In one embodiment, the encoder and transmitter 208 can be configured to encode the signal 212 from the MP3 player 206. The encoded signal from the encoder and transmitter 208 is identified by reference numeral 216. The encoder and transmitter 208 can be configured to encode each pulse 214 of the signal 212 into a pattern of pulses, one pattern being identified by the reference numeral 218. In the lower portion of FIG. 18, signal 220 represents an enlarged illustration of the portion of the signal 216 identified by a circle 222. As shown in FIG. 18, the pattern 218 is comprised of a series of 50 MHz and 48 MHz signals. With reference to FIG. 19, a more detailed illustration of the transceiver 114 is illustrated therein. As shown in FIG. 19, the transceiver includes a preamplifier 230, a band pass filter 232, and an amplifier 234 connected in series. The preamplifier 230 and the amplifier 234 can be of any known type, as known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The band pass filter 232, in the present embodiment, can be constructed as a band pass filter that allows signals having a frequency from 48 MHz to 50 MHz, inclusive, to pass therethrough. Alternatively, the band pass filter 232 can include three band pass filters configured to allow frequencies centered on 48 MHz, 49 MHz, and 50 MHz, respectively, pass therethrough. The transceiver 114 also includes a signal detector 236 and a system clock circuit 238. The signal detector 236 comprises three signal detectors, e.g., a 49 MHz detector 240, a 48 MHz detector 242 and a 50 MHz detector 244. The 49 MHz detector 240 is connected to a carrier detector 246. As is schematically illustrated in FIG. 19, when the signal detector 236 detects a 49 MHz signal, which corresponds to a state in which no audio signal is being transmitted from the MP3 player 206, the carrier detector 246 causes the transceiver 114 to enter a sleep mode, schematically illustrated by the operation block 248. As the detectors 242, 244 detect 48 MHz and 50 MHz detectors, respectively, they output signals to a spread spectrum pattern detector 250. The spread spectrum pattern detector outputs a corresponding signal to a serial-to-parallel converter 252. The output of the serial-to-parallel converter 252 is output to a digital-to-analog converter 204. A “class D” audio amplifier (not shown), for example, but without limitation, can be connected to the output of the digital-to-audio converter 204 to thereby supply an audio signal to the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E. It is to be noted that the encoding performed by the encoder and transmitter 208 can be in accordance with known signal processing techniques, such as, for example, but without limitation, CDMA, TDMA, FDM, FM, FSK, PSK, BPSK, QPSK, M-ARYPSK, MSK, etc. In this embodiment, the transceiver 114 can operate with a single channel. With reference to FIG. 20, a dual channel transceiver 114i is schematically illustrated therein. In this modification, the transceiver 114i is configured to simultaneously receive two signals, one signal centered on 46 MHz, and a second signal centered on 49 MHz. Thus, the transceiver 114i includes four band-pass filters. The first filter 253 is configured to allow a signal at 45.9 MHz plus or minus 100 kHz to pass therethrough. A second filter 254 is configured to allow signals at 46.1 MHz plus or minus 100 kHz to pass therethrough. The third filter 255 is configured to allow signals at 48.9 MHz plus or minus 100 kHz to pass therethrough. A fourth filter 256 is configured to allow signals at 49.1 MHz plus or minus 100 kHz to pass therethrough. As such, the transceiver 114 can receive two simultaneous signals, as noted above, one being centered at 46 MHz and one being centered at 49 MHz. Thus, this modification can be used to receive two audio signals simultaneously, for example, left and right signals of the stereo audio signal. Each of the transceivers 114, 114i, illustrated in FIGS. 17-20, can be configured to receive one pattern 218, a plurality of different signals 218 or only one unique pattern 218. Additionally, as known in the art, the transceiver 114 or 114i and the encoder 208 can include pseudo random generators which vary the pattern 218 according to a predetermined sequence. Thus, the receiver and decoder 202 can be configured to auto synchronize by recognizing a portion of the predetermined sequence. In an application where the transceiver 114 operates according to the BLUETOOTH™ standards, the transceiver 114 communicates with the transmitter according to a spread spectrum protocol so as to establish communication in a short range wireless environment with the minimal risk of interference with other devices. For example, the transceiver 114 can communicate with a BLUETOOTH™ enabled MP3 player, or other audio device. The audio device 10C can receive the output signal from the BLUETOOTH™ enabled MP3 player, and then output the audio signals to the interface 116. Optionally, the signal can be a stereo signal. The interface 116 can then direct the left and right audio signals to the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E through the speaker lines 120, 122. In accordance with the BLUETOOTH™ standard, for example, but without limitation, the transceiver 114 can operate in a half duplex mode in which signals are transmitted in only one direction. For example, at any one moment, the transceiver 114 can only either receive signals and direct them to the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E or transmit signals, for example, from the microphone 75, 124, 124D, 124E to another device through the antenna 118, 118D, 118D′. Alternatively, the transceiver 114 can be configured to operate in a full duplex mode in which simultaneous of audio signals are received and transmitted to the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E and simultaneously audio signals from the microphone 75, 124, 124D, 124E are transmitted through the antenna 118, 118D, 118D′ to a cooperating wireless device. Further, the interface 116 can include a processor and a memory for providing added functionality. For example, the interface 116 can be configured to allow a user to control the cooperating wireless device, such as a cell phone. In an illustrative, non-limiting embodiment, where the transceiver 114 is a BLUETOOTH™ device, the interface 116 can be configured to support a hands-free protocol, as set forth in the BLUETOOTH™ hands-free protocol published Oct. 22, 2001, the entire contents of which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference. Optionally, the interface 116 can be configured to comply with other protocols such as, for example, but without limitation, general access profile, service discovery application profile, cordless telephony profile, intercom profile, serial port profile, headset profile, dialup networking profile, fax profile, land access profile, generic object exchange profile, object push profile, file transfer profile, and synchronization profile, published Oct. 22, 2001, the entire contents of each of which being hereby expressly incorporated by reference. Additionally, the “Specification of the Bluetooth System, Core”, version 1.1, published Feb. 22, 2001 is hereby expressly incorporated by reference. The headset profile is designed to be used for interfacing a headset having one earphone, a microphone, and a transceiver worn by the wearer, for example, on a belt clip, with a cordless phone through a wireless connection. According to the headset profile, certain commands can be issued from a headset, such as the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′, 10B, 10C, 10D, and 10E, using an AT command protocol. In such a protocol, text commands must be input to the BLUETOOTH™ device, which the BLUETOOTH™ device then transmits wirelessly to a synchronized BLUETOOTH™ enabled device. Such commands include, for example, but without limitation, initiating a call, terminating a call, and redialing a previously dialed number. With reference to FIG. 9A, the interface electronics 116 can include audio or aural menus that can be selected by user. For example, a user can initiate an audio menu by depressing the button 150 (FIGS. 10-12). Upon initiation of the audio menus, the interface electronics 116 can send an audio signal to the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E including a humanoid voice. The voice signal can indicate that a first menu option is available. For example, but without limitation, the first menu choice can be to initiate a call. Thus, when the user pushes the button 150 the first time, the user will hear the words “initiate a call,” emanating from the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E. If the user wishes to initiate a call, the user can depress the button 150 again which will send the appropriate AT command to the transceiver 114 so as to transmit the proper AT code to the cellular phone source device S, B (FIG. 8). The user can be provided with further convenience if there are other menu choices available, for example, if the user does not wish to choose the first menu option, the user can depress either the forward or rearward portions 156, 158 of the button 150 so as to “scroll” through other audio menu options. For example, other audio menu options can include, for example, but without limitation, phonebook, email, clock, voice commands, and other menu options typically available on cellular phones and/or personal audio devices such as MP3 players. As an illustrative, but non-limiting example, if a user wishes to access the phonebook, the user can depress the button 150 to initiate the audio menu, then “scroll” to the phonebook by depressing the portions 156 or 158 until the user hears the word “phonebook” in the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E. Once the user hears the word “phonebook,” the user can depress the button 150 again to enter the phonebook. Thereafter, the user can depress the portions 156, 158 to “scroll” through phonebook entries. As the user scrolls through the phonebook entries, the interface 116 can be configured to cause the cellular phone to scroll through the phonebook and thereby transmit an audio signal of a humanoid voice indicating entries in the phonebook. When the user hears the name of the person or entity which the user desires to call, the user can again push the button 150 to initiate a call to that entity. In this embodiment, the cell phone can be configured with a text-to-voice speech engine which generates a humanoid voice corresponding to entries of the phonebook. Such speech engines are known in the art and are not described further herein. A text-to-speech engine can provide further convenient uses for a user. For example, if the cell phone or other source device is configured to receive email, the device can be configured to signal the user with an audio signal that an email has been received. The user can send a signal to the source device so as to open the email. The text-to-speech engine can be configured to read the email to the user. Thus, a user can “listen” to email through the audio device 10, 10A, 10A′, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E, without manually operating the source device. A further option is to allow a user to respond to such an email. For example, the user could record an audio file, such as, for example, but without limitation a .WAV, .MP3 file as an attachment to a reply email. For such a feature, the interface 116 can be configured to automatically provide a user with options at the end of an email that is read to the user. For example, after the text-to-speech engine finishes “reading” the email to the user, the interface device 116 can enter another audio menu. Such an audio menu can include a reply option, a forward option, or other options. If a user wishes to reply, the user can “scroll” until the user hears the word “reply.” Once the user hears the word “reply” the user can depress the button 150 to enter a reply mode. As noted above, these types of commands can be issued using an AT command protocol, to which the source device will also be configured to respond. As noted above, one audio menu option can include voice command. For example, when a user chooses the voice command option, the interface electronic 116 can reconfigure to send an AT command to the source device, such as a cellular phone, to accept voice commands directly from the transceiver 114. Thus, as the user speaks, the audio signal is directed to the source device, which in turn is configured to issue audio indicators back to the user, through the speakers 14, 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 16, 16A, 16B, 16C, 16D, 16E, to guide the user through such a voice command. For example, if a user chooses a voice command option, the user could issue commands such as, for example, but without limitation, “phonebook” or “call alpha.” With a source device such as a cellular phone, that has a speech recognition engine and that is properly trained to recognize the voice of the user, the user can automatically enter the phonebook mode or directly call the phonebook listing “alpha,” of course, as is apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art, such a voice command protocol could be used to issue other commands as well. In another alternative, the interface electronics 116 can include a speech recognition engine and audio menus. In this alternative, the interface electronics 116 can recognize speech from the user, convert the speech to At commands, and control this source device using a standard AT command protocol. For example, but without limitation, the source device B can be in the form of a palm-top or hand-held computer known as a BLACKBERRY™. The presently marketed BLACKBERRY™ devices can communicate with a variety of wireless networks for receiving email, phone calls, and/or internet browsing. One aspect of at least one of the present inventions includes the realization that such a hand-held computer can include a text-to-speech engine. Thus, such a hand-held computer can be used in conjunction with any of the audio devices 10, 10A, 10A′, 10B to allow a user to “hear” emails, or other text documents without the need to hold or look at the device B. Preferably, the hand-held computer includes a further wireless transceiver compatible with at least one of the transceivers 114, 114i. As such, a user can use any of the audio devices 10C, 10D, 10E to “hear” emails, or other text documents without the need to hold or look at the device B. Thus, a presently preferred hand-held computer, as a non-limiting example, includes a BLACKBERRY™ hand-held device including long range wireless network hardware for email and internet browsing capability, a BLUETOOTH™ transceiver for two-way short range audio and/or data audio communication, and a text-to-speech engine. Preferably, the transceiver 114 is configured to transmit signals at about 100 mW. More preferably, the transceiver 114 is configured to transmit signals at no more than 100 mW. As such, the transceiver 114 uses less power. This is particularly advantageous because the power source 112 can be made smaller and thus lighter while providing a practicable duration of power between charges or replacement of the power source 112. An audio network 300 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 20. Audio network 300 includes a content source 302 coupled to an audio device 304 via communications link 306. The content source 302 is any of a variety of information sources, including, but not limited to, radio stations and/or signals, a satellite radio source, a computer, a network, a storage device, such as a hard drive, a memory card, or a USB (Universal Serial Bus) drive, an audio component (e.g., a stereo receiver, a CD player, a tuner, an MP3 player, a digital audio player, etc.), a database, and/or a communications-enabled device, such as a telephone (including a BLUETOOTH enabled telephone), a PDA, a BLACKBERRY, the Internet, or the like. The content provided by the content source 302 may be any of a variety of information, including but not limited to, audio files, entertainment, news, media, music, photos, videos, advertising, etc. The audio device 304 may be any of the audio devices described above with respect to FIGS. 1-19, or may include any of the audio devices described below. In one embodiment, audio device 304 is electronically enabled eyewear, as discussed herein. Audio device 304 is coupled to content source 302 via communications link 306. Communications link 306 may be any of a variety of information conduits known to those of skill in the art, including: a cable, a wire, a conductor, a bus, an RF signal, a radio signal, a satellite signal, a BLUETOOTH signal, etc. In one embodiment, the communications link 306 includes a USB, mini-USB, USB-to-mini-USB, FIREWIRE, IEEE 1394, RS232, SCSI, or any other cable. In one embodiment, the communications link 306 is temporarily attached to the audio device 304 for the transfer of content from the content source 302 to the audio device 304. In another embodiment, the communications link 306 is a retractable cable mounted at least partially inside of the audio device 304. In one embodiment, the audio network 300 is configured for the downloading of music from the content source 302 (e.g., a user's computer) to the audio device 304. In another embodiment, the audio network 300 is configured for the uploading of content stored within the audio device 304 to the content source 302. One embodiment of the audio device 304 is illustrated in FIG. 21. Audio device 304 generally includes a data port 308, data interface 310, processor 312, digital-to-analog converter 314, speaker drivers 316, and speakers 318. In addition, audio device 304 generally also includes a control interface 320, user controls 322, display/indicator drivers 324, display/indicators 326, power module 328, and memory module 330; however, any one or more of these components may be combined. For example, in one embodiment, data interface 310, control interface 320, display/indicator drivers 324, digital-to-analog converter 314, and speaker drivers 316 are combined with processor 312 into a single component. Data port 308 is any of a variety of ports, connectors, jacks, interfaces, or receivers for wireless or wire-based coupling of audio device 304 with communications link 306. For example, in one embodiment, data port 308 is a mini-USB connector. In other embodiments, the data port 308 may be, by way of example, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, a BLUETOOTH receiver, or the like. Data port 308 generally includes an optional protective door (not illustrated) to protect the data port 308 from dirt, moisture, water, snow, etc., when the audio device 304 is disconnected from the communications link 306. In one embodiment, content is loaded from the content source 302 to the audio device 304 via the data port 308 at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate will generally vary depending upon several factors, including the data port 308 selected, the content source 302, and the communications link 306. In one embodiment, the data transfer rate is about 1.5 Mbps (e.g., 106 bits per second). In other embodiments, the data transfer rate may be, by way of example, at least about 12 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 200 Mbps, 400 Mbps, 480 Mbps, or the like. In yet another embodiment, the data transfer rate is greater than about 100 Mbps, 200 Mbps, 400 Mbps, or 1000 Mbps. In another embodiment, the data transfer rate is less than about 100 Mbps, or 50 Mbps. Data interface 310 couples data port 308 with processor 312. In one embodiment, data interface 310 is a memory buffer for storing information or content received via data port 308 until it is processed by processor 312. Processor 312 controls the overall function and operation of audio device 304, and couples directly or indirectly to the various electronic components of the audio device 304, as described herein. In one embodiment, processor 312 is a digital signal processor (DSP), firmware, microprocessor, microcontroller, field-programmable gate array (FPGA), and/or an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Processor 312 may also be upgradeable. For example, in one embodiment, processor 312 is firmware, and software executable by the processor 312 may be changed, uploaded, downloaded, deleted, and/or modified. In one embodiment the processor 312 is adapted to function as a digitized audio coder/decoder (CODEC). For example, the processor 312 may be a decoder, such as the STA013, STMP34xx, STMP35xx, or STMP13xx manufactured by SigmaTel. The processor 312 is generally capable of decoding variable bit rate, constant bit rate, or any other bit rate format of compressed digital audio files. In one embodiment, processor 312 is a 75 MHz DSP with an 18-bit sigma-delta digital-to-analog converter. In other embodiments, processor 312 may process any of a variety of compressed and non-compressed digital audio formats, including but not limited to: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM), Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM), Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), RAW, Delta Modulation (DM), Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF), Waveform Audio (WAV), Broadcast Wave Format (BWF), Audio Interface/Interchange File Format (AIFF), Sun Audio (AU), SND, Compact Disc Audio (CDA), Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG), including MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, and layers 1, 2, and 3 (e.g., MP3), MP3Pro, Audio Compression/Expansion (ACE), Macintosh Audio Compression/Expansion (MACE), including MACE-3 and MACE-6, Audio Code Number 3 (AC-3), Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding (ATRAC), ATRAC3, Enhanced Perceptual Audio Coder (EPAC), Transform-Domain Weighted Interleave Vector Quantization (Twin VQ or VQF), Windows Media Audio (WMA), WMA with DRM, Digital Theatre Systems (DTS), DVD Audio, Super Audio Compact Disc (SACD), Transparent Audio Compression (TAC), SHN, OGG (including Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, and Ogg Theora), Advanced Streaming Format (ASF), Liquid Audio (LQT), QDesign Music Codec (QDMC), A2b, Real Audio (including the .ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2 and RMX formats), Fairplay, Quicktime, Shockwave (SWF), Perfect Clarity Audio (PCA), or the like. Processor 312 may also be adapted to process not only existing digital audio formats, but also digital audio formats that may be developed in the future. The processor 312 is generally able to process encoded, digitized audio data that has been encoded at a particular data encoding rate. For example, in one embodiment, the processor 312 decodes encoded audio data that has been encoded at a data encoding rate of about 8 kilobits per second (e.g., “kbps”). In other embodiments, processor 312 decodes encoded audio data that has been encoded at a data encoding rate of, by way of example, at least about 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, or the like. In other embodiments, the processor 312 decodes encoded audio data that has been encoded at a data encoding rate of less than about 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, or the like. In yet another embodiment, the processor 312 decodes encoded audio data that has been encoded at a data encoding rate of more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the processor 312 decodes encoded data at a decoding rate of about 8 kilobits per second (“kbps”). In other embodiments, the processor 312 decodes encoded data at a decoding rate of, by way of example, at least about 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, or the like. In another embodiment, the processor 312 decodes encoded audio data at a decoding rate of less than about 128 kbps. In yet another embodiment, the processor 312 decodes encoded audio data at a decoding rate of more than about 256 kbps. The digital-to-analog converter 314 is generally adapted to output an analog signal based upon an input digital signal. In one embodiment, the digital-to-analog converter 314 is an 8-bit digital-to-analog converter. In other embodiments, digital-to-analog converter 314 is, by way of example, a 16-bit, 24-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit digital-to-analog converter, or the like, although any number of bits may be used. In one embodiment, the digital-to-analog converter 314 is an 18-bit, sigma-delta digital-to-analog converter. The digital-to-analog converter 314 may be integrated with the processor 312, or may be discrete from the processor 312. Speaker drivers 316 are generally amplifiers that amplify an analog signal received from the digital-to-analog converter 314 and send the amplified signal to the speakers 318. Speakers 318 convert the signal received from the speaker drivers 316 to an audible signal that may be sensed by the user of the audio device 304. In one embodiment, the speakers 318 are made from Mylar, but may be made from other materials, including: polypropylene, aluminum-coated polypropylene, aramid, graphite-injected polypropylene, honeycomb-laminate, kapton, kaladex, polybenzoxozole, polycarbonate, polyetherimide, pulp paper, silk, silver film, thermalum, urethane, and/or any other material familiar to those of skill in the art. In one embodiment, the speakers 318 have an input impedance of about 16 Ohms. In other embodiments the speakers 318 have an input impedance of no greater than about 2, 4, 8, or 32 Ohms. In one embodiment, the input impedance is less than about 16 Ohms, and in another embodiment it is greater than about 8 Ohms. In another embodiment, the input impedance is no less than about 100, 200, 400 or 600 Ohms. In one embodiment, the input impedance is about 300 Ohms or about 600 Ohms. The control interface 320 generally includes a buffer, register, pre-processor, transistor, resistor and/or other electronic circuit to enable the processor 312 to receive commands from a user via the user controls 322. In one embodiment, the control interface 320 is integrated with the processor 312. In one embodiment, the user controls 322 include a button, dial, switch, lever, sensor, touchpad, microphone, and/or any other input device that may be used by a user to control the audio device 304. In one embodiment, the user controls 322 include a microphone that receives a voice command. The user controls 322 may be responsive to any biometric provided by a user to control the audio device 304. For example, in one embodiment, the audio device 304 may monitor eye movement, and control the audio device 304 based upon blinking of the user's eyes. In other embodiments, user controls 322 are used to perform any one or a combination of various functions with respect to an audio data file. For example, user controls 322 may be used to fast-forward, skip, cue, play, pause, turn power on or off, rewind, review, adjust volume, balance, tone, bass, or treble, randomize file selection, load a playlist, set a playlist, delete a playlist, repeat playback of all audio files, selected audio files, or a playlist, or perform any other function related to an audio data file. The display/indicator drivers 324 are generally amplifiers or other drivers known to those of skill in the art, useful for driving or activating display/indicators 326. In one embodiment, the display/indicator drivers 324 receive signals from the processor 312 and generate drive signals to turn on or off display elements of the display/indicators 326. In one embodiment, the display/indicators 326 include an LED, LCD, light, tone, sound, beep, vibration, or other such display or indicator, or other indicators known to those of skill in the art. In one embodiment, the display/indicators 326 indicate a song selection, a power level, a volume, a remaining battery life, an artist, a song title, a time remaining during the playback of an audio file, a duration of an audio file's playback, or any other data related to an audio data file. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 also includes a power module 328, which provides power to the audio device 304. The power module 328 is generally any device adapted to provide power, such as: a battery, a capacitor, a solar cell, solar paint, a fuel cell, and/or any other such device known to those of skill in the art. In one embodiment, the power module 328 distributes power to the various components of the audio device 304 via a conductor 332, either directly or indirectly. In one embodiment, the power module 328 is a rechargeable battery, such as a lithium-ion polymer battery. In one embodiment, the power module 328 is recharged via the data port 308, and/or via an external charger (not shown). In one embodiment, the power module 328 has an input power rating of 5 Vdc at 150 mA, and a lifetime of 6 hours, although other input power ratings and lifetimes are possible. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 is able to play audio data files for at least about 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 hours, or more before the power module 328 is recharged. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 is able to play audio files for greater than about 6 hours before the power module 328 is recharged. In one embodiment, the power module 328 is able to be recharged in no more than about 3 hours, and reaches at least about 80% recharge in no more than about 1 hour. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 includes a power save function to conserve power consumption from the power module 328. For example, in one embodiment, when the audio device 304 has not been activated by the user for a period of time, the audio device 304 enters a sleep state, or automatically turns itself off. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 turns itself off after about 5, 10, 20, or 40 minutes of non-use. The audio device 304 may also include a memory module 330, which in one embodiment stores audio data files. The memory module 330 may include any of a variety of electronic memory devices, including but not limited to, a hard drive, flash memory, RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, or PROM. In one embodiment, the memory module 330 includes NAND flash memory. In one embodiment, the memory module 330 includes at least about 128 MB. In other embodiments, the memory module 330 includes, by way of example, at least about 256 MB, 512 MB, or 1 GB of memory. The memory module 330 may be permanently contained within the audio device 304, or may be removable. For example, in one embodiment, the memory module 330 includes an SD memory card, a compact flash memory card, a USB drive, a MEMORYSTICK, SMARTSTICK, and/or any other removable memory device as is well known to those of skill in the art. Conductors 332 generally provide direct or indirect electrical communication between the various components of the audio device 304. In one embodiment, the conductors 332 include a data bus, power distribution network or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the conductors 332 include a flexible printed circuit board (PCB), a conductive paint or coating, an Aricon fiber, or a Kevlar fiber. The PCB may be a multi-conductor PCB, and in one embodiment includes multiple conductors. In one embodiment, the PCB includes five conductors. In another embodiment, the conductors 332 include fiber dipped in or otherwise coated with a highly-conductive material, such as, for example, an aramid yarn or Kevlar fiber containing silver, or any other conductor known to those of skill in the art. The conductors 332 may be embedded within the frame of the audio device 304 or applied to a surface of the audio device 304. In another embodiment, the audio device 304 includes both embedded and surface-applied conductors 332. In one embodiment, conductors 332 include conduits, such as conduits 73ai, 73bi, 274i, and 14Ai′, as illustrated above in FIG. 3M. The conductors 332 may be embedded within the frame of the audio device 304 by extending through a channel, such as channel 316 illustrated in FIG. 3M. In other embodiments, the conductors 332 are applied to a surface of the audio device 304. In one embodiment, conductors 332 are applied to the surface of the audio device 304 such as the frame and/or lens and include conductive metals or paint. Conductive paints and coatings are well known to those of skill in the art, and include, for example, the ELECTRODAG series of products manufactured by Acheson industries in Port Huron, Michigan. In one embodiment, the conductors 332 include conductive paints of one or more colors. By using conductors 332 having colors, the conductors 332 function as electrical conductors and provide design and aesthetic enhancement of the audio device 304. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 includes dual automatic equalization. The audio device 304 may also include static and/or noise correction, and/or active or passive noise cancellation. The audio device 304 has a total harmonic distortion of less than about 1.0% and, in one embodiment, less than about 0.1%. The signal-to-noise ratio is generally greater than about 80 dB, and in one embodiment, at least about 90 dB. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 receives a wireless signal, such as an FM or satellite radio, or wireless network, infrared, Bluetooth signal, or the like. The audio device 304 identifies audio signal information in the wireless signal, such as the performer of a song corresponding to the wireless signal. The audio device 304 compares the audio signal information to stored preference information to determine whether to receive and store the wireless signal corresponding to a particular song. For example, in one embodiment, a user provides the audio device 304 with a list of preferred information, which includes preferred song names, artist names, or show or program titles. The audio device 304 monitors wireless signals to determine if preferred information is or will be broadcast. If the audio device 304 determines that preferred information is or will be broadcast, the audio device 304 receives the preferred information and saves it in the memory module 330. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 receives the preferred information and compresses it according to any of the compression or de-compression schemes described in greater detail above. Once compressed, the preferred information is saved in the memory module 330. In another embodiment, a user provides the audio device 304 with a list of preferred information, which includes preferred song names, artist names, or show or program titles. The audio device 304 also receives a program guide, which generally indicates the schedule of transmission of songs, programs, or other content from a content source 302, such as the content source 302 shown in FIG. 20. The audio device 304 determines when preferred information will be available by comparing the preferred information to the program guide. The audio device 304 receives and stores the preferred information based upon the comparison. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 is generally light-weight, and able to be worn comfortably by a user for an extended period of time. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 weighs less than about 75 g, less than about 50 g, or less than about 30g. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 weights about 52 g. One embodiment of a method of audio playback 350 is illustrated in FIG. 22. An audio file is received at block 352. The audio file may be any of the compressed or non-compressed digital file formats described above with respect to FIGS. 20 and 21, or may be any other audio file. The audio file may be any content described above with respect to FIG. 20. In one embodiment, the audio file is an MP3 formatted audio file. The audio file is stored in the audio device 304 at block 354. At block 356, the method 350 determines whether the user has instructed the audio device 304 to play back the audio file. If not, the method 350 continues to block 358, where the method 350 determines whether the user has instructed the audio device 304 to load an audio file into the audio device 304. If not, the method 350 returns to block 356. If the user has instructed the audio device 304 to load an audio file, the method 350 returns to block 352. If at block 356 the user has instructed the audio device 304 to play back an audio file, the method 350 continues to block 360. At block 360 the method processes an audio file. In one embodiment, block 360 includes any one or a combination functions that may be performed with respect to an audio file. For example, at block 360 the audio file may be selected, the playback volume may be adjusted, the tone, balance, bass, treble, or other audio parameter may be adjusted, and/or any other processing function may occur. At block 362 the audio file is played back, which in one embodiment includes decompressing an audio file, converting it to an analog signal, and sending a signal to speakers so that the audio file may be heard by a user. After block 362 the method 350 returns to block 358. FIG. 24 illustrates an audio device 304 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. The audio device 304 of FIG. 24 may be the same as and/or include any or all of the features of any of the audio devices described above with respect to FIGS. 1-23. The audio device 304 of FIG. 24 includes a frame 380, which includes an ear stem 382, an electronic housing 384, a coupling 386, and orbitals 388. The embodiment of audio device 304 illustrated in FIG. 24 is adapted to be worn on the head of a user as a pair of eyeglasses, although other configurations for the support of audio device 304 may be employed. In one embodiment, the electronic housing 384 is a hollow cavity formed within the audio device 304 frame 380. Electronic components of the audio device 304, for example, any one or all of the components described above with respect to FIG. 21 and elsewhere herein, are at least partially enclosed within electronic housing 384. In one embodiment, the audio device 304 includes at least three buttons 390, which extend from the electronic housing 384, and allow user control over operation of the audio device 304. The orbitals 388 of the audio device 304 at least partially enclose and/or support a lens 392. Additional details regarding the lens 392 of the audio device 304 are provided in greater detail below with respect to FIGS. 26-28. In one embodiment, the frame 380 of the audio device 304 includes two ear stems 382. The right ear stem 382 may include an electronic housing 384, and the left ear stem 382 may include a housing (not shown) to carry a power source 328 (not shown), for example, an AAAA battery, a rechargeable battery, or any other power source described above. Power from the power source 328 is provided to the electronic components of the audio device 304 within the electronic housing 384 via conductors 332 (not shown). In such configuration, the weight of the audio device 304 may be substantially evenly distributed across the user's head, as described in greater detail above. In one embodiment, power is provided from one ear stem 382 to the other ear stem 382 across the upper orbital and nose bridge portion 442 (as shown in FIG. 27) of the audio device 304 frame 380. Analog signals that correspond to a selected compressed digital audio file are provided from the electronic housing 384 to the ear stem 382 that carries the electronic housing 384, and across the nose bridge portion 442 to the other ear stem 382. From the ear stems 382, the analog signal is provided to right and left speakers 400 via the right and left couplings 386 and extensions 398. In another embodiment, the analog signals are conducted at least partially through or upon the orbitals 388 of the audio device 304 frame 380. In another embodiment, electronics components are distributed along the frame 380 of the audio device 304. In one embodiment, digital signals that correspond to a selected compressed digital audio file are provided through, within or upon the frame 380. For example, in one embodiment, digital signals are provided across the nose bridge portion 442 of the audio device 304 frame 380. In one embodiment, digital-to-analog converters 314 are included in the right and left speaker 400 housings, such that audible audio is generated by the speakers 400 based upon the digital signals. In one embodiment, the coupling 386 of the audio device 304 includes a hollow chamber (not illustrated), into which a boom 394 of a support arm 396 extends. The support arm 396 also includes an extension 398 and a speaker 400. Speaker 400 is attached to the extension 398 at a speaker pivot 402. Although one speaker pivot 402 is illustrated, each support arm 396 may include more than one speaker pivot 402 to provide additional adjustability of the speaker 400 with respect to a user's ear. In one embodiment, speaker pivot 402 includes a pin, hinge, cam, and/or ball joint. The boom 394 is configured to at least partially slide along and rotate about its longitudinal axis (illustrated as boom axis 404) within the coupling 386. In one embodiment, longitudinal translation of boom 394 with respect to coupling 386 along the boom axis 404 results in speaker 400 position adjustment in an anterior or posterior direction (“z-axis” adjustability, as described below) with respect to a user's ear. In another embodiment, rotation of boom 394 about the boom axis 404 provides adjustment of the angular orientation of speaker 400 with respect to the user's ears. In one embodiment, boom 394 is configured to rotate about its longitudinal axis such that speaker 400 is directed inward, towards a user's ear. In another embodiment, boom 394 is configured to rotate such that speaker 400 is directed outward and upward, away from a user's ear by at least about 35 degrees and in some embodiments at least about 65 degrees from vertical. Such adjustability is particularly useful for allowing a user to use a telephone without requiring removal of audio device 304 from user's head. Speaker pivot 402 allows speaker 400 to rotate through an arc about the rotational center of the pivot 402, thereby providing additional superior-inferior as well as anterior-posterior speaker position adjustability. See FIG. 24A. Rotation through an arc of at least about 45 degrees, and often at least about 90 degrees or 120 degrees is contemplated. In one embodiment, speaker pivot 402 additionally permits speaker 400 to rotate laterally with respect to a user's ear, as illustrated in FIG. 25, and discussed in greater detail below with respect to FIGS. 28-30. Sound emitted from speaker 400 is generally emitted along a sound propagation axis 406, which is generally transverse a speaker face 408. Inward and outward rotation of speaker 400 about speaker pivot 402 permits adjustment of the speaker face 408 and the sound propagation axis 406 with respect to a user's ear. In one embodiment, speaker 400 is adjustable over an adjustment range 410 of about 45°. In other embodiments, speaker 400 is adjustable over an adjustment range 410 of no more than about 5°, 10°, 15°, 25°, 30°, or 60°. In one embodiment, speaker is adjustable over an adjustment range of greater than about 25°. Additional discussion regarding speaker 400 adjustability is discussed in greater detail below. Overall, in one embodiment, the audio device 304 provides speaker 400 adjustability in about four degrees-of-freedom with respect to a user's ear. In other embodiments, the audio device 304 provides speaker 400 adjustability in one, two, three or more than three degrees-of-freedom. The lens 392 of the audio device 304 may be any of a variety of lenses described above, including but not limited to, sunglass lens, waterwhite lens, UV filtering lens, plano lens, magnifying lens, prescription lens, polarized lens, tinted lens, bifocal lens, trifocal lens, Polaroid lens, photochromic lens, protective lens, or the like. The lens 392 may be manufactured from a variety of materials, as described above, including plastic, polymers, or glass, or a combination thereof. Polycarbonate and CR-39 are suitable non-glass lens materials. In addition, the lens 392 may be fabricated by injection molding, coining, thermoforming, coating, or layering one or more materials together, as is well known to those of skill in the art. The lens 392 may be interchangeable so that a user can select the lens 392 attached to the audio device 304 depending upon the user's preference. The term lens as used herein may refer either to a single lens in a unitary lens system, or a dual lens in a system having a separate lens for each of the left and right line of sight. The lens generally comprises a lens body, having a front surface, a rear surface, and a thickness therebetween. The front surface of the lens preferably conforms to a portion of the surface of a solid geometric shape, such as a portion of the surface of a first sphere having a first center. The rear surface of the lens preferably conforms substantially to a portion of the surface of a solid geometric shape, which may be the same or different than that conforming to the front surface. Preferably, the rear surface conforms substantially to a portion of the surface of a second sphere, having a second center. The first and second centers are offset from one another to taper the lens thickness. Preferably, the lens is mounted in the frame such that a line drawn through the first and second centers is maintained substantially parallel with a wearer's reference line of sight. Often, the wearer's reference line of sight will be the wearer's straight ahead normal line of sight. The lens may be cut from a lens blank, or formed directly into its final configuration such as by injection molding or other techniques known in the art. The lens may be oriented on the head of a wearer by the eyeglass frame such that the straight ahead normal line of sight crosses the posterior surface of the lens at an angle greater than about 95°, and often within the range of from about 100° to about 120°, while maintaining the optical center line of the lens in a substantially parallel relationship with the straight ahead normal line of sight of the wearer. The optical center line of the lens may or may not pass through the lens. Further aspects of the optically correct embodiment of the lens for use in the present invention are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,168,271 to Houston et al., entitled Decentered Noncorrective Lens for Eyewear, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein. In one embodiment, as illustrated in FIGS. 26-28, lens 392 is mounted to a lens mount 440, which is adjustable with respect to frame 380. For example, in one embodiment, lens mount 440 is coupled to a bridge portion 442 of frame 380 via a pivot or hinge (not shown). The pivot allows the lens mount 440 and the lens 392 attached thereto, to rotate up and out of the visual field of the wearer. Such adjustability of the lens 392 allows the user to remove the lens 392 from the user's visual field without requiring removal of the audio device 304 from the user's head. In one embodiment, where the lens 392 includes sunglass lens, flip-up functionality advantageously permits the user to wear the audio device 304 in bright environments with the sunglass lens flipped down, and in dark environments with the sunglass lens flipped up. A secondary lens may be provided for each of the wearer's right and left lines of sight. The secondary lens may be secured to the frame 380 on the posterior side of the primary lens 392, such that when the primary lens 392 is advanced from the first position as illustrated in FIG. 26 to a second position as illustrated in FIG. 27, the secondary lens remains within the wearer's line of sight. The secondary lens may be a waterwhite lens, and may either be a prescription lens or a protective plano lens. Any of a variety of mechanisms may be used to couple lens mount 440 to the frame 380 of the audio device 304. Such mechanisms include pins, hinges, joints, including ball joints, and any other suitable mechanism, as are well known to those of skill in the art. In one embodiment, lens mount 440 is detachably coupled to frame 380 so that the user may remove and exchange lenses 392 depending upon the user's requirements. For example, lenses 392 of different color, shape, size, prescription, tint darkness, polarization, filtering, or any other optical or aesthetic quality may be interchanged and used with the audio device 304. In one embodiment, the frame 380 includes a support ridge 444 formed within an edge of a frame orbital 388. The support ridge 444 is generally designed to accommodate a contact edge 446 of the lens 392, and to provide resistance and support for frontal impact against the lens 392. In one embodiment, the support ridge 444 provides impact resistance at or in excess of that required by a national or international standard, such as ANSI Z87.1-2003. The lens 392 may be pivotably connected to the frame 380 in any of a variety of ways. In the illustrated embodiment, a medial side 393 of lens 392 is connected to a lens mount 440, which is pivotably connected to the frame 380. Due to the bilateral symmetry of the disclosed embodiment, only a single lens 392 will be described herein. The medial side 393 of the lens 392 is provided with structure for enabling a connection 395 to the lens mount 440. In the illustrated embodiment, lens 392 is provided with at least a first alignment recess 397, which may be molded or formed in the medial side 393 of the lens 392. The first alignment recess 397 is positioned to receive a first alignment pin 399 which projects from the lens mount 440. Optionally, a second alignment recess 401 may be positioned to receive a second alignment pin 403, as illustrated in FIG. 27. A fastener 405, such as a screw is advanced through an aperture in the lens 392 and into a threaded recess within lens mount 440. The fastener 405, in cooperation with the alignment recess and alignment pin configuration described above, enable a secure attachment of the lens 392 to the lens mount 440, with minimal encroachment upon the field of view. The fastener 405 may be provided with a knob, hexagonal recess, or other rotational engagement structure, to permit rotation of the fastener 405 by hand or with a tool, to enable exchange of the lens 392. Alternatively, fastener 405 may comprise any of a variety of snap fit structures, to permit removal of the lens 392 and replacement with an alternative lens 392. The mechanical center of each lens is displaced from the axis of rotation of the lens mount 440 by sufficient distance to enable the lens 392 to be rotated in and out of engagement with the support ridge 444, even with rake and wrap angles in excess of about 6° or 8° or 10°. In the illustrated embodiment, the axis of rotation of the lens mount 440 is displaced from the mechanical center of the lens by at least about 0.25″, and, in some embodiments, at least about 0.5″. In the illustrated embodiment, the axis of rotation of the lens mount 440 extends within about 0.125″ of the upper edge of the lens 392 when the lens is in the first, lowered position, when viewed in a front elevational view. The support ridge 444 may be provided with at least one recess 407, for receiving the fastener 405, to maximize the contact surface area between the lens 392 and the support ridge 444. The lens mount 440 may be provided with a spring bias, such as a first surface spring biased against a second, cam surface to bias the lens 392 against the support ridge 440 when the lens is in the first position, and to bias the lens 392 away from the wearer's line of sight when the lens 392 is in the second position. An embodiment of the audio device 304 is generally adapted to be worn at least partially upon the head 460 of a user. A top view of a user's head is generally illustrated in FIG. 29. The head 460 includes two ears 462. The external, visible portion of the ear 462 is generally referred to as the pinna 464 or auricle. A small, cartilaginous protrusion within the pinna 464 is known as the tragus 466. The size and shape of the tragus 466 varies between individuals, but it generally extends posteriorly and sometimes slightly laterally with respect to the head 460. A tragus-tragus line 466 extends laterally across the head 460, between the posterior limit of each of the left and right tragus, and generally bisects the head 460, as viewed from above. A lateral plane of symmetry 470 extends transverse the tragus-tragus line 466, substantially bisecting both the user's head 460 and nose 472. FIG. 30 illustrates a top, horizontal cross-sectional view of the external portion of a user's left ear 462 where the speaker 400 (not shown) of an audio device 304 (not shown) is not positioned against, or partially within the ear 462. The ear 462 includes a pinna 464 and tragus 466 as described above. The ear 462 also includes a concha 480, outer ear canal 486, and external auditory meatus 484 or opening of the outer ear canal 482. The posterior aspect of the auditory meatus 486 partially separates the concha 480 and outer ear canal 482. FIG. 29 also illustrates anterior 488 and posterior 490 directions with respect to the user's head 460. Tragus line 468 lies on a tangent to the posterior limit of the tragus 466. A speaker 400 placed partially within the ear 462 of a user is illustrated in FIG. 31. The face 408 of a speaker 400 lies generally in a speaker plane 494, which intersects the tragus-tragus line 468 at an orientation angle 496 such that sound emitted from the speaker 400 along the sound propagation axis 406 is directed towards an anterior wall 498 of the outer ear canal 482. By adjusting the orientation angle 496 of the speaker face 408 with respect to the tragus-tragus line 468, sound quality and enjoyment may be enhanced. In one embodiment, when the speaker 400 is placed within a user's ear 462, the speaker 400 may contact the ear 462 at the tragus 466 and posterior aspect of auditory meatus 486, as illustrated in FIG. 30. The orientation angle 496 formed by such speaker 400 placement may be any of a variety of angles, preferably directing the sound propagation axis in an anteriorly inclined direction. In one embodiment, the orientation angle 496 is in the range of between about 15° and 85°, between about 20° and 50°, or between about 20° and 30°. In one embodiment, the orientation angle is about 25°. An audio device 304 and a reference system 500 are shown in FIGS. 32-35. Referring first to FIG. 32, audio device 304 generally includes two speakers 400, each having a speaker face 408, as described in greater detail above. The speaker face 408 has a centerpoint 409, which in one embodiment is the mechanical center of the planar surface substantially parallel to the speaker face 408 and bounded by a speaker perimeter 411. In one embodiment, reference system 500 includes three axes 502, 504, 506 that may be used to describe the position, orientation, and degrees of freedom of movement and rotation of the speakers 400, the speaker faces 408, and speaker face centers 409 with respect to the audio device 304. The reference system 500 includes an x-axis 502, a y-axis 504, and a z-axis 506. In one embodiment, the x-axis 502 is parallel to a reference axis x′, as shown in FIG. 33, which is tangential to the ends 508 of the ear stems 382 which, in a typical, symmetrical eyeglass, have approximately the same length. In the illustrated embodiment, the x-axis 502 lies on a plane that bisects the anterior-posterior dimensions of the audio device 304. The x-axis 502 generally extends laterally, or from side-to-side with respect to a wearer's head when the audio device 304 is worn. A z-axis 506 bisects the eyeglass along its typical plane of symmetry and is perpendicular to the x-axis as illustrated in FIG. 33. The z-axis 506 generally extends in a posterior-to-anterior direction with respect to a wearer's head when the audio device 304 is worn. A y-axis 504 is perpendicular to the x-axis 502, as illustrated in FIG. 34. The y-axis 504 lies on a plane that bisects the audio device 304. The y-axis 504 generally extends in an inferior-to-superior direction with respect to a wearer's head when the audio device 304 is worn. In one embodiment, the x-axis 502, y-axis 504, and z-axis 506 are substantially perpendicular to one another. The axes 502, 504, 506 of the reference system 500 define multiple planes, which may also be used to describe the position, orientation, and degrees of freedom of movement and rotation of the speakers 400, the speaker faces 408, and speaker face centers 409 with respect to the audio device 304. For example, in one embodiment, the x-axis 502 and z-axis 506 define an xz-plane, the x-axis 502 and y-axis 504 define an xy-plane, and the y-axis 504 and z-axis 506 define a yz-plane, as illustrated in FIGS. 33-35 respectively. The term “substantially parallel” as used herein is intended to include deviations from parallel that are induced by resonable manufacturing tolerances and normal anatomical variations as the context may require. In addition, a term such as “the yz-plane” is intended to include the yz-plane and all planes parallel to the yz-plane unless indicated otherwise either expressly or by context. Motion along, for example, the x-axis refers also to motion along any parallel to the x-axis. Referring back to FIG. 32, in the illustrated configuration, the speaker faces 408 of the speakers 400 lie on a plane that is substantially parallel to the yz-plane. The speaker 400, speaker face 408, and centerpoint 409 may be moved linearly anteriorly or posteriorly in the z-axis 506 by employing any of a variety of devices, speaker mounts, joints and couplings, as described in greater detail above. For example, by coupling speaker 400 to a boom 394 that slides within a coupling 386, speaker 400 may be linearly translated in a direction substantially parallel to the z-axis 506, as illustrated in FIG. 3F and elsewhere herein. In one embodiment, the linear z-axis translation distance will vary depending upon the particular design of the boom 394 and coupling 386. Preferably, a z-axis range of at least about 0.25 inches will normally be used. For example, by using a longer boom 394 and coupling 386, z-direction linear translation may be increased. In addition, by using a telescoping boom 394, z-direction linear translation may also be increased. In one embodiment, a telescoping boom 394 includes at least two substantially concentric structures (e.g., tubes), that slide with respect to one another, and allow the boom 394 to be manipulated from a first, compacted configuration to a second, extended configuration. Other nested or slider and track structures may be utilized, as will be appreciated by those of skill in the art. For example, any of a variety of axially elongate rails may be aligned in the z-axis, to serve as the coupling 386. The extension 398 may be provided with any of a variety of complementary clamps or retainers for traveling axially along the rail, thereby providing z-axis adjustability of the speaker. In one embodiment, a locking or dampening mechanism (not shown) is used to secure the boom 394, and to fix the position of the speaker 400 from or provide resistance to further movement in the z-axis 506. For example, in one embodiment, a compression ring or collar is used to apply friction between the boom 394 and the coupling 386, or between nested, concentric structures of a telescoping boom 394. This enables a wearer to adjust the z-axis position of the speaker by overcoming the friction, but the friction will retain the position selected by the wearer. Locking structures, including pins, levers, clasps, switches, knobs, and latches may also be utilized. During movement of the speaker 400 in the z-axis 506 by axial movement of the boom 394 speaker face 408 may either also be adjusted or may remain substantially parallel to the yz-plane. Speaker 400 may be moved in certain embodiments in a direction substantially parallel to the z-axis 506 while speaker face 408 remains positioned at a preset angle with respect to the yz-plane. For example, referring to FIGS. 25 and 32-35, speaker 400 may be inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane that is within an adjustment range 410. While, before, or after the speaker 400 is positioned at the selected angle, the speaker's 400 position along an axis substantially parallel to the z-axis 506 may be adjusted, as described above. Similarly, in another embodiment, the speaker 400 may be moved in a direction substantially parallel to either or both of the x-axis 502 or y-axis 504. For example, in one embodiment, the speaker face 408 remains substantially fixed with respect to the yz-plane while the speaker face 408 is laterally or medially displaced along an axis substantially parallel to the x-axis 502. Such movement may be achieved by utilizing any of a variety of x-axis telescoping or track and slider mechanisms well known to those of skill in the art. For example, in one embodiment, the speaker 400 is coupled to the audio device 304 with a slider. The slider moves within a guide extending along the x-axis and provides lateral movement of the speakers 400 along the x-axis. Alternatively, a pivotable joint can be provided at each end of the extension 398. In another embodiment, the speaker 400 includes a threaded portion that mates with a threaded counterpart on the speaker support. Lateral displacement along a direction substantially parallel to the x-axis 502 is achieved by rotating the speaker 400 with respect to its threaded counterpart. In one embodiment, the speaker's threaded portion includes male threads, and the threaded counterpart includes female threads. In another embodiment, the speaker's threaded portion includes female threads, and the threaded counterpart includes male threads. In addition, in other embodiments, the speaker 400 moves laterally at an angle offset from the x-axis 502. Speaker 400 movement in any direction may be de-coupled from movement in other directions. For example, linear translation of the speaker 400 along the z-axis 506 (or an axis substantially parallel thereto) does not necessarily result in translation or movement of the speaker 400 along either the x-axis 502 or y-axis 504. However, in other embodiments, speaker 400 movement in one direction may be coupled to movement in one or more other directions as well. Such coupled movements are described in greater detail below. In one embodiment, the speakers 400 of the audio device 304 may be rotated within one or more planes. The term “rotation” is intended to include both rotation of an object about an axis extending through the object, as well as movement of an object through an arcuate path about a center of rotation separated by an offset distance from the object. Referring again to FIG. 32, speaker 400 is coupled to extension 398 with a speaker pivot 402. In one embodiment, speaker 400 rotates about speaker pivot 402, and an axis that extends through the speaker pivot 402, and which is substantially parallel to the x-axis 502. During such rotation, in one embodiment, the speaker face 408 remains substantially parallel to a yz-plane (or a reference plane that is located at an offset angle with respect to the yz-plane), while the speaker 400 centerpoint 409 moves in an arcuate path within the yz-plane (or within a reference plane that is located at an offset angle with respect to the yz-plane). Although the speaker pivot 402 is illustrated as located at the connection between the speaker and the extension 398, it could alternatively be located at the connection between the extension 398 and the boom or other attachment point to the eyeglasses, or along the length of the extension 398. At least two pivots may also be provided, such as one at each end of the extension 398, depending upon the desired performance. Rotation of speaker 400 about the speaker pivot 402 provides arcuate movement of the speaker 400 in the yz-plane. Such movement allows superior-inferior (e.g., y-axis) adjustment of speaker 400 position with respect to a user's ear without adjusting the rest of the frame 380 of the audio device 304. Y-axis adjustability of the speaker center 409 of at least about 0.25 inches, often at least about 0.45 inches and in some embodiments at least about 0.75 inches is contemplated. By adjusting the speaker 400 position, the speaker's sound propagation axis may be oriented with respect to a user's ear without adjusting the frame 380 of the audio device 304. Any of a variety of structures may be used as the speaker pivot 402, as described in greater detail above. For example, the speaker pivot 402 may include a ball and socket joint, concentric tubes, a pin and channel, a joint, a hinge, a lever, or any other structure that provides rotation coupling, as is known to those of skill in the art. In another embodiment, speaker 400 may be rotated laterally about a boom axis 404 (as illustrated in FIGS. 3H and 24) to provided further rotational adjustability of the speaker 400 in the x-axis. In one embodiment, rotation of speaker 400 about a boom axis 404 results in arcuate movement of the speaker 400 from a first, listening position, in which the speaker face 408 is substantially parallel to the yz-plane (or to a reference plane that is offset from the yz-plane by a first offset angle), to a second position in which the speaker face 408 may be substantially parallel to the xz-plane (or to a reference plane that is offset from the xz-plane by a second offset angle). The offset between the speaker and the center of rotation (boom axis 404) defines the radius of arcuate movement of the speaker within the xy-plane. An x-axis offset (when the speaker is in the second position) of at least about 0.25 inches, often at least about 0.5 inches, and in some embodiments at least about 1.0 inches, is contemplated. In such embodiment, the speaker 400 and its centerpoint 409 move within a plane that is substantially parallel to the xy-plane from the first position along an arcuate path in a lateral, superior direction to the second position. The speaker 400 may be moved back to the first position by traveling along the arcuate path in a medial, inferior direction from the second position. A speaker 400 shown in one embodiment of a first position is illustrated in FIGS. 32-35. In another embodiment, the speaker 400 is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face 408 is substantially parallel to the yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker 400 is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. In one embodiment, this movement of the speaker 400 and its centerpoint 409 within the xy-plane allows the wearer to raise the speaker 400 from adjacent the wearer's ear without moving or adjusting the remaining portion of the frame 380 of the audio device 304. Such movement allows the wearer to receive a telephone call if the eyeglass is not equipped with an internal cellular phone and place the speaker of a hand held telephone adjacent the wearer's ear without requiring the removal of the audio device 304 from the wearer's head. In another embodiment, speaker 400 may be rotated about a reference axis that extends in a direction substantially parallel to the y-axis 504. One example of such adjustability is illustrated in FIG. 25, and is discussed in greater detail above. In one embodiment, such adjustability allows the movement of the speaker 400 from a first position in which the speaker face 408 is substantially perpendicular to tragus-tragus line 468, the ear canal axis 492 and/or an axis substantially parallel to the x-axis 502, to a second position in which the speaker face 408 is offset from the tragus-tragus line 468, the ear canal axis 492 and/or an axis substantially parallel to the x-axis 502 by an offset angle 496. One example of such offset angle is described in greater detail above with respect to FIG. 31. Any of a variety of structures may be used to provide rotational movement as described above. For example, the speaker 400 may be coupled to the frame 380 of the audio device 304 with a ball and socket joint, concentric tubes, a pin and channel, a joint, a hinge, a lever, or any other structure that provides rotation coupling, as is known to those of skill in the art. Thus, the speakers 400 of the audio device 304 may be moved linearly within along directions substantially parallel to one or more of the x-axis 502, y-axis 504, z-axis 506, and/or any direction offset from any one or more of the x-axis 502, y-axis 504, or z-axis 506 by a fixed or adjustable offset angle. In addition, in certain embodiments, the speaker 400 of the audio device 304 may be moved typically through an arc residing within the xy-plane, the yz-plane, the xz-plane, and/or any preselected plane offset from any one or more of the xy-plane, the yz-plane, or the xz-plane by a fixed or adjustable offset angle. In addition, in one embodiment, such multi-dimensional adjustability may be performed by moving the speaker 400 with respect to the audio device 304 without requiring sliding or rotational adjustment of the frame 380. For example, in one embodiment, the speaker 400 is coupled to the audio device 304 frame 380 with a support which comprises flexible tube, or conduit, such as a gooseneck tube, wire bundle, or hollow wire. Such flexible tubing allows independent, three-dimensional positioning of a speaker 400 along any axis, and within any plane, without requiring adjustment of the position of the frame 380. The support retains the position of the speaker selected by the wearer until adjusted again to a different position. Of course, the foregoing description is that of a preferred construction having certain features, aspects and advantages in accordance with the present invention. Accordingly, various changes and modifications may be made to the above-described arrangements without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention is directed to wearable audio devices, and in particular, devices that humans can wear on their heads. 2. Description of the Related Art In the portable audio playback industry, certain devices for remote audio listening have become more popular. Certain companies have begun to widely distribute portable audio playback devices, such as MP3 players, which allow a user to listen to audio files with the use of headphones. For example, a user can wear a headset having speakers connected by a flexible cable to an MP3 player, which can be worn on the belt. However, with such headsets, whenever a user wants to wear glasses or sunglasses, they must adjust or remove the headset from their ears. Further, it is often quite uncomfortable to wear both a headset and a pair of sunglasses at the same time. Such discomfort, when applied for a long period of time, can cause muscular pain and/or headaches. In addition, the flexible cable extending from the MP3 player to the headphones can limit mobility of the wearer; particularly those participating in sporting activities. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one embodiment of the present invention, a wearable wireless audio device, includes a support, a support arm, and an electronics circuit. The support includes a first ear stem and an orbital, and is configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view. The support arm has a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end. The first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis. The first rotation axis and the second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another. The electronics circuit is supported by the support and is configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file. In another embodiment, the electronics circuit is configured to process the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a first speaker supported by the support, is directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. The speaker generally includes a speaker face, and is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. In one embodiment, the angle is between about 300 and about 90°. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In yet another embodiment, the speaker includes a speaker face, and the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In another embodiment, the support includes a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device further includes a second ear stem, the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. The wearable wireless audio device may be removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. In one embodiment, the data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a protective door, wherein the protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In one embodiment, the electronics circuit is further configured to decompress the audio file. The electronics circuit may be configured to receive at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format is selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, .ra, mm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, a wearable wireless audio device includes a support, an electronics circuit and a first speaker. The support comprises a first ear stem and an orbital, and the support is configured to support at least one lens in a wearer's field of view. The electronics circuit is supported by the support and is configured to receive at least one digital audio file and generate an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file. The first speaker is supported by the support, is directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. The speaker may comprise a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. The speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. The speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In another embodiment, the electronics circuit is configured to process the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. The speaker generally includes a speaker face, and is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In one embodiment, the angle is between about 300 and about 900. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In another embodiment, the support includes a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device further includes a second ear stem, the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device includes a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. The wearable wireless audio device may be removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. In one embodiment, the data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In yet another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device also includes a protective door, wherein the protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In one embodiment, the electronics circuit is further configured to decompress the audio file. The electronics circuit may be configured to receive at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format may be selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device comprises: supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; supporting a first speaker with the first ear stem; and directing said first speaker toward at least one of the wearer's ears, wherein the speaker comprises a speaker face, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane, wherein the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and wherein the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In one embodiment, the method further comprises processing the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. In one embodiment, the speaker includes a speaker face, and is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In one embodiment, the angle is between about 30° and about 90°. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. The wearable wireless audio device may be removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. In one embodiment, the data port is selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a protective door, wherein the protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In one embodiment, the method further comprises decompressing the audio file. In another embodiment, the receiving is performed at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format may be selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device comprises: supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; providing a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; and generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital. In one embodiment, the method further comprises processing the digital audio file prior to generating the audio signal. In another embodiment, the method further comprises supporting a first speaker with the support, wherein the first speaker is configured to be directed toward at least one of the wearer's ears, and wherein the first speaker is configured to convert the audio signal into sound. In one embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker is substantially parallel to an xz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker inclined at an angle with respect to the yz-plane. The angle may be between about 30° and about 90°. In one embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is configured to rotate along an arcuate path about an axis substantially parallel to an x-axis from a first position in which the speaker face is substantially parallel to a yz-plane to a second position in which the speaker remains substantially parallel to the yz-plane, and wherein the speaker is configured to move an adjustment distance in a direction substantially parallel to a z-axis as a result of said rotation. In one embodiment, the adjustment distance is about 3 cm. In one embodiment, the speaker comprises a speaker face, and the speaker is coupled to the support with a speaker pivot, and the speaker is configured to rotate about the speaker pivot while maintaining the speaker face substantially parallel to a yz-plane. In another embodiment, the speaker is configured to move along an axis substantially parallel to a z-axis with respect to the support. In one embodiment, the digital audio file is compressed, and may be an MP3 formatted file. In one embodiment, the method of processing audio with a wearable wireless audio device further comprises providing a channel and a conductor, wherein the channel extends along at least a portion of the ear stem, and wherein the conductor is located at least partially within the channel. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a memory circuit and a processor, and wherein the memory circuit is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics circuit comprises a battery and a processor, and wherein the battery is carried by the first ear stem, and the memory circuit is carried by the second ear stem. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a second ear stem, wherein the electronics components are distributed between the first and second ear stems. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a nose bridge, wherein digital signals generated by the electronics circuit are transmitted across the nose bridge. In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing a data port, wherein the data port is carried by the ear stem. The data port may be selected from the group comprising: a mini-USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an EEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device with a data port, wherein said data port is mounted to said wearable wireless audio device. The data port may be selected from the group consisting of: a mini-USB connector, a USB connector, a FIREWIRE connector, an IEEE 1394 cable connector, an RS232 connector, a JTAB connector, an antenna, a wireless receiver, a radio, an RF receiver, and a BLUETOOTH receiver. In another embodiment, the method further comprises providing a protective door, wherein said protective door protects said data port from a contaminant when said wearable wireless audio device is disconnected from said computing device. In another embodiment, the method further comprises decompressing the audio file. In another embodiment, the receiving is performed at a data transfer rate. The data transfer rate may be selected from the group consisting of: about 1.5 Mbps, about 12 Mbps, about 100 Mbps, about 200 Mbps, about 400 Mbps, about 480 Mbps, greater than about 100 Mbps, greater than about 200 Mbps, greater than about 400 Mbps, greater than about 1000 Mbps, less than about 100 Mbps, and less than about 50 Mbps. In one embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. The data encoding rate may be selected from the group consisting of: 128 kbps, 160 kbps, 192 kbps, 256 kbps, less than about 128 kbps, less than about 160 kbps, less than about 192 kbps, less than about 256 kbps, and more than about 256 kbps. In one embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. The compression format may be selected from the group consisting of: PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, AAC, RAW, DM, RIFF, WAV, BWF, AIFF, AU, SND, CDA, MPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5, MPEG-4, MPEG-J, MPEG 2-ACC, MP3, MP3Pro, ACE, MACE, MACE-3, MACE-6, AC-3, ATRAC, ATRAC3, EPAC, Twin VQ, VQF, WMA, WMA with DRM, DTS, DVD Audio, SACD, TAC, SHN, OGG, Ogg Vorbis, Ogg Tarkin, Ogg Theora, ASF, LQT, QDMC, A2b, .ra, .rm, and Real Audio G2, RMX formats, Fairplay, Quicktime, SWF, and PCA. According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, a wearable wireless audio device, comprises: means for supporting at least one lens in a wearer's field of view with a first ear stem and an orbital; means for providing a support arm, the support arm comprising a first end, a second end, a first moveable joint coupled to the first end and the first ear stem, and a second moveable joint coupled to the second end, wherein the first moveable joint provides rotation about a first rotation axis and the second moveable joint provides rotation about a second rotation axis, wherein said first rotation axis and said second rotation axis are substantially perpendicular to one another; and receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; means for receiving at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital; and means for generating an audio signal indicative of the at least one digital audio file within the first ear stem or the orbital. In one embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device is removably connectable to a computing device. In another embodiment, the wearable wireless audio device further comprises means for decompressing the audio file. In one embodiment, the means for receiving at least one digital audio file is configured to receive the at least one digital audio file at a data transfer rate, and in another embodiment, the at least one digital audio file has been encoded at a data encoding rate. In one embodiment, the at least one digital audio file is compressed according to a compression format. According to yet another embodiment of the present inventon, a speaker support system, comprises: a support frame, adapted to be carried by a head of a wearer; at least one speaker carried by the support frame, the speaker having a sound propagation axis and a transverse axis, wherein the transverse axis is substantially perpendicular to the sound propagation axis and lies substantially within a speaker plane of the at least one speaker, wherein the support frame holds the at least one speaker substantially adjacent an ear of the wearer such that the transverse axis is inclined at an orientation angle with respect to a tragus-tragus line, and wherein the orientation angle is within the range of from about 15 degrees to about 85 degrees. In one embodiment, the orientation angle is about 25 degrees. Further features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those of skill in the art in view of the detailed description of preferred embodiments which follows, when considered together with the attached drawings and claims. | 20041119 | 20071009 | 20050915 | 67162.0 | 1 | DANG, HUNG XUAN | WIRELESS INTERACTIVE HEADSET | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,243 | ACCEPTED | Flushing attachment for hydrant | A device and method for automatically flushing hydrants. The device is installed externally to an existing hydrant. The device comprises a nipple having an internally threaded collar for attaching the device to a hydrant outlet, a valve, a control for automatically operating the valve, and a lockable box containing at least the valve, the box having an outlet for allowing water from the hydrant to pass from the valve to the exterior of the box. The box functions as an enclosure and may be of any desired configuration. | 1. A portable, self-contained device for automatically flushing existing above-ground hydrants, the device being adapted to be removably installed to an outlet of an existing above-ground hydrant, the device comprising: a valve for controlling flow from the hydrant through the valve; a control for automatically operating the valve; and a lockable box containing at least one of the valve and the control, the box allowing water to pass from the hydrant into the box and allowing water from the valve to pass to the exterior of the box during a flushing operation. 2. The device of claim 1 wherein a hose or pipe extends through a wall of the box to expel water. 3. The device of claim 2 wherein the hose or pipe is physically connected to an outlet of the valve. 4. In combination, a hydrant, the hydrant having a below-ground inlet adapted to be connected to an underground water distribution system, an above-ground outlet, and a manually operable valve between the inlet and the outlet, and a device for automatically flushing the hydrant, the device comprising a wall having a swivel coupling secured thereto, the coupling being attached to the outlet of the hydrant;-a valve for controlling flow from the hydrant through the valve, the valve being positioned on an opposite side of the wall from the hydrant; and a control for automatically operating the valve. 5. The device of claim 4 wherein the wall is a part of a box, the box enclosing the valve but not the hydrant. 6. The device of claim 5 wherein a hose or pipe extends through a wall of the box to expel water. 7. The device of claim 6 wherein the hose or pipe is physically connected to an outlet of the valve. 8. A method of automatically flushing a portion of a water distribution system, the system including a plurality of pre-existing hydrants, each hydrant having a below-ground inlet connected to the water distribution system, an above-ground outlet, and a manually operable valve between the inlet and the outlet, the method comprising bringing a portable, self-contained device to the hydrant; installing the device to the outlet of the hydrant, the device comprising an electrically operable valve and a control for periodically operating the electrically operable valve; opening the manually operable valve to allow water to flow through the hydrant into the device, thereafter allowing the control to open the electrically operable valve periodically to cause water to flow from the water distribution system through the hydrant and through the electrically operable valve to flush a portion of the water distribution system; and thereafter removing the device from the hydrant and installing the device to another of the plurality of hydrants. 9. The method of claim 8 wherein the control is mounted internally of a box, the method including programming the control to select at least one of time and duration of opening the valve in the box. 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the outlet of the hydrant is threaded, and wherein attaching the device to the hydrant comprises threading a threaded coupling to the outlet of the hydrant, the threaded coupling being rotatably mounted to the box. 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the coupling is a collar mounted to a nipple, externally of the box. 12. The method of claim 9 wherein the box includes a perforate lower wall, the perforate wall diffusing water expelled through it. 13. The method of claim 9 wherein the hydrant supports the box and holds it above the ground. 14. The method of claim 9 wherein a hose or pipe is provided, the hose or pipe carrying water from the valve to the exterior of the box. 15. The method of claim 8 wherein the hydrant is a fire hydrant. 16. The method of claim 8 wherein the hydrant is a flushing hydrant. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a divisional of application Ser. No. 10/656,572, filed Sep. 5, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated by reference. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH Not Applicable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to hydrants attached to municipal water systems, and in particular to a device for simplifying the flushing of portions of water systems by hydrants attached in the system. The need for periodically flushing portions of water systems, particularly dead-ends in the systems, has been recognized for many years, as shown for example in Lazenby III U.S. Pat. No. 4,756,479. A summary of many of the problems requiring such flushing, as well as of the traditional solutions to those problems, is contained in my co-owned U.S. Pat. No. 5,201,338. More recently, such flushing operations have been automated, as described in McCarty, U.S. Pat. No. 5,921,270. The McCarty patent is owned by a company related to the assignee of the present invention. A similar approach is described in Newman, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,035,704 and 6,358,408. Other approaches are shown in Poirer, U.S. Pat. No. 6,062,259, and Esmailzadeh, U.S. Pat. No. 6,467,498. Although the prior art systems have met with some success, the complexity of the systems, the time and effort required to install and use them, and their consequent expense have limited their use. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly stated, the present invention provides a device and method for automatically flushing hydrants. The device is installed externally to an existing hydrant. The device comprises a nipple having an internally threaded collar for attaching the device to a hydrant outlet, a valve, and a control for automatically operating the valve. Preferably, the device includes a lockable box containing at least the valve, the box having an outlet for allowing water from the hydrant to pass from the valve to the exterior of the box. The box functions as an enclosure and may be of any desired configuration. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the collar is rotatably mounted to the nipple externally of the box.. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the control is mounted internally of the box. In an embodiment of the invention, the box includes a perforate lower wall through which water escapes. In other embodiments, a hose or pipe extends through a wall of the box to expel water; in some of those embodiments, the hose or pipe is connected to the valve in a closed system. The device is preferably supplied with a carrying handle for ease of transport and attachment to a hydrant. Although the system of the present invention is not freeze-proof, it has been found that contrary to conventional wisdom, this is not a serious drawback. In many geographic areas, having particular problems with stagnant water, freezing is not generally a problem. Moreover, in temperate climates, the most severe problems with stagnant water generally occur in warm seasons. Further, because the device of the present invention is easily removable and portable, it can be brought to a site requiring its use on short notice and when temperature conditions are mild enough not to interfere with its use. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings which form part of the specification: FIG. 1 is a somewhat diagrammatic view in side elevation, showing a device of the present invention attached to a hydrant and flushing a water system through the hydrant. FIG. 2 is a view in perspective of the device of FIG. 1, with a door of a box of the device opened to show the interior of the device. FIG. 3 is a longitudinal cross-section of the device of FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 4 is a view corresponding to FIG. 1, showing a discharge hose attached to the device. Corresponding reference numerals indicate corresponding parts throughout the several figures of the drawings. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The following detailed description illustrates the invention by way of example and not by way of limitation. The description clearly enables one skilled in the art to make and use the invention, describes several embodiments, adaptations, variations, alternatives, and uses of the invention, including what is presently believed to be the best mode of carrying out the invention. As shown in FIG. 1, an illustrative embodiment of the invention includes an automatic flushing device 1 attached to one outlet of a hydrant 10. The hydrant 10 is illustratively a so-called dry barrel hydrant, having a valve 11 below ground, generally below the local frost line, connecting the hydrant to a municipal water distribution system indicated generally at 12. The valve 11 is self-draining, so that, when it is closed, water drains from the cast body 13 of the hydrant 10. The valve 11 is opened and closed manually by attaching a wrench to a pentagonal head 15 extending from the top of the hydrant 10. When the valve 11 is opened, the hydrant 10 fills with water. Three externally threaded outlets 16a-c threaded into the vertical wall 17 of the hydrant 10 are capped with caps 19a-c (the cap 19a being removed and not shown). The caps 19a-c are individually manually removable, using a wrench. The outlets, illustratively and conventionally, include two 2.5″ NST outlets 16a and 16c and one 4″ NST outlet 16b. This construction is typical of a conventional fire hydrant, described for example in Ellis et al., U.S. Pat. No. 3,980,096 and 4,154,259. The illustrative device 1 of the present invention is designed to be mounted to one of the 2.5″ NST outlets of the hydrant 1. The device 1 includes a box 21 made of sheet aluminum and having a rear wall 23, sides 25, a front door 26 hinged to one of the sides 25, a top 27, and a bottom 29. The front door 26 is supplied with a keyed lock 31 to hold the door shut by engaging an angle 32 welded to the sidewall. As shown in FIG. 3, at the upper portion of the rear wall 23, two identical flanges 33 and 34 are bolted to the inside and outside of the wall, respectively, by bolts, not shown, extending through openings in the rear wall 23 and connecting the flanges 33 and 34. The outside flange 33 supports a 2.5″ NST×2″ male iron pipe swivel 35. The swivel 35 includes a lugged collar 37 designed to form a water-tight fit when threaded onto a 2.5″ NST externally threaded outlet of the hydrant 10. This type of coupling is well known in the art and is described, for example, in Porter, U.S. Pat. No. 6,227,463. Inside the box 21, the flange 34 forms a fluid connection between the swivel 35 and a pipe 38 having external 2′ iron pipe threads. The pipe 38 is connected by a tee 39 to an inlet of an electrically-operated valve 41. The valve 41 is illustratively a 2″ Model P-220 plastic irrigation valve sold by The Toro Company. The valve 41 is a diaphragm valve in which line pressure exerted over the diaphragm holds the valve closed, and opening of a bleed port by a solenoid relieves pressure in the diaphragm chamber and causes the valve to open. The construction of the P-220 valve is described in Toro Form No 490-2991 (October 1999) incorporated by reference herein. The construction and operation of such valves are well known in the art and are described for example in Hunter et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,996,608 and Scott, U.S. Pat. No. 5,979,482. The valve 41 is oriented with its inlet 43 up and its outlet 45 directed down. The valve 41 is manually adjustable to permit flow rates from a trickle to in excess of two-hundred-fifty gallons per minute. The solenoid plunger 46 of valve 41 is controlled by a Toro Remote 1000 Series battery-operated valve controller 47. The controller 47 is described in Toro Form No. 490-3008 (May 2000). The controller 47 includes a housing having a socket sized to fit over the casing 48 of plunger 46. Within the housing, the socket is surrounded by a coil connected to a battery and programmable circuitry for activating the coil to operate the solenoid. The Remote 1000 Series controller is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,797,417, issued to DeLattre et al. As set out in this patent, the illustrative control is a removable, bistable, programmable actuator for a solenoid. The controller 47 is battery powered and includes manually operable buttons for setting the operating cycle to twice per day, once per day, once per two days, and once per week, for setting the run time from six seconds to almost twenty-four hours, and for setting the beginning of the run time for zero hours, four hours, eight hours, or twelve hours after programming is completed. The controller 47 may be removed from the valve 41 for programming. The lower wall 29 of the box 21 is formed with 0.5″ perforations 51 to diffuse water emanating from the outlet 45 of the valve 41 inside the box 21. A cut-out 53 directly under the outlet 45 permits installation of a diffuser plate 55, or alternatively of a pipe nipple extending from the outlet 45 through the lower wall 29, as shown in FIG. 4. When used, the nipple 57 is preferably threaded to receive a hose 59 or diffuser to distribute water expelled through the device 1 to a desired remote location. The upper wall 27 of the box 21 is provided with a strap handle 61 for carrying the device 1 and for positioning it while installing it on a hydrant. The device 1 is assembled by threading the swivel 35 into the external flange 33, threading the tee 39 into the inlet of the valve 41, threading the internal flange 33 onto the inlet end of the tee 39, applying gaskets to the flanges 33, and bolting the flanges 33 together through the rear wall 23 of the box as indicated at 62 in FIG. 4. This assembly method allows the box to be nearly the same width and depth as the valve 41. The controller 47 may be pre-installed on the valve 41 or not as desired. Because the controller may be programmed before it is installed on the valve, it is frequently more convenient to program one or more controllers at a central location, for later installation on devices 1. The free end of the tee 39 is provided with a sampling bibb 63 for periodically manually taking samples of water to be tested. A ball valve shut-off 65 protects the bibb from leaking. The use of the device 1 is simple. The device 1 is carried to a hydrant 10, and the cap of a 2.5″ NST outlet of the hydrant is manually removed. The device 1 is then held in position with the handle 61 while the collar 37 is threaded onto the outlet. The device 1 is thereafter held above the ground by the swivel 35 and flange 33. The controller 47 is programmed to a desired start and stop time, and to a desired cycle time. The door 26 is unlocked and opened, the controller 47 is placed on the electrically controlled valve, and the door is closed and locked. The pentagonal head 15 of the manual valve 11 is turned to open the valve 11. The device 1 will thereafter open the valve 41 at a desired time for a desired interval in accordance with a desired cycle (twice daily, daily, bi-daily, or weekly) to flush the system. If desired, a chain may be passed through chain holes 67 and locked around the hydrant 10. When the device 1 has done its job, or when it is needed at another location, the hydrant 10 is manually closed by closing the manual valve 11, the device 1 is unthreaded from the hydrant 10, the cap is replaced on the hydrant, and the device 1 is moved to another location. When prolonged freezing temperatures are expected, the hydrant 10 is shut off (and drains automatically) and the device 1 is removed until weather conditions permit its reuse. As various changes could be made in the above constructions without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description or shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. Merely by way of illustration, because the device operates substantially independent of the construction of the hydrant (other than requiring an outlet to which it can be attached), the device may be installed to hydrants other than the illustrative dry barrel fire hydrant 10. For example it can be attached to a flushing hydrant such as the one described in Lazenby III, U.S. Pat. No. 4,756,479, or else to a wet barrel type of hydrant. It is presently being sold by The Kupferle Foundry Company with its Model 77 flushing hydrant. The swivel 35 may be externally threaded, for example if the external outlet 16 is removed from the hydrant body. A feed chemical such as dechlorination tablets may be placed in the water path, as for example by placing them on the bottom wall 29 of the box. Whether the flushed water is diffused through the perforated lower wall 29 or is carried away by a pipe or hose 59, various types of splash guards or other water control devices may be utilized, including for example those shown in DiLoreto, U.S. Pat. No. 6,056,211 or Grimes, U.S. Pat. No. 6,116,525. Flushed water may also be routed to a sewer line, drain field, or storm drain. Instead of a T, a street L may connect the valve 41 to the swivel 35, if a sampling valve is not required. The swivel 35 may be a tamper-proof design, or the swivel 35 may be positioned inside the box 21 if a separate support in the box is provided for the valve 41, although this may make attachment of the device to a hydrant less convenient. Numerous tamperproof designs such as the one shown in Sigelakis, U.S. Pat. No. 5,549,133 are well known and may be utilized. When the device is used in circumstances where security is not a problem, the box 21 may be eliminated. Other valves and other controls may be utilized, although the preferred solenoid valve and control are particularly simple. As set out in DeLattre et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,797,417, the control may be powered in various ways, such as a rechargeable battery charged by solar or wind power, and may be controlled in various ways such as infra-red, telephone, or radio communication, either one-directional or bidirectional. As also set out in that patent, condition sensors rather than a timer may be used for controlling the operation of the device; it is therefore to be understood that the “periodic” operation of the valve need not occur on a strict timetable. More complex controls may also be used, as for example those described in Waltzer et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,799,142, Kendall, U.S. Pat. No. 4,189,776, and Kendall et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,165,532. These variations are merely illustrative. All of the patents and printed publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to hydrants attached to municipal water systems, and in particular to a device for simplifying the flushing of portions of water systems by hydrants attached in the system. The need for periodically flushing portions of water systems, particularly dead-ends in the systems, has been recognized for many years, as shown for example in Lazenby III U.S. Pat. No. 4,756,479. A summary of many of the problems requiring such flushing, as well as of the traditional solutions to those problems, is contained in my co-owned U.S. Pat. No. 5,201,338. More recently, such flushing operations have been automated, as described in McCarty, U.S. Pat. No. 5,921,270. The McCarty patent is owned by a company related to the assignee of the present invention. A similar approach is described in Newman, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,035,704 and 6,358,408. Other approaches are shown in Poirer, U.S. Pat. No. 6,062,259, and Esmailzadeh, U.S. Pat. No. 6,467,498. Although the prior art systems have met with some success, the complexity of the systems, the time and effort required to install and use them, and their consequent expense have limited their use. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Briefly stated, the present invention provides a device and method for automatically flushing hydrants. The device is installed externally to an existing hydrant. The device comprises a nipple having an internally threaded collar for attaching the device to a hydrant outlet, a valve, and a control for automatically operating the valve. Preferably, the device includes a lockable box containing at least the valve, the box having an outlet for allowing water from the hydrant to pass from the valve to the exterior of the box. The box functions as an enclosure and may be of any desired configuration. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the collar is rotatably mounted to the nipple externally of the box.. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the control is mounted internally of the box. In an embodiment of the invention, the box includes a perforate lower wall through which water escapes. In other embodiments, a hose or pipe extends through a wall of the box to expel water; in some of those embodiments, the hose or pipe is connected to the valve in a closed system. The device is preferably supplied with a carrying handle for ease of transport and attachment to a hydrant. Although the system of the present invention is not freeze-proof, it has been found that contrary to conventional wisdom, this is not a serious drawback. In many geographic areas, having particular problems with stagnant water, freezing is not generally a problem. Moreover, in temperate climates, the most severe problems with stagnant water generally occur in warm seasons. Further, because the device of the present invention is easily removable and portable, it can be brought to a site requiring its use on short notice and when temperature conditions are mild enough not to interfere with its use. | 20041119 | 20050927 | 20050331 | 58548.0 | 1 | LEE, KEVIN L | FLUSHING ATTACHMENT FOR HYDRANT | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,277 | ACCEPTED | Switch with transparent and non-transparent ports | There are disclosed apparatus and methods for switching. Transparent and non-transparent ports are provided. Data units are transferred between the transparent ports, between the transparent and non-transparent ports, and between the non-transparent ports. | 1. A switch with transparent and non-transparent ports comprising a first transparent port for interfacing to a first device having a first address in a first shared address domain a second transparent port for interfacing to a second device having a second address in the first shared address domain a third port for interfacing to a third device having a third address in a second address domain, wherein the second address domain is isolated from the first address domain logic for switching data units between the first transparent port, the second transparent port and the third port using mapped address I/O. 2. The switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 wherein the first address domain and the second address domain are selected from the group comprising memory address domains and input/output address domains. 3. The switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 wherein the data units are switched by the logic through one of direct memory translation with or without offsets, indirect memory translation through lookup registers or tables, a mailbox mechanism, and doorbell registers. 4. The switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 wherein isolation comprises separation such that interaction does not take place. 5. The switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 wherein the third port is selectable to interface to devices in the first address domain or the second address domain. 6. The switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 having plural transparent ports and plural non-transparent ports. 7. A system comprising the switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 a first processor having a first address domain and connected to the first transparent port a second processor having a second address domain and connected to the third port wherein the first processor and the second processor can communicate with each other through the switch. 8. A process for switching data units, the method comprising providing a switch having transparent and non-transparent ports associating the transparent ports with a shared address domain associating the non-transparent ports with non-shared address domains transferring data units between the transparent ports, between the transparent and non-transparent ports, and between the non-transparent ports. 9. The process for switching data units of claim 8 wherein transferring data units between the transparent and non-transparent ports comprises receiving data units through the transparent ports which are addressed to devices coupled to the non-transparent-ports, and transmitting the data units through the non-transparent ports to the addressed devices receiving data units through the non-transparent ports which are addressed to devices coupled to the transparent-ports, and transmitting the data units through the transparent ports to the addressed devices. 10. The process for switching data units of claim 8 comprising receiving data units from the transparent ports and the non-transparent ports storing the received data units in a buffer determining destination addresses of the received data units if the destination addresses correspond to devices coupled to the non-transparent ports, then translating the destination addresses to the non-shared address domain associated with the devices prior to transfer through the non-transparent ports if the data units are received from transparent ports and the destination addresses correspond to devices coupled to the transparent ports, then transferring the data units through the corresponding transparent ports without translating the destination addresses. | RELATED APPLICATION INFORMATION This patent claims priority from U.S. Application No. 60/523,246 filed Nov. 18, 2003 which is incorporated by reference. NOTICE OF COPYRIGHTS AND TRADE DRESS A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. This patent document may show and/or describe matter which is or may become trade dress of the owner. The copyright and trade dress owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by any one of the patent disclosure as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright and trade dress rights whatsoever. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to data switches. 2. Description of the Related Art The Peripheral Component Interconnect (“PCI”) standard was promulgated about ten years ago, and has since been updated a number of times. One update led to the PCI/X standard, and another, more recently, to PCI Express. The PCI standards are defined for chip-level interconnects, adapter cards and device drivers. The PCI standards are considered cost-effective, backwards compatible, scalable and forward-thinking. PCI buses, whether they be PCI Express or previous PCI generations, provide an electrical, physical and logical interconnection for multiple peripheral components of microprocessor based systems. PCI Express systems differ substantially from their PCI and PCI/X predecessors in that all communication in the system is performed point-to-point. Unlike PCI/X systems in which two or more end points share the same electrical interface, PCI Express buses connect a maximum of two end points, one on each end of the bus. If a PCI Express bus must communicate with more than one end point, a switch, also known as a fan out device, is required to convert the single PCI Express source to multiple sources. The communication protocol in a PCI Express system is identical to legacy PCI/X systems from the host software perspective. In all PCI systems, each end point is assigned one or more memory and 10 address ranges. Each end point is also assigned a bus/device/function number to uniquely identify it from other end points in the system. With these parameters set a system host can communicate with all end points in the system. In fact, all end points can communicate with all other end points within a system. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a switching environment. FIG. 2 is a diagram of address domains. FIG. 3 is a flow chart of a process for switching data units. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Throughout this description, the embodiments and examples shown should be considered as exemplars, rather than limitations on the apparatus and methods of the present invention. Description of Systems Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown a block diagram of a switching environment 100. The switching environment includes a switch 110 and a number of end points 120a, 120b, 120c, 120d. The switching environment 100 may be a point-to-point communications network. The term “switch” as used herein means a system element that logically connects two or more ports to allow data units to be routed from one port to another, and the switch 110 is a switch. The switch routes data units using memory-mapped I/O or I/O-mapped I/O (both, collectively, “mapped I/O”). The switch 110 further includes a buffer 115 and logic 117. The switch 110 includes a number of ports 112a, 112b, 112c, 112d, which are physical interfaces between the buffer 115 and logic 117 and the end points 120. By data unit, it is meant a frame, cell, datagram, packet or other unit of information. In some embodiments, such as PCI, a data unit is unencapsulated. Data units may be stored in the buffer 115. By buffer, it is meant a dedicated or shared memory, a group or pipeline of registers, and/or other storage device or group of storage devices which can store data temporarily. The buffer 115 may operate at a speed commensurate with the communication speed of the switching environment 100. For example, it may be desirable to provide a dedicated memory for individual portions (as described below) and pipelined registers for multicast portions (as described below). The logic 117 includes software and/or hardware for providing functionality and features described herein. The logic 117 may include one or more of: logic arrays, memories, analog circuits, digital circuits, software, firmware, and processors such as microprocessors, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), programmable logic devices (PLDs) and programmable logic arrays (PLAs). The hardware and firmware components of the logic 117 may include various specialized units, circuits, software and interfaces for providing the functionality and features described herein. The invention may be embodied in whole or in part in software which operates in the switch 110 and may be in the form of firmware, an application program, an applet (e.g., a Java applet), a browser plug-in, a COM object, a dynamic linked library (DLL), a script, one or more subroutines, or an operating system component or service. The hardware and software of the invention and its functions may be distributed such that some components are performed by the switch 110 and others by other devices. The end points 120a, 120b, 120c, 120d are logical devices which connect to and communicate with the switch 110 respectively through the ports 112. At least some of the end points may share an address domain, such as a memory address domain or an I/O address domain. The term “address domain” means the total range of addressable locations. If the shared address domain is a memory address domain, then data units are transmitted via memory mapped I/O to a destination address into the shared memory address domain. The end points 120 may be connected to the ports 112 by electrical contacts, wirelessly, optically or otherwise. Referring now to FIG. 2, there is shown a diagram of two address domains 200, 250. One address domain 200 is shared by end points 120a, 120b, 120d, and the other address domain 250 is not shared and used only by end point 120d. This is just an example; there may be more than two address domains, and more than one address domain may be shared. The address domains 200, 250 are contiguous ranges. Each address domains is defined by a master end point. Address portions associated with the individual end points 120 may be non-contiguous and the term “portions” is meant to refer to contiguous and non-contiguous spaces. The master end point for a given address domain allocates address portions to the other end points which share that address domain. The end points communicate their address space needs to the master device, and the master device allocates address space accordingly. Data units may be written into or communicated into an address portion. In a switch conforming to the PCI Express standard, it is expected that the address portions in a 32-bit shared memory address domain or shared I/O address domain will be at least as large as the largest expected transaction, and comparable to those shown in FIG. 2. Within the shared address domain 200, separate address portions 210a, 210b, 210c may be associated with the corresponding end points 120a, 120b, 120c. The address domain 200 may be allocated so as to provide the corresponding end points 120a, 120b, 120c with unique address portions. The address portions may be unique within the shared address domain 200 with respect to one another. Within the non-shared address domain 250, there may be a portion 250d associated with the end point 120d. The non-shared address domain 250 is considered isolated from the shared address domain 210. Other non-shared address domains could be included, and they would also be considered isolated from the shared address domain, and from each other. By “isolated” it is meant that the address domains are separated such that interaction does not directly take place between them, and therefore uniquely addressable addresses are provided. The address portions 210 may have various characteristics. The address portions 210 may have respective sizes. The sizes may be fixed or variable. The address portions 210 may be defined by a base address, as well as by a size or end address. The address portions 210 may come to be associated with the end points 120 through an arbitrage process, through centralized assignment (e.g., by a host or the switch 110), otherwise or through a combination of these. The address portion 210 for a given end point 120 need not be contiguous. To avoid errors, it may be desirable if the address portions 210 within the same address domain do not overlap. Data units may be directed to one or more of the end points 120 by addressing. That is, a destination address is associated with and may be included in the data units. The destination address determines which end point 120 should receive a given data unit. Thus, data units addressed to the individual portion for a given end point 120 should be received only by that end point 120. Depending on the embodiment, the destination address may be the same as the base address or may be within the address portion. The end points 120 may be associated with respective ports 112. Through this association, a given end point 120 may send data units to and receive data units from its associated port 112. This association may be on a one-to-one basis. Because of these relationships, the ports 112 also have associations with the address portions 210 of the end points 120. Thus, the ports 112 may be said to have address portions 210 within the address domains 200, 250. Ports within a shared addressed domain are considered “transparent”, and those not within a shared address domain are considered “non-transparent”. Data units from one transparent port to another may be transferred directly. However, data units between a transparent port and a non-transparent port require address translation to accommodate the differences in their respective address domains. Transparent ports are logical interfaces within a single addressing domain. Non-transparent ports allow interaction between completely separate addressing domains, but addresses from one domain must be converted from one domain to the other. The status of a port—transparent or non-transparent—may be fixed or configurable. The logic 117 may allow designation on a port-by-port of transparency or non-transparency, including the address domain for a given port. The switch 110 may be responsive to requests or instructions from the devices 120 to indicate such things as which address domain the devices will be in, and the address portion associated with a given device. Description of Methods Referring now to FIG. 3 there is shown a flow chart of a process for switching data units. The process employs a switch having transparent and non-transparent ports, such as the switches described above. In the switch, the transparent ports are associated with a shared address domain, and the non-transparent ports are associated with non-shared address domains. Domain maps for each address domain may be communicated to the switch. There may be provided a master end point, such as a processor, which is responsible for allocating address portions within its address domain. End points may communicate their address space needs to the master device, and the master device may allocate address space accordingly. The master device may query end points for their address space needs. These allocations, and other allocations and designations, define the address map which the master end point communicates to the switch. The switch may receive a single communication of an address map from a master end point. The switch may receive partial or revised address maps from time to time. In a first step 305, the switch receives a data unit. The switch then stores the data unit in a buffer (step 310). Next, the switch determines the destination address of the data unit (step 315). Next, the switch determines whether the destination address is associated with a transparent or non-transparent port (step 325). If the address is associated with a non-transparent port, then the switch translates the address (step 330). Many different schemes of memory and I/O address translation for mapping from one address domain into another may be used. These schemes include direct memory translation both with and without offsets, and indirect memory translation through lookup registers or tables. Furthermore, addresses may be translated using schemes other than address map translation, such as mailbox mechanisms and doorbell registers. Whether or not translated, the switch forwards the data unit to the port for the designated destination address (step 395). In this way, data units are transferred between the transparent ports, between the transparent and non-transparent ports, and between the non-transparent ports. In effect, non-transparent ports allow data transfers from one address domain to another. In one embodiment, the switch is a PCI Express switch in which one or more of the interfaces (i.e., ports) are optionally non-transparent. A device connected to a non-transparent port of the switch is isolated from the address domain of the other ports on the switch. Two or more processors with their own address maps could all communicate with each other through this type of PCI Express switch. With regard to FIG. 3, additional and fewer steps may be taken, and the steps as shown may be combined or further refined to achieve the methods described herein. Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art that a number of changes, modifications, or alterations to the invention as described herein may be made, none of which depart from the spirit of the present invention. All such changes, modifications and alterations should therefore be seen as within the scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to data switches. 2. Description of the Related Art The Peripheral Component Interconnect (“PCI”) standard was promulgated about ten years ago, and has since been updated a number of times. One update led to the PCI/X standard, and another, more recently, to PCI Express. The PCI standards are defined for chip-level interconnects, adapter cards and device drivers. The PCI standards are considered cost-effective, backwards compatible, scalable and forward-thinking. PCI buses, whether they be PCI Express or previous PCI generations, provide an electrical, physical and logical interconnection for multiple peripheral components of microprocessor based systems. PCI Express systems differ substantially from their PCI and PCI/X predecessors in that all communication in the system is performed point-to-point. Unlike PCI/X systems in which two or more end points share the same electrical interface, PCI Express buses connect a maximum of two end points, one on each end of the bus. If a PCI Express bus must communicate with more than one end point, a switch, also known as a fan out device, is required to convert the single PCI Express source to multiple sources. The communication protocol in a PCI Express system is identical to legacy PCI/X systems from the host software perspective. In all PCI systems, each end point is assigned one or more memory and 10 address ranges. Each end point is also assigned a bus/device/function number to uniquely identify it from other end points in the system. With these parameters set a system host can communicate with all end points in the system. In fact, all end points can communicate with all other end points within a system. | 20041118 | 20081118 | 20050519 | 73468.0 | 5 | AUVE, GLENN ALLEN | SWITCH WITH TRANSPARENT AND NON-TRANSPARENT PORTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,354 | ACCEPTED | Common carrier system | An on-line system and method for buyers and sellers of international container transportation services is disclosed. Specifically, the system offers importing and exporting customers the opportunity to request and select specific service patterns offered by participating carriers in the booking of full container shipments. The system includes user interfaces that allow a shipper to track and trace containers across multiple carriers and an event notifications system, which notifies the user when an event has or has not occurred. | 1-16. (canceled) 17. A computer network comprising: a customer who creates a booking request; a carrier who receives said booking request from said customer and confirms the booking request, thereby creating a booking; a shipping coordinator who receives information from said carrier relating to said booking and provides said booking information to said customer. 18. The computer network according to claim 17, wherein said customer creates said booking with said carrier by one or more telephone communications, by one or more facsimile communications, or over the Internet. 19. The computer network according to claim 17, wherein said carrier transmits information relating to said booking to said shipping coordinator by at least one of the Internet and EDI. 20. The computer network according to claim 17, wherein said shipping coordinator transmits information relating to said booking to said customer by at least one of the Internet and EDI. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to provisional application U.S. Ser. No. 60/238,454, filed Oct. 10, 2000, whose contents are expressly incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Today, shipping goods is a complicated business. Carriers have a finite amount of cargo space, and accordingly, shippers often negotiate with multiple carriers to coordinate the movement of just one container. Typically to limit the uncertainty and cost of moving goods, shippers contract with multiple carriers to provide a predetermined volume of business to each carrier at an agreed upon rate. This gives shippers the flexibility to choose from a number of different carriers to transport goods (for example, shipping directly from Stockholm to New York, rather than through an intermediate location) and increases the likelihood of moving a container when the shipper needs the container moved while guaranteeing individual carriers a volume of business. In practice, a shipper sequentially contacts carriers to check availability. If one carrier doesn't meet the shipper's desires, the shipper then contacts another contracted carrier. For example, refrigeration may be required and only certain carriers may handle refrigerated goods, the shipper may negotiate with only those contracted carriers that provide refrigeration. Even if the carrier may handle refrigerated cargo, they may not have the cargo space available to move the goods by a given day. Accordingly, even if the shipper and carriers have executed a contract prior to negotiations to move goods, shippers are still effectively required to negotiate with multiple carriers when securing the transport of cargo. Since shippers typically contract with multiple carriers, the shipper is required to learn and understand a variety of different carrier idiosyncrasies. The differences between carriers is compounded as each carrier attempts automation and/or direct booking over the internet. Each carrier booking system (or platform) may be different in the look and feel as well as in the process that one requests the transport of goods. This forces each shipper to learn each carrier's platform to effectively and efficiently book a shipment of goods. The entire process is both confusing and time consuming for shippers. Carriers are then faced with incorrect or irreconcilable booking reports leading to more lost resources. Freight forwarders add yet another level to this complicated business. Freight forwarders generally coordinate the transportation of goods on behalf of the shippers. For example, if the shipper desires goods be shipped from Chicago to Tokyo, the freight forwarder, on behalf of the shipper, negotiates and/or coordinates with the carriers to arrange for the goods to be moved. Essentially, the freight forwarders provide shippers with a service and generally do not move the goods themselves. Thus, freight forwarders provide shippers with an alternative to coordinating transportation of goods with the carriers. Although, freight forwarders provide shippers with a valuable service, they also create inefficiency and increase shipping costs for shippers as the cost for the service of the forwarders is billed to the shippers. Biasing results in yet another inefficiency. Forwarders may receive incentives to direct business to certain carriers over others. Also, as the complexity of the shipping business creates a desire for both shippers and freight forwarders to contract with certain carriers, this desire naturally creates a bias towards the contracted carriers. For example, if a shipper wants to move goods from Detroit to Spokane, the shipper may negotiate with a contracted carrier which only moves goods directly to Seattle. A second carrier would be needed to complete the transport from Seattle to Spokane, thus, requiring an additional leg to move the goods to Spokane. However, if the shipper wasn't biased towards the contracted carriers, the goods may have been shipped directly to Spokane using a non-contracted carrier. Accordingly, shippers or freight forwarders may be creating inefficiencies by not using all available resources. Since shippers or freight forwarders typically move goods using a variety of carriers, tracking and tracing goods across different carriers is also costly. Because shippers or freight forwarders often coordinate transportation of goods with multiple carriers, they are required to learn how to track and trace goods according the specific carrier's platform. Since shippers may have hundreds of containers being shipped by many different carriers at any given time and want to know the status and related info for their shipments, both shippers and carriers devote large amounts of resources to tracking and tracing containers. It is not uncommon for carriers to devote an entire workgroup to handling phone calls from shippers requiring information on the location of their goods. A consolidated system is needed that permits shippers to track shipments from a variety of carriers. Also, a system is needed that permits tracking of a shipment across multiple carriers. In recent years developers have used the internet to create virtual marketplaces that bring together buyer and sellers, run negotiations and give companies and their suppliers the ability to readily share information. Some attempts have been made to reduce the cost to the shipper by using the internet. One attempt was to give carriers the ability to post published rates and discount information for land, sea and air bearing cargo vessels allowing customers to evaluate prices prior to booking. Another attempt to use the internet, give shippers the ability to receive a plurality of bids from a plurality of participating cargo transportation entities. These systems merely identify the cost of doing business with a select carrier and no more. This does not solve the problem of having to use multiple carrier platforms to submit the booking request to different carriers. This also does not permit easy exchange of goods between carriers where multiple carriers are used for a single shipment. Finally, warehousing goods, transporting goods, customs brokerage and trade finance are complicated pieces of a very complicated business. Accordingly, a need exists for a more efficient system for handling logistics and transportation of goods. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The disclosure provides a method and system that enables domestic and international transportation users to handle shipping transactions through a single common system through a neutral transportation portal. The system provides, among other things, transportation users with single point of entry for tracking cargo movements with multiple carriers. In various embodiments, the system also gives users access to scheduling, booking requests for booking cargo across several carriers and, in some embodiments, proactive event notification. These and other benefits will become apparent as described in the drawings and related description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIGS. 1a and 1b illustrate the system infrastructure according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 2e, 2f and 2g illustrate a flowchart depicting a booking process according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a selection screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 4a-4c illustrate an example of a booking request screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a contact section of the booking request screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 6 illustrates an example of the HAZMAT screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 7 illustrates an example of the temperature control screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 8a, 8b, 8c and 8d illustrate an example of haulage and search screens according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 9a and 9b illustrate an example of company search screens according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 10a and 10b illustrate an example of a search template screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 11 illustrates an example of a search for a booking screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 12a, 12b and 12c illustrate examples of track and trace screen and result screen according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 13 illustrates an example of the common carrier system according to embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS The following description is divided into sub-sections to assist the reader. The sub-sections include: terms; infrastructure; booking process and user interface; track and trace; and event notification. Terms The following terms are used in the description. Shipper—Any entity with goods to be transported. The entity may desire the goods be transported or may be transporting the goods for a different entity. Freight forwarder—An entity that coordinates the transportation of goods with a carrier or carriers for a shipper. Carrier—Any entity that transports goods from an origin to a destination. The carrier may transport goods domestically and/or internationally. For example, a carrier may transport goods for a shipper from Chicago to Seattle or the same carrier may transport goods from Chicago to Paris. The carrier may transport goods using trucks, trains, planes, ships, and/or the like. Carrier Platform—A carrier's computer system supporting an interface that enables exchange of information with the carrier. Common Carrier System—Infrastructure that supports the common carrier interface including data storage. Common Carrier Interface—An interface that enables multiple users and multiple carriers to communicate. User—Any entity that uses the common carrier system. All users may have various levels of interest in using the common carrier system. The main users of the common carrier system may be shippers, third-party logistics providers, freight forwarders, consignees, brokers, trading portals, carriers and the like. Booking—A reservation to transport a volume of goods from a single origin to a single destination. The goods may vary in product type, may be a mix of hazardous and non-hazardous, may require refrigeration and the like. The booking may be a single booking or may be repetitive. Routing Request—A query to the carrier to determine if the carrier supports the basic transpirations of the cargo as part of the carrier product catalog. Booking Activity Plan—A carrier plan that encompasses the major, or milestone, activities of a shipment. Infrastructure FIG. 1a illustrates an example of representative infrastructure according to embodiments of the present invention. The user 101a-101e, via terminals, communicates with a plurality of different carriers 103 through the common carrier system 102 including server(s) 102b-102c and database(s) 102a. In one embodiment, users use terminals to exchange information with the common carrier system 102. These terminals may be standard personal computers as are known in the art (for instance, a computer system using a PENTIUM III processor). In alternative embodiments, the users may use hand-held or other portable devices as known in the art to communicate with the common carrier system 102. Further, the communications from multiple users may be batched together at a user's location prior to transmission to the common carrier system 102. Although FIG. 1a shows five users, five carrier terminals, one database and three servers, FIG. 1a is merely illustrative and the number of, users and/or user terminals, carriers and/or carrier terminal, servers and databases is not in anyway limited. Furthermore, although the embodiments are described in the context of a single system, one of ordinary skill in the art may appreciate that the described functionality may be implemented across multiple systems. Moreover, a web site may be mirrored at additional systems in the network and, if desired, one or more management systems or other computer resources may be used to facilitate various functions. The computer program at the system includes appropriate screen routines for generating a set of screens that together comprise a user interface for the site. Referring to FIG. 1b, illustrates, in more detail, the common carrier system 102. The common carrier system includes, for example and without limitation, servers 104a-104c. Server 104a includes mail server 105 which may be used to receive and send data via email. Server 104a also includes server 106 for receiving and sending data over the internet. Server 104b includes server 107 as a communication bridge between server 108 and servers 105 and 106. Server 107 polls servers 105 and 106 for new messages, unpacks and sends the messages to server 108. For outbound polls from server 107, server 108 adds the receiver's address and triggers the transfer of the message. When server 107 fails to process an EDI message, an email will be sent to a predefined email address. Server 108 processes EDI messages by validating the data when called by server 107 and translating the data into the common carrier system layout format. For outbound EDI messages, server 108 is called by server 109 and server 109 feeds server 108 with the outbound EDI message in the common carrier system layout format. Server 104b includes servers 109 and 110. Server 109 converts and loads common carrier system layout to a set of database tables, or vice versa Server 109 also polls server 108 for any new messages, opens a connection to the database and populates the database tables corresponding to the EDI message type (300, 301, 315 and the like, show in FIG. 13). For outbound EDI messages, server 109 scans the database tables populated by an EDI processor and converts the message and then triggers server 108 to process the common carrier layout format. Referring to Server 110, the EDI processor is part of the server 110 that processes the EDI messages deposited into the database tables by 109. Server 110 scans the header of the database table for the first unprocessed message being marked for example as submitted. The status is then change from submitted to processing in the database 111 and if successful the status is then change to complete. The present disclosure relates to a system and method for buyers and sellers of domestic and/or international transportation services related to the shipment of goods. The users and carriers may be linked to the system by dial-up modem to communicate to the internet, and accordingly, be disconnected from the system or off-line. For example, the user may use a dial-up modem and submit a booking request to a carrier through the internet and afterwards disconnect from the internet. After the user disconnects and is currently off-line, the common carrier system may submit the booking request to the carrier and receive confirmation of the booking request from carriers while the user is off-line. In another embodiment, the common carrier system 102 may process the information while the user is still connected with the internet. This permits the user to be notified as soon as availability is determined for various carriers or after a reservation has been made with the carriers by the common carrier system 102. The system and method offers shippers the opportunity to request and select specific service patterns offered by participating carriers in the booking of full container shipments. The system and method includes user interfaces, processes, computer systems, and computer-readable mediums having programs stored thereon. The system and method enable a user to submit booking requests to multiple carriers and/or track and trace the goods using a single common carrier system and interface. The system and method also may be used to provide event notification. In general, when a shipper wants to move goods, the shipper submits a booking request to one or more carriers to which the carrier(s) responds by accepting, rejecting, or changing the booking request. A booking represents a shipper's intention to transport a volume of goods from a single origin to a single destination. The goods may vary in product type, may be a mix of hazardous and non-hazardous, may require refrigeration and the like. As a result, differing container types may be required. To accommodate differing cargo characteristics, a booking may contain one or more booking lines. The request may be made using a variety of different processes. The user 101 may send an email message to the common carrier system 102, who processes the email and acts in response. Alternatively, the user 101 may post information to a web site of the common carrier 102. Further, the user 101 may transmit information in the form of XML or EDI data sets for processing by the common carrier system 102. It is appreciated that a number of different transmission schemes may be used to forward requests to the common carrier system 102. The information received by the common carrier system 102 may then forward the requests to a variety of carriers 103. The common carrier system 102 may blindly forward the request to all carriers 103 to see who responds. Otherwise, the common carrier system may filter the booking request from user 101 to minimize the number of carriers 103 who receive the request. In addition, the common carrier system 103 may have a routing list as specified by the user for permitting the ordering of the hierarchy in which carriers are polled for booking availability. The transmissions between the common carrier system 102 and the carriers 103 may also be in the form used by the user. Alternatively, the common carrier system 103 may translate the user's request from one form or format into one understood by the carrier or carriers 103. If needed, common carrier system 103 may add information or subtract information as needed for each carrier 103. For example, some carriers may use one type of units while others use another type of units. The common carrier system 103 then translates the units provided by the user for submission to the carrier. Also, the user may have certain needs if goods are transported one way as opposed to another (refrigeration needed if shipped in a container ship while no refrigeration needed if shipped by truck or train). If so, the common carrier system 103 may eliminate or modify the information transmitted to each carrier 103 so as to meet the needs of each carrier's platform and/or booking system. A booking line may include a single container type, single hazardous goods indicator, single refrigeration and a single commodity description. When the common carrier system receives the first carrier booking confirmation massage, for example the confirmation from carrier 103a, the system 102 may, upon the shippers request (any user using one of terminals 101a-101e or other known devices like, for example, a mobile PDA), automatically generate and submit booking cancellation to other carriers 103b-103e. Alternatively, the booking request from the common carrier system 102 may request information from the carriers 103 of who has availability for handling the proposed booking. The response from the carriers 103 provides the common carrier system 102 with information of availability, shipping time frame, and other information. In one example, an interested party, typically the shipper or freight forwarder, enters a booking draft with high-level details about the freight it desires to be shipped. Using the information entered on the booking, the user of the system may also, via terminals 101a-101e, issue a routing request through the common carrier system 102 to one or more carriers 103a-103e. One or more of carriers 103a-103e responds with detailed routing information. The shipper may request the carrier 103a-103e submit routing information based upon the data contained within the booking (place or receipt, place of delivery, etc.) The common carrier system 102 enable users (via terminals 101a-101e or by other known devices like, for example, a mobile PDA) to submit a booking, with or without a routing request, and it may be submitted to one or more carriers 103a-103e. The actual interfaces between the user 101 and the plurality carriers 103 handling the routing request may be determined by the technical capabilities of the carriers 103. Sophisticated carriers 103 may provide direct online response through their internal systems. Other carriers 103 may use the service patterns interface to store available routings. At a minimum, all carriers may respond to routing request via using the common carrier system 102. Separate confirmation directed to each user may also be made (via email, instant messaging and the like). If the booking party 101 chooses to so specify (for example, by checking a checkbox or similar object on the booking screen), the first carrier to respond with a valid response to the routing request may automatically be selected and the booking may be submitted to the carrier. Otherwise, the booking party may manually select the carrier and submit the booking. It is now up the carrier to determine if the actual transport of cargo may take place (based on vessel capacity, equipment availability, etc.) and either confirm the booking, decline the booking or make a counter proposal. Referring to FIG. 1, after carrier 103a confirms the booking, the user sends shipping instructions using the common carrier system 102 by interacting with the common carrier interface. The information sent contains more details about the freight, such as hazardous/refrigeration characteristics. Since the booking already contains the rudimentary information about the care, the shipping instruction don't need to happen at any a particular time. The carrier then sends the bill of lading based on the shipping instructions. Finally, when a carrier confirms the booking, the carrier may return a booking activity plan as part of the booking confirmation. The plan may be stored in the common carrier system database(s) 102a of the common carrier system 102 and subsequent track and trace messages may be used to measure performance (time to process bookings, percent on time delivery, claims, misdeliveries, etc.) against the booking activity plan. The common carrier system enables the common carrier interface provides the users with a unified booking interface and procedure while also providing an additional source of bookings for the carriers. Furthermore, the common carrier system and interface enables the user to create templates tailored for their specific needs. Accordingly, the user may quickly create template-driven booking requests without having to step through the entire booking process. Also, Identifying and registering a user's consignees, forwarders, shippers, et al., may facilitate the template building process and provide shipment visibility to user's partners as quickly as possible. Booking Process and User Interface The description of the first embodiment is organized to show process flows as taken by the user. Various user interface screens embody the process flows. FIGS. 2a-2g illustrate the booking process from creating a booking request, using any one of the three booking methods, through receipt of booking confirmation. FIGS. 3-12 illustrate the various screens the user may encounter throughout the booking process described by FIGS. 2a-2g. Although, FIGS. 3-12 illustrate display screens, the particular screen layouts are used for exemplar purposes only and should not be taken to limit the scope of the embodiments in any way. The process of creating a booking request through confirmation will now be described, with reference to FIGS. 2a-2g. The process may be rearranged as needed or to accommodate faster information processing. Referring to FIG. 2a, first the user logs into the common carrier system as shown in step 201. At step 202, the user selects a new booking request. At steps 203-205, the user chooses from creating a new booking request, reusing an existing booking request and creating a booking request from a predefined template. Creating a new booking request will now be described. If the user chooses to create a new booking request in step 203, then the user continues to step 206 and identifies the carrier and the commodity description details. If HAZMAT data is not desired, the user advances to step 210 of FIG. 2b. If HAZMAT data is desired, the user enters the data at step 208 via a pop-up window and then advances to step 210. Optionally, the user may enter contract information at step 209 in a free text field. Referring to FIGS. 2b and 2e, at step 210, the user identifies equipment quantity and type. If specific environmental conditions are not desired, the user continues to step 213. If certain environmental conditions are desired, at step 212, the user enters the appropriate data and then advances to step 213. At steps 213-215, the user identifies the place where the carrier responsibility for cargo begins including the pick-up date and the place where carrier responsibility for cargo ends including the delivery date. Optionally, the user may enter the load location and discharge location and/or special instructions in steps 216 and 217. Referring to FIG. 2f, from steps 215 or 217 and if door pick-up is desired, the user advances to step 218. If not, the user advances to step 220, door drop-off. From step 220, if door drop-off is not desired, the user advances to step 226. If door pick-up is desired, the user identifies the address, any necessary comments, and dates at steps 221-223. The user then continues to step 220. If door delivery is desired, the user identifies the delivery address and the date for container delivery during steps 224 and 225, respectively. Referring to FIG. 2g, from steps 220 or 225, the user advance to steps 226, and if desired, step 227. The user identifies the shipper and other shipment parties, step 226. The shipper may be the booking party. If the other shipment parties are not registered, the system may not provide visibility. However, the system may provide booking visibility immediately to registered parties, steps 227-230. After identifying the shipping party at step 236 and steps 227-230, the user advances to step 231 and submits the booking request to the system, wherein the system submits the booking request to the carrier at step 234. The user may also reach step 234 by entering a reference number and remarks during steps 232 and 233, respectively. Additionally, the user may reach step 234 by reusing an existing booking request or from a predetermined template as shown in FIG. 2a, steps 204 and 205. The user identifies the old booking or the template and then updates the routing, haulage, dates and submits the updated booking request, steps 235-240. Furthermore, the common carrier system enables entities to register via the common carrier interface. Referring to FIG. 2c, the carrier may be alerted by the common carrier system, via Electronic Data Interchange (“EDI”), email, common carrier interface pop-up dialogue box and the like, step 241. CSR enters the booking into the carrier's booking system and confirms or counters the booking origin, POL, POD, destination, load date, discharge date, vessel voyage and the like in the common carrier system, steps 242-244. If door delivery was requested, the CSR enters carrier outbound container P/U, if not, the CSR enters cutoff date at origin in the common carrier system, steps 245-247. The booking is confirmed, countered or rejected and returned to the common carrier system. The common carrier system alerts the user of the reply from the carrier, steps 248-249. The user takes no action, and thus, accepts the booking as is, cancels the booking request or amends the booking request, steps 250-252. If the user cancels or amends the booking, the carrier is alerted and accepts, declines or changes the booking in the carrier system and updates changes in the common carrier system. The common carrier system submits the response to the user via EDI, email, common carrier interface pop-up dialogue box and the like, steps 253-256. As illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, the user, after login, has a number of options to navigate through the common carrier system. To create a new booking request, the user selects the “Booking” menu option 301. This menu option enables the user to create a new booking request 302 or search for an existing booking request 303. If the user needs to create a new booking request, then the user has three options: (1) create a new booking request from scratch 304, (2) reuse an existing booking request 306 and (3) create a booking from a predefined template 305 as shown in FIG. 3. Creating new booking request will now be described with reference to FIGS. 3-10. Upon selecting the “from scratch” menu option 304, shown in FIG. 3, the user is linked to the new booking request screen, shown in FIG. 4a-4c. The new booking request screen is divided into several sections: (1) carrier selection 401, cargo information 402, container information 403, routing information 404, booking parties 405a-405d, and additional information 406. Each enables the user enter information. Although all sections are shown on a single screen, this is merely an example and should not be taken to be limiting in any way. For example, each section maybe shown using a separate screen. Each of these sections will now be described with reference to FIGS. 4-9 FIG. 4a shows the carrier selection section 401 of the booking request screen. To enter information in this section, the user clicks the “Select Carrier” drop-down menu 407 and identifies which registered carrier may be sent in the booking request. If desired, the user may enter a contract reference, the quote number or TLI in the contract reference field 408. Optionally, the user may enter a PO number into the PO number field 409. If desired, the user may attach additional reference numbers by clicking the “Additional Reference Numbers” button 410 which would link the user to the additional reference screen as shown in FIG. 5. The user may enter a reference type by using a drop-down menu 501. Also, the user may enter a reference value in the reference value field 502, add a reference by clicking the “Add reference” button 503, and/or may remove reference(s) by clicking the “Remove Reference” button 504. After the user has entered the appropriate data for each object, the user clicks the “Done” button 505. Referring to cargo section 402 of FIG. 4a and FIG. 6, the user may enter the commodity description in the description field 411, along with the total cargo weight in the total cargo weight field 412. The user defines the total cargo weight as being either metric or imperial using drop-down menu 413. If the commodity is hazardous, the user may click the “Hazmat” button 414. This button links the user to the hazardous material settings window shown in FIG. 6. The common carrier system supports multiple hazardous IMO classes per commodity. For example, a commodity “Car Parts” may hold two hazardous line items, one for seat belt tensionless, and another for air bags. The user selects the appropriate hazardous class from the “IMO Class” drop-down menu 601 and then user enters the proper shipping name and the four digit UN number in the un number field 602. Additionally, the user may enter the packing group, flash point, emergency contact details and further specification for each IMO line item in fields 603-606, respectively. Once all the details for one IMO class have been entered, the user clicks “Add IMO Class” button 607 to associate the hazmat details with the commodity. After the user is finished inputting of the hazmat details for all the commodities the user clicks the “Done” button 608. Referring to the container information section 403 of FIG. 4a and FIG. 7, the user enters the number of containers they wish to request in the quantity free text field 414. With the “Type/Size” drop down menu 415, the user identifies the kind of equipment they wish to request. Some carriers do not support some types of equipment. To help the user, carrier-specific equipment may be identified in the drop down free text literals. The user identifies at least one container for each booking request. In the container information section, the user has the option of selecting the “Temperature Control” button 416 to bring up the refrigeration details pop-up window as shown in FIG. 7. The user may set the booking temperature as Fahrenheit or Centigrade by clicking the ° C. or ° F. buttons 701 and 702, respectively, set the temperature using field 403 and clicking either button 404 or button 405; set the ventilation in cubic meters per hour using field 706; set the humidity settings as a percentage using field 707; and provide additional comments using field 708. After enter the appropriate setting, the user clicks the OK button 709 to save the environmental settings. Referring to the routing information section 404 of FIG. 4b and FIGS. 8a, 8b, 8c, and 8d, the user enters the routing details for the booking request. The user enters the place of origin in field 417 (place of origin is the location where the carrier's responsibility for the cargo begins); the requested date at origin in fields 418a-418c (the date when the carrier takes responsibility for the cargo); the requested vessel voyage in field 419; and the destination in field 420 (the location where the carrier's responsibility for the cargo ends). Optionally, the user may enter the load and discharge locations in fields 421 and 422. If the user desires to have the product picked-up, the user clicks the “Door Pickup” button 423 which links the user to the door pickup details screen shown in FIG. 8a. The user then enters the outbound empty equipment drop-off date and time in fields 801a-801d, the outbound stuffed equipment pick-up date and time in fields 802a-802d, and additional door pick-up details, including company name, contact details, telephone, and the pick-up address in fields 803-806, respectively. After entering the appropriate information, the user clicks the “Save Haulage” button 807 to update. Additional haulage details may include hot load, equipment drop-off schedules and the like. If the user desires to have the containers delivered, the user clicks the “Door Delivery” button 424 which links the use to the haulage requirements delivery screen shown in FIG. 8b. The user enters the inbound empty equipment availability date and time in fields 808a-808d and additional door pick-up details, including company name, contact details, telephone, and the pickup address in fields 809-812, respectively. Followed by the user clicking the “Save Haulage” button 813 to update. Additional haulage details may include hot load, equipment drop-off schedules, and the like. Optionally, the user may search to find the common carrier system for the registered locations of the place of origin, load and discharge locations. Several locations in the booking screen may be registered (non-free text) locations. To assist the user with identify these locations, the user may link to the search screen for assistance by clicking any of the buttons 425-428. The user may enter any combination of city, state, and country in fields 814-816 and press the search button 817 of FIG. 8c. The common carrier system displays the results shown if FIG. 8d. The user clicks on the correct location to select it, for example click on line 818, 819 or 820, or clicks the “Start Over” button 817 to return to the search screen. Referring to the booking parties section 405 of FIGS. 4b-4c and FIGS. 9a, and 9b, the user enters the booking parties, thus, identifying the parties associated with the booking request. The booking party may be identified as any one of shipper, export forwarder, consignee, contracted party and the like. Either the shipper or the export forwarder is identifiable on the system. To receive cargo visibility as soon as possible, the identified parties may be registered on the common carrier system. The parties may register with the common carrier system using the common carrier interface. If booking parties are not selected in this section, they may not be able to view the booking until their contact information is retrieved from the BL. That is, booking parties identified by the user may be capable of viewing the booking so long as they were a party selected by the user and they are registered with the common carrier system. Registration may be completed using the common carrier interface. Using fields 429a-429d, 430a-430d, 431a-431d, 432a-432d and 433a-433d as shown in FIGS. 4ba and 4c, the user may enter the name, address, reference, contact, and telephone number of the booking parties. So long as the party is registered, that party may view the booking. FIGS. 9a and 9b show a company search window for the user's convenience. When the user clicks the “Search” buttons 434a-434d from any booking party section, the user is linked to the company search pop-up window. The user enters the company name in the window in field 901 and clicks the “Search” button 902. The user then clicks on the desired company. An example list is shown in FIG. 9b. Referring to the additional information section 406 of FIG. 4c, if desired, the user may provide additional information by entering the additional comments in the additional information field 435. This area is free text and may hold, for example, details not be captured in the existing booking screens. Comments, for example, may include drop and pick; hot load, drop-off/pick-up schedules, HAZMAT details and the like should be entered here. Once the user entered all initial data, the user may send the booking request, save the booking request as a draft or save the booking request as a template by clicking one of the appropriate buttons 436-438. If the user sends the booking request, the carrier selected by the user may then be alerted by the common carrier system and reply to the user's booking request. If the user saves the booking request as a draft, the user may at a later time complete the booking request and send it to the carrier and/or save the booking request as a template. Creating a booking request from a template will now be described. Referring to FIGS. 10a and 10b, to create a booking request from an existing template, the user starts from any of the common carrier system screens after login and selects the “New” 302 menu and then the “From Template” menu 305 from the booking menu 301 as shown in FIG. 3. This action links the user to the template search screen. The user enters at least one of the template name, origin/destination, cargo description, company, and carriers in fields 1001-1006, respectively, to find the booking template. Once the user enters the data, the user clicks the “Template Search” button 1007. The common carrier system generates a list of any template that matches the search. The user selects the desired template. An example list is shown in FIG. 10b. If desired, by clicking the “New Template Search” button 1008, the user may add or remove criteria to limit or broaden the search. Once the user finds the appropriate template, the user may, for example update the dates associated with the booking along with additional booking request fields. The user may save the template and/or submit the booking request to the carrier. If desired, the user may delete the template, for example, by checking a box, like 1010, and clicking the “Delete Template” button 1009. Reusing an existing booking request will now be described. Referring to FIG. 3 and FIG. 11, starting from any of the common carrier system screens after login, the user select the “New” menu 302 and then “From Existing Booking” menu 306 from the booking menu 301 of FIG. 3. This action links the user to the search booking screen shown in FIG. 11. The user inputs data in at least one of references, booking number, ocean carrier booking number, bill of lading number, container number, booked vessel, booked voyage, latest vessel, latest voyage, cargo description, location, dates, company, carriers, cargo and event fields 1101-1112, respectively. The user selects the desired template from the returned list of old bookings, or performs another search. Once the user finds the desired booking request, the user updates the booking and submits and/or saves the booking request. The common carrier system is capable of developing forms for the common carrier interface which help users capture their tradelanes, commodity and equipment requirements, routing, and booking party details. These forms enable the common carrier system to create customer specific booking request templates. In most cases, a booking template capture the majority of fields described above, and worksheets group these fields into easily understood sections. Bookings may be made, for example, through the common carrier system user interface, Electronic Data Interchange and the like. EDI transmission pass through the common carrier system to allow common carrier system functionality to be used. For example, track and trace functionality require the booking EDI transmission pass through the common carrier system. Booking made via the common carrier system user interface may be made from scratch of facilitated by means of previously saved data in the form of templates or previous booking as described above. Track and Trace This embodiment enables the user to track and trace only by identifying container as opposed to tracking and tracing by identifying both carrier and container. That is, the user does not need identify which carrier is transporting their container. Accordingly, the common carrier system enables the user to track and trace containers across multiple carrier platforms from a single system, the common carrier system. The common carrier system facilitates track and trace information within the confines of a carrier's responsibilities. The boundaries for tracking a shipment directly reflect the associated route and service patterns supporting that container's movement. Applicable common carrier system users, via terminal 101a-101e of FIG. 1, have the ability to view the execution status of the shipment(s) on an as-needed basis. The booking activity plan defines the carrier's intended method and times for transporting a container from its origin to its final destination. This provides the benchmark for determining whether events that should have occurred have not. The common carrier system 102 alerts the parties of non-confirmation. The carriers offer event reporting against the milestones contained in the booking activity plan. The system operates using standard event codes and standard event messages. In other words, carriers 103 may update the common carrier system 102 using common reporting information. Alternatively, the common carrier system 102 may receive tracking information from each carrier in each carrier's native reporting format. The common carrier system 102 then extracts desired information from the carrier's tracking information and formats it into a style that is extensible to the user 101. Also, an intermediate format may also be used to internally store the tracking information from each carrier in the common carrier system 102. The system may log when event messages are received (in local time) to enable carrier performance monitoring. To use the track and trace function, the user request a booking with a common carrier registered carrier using the common carrier system as outlined above. The carrier confirms the booking request and submits a booking activity plan for the booking at the same time. A single booking supports a single booking activity plan. The booking may consist of multiple container movements. The booking activity plan may be used to support track and trace information at the container level. The booking activity plan may provide greater information than a service pattern, since each main leg may be broken down into actual transport modes, transshipment locations and interim arrival and departure date/times. Once the carrier submits the booking activity plan the container may be tracked and traced. The carrier submits the track and trace events to the common carrier system either by EDI or via a common carrier system user interface. Carriers may continue to use their own coding convention when submitting events by using EDI translator. EDI translator translates carrier event codes and message formats into a common carrier system neutral format. The common carrier system may record when a shipment has departed and arrived at the various location and record when business processes or non-conformances occur. The common carrier system may also record the date and time when the common carrier system receives track and trace events. The date and time recorded by the system maintains consistency with the date and time associated with where that event occurred (e.g. from GMT to local time of the shipper, local time of the destination location, local time of the sending location, and the like). That is, the date and time may be adjusted to match the time zone of the user or other parties. The user uses the track and trace function by using the common carrier system track and trace user interface. This enables the user to select criteria against which a search may be conducted. The user has the ability to customize how the search results are displayed. The user has the ability to customize display results on an individual container basis or on a “batched” container basis. The common carrier system may “batch” container records. When the common carrier system returns track and trace information on “batch” records, the user has the ability to drill-down to the container level detail and to drill back up. Furthermore, the user has the ability to ascertain, at glance, where the container is in relation to the activity plan and clear visibility as to what events have been successfully completed and which were not. Referring to FIGS. 4a and 12a-12c, by clicking, for example, the track and trace icon 436 of FIG. 4a, the user enables the track and trace search window as shown in FIG. 12a The user enters the specific container data in the field 1201 and, by using the drop-down menu 1202, the user identifies the type of data. The type of data may be any of the following: bill of lading number; container number; booking number; carrier booking number; customer reference number; shipper/consignee number, date ranges for place of receipt, first load port, final discharge port and delivery location; receipt/delivery locations, load/discharge locations, carrier, vessel and voyage number, current container activities/status and the like. The common carrier interface displays the search results screen as shown in FIG. 12b. If desired, the user may view a booking summary by clicking on, for example, the word “details” 1203 or track the containers by clicking on the “Track Container” button 1204 which links the user to the container plan screen shown in FIG. 12c. Furthermore, the user has the option of customizing the booking by clicking the “Customize Booking” button 1205. Event notification may be submitted to the nominated users using any of the following technologies: EDI, Email, common carrier interface pop-up dialogue box and the like. This may be based on the users technology. Furthermore, the user may define the rules with respect to event notification. Table I below shows an example of the events, event triggers and event notification as determined by the user. The system may, upon the user demand, automatically generate notices of cargo movement according to the user specification. The event handling functionality may be employed to provide notification regarding the certain track and trace events, track and trace non-events, and certain business process decisions. The event notification component of the common carrier system may reflect the workflow environment whereby interested users are notified when an event has occurred, or when one hasn't (e.g. a shipment was expected on a certain day, but is not expected to arrive until the next day). The user may specify their tolerances for these events. For example, one user may which to know if a shipment is late more than six hours, whereas another is more tolerant and a 24 hour delay and notification is acceptable. To notify the user when an event has not occurred, the common carrier system polls the booking activity plan information periodically to identify non-conformances against the booking activity plan, that is, when milestone events (that should have occurred) have not. Event messages may contain event code and location information. When the system identifies a non-conformance, an event notification is automatically generated and submitted to nominated entries. A non-confirmation in this case is deemed to be when the system has not received an event message prior to or at the date/time of the event should have occurred as defined in the booking activity plan. The common carrier system also submits track and trace events notifications when certain “optional” events are notified to the system, for example customs held and customs release. TABLE I Events Event Trigger Event Source Event Notification Empty container Empty Container Released Carrier's system or None pick-up by Carrier CC System Empty container Arrival of container at Carrier's system or None positioned Shipper's premises CC System Departure Departure of Container Carrier's system or Yes, if not notified from a Location CC System to CC System Arrival Arrival of Container Carrier's system or Yes, if not notified at Location CC System to CC System Loaded on Truck As part of an inland move, container Carrier's system or None has been loaded onto a Truck CC System Loaded on Rail As part of an inland move, container Carrier's system or None has been loaded onto a train CC System Loaded on Barge As part of an inland move, container Carrier's system or None has been loaded onto a barge CC System Loaded on Container has been loaded Carrier's system or None Vessel onto a vessel CC System Discharged from Container has been Carrier's system or None Vessel unloaded from vessel CC System Customs Container has cleared Carrier's System or Yes Clearance customs nominated agent's system or CC System Customs Hold Container has been held Carrier's System or Yes at Customs nominated agent's system or CC System Customs Release Container has been released Carrier's System or Yes by Customs after being held nominated agent's system or CC System Cargo Release Cargo has been released Carrier's system or None by the Carrier CC System Free Time to Containers from time about to expire Carrier's system or Yes Expire CC System Free Time Container free time has expired Carrier's system or Yes Expired CC System FIG. 13 illustrates the flow of messages sent and received by the common carrier system. EDI may be received in all EDI formats. Carriers may, for example, send 301 document message types to confirm container booking. Carriers may, for example, send document type 315 status events to the common carrier system to update container status. Events may be, for example and without limitation, anything from pick up at shipper, to ocean voyage through customs clearance to ultimate delivery. Carriers may send a range of different messages. Finally, the common carrier system supports but is not limited to EDI, XML, email and the like to send out received messages to the users. Thus, has been described a system that enables domestic and/or international transportation users to handle shipping transactions through a single common system substantially through a neutral transportation portal. The system provides, among other things, transportation users with single point of entry for tracking cargo movements with multiple carriers. The system also gives users access to scheduling, booking requests for booking cargo across several carriers and proactive event notification. Many variation and alterations of the embodiments are of course possible. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Today, shipping goods is a complicated business. Carriers have a finite amount of cargo space, and accordingly, shippers often negotiate with multiple carriers to coordinate the movement of just one container. Typically to limit the uncertainty and cost of moving goods, shippers contract with multiple carriers to provide a predetermined volume of business to each carrier at an agreed upon rate. This gives shippers the flexibility to choose from a number of different carriers to transport goods (for example, shipping directly from Stockholm to New York, rather than through an intermediate location) and increases the likelihood of moving a container when the shipper needs the container moved while guaranteeing individual carriers a volume of business. In practice, a shipper sequentially contacts carriers to check availability. If one carrier doesn't meet the shipper's desires, the shipper then contacts another contracted carrier. For example, refrigeration may be required and only certain carriers may handle refrigerated goods, the shipper may negotiate with only those contracted carriers that provide refrigeration. Even if the carrier may handle refrigerated cargo, they may not have the cargo space available to move the goods by a given day. Accordingly, even if the shipper and carriers have executed a contract prior to negotiations to move goods, shippers are still effectively required to negotiate with multiple carriers when securing the transport of cargo. Since shippers typically contract with multiple carriers, the shipper is required to learn and understand a variety of different carrier idiosyncrasies. The differences between carriers is compounded as each carrier attempts automation and/or direct booking over the internet. Each carrier booking system (or platform) may be different in the look and feel as well as in the process that one requests the transport of goods. This forces each shipper to learn each carrier's platform to effectively and efficiently book a shipment of goods. The entire process is both confusing and time consuming for shippers. Carriers are then faced with incorrect or irreconcilable booking reports leading to more lost resources. Freight forwarders add yet another level to this complicated business. Freight forwarders generally coordinate the transportation of goods on behalf of the shippers. For example, if the shipper desires goods be shipped from Chicago to Tokyo, the freight forwarder, on behalf of the shipper, negotiates and/or coordinates with the carriers to arrange for the goods to be moved. Essentially, the freight forwarders provide shippers with a service and generally do not move the goods themselves. Thus, freight forwarders provide shippers with an alternative to coordinating transportation of goods with the carriers. Although, freight forwarders provide shippers with a valuable service, they also create inefficiency and increase shipping costs for shippers as the cost for the service of the forwarders is billed to the shippers. Biasing results in yet another inefficiency. Forwarders may receive incentives to direct business to certain carriers over others. Also, as the complexity of the shipping business creates a desire for both shippers and freight forwarders to contract with certain carriers, this desire naturally creates a bias towards the contracted carriers. For example, if a shipper wants to move goods from Detroit to Spokane, the shipper may negotiate with a contracted carrier which only moves goods directly to Seattle. A second carrier would be needed to complete the transport from Seattle to Spokane, thus, requiring an additional leg to move the goods to Spokane. However, if the shipper wasn't biased towards the contracted carriers, the goods may have been shipped directly to Spokane using a non-contracted carrier. Accordingly, shippers or freight forwarders may be creating inefficiencies by not using all available resources. Since shippers or freight forwarders typically move goods using a variety of carriers, tracking and tracing goods across different carriers is also costly. Because shippers or freight forwarders often coordinate transportation of goods with multiple carriers, they are required to learn how to track and trace goods according the specific carrier's platform. Since shippers may have hundreds of containers being shipped by many different carriers at any given time and want to know the status and related info for their shipments, both shippers and carriers devote large amounts of resources to tracking and tracing containers. It is not uncommon for carriers to devote an entire workgroup to handling phone calls from shippers requiring information on the location of their goods. A consolidated system is needed that permits shippers to track shipments from a variety of carriers. Also, a system is needed that permits tracking of a shipment across multiple carriers. In recent years developers have used the internet to create virtual marketplaces that bring together buyer and sellers, run negotiations and give companies and their suppliers the ability to readily share information. Some attempts have been made to reduce the cost to the shipper by using the internet. One attempt was to give carriers the ability to post published rates and discount information for land, sea and air bearing cargo vessels allowing customers to evaluate prices prior to booking. Another attempt to use the internet, give shippers the ability to receive a plurality of bids from a plurality of participating cargo transportation entities. These systems merely identify the cost of doing business with a select carrier and no more. This does not solve the problem of having to use multiple carrier platforms to submit the booking request to different carriers. This also does not permit easy exchange of goods between carriers where multiple carriers are used for a single shipment. Finally, warehousing goods, transporting goods, customs brokerage and trade finance are complicated pieces of a very complicated business. Accordingly, a need exists for a more efficient system for handling logistics and transportation of goods. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The disclosure provides a method and system that enables domestic and international transportation users to handle shipping transactions through a single common system through a neutral transportation portal. The system provides, among other things, transportation users with single point of entry for tracking cargo movements with multiple carriers. In various embodiments, the system also gives users access to scheduling, booking requests for booking cargo across several carriers and, in some embodiments, proactive event notification. These and other benefits will become apparent as described in the drawings and related description. | 20041122 | 20100706 | 20050428 | 93325.0 | 1 | PLUCINSKI, JAMISUE A | COMMON CARRIER SYSTEM | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,384 | ACCEPTED | Key fob deactivation system and method | A remote keyless entry system includes a key fob having a tilt sensor. The tilt sensor detects when the key fob is tilted out of a range of preferred orientation and cooperates with the fob controller to selectively deactivate one or more of the remote keyless entry function buttons on the key fob. | 1. A key fob for use in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle, the key fob comprising: a power source; a user operable button indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the vehicle; a tilt sensor capable of detecting a tilt angle of the key fob relative to horizontal; a transmitter operable to transmit a signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function; and a fob controller operatively engaging the power source, the user operable button, the transmitter, and the tilt sensor, with the controller operative to prevent transmission of the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function when the tilt sensor detects that the tilt angle is not within a predetermined acceptable range of angles from the horizontal. 2. The key fob of claim 1 further including a second user operable button indicative of a second remote keyless function associated with the vehicle and operatively engaging the fob controller, wherein the fob controller is operative to cause the transmitter to transmit a second signal indicative of the second remote keyless entry function without regard to the tilt angle detected by the tilt sensor. 3. The key fob of claim 2 wherein the remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button is one of a trunk release function and an alarm function, and the second remote keyless entry function associated with the second user operable button is one of a door lock function and a door unlock function. 4. The key fob of claim 1 wherein the predetermined acceptable range is about plus or minus ten degrees from the horizontal. 5. The key fob of claim 1 wherein the transmitter is a transceiver. 6. The key fob of claim 1 wherein the fob controller is operative to selectively disable a tilt sensor function and transmit the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function regardless of the tilt angle detected by the tilt sensor. 7. The key fob of claim 1 wherein the tilt sensor is a mercury switch. 8. A method of operating a key fob adapted to be employed in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle, the method comprising the steps of: (a) detecting an actuation of a user operable button on the key fob; (b) detecting the tilt angle of the key fob; (c) determining if the detected tilt angle is within a predetermined range from horizontal; and (d) transmitting a signal indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button if the detected tilt angle is within the predetermined range from the horizontal when the actuation of the user operable button is detected. 9. The method of claim 8 further including the steps of: (e) selectively disabling a tilt angle function; and (f) transmitting a signal indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button if the tilt angle function is disabled when the actuation of the user operable button is detected. 10. The method of claim 9 further including the steps of: (g) determining if the remote keyless entry function of the user operable button is a preferred orientation function; and (h) transmitting the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function if the remote keyless entry function is not a preferred orientation function regardless of the detected tilt angle. 11. The method of claim 8 further including the steps of: (g) determining the function of the user operable button; (h) determining if the remote keyless entry function of the user operable button is a preferred orientation function; and (i) transmitting the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function if the remote keyless entry function is not a preferred orientation function regardless of the detected tilt angle. 12. The method of claim 8 wherein step (d) is further defined by the remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button being an alarm function. 13. The method of claim 8 wherein step (d) is further defined by the remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button being a door lock function. 14. The method of claim 8 wherein step (d) is further defined by the remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button being a door unlock function. 15. The method of claim 8 wherein step (d) is further defined by the remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button being a trunk release function. 16. The method of claim 8 wherein step (d) is further defined by the signal transmission being a radio frequency transmission. 17. The method of claim 8 wherein step (c) is further defined by preventing power flow from a battery to a fob controller if the detected tilt angle is not within the predetermined range from horizontal. 18. A method of operating a key fob adapted to be employed in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle, the method comprising the steps of: (a) detecting an actuation of a user operable button on the key fob; (b) detecting the tilt angle of the key fob; (c) determining if a tilt angle function is disabled; (d) determining if the detected tilt angle is within a predetermined range from horizontal; and (e) transmitting a signal indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button if the tilt angle function is disabled, or if the tilt angle function is not disabled and the detected tilt angle is within the predetermined range from the horizontal when the actuation of the user operable button is detected. 19. The method of claim 18 further including the steps of: (f) determining if the remote keyless entry function of the user operable button is a preferred orientation function; and (g) transmitting the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function if the remote keyless entry function is not a preferred orientation function regardless of the detected tilt angle. 20. The method of claim 18 wherein step (e) is further defined by the signal transmission being a radio frequency transmission. | BACKGROUND OF INVENTION The present invention relates to remote keyless entry systems for vehicles, and in particular to selective deactivation of functions on a key fob of a remote keyless entry system. Remote keyless entry (RKE) systems for vehicles enjoy wide use today, with RKE systems adding additional functions over and above the more conventional lock/unlock, trunk release and alarm functions. Such functions may include, for example, power door open/close and remote engine start. Typically, the conventional key fob transmits a vehicle function request whenever a button is pressed, whether inadvertent or not. For some, a RKE function being performed when a button is inadvertently pressed is a significant annoyance. For example, when a key fob is in ones pocket or purse, an alarm or trunk release button may be inadvertently pressed, causing the key fob to transmit the requested vehicle function even if not desired by the one carrying the key fob. One may then have to pull out the key fob and press the button again or go over to the vehicle to counteract the inadvertent vehicle function performed. Thus, it is desirable to provide a means for deactivating a key fob when it is likely that a press of a button thereon is inadvertent. SUMMARY OF INVENTION In its embodiments, the present invention contemplates a key fob for use in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle. The key fob may include a power source, a user operable button indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the vehicle, a tilt sensor capable of detecting a tilt angle of the key fob relative to horizontal, and a transmitter operable to transmit a signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function. The key fob may also include a fob controller operatively engaging the power source, the user operable button, the transmitter, and the tilt sensor, with the controller operative to prevent transmission of the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function when the tilt sensor detects that the tilt angle is not within a predetermined acceptable range of angles from the horizontal. The present invention also contemplates a method of operating a key fob adapted to be employed in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle. The method may comprise the steps of: detecting an actuation of a user operable button on the key fob; detecting the tilt angle of the key fob; determining if the detected tilt angle is within a predetermined range from horizontal; and transmitting a signal indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button if the detected tilt angle is within the predetermined range from the horizontal when the actuation of the user operable button is detected. An advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is that the key fob is deactivated when it is not within a range around a preferred orientation. Thus, when the key fob is in a pocket or a purse, where it is likely not within the range of the preferred orientation, it will be deactivated. Thus, an inadvertently pressed button on the key fob will not cause the function to be performed on the vehicle. A further advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is that the deactivation may be applied selectively to only certain functions where an inadvertent button press is a concern. An additional advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is that the orientation based button deactivation may be disabled for those who wish to be able to activate RKE functions no matter what the key fob orientation. Thus, the key fob may be active even while the key fob is still in ones pocket or purse. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a vehicle with a RKE system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a key fob and exemplary deactivation tilt angles in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flow chart of a method applicable to the fob controller of FIGS. 1 and 2, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIGS. 1-2 illustrate a remote keyless entry (RKE) system, indicated generally at 20, employed with a vehicle 22. The base or vehicle mounted portion 24 of the RKE system 20 includes a receiver 26 and a controller 28, which may be comprised of various combinations of hardware and software, as is known to those skilled in the art. The receiver 26 may be separate from or integral with the controller 28 and may be a transceiver if the RKE system 20 includes two-way communication. The controller 28 may be in communication with systems that carry out the desired RKE functions, such as a door lock/unlock actuator (not shown), a vehicle horn and headlights (not shown), an engine ignition system (not shown), and/or a trunk release mechanism (not shown). These systems will not be described in any detail since they are known to those skilled in the art. The RKE system 20 also includes a key fob 30 having a housing 32 with exposed buttons. These vehicle function buttons may include, for example, door lock 34, door unlock 36, trunk release 38, and alarm 40 buttons. The key fob 30 also includes a fob controller 42, powered by a battery 44, a transmitter 46, capable of transmitting a radio frequency (RF) signal 48 that can be received by the receiver 26, and a tilt sensor 50. The fob controller 42 is in communication with the transmitter 46, tilt sensor 50 and the vehicle function buttons 34, 36, 38, 40. The details of the fob controller 42, transmitter 46 and other electronic circuitry of the key fob 30 will not be discussed in detail herein since they are known to those skilled in the art. The transmitter 46 may be a transceiver if the RKE system 20 includes two-way communication, and may transmit the signal by wireless means other than by RF transmission, if so desired. Also, while the components in the key fob 30 are schematically illustrated as discrete components, they may be integrated, and/or may be mounted on a printed circuit board, if so desired. The tilt sensor 50 is employed to detect the orientation of the fob 30 relative to a horizontal plane 56, (i.e., perpendicular to the direction of gravity). The tilt sensor 50 may be any one of different types of conventional gravity based sensors that can react to the angle the fob 30 is tilted from horizontal. For example, the tilt sensor 50 may employ a mercury switch. Moreover, the switch may detect actual upward tilting angle 52 and downward tilting angle 54, or may just detect whether the tilt sensor 50 is inside or outside of the desired range from the preferred horizontal orientation. The upward and downward tilt angles 52, 54 that form the range preferred orientation may be, for example, ten degrees each. Of course, different angles of inclination for deactivation may be employed instead, if so desired. While the key fob 30 is shown in FIG. 2 with its back side facing down, the tilt sensor 50 may also be applied with the key fob 50 tilted on its side. FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a method applicable to the fob controller 42 in the key fob 30 of FIGS. 1 and 2. A RKE function is requested, block 100, which occurs when one of the buttons 34, 36, 38, 40 is pressed. A determination is made by the fob controller 42 as to whether the button deactivation function is disabled, block 102. The key fob 30 may be set up so that by pushing the buttons on the key fob 30 in a certain sequence, the tilt deactivation function will be enabled or disabled. In this way, for those who wish to be able to operate the key fob buttons-no matter what the tilt angle of the key fob 30—they may do so by disabling the button deactivation function. This disabling of the tilt angle function may be particularly advantageous for those who wish to activate RKE functions while the key fob 30 is still in ones pocket or purse. The decision step 102 is optional, so this function may be left out of the fob controller 42, if so desired. If the button deactivation function is disabled, then the fob controller 42 will actuate the transmitter 46 to transmit a RF signal, block 110, requesting the RKE function corresponding to the button that was pressed regardless of the tilt angle. The routine then ends, block 112. If the button deactivation function is not disabled, then a determination is made whether the RKE function requested is one of the preferred orientation functions, block 104. That is, the fob controller 42 may be configured so that only certain RKE functions will be deactivated based on the tilt angle while others stay activated no matter what the tilt angle. This selective use of the tilt based disabling may be advantageous if users are typically annoyed only when certain RKE functions are performed if buttons are inadvertently pressed while in a purse or pocket. For example, one may apply the tilt angle deactivation only to the trunk release and alarm RKE functions, while allowing the door lock RKE function to remain active no matter what the tilt angle. The decision step 104 is optional and may be left out of the fob controller 42, if so desired. If the button pressed is for a RKE function that is not a preferred orientation function, then the fob controller 42 will actuate the transmitter 46 to transmit a RF signal, block 110, requesting the RKE function corresponding to the button that was pressed regardless of the tilt angle. The routine then ends, block 112. If the button pressed is for a RKE function that is a preferred orientation function, then the tilt angle is detected, block 106. Again, this may be detection of an actual angle, or just a detection if the fob 30 is generally within the range of plus or minus angles 52, 54 from horizontal 56. A determination is then made whether the tilt of the tilt sensor 50, and hence the fob 30, is within the range of preferred orientation, block 108. If the tilt is within the range, then the fob controller 42 will actuate the transmitter 46 to transmit a RF signal, block 110, requesting the RKE function corresponding to the button that was pressed. The routine then ends, block 112. If not, the routine ends, block 112, without performing any RKE function. An alternative embodiment of the invention, although not necessarily as desirable as the first embodiment, may include the tilt sensor being located between the battery and the fob controller, with the tilt sensor blocking power to the fob controller when the fob is not within the range of preferred orientation. In this embodiment, then, the tilt sensor acts like a simple on-off power switch. While certain embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, those familiar with the art to which this invention relates will recognize various alternative designs and embodiments for practicing the invention as defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to remote keyless entry systems for vehicles, and in particular to selective deactivation of functions on a key fob of a remote keyless entry system. Remote keyless entry (RKE) systems for vehicles enjoy wide use today, with RKE systems adding additional functions over and above the more conventional lock/unlock, trunk release and alarm functions. Such functions may include, for example, power door open/close and remote engine start. Typically, the conventional key fob transmits a vehicle function request whenever a button is pressed, whether inadvertent or not. For some, a RKE function being performed when a button is inadvertently pressed is a significant annoyance. For example, when a key fob is in ones pocket or purse, an alarm or trunk release button may be inadvertently pressed, causing the key fob to transmit the requested vehicle function even if not desired by the one carrying the key fob. One may then have to pull out the key fob and press the button again or go over to the vehicle to counteract the inadvertent vehicle function performed. Thus, it is desirable to provide a means for deactivating a key fob when it is likely that a press of a button thereon is inadvertent. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>In its embodiments, the present invention contemplates a key fob for use in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle. The key fob may include a power source, a user operable button indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the vehicle, a tilt sensor capable of detecting a tilt angle of the key fob relative to horizontal, and a transmitter operable to transmit a signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function. The key fob may also include a fob controller operatively engaging the power source, the user operable button, the transmitter, and the tilt sensor, with the controller operative to prevent transmission of the signal indicative of the remote keyless entry function when the tilt sensor detects that the tilt angle is not within a predetermined acceptable range of angles from the horizontal. The present invention also contemplates a method of operating a key fob adapted to be employed in a remote keyless entry system of a vehicle. The method may comprise the steps of: detecting an actuation of a user operable button on the key fob; detecting the tilt angle of the key fob; determining if the detected tilt angle is within a predetermined range from horizontal; and transmitting a signal indicative of a remote keyless entry function associated with the user operable button if the detected tilt angle is within the predetermined range from the horizontal when the actuation of the user operable button is detected. An advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is that the key fob is deactivated when it is not within a range around a preferred orientation. Thus, when the key fob is in a pocket or a purse, where it is likely not within the range of the preferred orientation, it will be deactivated. Thus, an inadvertently pressed button on the key fob will not cause the function to be performed on the vehicle. A further advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is that the deactivation may be applied selectively to only certain functions where an inadvertent button press is a concern. An additional advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is that the orientation based button deactivation may be disabled for those who wish to be able to activate RKE functions no matter what the key fob orientation. Thus, the key fob may be active even while the key fob is still in ones pocket or purse. | 20041119 | 20070227 | 20060525 | 57748.0 | H04Q100 | 0 | AU, SCOTT D | KEY FOB DEACTIVATION SYSTEM AND METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04Q | 2,004 |
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10,993,439 | ACCEPTED | Image heating apparatus | The image heating apparatus includes a flexible rotatable member, a flexible rotatable member, a slidable member contacting an internal surface of the flexible rotatable member, a holder for holding the slidable member, and a pressure roller for applying a pressure to the flexible rotatable member thereby forming a nip portion with the slidable member, wherein a holding surface of the holder includes a first holding area of a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of the holder protrudes more than both end portions toward the nip portion, and a second holding area of a crowned shape, which is provided at a downstream side of the first holding area in a moving direction of the flexible rotatable member and in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of the holder protrudes more than both end portions toward the nip portion, and the second holding area has a crown amount larger than a crown amount of the first holding area. This configuration allows to suppress creases and undulations in a recording medium in an image forming apparatus. | 1. An image heating apparatus comprising: a flexible rotatable member; a slidable member contacting an internal surface of said flexible rotatable member; a holder for holding said slidable member; and a pressure roller for forming a nip portion in cooperation with said slidable member, with said flexible rotatable member being interposed; wherein a holding surface of said holder includes a first holding area of a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said holder protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said holder, and a second holding area of a crowned shape, which is provided at a downstream side of the first holding area in a moving direction of said flexible rotatable member and in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said holder protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said holder; and wherein an amount of crown of the second holding area is larger than that of the first holding area. 2. An apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising: urging means gives a pressure to forming the nip portion; wherein said urging means is provided on both end portions of a longitudinal direction of the apparatus. 3. An apparatus according to claim 2, further comprising: a stay of a high rigidity for pressing said holder toward said pressure roller; wherein first urging means urges an end portion of said stay toward said pressure roller and second urging means urges another end portion of said stay toward said pressure roller. 4. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first holding area has a crown amount within a range from 100 to 200 μm, and the second holding area has a crown amount within a range from 300 to 400 μm. 5. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein an apex of the crowned portion of the first holding area and an apex of the crowned portion of the second holding area have a substantially same height. 6. An apparatus according to claim 2, wherein said slidable member is a plate-shaped member, and is bent following shapes of the supporting faces of said holder by an effect of pressure by said urging means. 7. An apparatus according to claim 6, wherein said slidable member, in a state bent following the holding surfaces of said holder, shows a crown amount larger than zero and is equal to or less than 100 μm in an area corresponding to the first holding area of said holder, and a crown amount equal to or larger than 200 μm and is equal to or less than 300 μm in an area corresponding to the second holding area of said holder. 8. An apparatus according to claim 6, wherein said slidable member is formed by ceramics and has a substantially rectangular shape before pressurized by said urging means. 9. An apparatus according to claim 8, wherein said slidable member is a heater on which a heat generating resistor pattern is formed. 10. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said flexible rotatable member includes a base layer and an elastic layer. 11. An apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the base layer is constituted of a metal. 12. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said pressure roller has a diameter in both end portions in the longitudinal direction larger than a diameter in a central portion. 13. An image heating apparatus comprising: a flexible rotatable member; a slidable member contacting an internal surface of said flexible rotatable member; a pressure roller for forming a nip portion in cooperation with said slidable member, with said flexible rotatable member being interposed; and urging means gives a pressure to form the nip portion; wherein a shape of said slidable member, in a state pressurized by said urging means, is a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said slidable member protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said slidable member, and an amount of crown of said slidable member at a downstream side of said slidable member in a moving direction of said flexible rotatable member larger than an amount of crown of said slidable member at a upstream side of said slidable member. 14. An apparatus according to claim 13, wherein said urging means is provided on both end portions of a longitudinal direction of the apparatus. 15. An apparatus according to claim 14, further comprising: a holder for holding said slidable member and a stay of a high rigidity for pressing said holder toward said pressure roller; wherein first urging means urges an end portion of said stay toward said pressure roller and second urging means urges another end portion of said stay toward said pressure roller. 16. An apparatus according to claim 15, wherein said slidable member is a plate-shaped member, and is bent following shapes of supporting faces of said holder by an effect of pressure by said urging means. 17. An apparatus according to claim 13, wherein said slidable member shows a crown amount larger than zero and is equal to or less than 100 μm in the upstream side, and a crown amount equal to or larger than 200 μm and is equal to or less than 300 μm in the downstream side. 18. An apparatus according to claim 16, wherein said slidable member is formed by ceramics and has a substantially rectangular shape before mounting on the apparatus. 19. An apparatus according to claim 18, wherein said slidable member is a heater on which a heat generating resistor pattern is formed. 20. An apparatus according to claim 13, wherein said flexible rotatable member includes a base layer and an elastic layer. 21. An apparatus according to claim 20, wherein the base layer is constituted of a metal. 22. An apparatus according to claim 13, wherein said pressure roller has a diameter in both end portions in the longitudinal direction larger than a diameter in a central portion. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image heating apparatus, adapted for use as a heat fixing apparatus for an image fixation of a recording medium bearing a toner image. 2. Related Background Art In an image forming apparatus such as a printer or a copying apparatus, image formation is often executed by an electrophotographic process, and, in such process, a toner image is formed on a recording medium by a transfer method or a direct method, and is fixed by applying heat and pressure to such recording medium. An image heating apparatus serving as a fixing apparatus for heat fixing the toner image has conventionally employed a heat roller system as shown in FIG. 6. This system is basically constituted of a heat roller 102 of a metallic material or the like provided therein with a heater 101, and an elastic pressure roller 103 pressed thereto, and a recording medium S bearing an unfixed toner image is introduced into a nip portion N (fixing nip) of the rollers 102, 103, and pinched and passed therein to heat the toner image t under heating and pressure. However the fixing apparatus of such heat roller type requires a very long time for elevating the roller surface to a fixing temperature, because of a large heat capacity of the roller. For this reason, in order to achieve a prompt image outputting operation, the roller surface has to be controlled at a certain temperature even while the apparatus is not in use. Therefore, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. H04-44075 etc. propose an image heating apparatus of on-demand type of a configuration, in which a flexible sleeve (film) is employed in place for the highly rigid fixing roller and a heater is contacted with an internal surface of the sleeve, thereby forming a nip portion by the heater and the pressure roller, with the the flexible sleeve being therebetween. Such image heating apparatus of on-demand type is generally constituted of a thin heat-resistant film (for example of polyimide), a heater (heat generating member) fixed at the side of a surface of the film, and a pressure roller provided at the side of the other surface of said film and opposed to the heater through the film for contacting a heated medium to the film. When such apparatus is employed as a fixing apparatus, a recording medium is introduced into and passed by a nip portion (fixing nip) formed by a contact of the heater and the pressure roller through the film, whereby the recording medium is heated by the heater through the film to give the unfixed image with thermal energy, and whereby the toner image is fixed on the recording medium. FIG. 7 is a schematic view showing a principal part of an image heating apparatus as explained above. A ceramic heater 113, constituting a heat generating member, is basically constituted of a thin oblong plate-shaped ceramic substrate having a longitudinal direction thereof perpendicular to the plane of the drawing, and a heat-generating resistor layer provided on a surface of the substrate, and is a heater of a low heat capacity showing a temperature increase over the entire surface with a steep start-up property by a current supply to the heat-generating resistor layer. A holder 112 supports the heater 113. The holder 113 is a member formed by heat-resistant resin of a trough shape having a substantially semicircular cross section and having a longitudinal direction thereof perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. The heater 113 is fitted, with a heater surface thereof exposed downwards, in a groove formed on a lower face of the holder 112 and along the longitudinal direction thereof and fixed with a heat-resistant adhesive. A cylindrical heat-resistant film 114 is loosely fitted around the holder 112 with the heater 113. A pressurizing stay 111 is a rigid member having an inverted U-shaped cross section and a longitudinal direction perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. The pressurizing stay 111 is inserted in the holder 112. An elastic pressure roller 115 serving as a pressurizing member is rotatably supported by bearings at both ends of a metal core. Above the pressure roller 115, an assembly of the heater 113, the holder 112, the film 114 and the stay 111 is positioned, with the heater 113 facing downwards, parallel to the pressure roller 115, and longitudinal ends of the pressurizing stay 111 are pressed downwards with urging members (not shown) to press the lower face of the heater 113 to urge it downward, through the film 114, to the upper surface of the pressure roller 115 against the urging means force of an elastic layer thereof, thereby forming a pressurized nip portion N of a predetermined width. The pressure roller 115 is rotated clockwise as indicated by an arrow and with a predetermined peripheral speed by unillustrated driving means. By a pressurized frictional force at the pressurized nip portion N at the pressure roller 115 and the film 114 in the rotation of the pressure roller 115, a rotating force is exerted on the cylindrical film 114, which is thus driven counterclockwise as indicated by an arrow outside the holder 112, in sliding contact with the downward face of the heater 113. In a state where the pressure roller 115 is rotated to also rotate the cylindrical film 114 and the heater 113 is energized, showing a rapid temperature increase and controlled at a predetermined temperature, a recording medium S bearing an unfixed toner image t is introduced between the film 114 and the pressure roller 115 at the pressurized nip portion N, in which the recording medium S, with a toner image bearing surface thereof in close contact with the external surface of the film 114, is pinched and conveyed together with the film 114. In the course of such conveying process, the recording medium S is heated by the heat of the film 114, which is heated by the heater 113, whereby the unfixed toner image t on the recording medium S is heat fixed thereto by heat and pressure. After passing the pressurized portion N, the recording medium S is separated by a curvature from the film 114 and is conveyed for discharge. The image heating apparatus of the aforementioned film heating type, capable of employing a heater of a low heat capacity as the heating member, can achieve an electric power saving and a shorter wait time in comparison with the prior apparatus of a heat roller type or a belt heating type. In such image heating apparatus of on-demand type, the heater 113 and the pressure roller 15 are mutually pressed by pressurizing both longitudinal ends of the pressurizing stay 111 and the pressure roller 115 with urging members such as spring. In such pressurizing configuration, even a slight bending in the pressure roller 115 or the pressurizing stay 111 tends to result in a situation where a pressure at a longitudinal center of the nip is smaller than a pressure at longitudinal ends of the nip. Such uneven pressure distribution renders the nip width, in the conveying direction of the recording medium, uneven over the longitudinal direction, thus often resulting in an uneven image fixing property. In order to compensate such unevenness in the nip width distribution, a heater holding surface of the holder 112 is made somewhat thicker in a longitudinal central portion than in both end portions, in such a shape that the heater 113 is bent and positioned closer to the pressure roller 115 in the longitudinal central portion than in both end portions (such shape being hereinafter called a crown shape). Also in order to discharge the recording medium without creases, it is already known to form the pressure roller in an inversely crowned shape, namely a shape where the diameter is larger in both longitudinal end portions than in a central portion. In the pressure roller of such inversely crowned shape, the pressure roller has a peripheral speed larger in both ends portions than in the central portion, whereby the recording medium is subjected to a tensile force from the center to both ends in the conveying process through the pressurized nip portion. Such phenomenon is considered to suppress generation of creases. However, a mechanism of suppressing crease generation on the recording medium does not necessarily depend only on the peripheral speed difference between the central portion and the end portions of the pressure roller. The aforementioned bending (crowning) of the heater 113 for compensating the unevenness in the nip with of the pressurized nip portion, if made excessively large, may cause creases in the discharged recording medium even if the pressure roller has an inversely crowned shape. An increasing crowning in the heater corresponds to an increase in the nip width (width in the conveying direction of the recording medium) at the longitudinal central portion of the nip. Thus the mechanism of suppressing crease generation on the recording medium is considered to depend not only on the peripheral speed difference between the central portion and the end portions of the pressure roller but also to be delicately related with the difference of the nip width between the longitudinal central portion and the end portions of the nip. In any case, an excessively large crowning of the heater is disadvantageous for crease formation in the recording medium. On the other hand, in a portion immediately after being discharged from the pressurized nip portion N of the film 114 and the pressure roller 115, the recording medium S is released from a constriction by the pressurized nip portion N and shows a thermal dilatation as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, thus generating undulations Sa in the conveying direction. In case such undulations are generated, a convex portion of such undulations contact the film 114 for a longer time, whereby a convex portion of the undulations Sa in the recording medium S tends to receive an excessive heat in comparison with a concave portion. Such undulations Sa are conspicuous in a resinous film such as an OHP sheet or a glossy film. Particularly in case the film 114 is formed by a sleeve constituted of an elastic layer, a releasing layer and a metal film and having a certain heat capacity (for example a heat capacity per unit area is 0.1 J/cm2·K), a convex portion in the undulations Sa generated in the recording medium S receives an excessive heat in comparison with a concave portion. Since such excessive heat deteriorate the surface smoothness in the convex portion, there will result, as shown in FIG. 9, a deteriorated transparency along the convex portion of the undulations Sa in case the recording medium S is an OHP sheet, or an unevenness in the luster in case the recording medium S is a glossy film. Such image unevenness seems to be appeared in the form of flames, hereinafter it is referred to as a fire mark. Such fire mark tends to become more conspicuous in case the pressurized nip portion N, formed by the heater 113 and the pressure roller 115 across the film 114, has a small crown amount C in the longitudinal direction of the nip (for example C=100 μm for a nip length L=220 mm), and become less conspicuous as the crown amount C is larger (for example C=300 μm for a nip length L=220 mm). This is presumably because, as explained before, a small crown amount C of the pressurized nip portion N increases an ability of spreading the recording medium S during conveying in the pressurized nip portion N, thereby giving a larger stress to the recording medium S and enhancing the undulations Sa. However, in case of selecting a large crown amount C for giving an emphasis on the influence thereof on the fire mark, the ability of spreading the recording medium S during conveying in the pressurized nip portion N becomes lower whereby the creases become enhanced in a recording medium S of low stiffness such as a thin paper. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in consideration of the aforementioned technical difficulties and an object thereof is to provide an image heating apparatus capable of suppressing creases and undulations in a recording medium. Another object of the present invention is to provide an image heating apparatus including: a flexible rotatable member; a slidable member contacting an internal surface of said flexible rotatable member; a holder for holding said slidable member; and a pressure roller for forming a nip portion in cooperation with said slidable member, with said flexible rotatable member being interposed; wherein a holding surface of said holder includes a first holding area of a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said holder protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said holder, and a second holding area of a crowned shape, which is provided at a downstream side of the first holding area in a moving direction of said flexible rotatable member and in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said holder protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said holder; and wherein an amount of crown of the second holding area is larger than that of the first holding area. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an image heating apparatus including: a flexible rotatable member; a slidable member contacting an internal surface of said flexible rotatable member; a pressure roller for forming a nip portion in cooperation with said slidable member, with said flexible rotatable member being interposed; and urging means gives a pressure to form the nip portion; wherein a shape of said slidable member, in a state pressurized by said urging means, is a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said slidable member protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said slidable member, and an amount of crown of said slidable member at a downstream side of said slidable member in a moving direction of said flexible rotatable member larger than an amount of crown of said slidable member at a upstream side of said slidable member. Still other objects of the present invention will become fully apparent from the following detailed description which is to be taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is schematic view showing a configuration an image forming apparatus of an embodiment 1 of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic view showing a configuration of a fixing apparatus; FIG. 3 is a schematic view showing a layered structure of a fixing sleeve; FIG. 4 is a partial magnified schematic view of a fixing apparatus; FIG. 5 is a chart showing shapes of a heater receiving faces A, B of a heater holder; FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a prior fixing apparatus of heat roller type; FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a prior fixing apparatus of film heating type; FIG. 8 is a perspective view schematically showing undulations of a recording medium; FIG. 9 is a schematic magnified view of FIG. 8; FIG. 10 is a view showing portions of image defects; FIG. 11 is a view explaining a crown amount; FIG. 12 is an exploded perspective view of a fixing apparatus of an embodiment 1; FIG. 13 is a view indicating a mode of spring application in the fixing apparatus of the embodiment 1; FIG. 14 is a perspective view, seen from obliquely below, of a part of the heater holder of the embodiment 1; FIG. 15 is a perspective view, seen from obliquely below, of the heater in a state pressurized by springs; and FIG. 16 is a view of a heater holder seen from a downstream side in a conveying direction of a recording medium. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS First Embodiment In the following, an embodiment of an image forming apparatus utilizing an image heating apparatus of the present invention as a fixing apparatus will be explained with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 shows an example of the image forming apparatus, and FIG. 2 is a view showing a fixing apparatus. In the following there will be explained an entire configuration of the image forming apparatus and then a configuration of the fixing apparatus. (1) Image Forming Apparatus The image forming apparatus of the present embodiment is a full-color image forming apparatus utilizing an electrophotographic process, which is provided with four process stations 1a to 1d substantially provided in a line in a substantially vertical direction and respectively serving to form images of different colors (magenta, cyan, yellow and black), and a conveying path 20 for conveying a sheet S as a recording medium. The process stations 1a to 1d includes at least photosensitive drums 2a to 2d for bearing latent images, and, around the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d, there are provided charging rollers 3a to 3d for uniformly charging the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d, exposure devices 4a to 4d for irradiating the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d for forming latent images, developing means 5a to 5d for developing the latent images formed on the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d with toners of respective colors (magenta, cyan, yellow and black) thereby forming visible images, and cleaning apparatuses 6a to 6d for removing residual toners on the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d. The developing means 5a to 5d are provided with developing sleeves 50a to 50d for carrying toners. The developing sleeves 50a to 50d are supported with a predetermined gap to the corresponding photosensitive drums 2a to 2d, and, at a developing operation, a developing bias is applied between the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d and the developing sleeves 50a to 50d. An intermediate transfer belt 7 is supported by a drive roller 8, an idler roller (driven roller) 9 and belt supporting rollers 10, 11, and is rotated in a direction indicated by an arrow in the drawing. The intermediate transfer belt 7 is conveyed along a direction of array of the process stations 1a to 1d, and the toner images of respective colors on the photosensitive drums 2a to 2d are transferred, in the respective stations and in succession, by primary transfer means 14a to 14d onto the intermediate transfer belt thereby forming a full-color image. On the other hand, sheets S are stacked in a sheet cassette 15 provided in a lower part of the apparatus, and are separated and fed one by one by a sheet feed roller 16 from the sheet cassette 15 and supplied to paired registration rollers 17. The paired registration rollers 17 advances a fed sheet into a gap between the intermediate transfer belt 17 and a secondary transfer roller 12. A surface in a lowermost part of the intermediate transfer belt 17 contacts a secondary transfer roller 12 so positioned as to be opposed to the idler roller 9, and the secondary transfer roller 12 pinches and conveys the passing sheet S in cooperation with the intermediate transfer belt 7. The secondary transfer roller 12 is given a bias from a high voltage source 13 (bias means), whereby the sheet S, passing between the secondary transfer roller 12 and the intermediate transfer belt, receives a secondary transfer of the toner image borne on the intermediate transfer belt, and is conveyed toward a fixing apparatus 18. The sheet S, bearing the transferred toner image, is supplied to the fixing apparatus 18, and is heated and pressurized therein, whereby the toner image is fixed to the sheet S. In this manner an image is formed on the sheet S, which is then discharged from the fixing apparatus 18 to a discharge tray 19 outside the apparatus. (2) Fixing Apparatus 18 FIG. 2 is a schematic view showing the configuration of the fixing apparatus 18, which is an image heating apparatus of on-demand type basically same as the aforementioned fixing apparatus shown in FIG. 7. The fixing apparatus is provided with a ceramic heater (slidable member) 55, a heater holder 53 for supporting the heater 55, a film-shaped fixing sleeve (flexible rotatable member) 52 wound around the holder 53, a reinforcing stay 51 constituted of a rigid member having an inverted U-shaped cross section, and a pressure roller 57 opposed to the heater 55 across the fixing sleeve 52. The ceramic heater 55 is formed by screen printing a paste of a heat generating resistor member on a rectangular ceramic substrate and patterning the heat-generating resistor member on the substrate. On the heat-generating resistor pattern, there is formed an insulating layer (glass layer) which is to contact an internal surface of the fixing sleeve. The pressure roller 57 has a structure of having an elastic layer on a metal core. The pressure roller 57 has an inversely crowned shape in which the diameter of the elastic layer is larger in both end portions in the longitudinal direction than in a central portion. Also as will be understood from an exploded view in FIG. 12 and a cross-sectional view in FIG. 13, a spring 61A (first bias means) and a spring 61B (second bias means) are provided between a main frame 70 of the fixing apparatus and the stay 51, and both bias the stay 51 toward the pressure roller 57. The urging means force of the springs 61A, 61B is transmitted from the stay 51 to the heater 55 through the holder 53. Also shafts 57A, 57B of the pressure roller 57 are rotatably supported on the main frame 70. Consequently a pressure by the springs 61A, 61B is applied between the heater 55 and the pressure roller 57, thereby forming a pressurized nip portion N. A sheet S constituting a recording medium, passing through the pressurized nip portion N between the pressure roller 57 and the fixing sleeve 52, is pressed in the pressurized nip portion N and conveyed in a state in close contact with the fixing sleeve 52. Also by such pressing force, a rear surface of the heater is pressed to a receiving face (first holding area) A of the holder 53 at an upstream side of a sheet conveying direction, and also to a receiving face (second holding area) B at a downstream side. The holding surface of the holder 53 for holding the heater has a first holding area A and a second holding area B. Each of the receiving surfaces A, B has a crowned shape in which a longitudinal central portion protrudes more than both end portions towards the nip portion. The heater 55 is formed by a ceramic material, and has a substantially rectangular shape in a single component state not mounted on the apparatus. Such heater, when mounted on the apparatus and subjected to the force of the springs 61A and 61B, is bent along the crowned shape of the receiving faces A, B to form crowned shapes. In the present embodiment, the fixing sleeve 52, as shown in a schematic view of layered configuration in FIG. 3, is a flexible member constituted of a metal film 52a, an elastic layer 52b and a releasing layer 52c from the internal side. Also the fixing sleeve 52 has a heat capacity per unit area of about 0.1 J/cm2·K. In a state where the pressure roller 57 is rotated to also rotate the fixing sleeve 52 and the heater 55 is energized, showing a rapid temperature increase and controlled at a predetermined temperature, a sheet S constituting a recording medium and bearing an unfixed toner image t is introduced between the fixing sleeve 52 and the pressure roller 57 at the pressurized nip portion N, in which the sheet S, with a toner image bearing surface thereof in close contact with the external surface of the fixing sleeve 52, is pinched and conveyed together with the fixing sleeve 52. In the course of such conveying process, the sheet S is heated by the heat of the fixing sleeve 52, which is heated by the heater 55, whereby the unfixed toner image t on the sheet S is heat fixed thereto by heat and pressure. After passing the pressurized nip portion N, the sheet S is separated by a curvature from the fixing sleeve 52 and is conveyed for discharge. Immediately after being discharged from the pressurized nip portion N, the sheet S is released from a constriction by the pressurized nip portion N and shows a thermal dilatation. As shown in a magnified partial schematic view in FIG. 4 and also in FIGS. 8 and 9, the sheet S in the course of passing the pressurized nip portion is subjected, for example by an inverted crowned shape of the pressure roller, to a spreading force from a center toward both ends in a direction perpendicular to the conveying direction. The sheet S, under a conveying stress by such force, shows a thermal dilatation upon being discharged from the nip portion and released from the constriction therein, thus generating undulations Sa along the conveying direction. In such undulations, an upward convex line is represented as an upper end portion 63 of the undulation and a downward convex line is represented as a lower end portion 62 of the undulation. In such state, the upper end portion 63 of the undulation contacting longer with the fixing sleeve 52 tends to receive an additional heat in comparison with the lower end portion 62, thus resulting in an image defect as explained in the prior technology. Such defect, appearing in a shape of flames, is called fire mark, which appears more conspicuously when the recording medium S is an OHP sheet or a resinous film sheet. The fire mark is related in particular with the conveying stress on the sheet S when the sheet S is discharged from a downstream side of the pressurized nip portion N. The conveying stress is related with a crowned amount C provided along the longitudinal direction of the heater holder (FIG. 11). In order to prevent creases in the sheet while suppressing an uneven nip width distribution within the longitudinal direction of the pressurized nip portion N, when the heater receiving faces A, B of the holder 53 are given a crown amount for example of C=100 μm for L=220 mm (namely a relatively small crown amount), creases can be prevented but the fire mark becomes conspicuous. On the other hand, a crown amount effective for avoiding such image defect (fire mark) such as C=400 μm for L=220 mm (namely a relative large crown amount) reduces the effect of spreading the sheet within the nip portion, thereby generating creases in a sheet of low stiffness such as a thin paper. The aforementioned numerical values of the crown amount of the heater receiving faces A, B of the holder 53 correspond to an inverted crown amount Cpressure of the pressure roller 57 for example of Cpressure=150 μm for L=220 mm. It is found that the fire mark is particularly generated at the sheet discharge from the pressurized nip portion N, namely principally by a conveying stress caused by the crown amount at a downstream side within the pressurized nip portion N, while the sheet creases are generated in case a conveying function under sheet spreading is not exhibited satisfactorily immediately after the sheet S enters the pressurized nip portion (namely in an upstream side within the pressurized nip portion N). Therefore, in the present embodiment, the crowned amount in the pressurized nip portion N constituted of the pressure roller 57, the fixing sleeve 52 and the holder 53 is made different in an upstream side and in a downstream side in the sheet conveying direction within the pressure nip portion N. FIG. 5 shows the difference in the crown shape between the upstream side and the downstream side. In FIG. 5, a line 1 indicates an ordinary crown shape (a crown amount of 250 μm in both faces A and B). A line 2 indicates a crown shape (a crown amount of 150 μm) of the face A, while a line 3 indicates a crown shape (a crown amount of 400 μm) of the face B. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 5, the crown amounts C of the heater receiving faces A and B of the heater holder 53 are set, for example, as CA=100 μm for L=220 mm for the receiving face A and CB=400 μm for L=220 mm for the receiving face B. Thus, the crown amount CB of the heat receiving face (second holding area) B is selected larger than the crown amount CA of the heat receiving face (second holding area) A. In the prior apparatus, these amounts are same in the faces A and B. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of a part of the heater holder 53 having the setting of the present embodiment, seen from obliquely below. Also FIG. 15 is a perspective view of the heater 55, seen obliquely below, in a state pressurized with the springs 61A, 61B with the heater holder 53 of a shape shown in FIG. 14. Further, FIG. 16 shows the heater holder seen from the downstream side in the conveying direction of the sheet S. As will be understood from FIGS. 14 and 16, the heater receiving face B has a crown amount (CB=400 μm) larger than a crown amount (CA=100 μm) of the heater receiving face A, but the heater receiving faces A and B are so shaped as to have apexes of a same height. As will be apparent from the bending of the heater shown in FIG. 15, in case the heater receiving faces A, B have a same crown amount, the heater bends with a same crown amount in the upstream side and in the downstream side in the sheet conveying direction as indicated by a broken line in FIG. 15, but, in case the heater receiving face B has a larger crown amount than that of the heater receiving face A as in the present embodiment, the heater bends in such a manner that the crown amount in the downstream side in the sheet conveying direction (moving direction of the fixing sleeve) becomes larger than the crown amount in the upstream side as indicated by a solid line in FIG. 15. In such configuration, a sheet S particularly of low stiffness such as a thin paper, immediately after entering the pressurized nip portion N, proceeds under a sufficient spreading toward both ends so that creases are not generated. Also the sheet S is discharged without an excessive stress immediately before the discharge, so that the amount of undulations immediately after the sheet discharge is limited whereby the fire mark can be suppressed. It is thus possible to suppress the fire mark and the sheet creases at the same time, by separately setting, as explained in the foregoing, the crown amounts C for the heater receiving face A at the upstream side and for the heater receiving face B at the downstream side in the heater holder 53. However, an increase in the difference of the crown amounts C leads to an uneven nip width distribution in the longitudinal direction of the pressurized nip portion N. It is therefore important to select the crown amounts C for the heater receiving faces A, B in order to achieve a reduction in the fire mark, a reduction in the sheet creases and an uniform nip width distribution. Therefore experiments were conducted to find optimum crown amounts, and results are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 upstream downstream crown amount crown amount sheet nip (μm) (μm) creases fire mark uniformity 100 100 A C A 200 A B A 300 A A A 400 A A A 500 A A C 600 A A C 200 200 A C A 300 A B A 400 A A A 500 A A C 600 A A C 300 300 C C A 400 C C A 500 C A A 600 C A A 400 400 C C A 500 C C A 600 C A A Table 1 shows differences in the creases and the fire mark on the sheet S and the nip uniformity depending on the crown amounts of the heat receiving faces A, B, with evaluations A: satisfactory, B: fair and C: poor. These experiments indicate that, with respect to the crown amounts in a direction perpendicular to the sheet conveying direction in the pressurized nip portion N, satisfactory states for the creases and the fire mark can be realized without deteriorating the uniformity of the nip width of the pressurized nip portion N by selecting a crown amount of 100 to 200 μm in the upstream portion A in the sheet conveying direction and a crown amount of 300 to 400 μm in the downstream portion. The heater 55 has a rectangular shape in a state prior to pressurization by the springs 61A, 61B (state of single component), and, being made of a ceramic material, does not necessarily assume the crown amounts same as those explained above of the heater 55. When the heater receiving face A is set at a crown amount CA=100 to 200 μm and the heater receiving face B is set at a crown amount CB=300 to 400 μm, the heater 55 shows an upstream crown amount CA′ of 0 μm<CA′≦100 μm and a downstream crown amount CB′ of 200 μm≦CB′≦200 μm, and these values are identified adequate for the crown amounts of the heater. As explained in the foregoing, in a fixing apparatus equipped with a fixing sleeve constituted of an elastic layer, a releasing layer and a metal film, there can be provided a fixing apparatus not generating creases even in a thin paper and satisfactory against a fire mark. Also even with a fixing film of a relative large heat capacity, the fixing operation can be executed without deteriorating the image quality and generating the creases. The foregoing embodiment employs a fixing film having a heat capacity per unit area of about 0.1 J/cm2·K, but such example is not restrictive and there can also be employed for example a polyimide film of a very low heat capacity (for example a thickness of 50 μm and a heat capacity per unit area of 0.01 J/cm2·K). In such case the upper end portion 63 and the lower end portion 62 of the undulations Sa show small difference in the receiving heat, thus giving a limited influence on the image quality, but the configuration of the present embodiment can provide a higher image quality. Also it can be applied to an apparatus equipped with a flexible fixing sleeve without the elastic layer. In the present embodiment, the slidable member is constituted of a heater having a heat generating function, but it is only required to be capable of forming a nip portion in cooperation with the pressure roller and need not necessarily have such heat generating function. In such case, heat can be generated in the fixing sleeve itself for example by electromagnetic induction. Also in the present embodiment, the flexible movable member 52 is constituted of a cylindrical member which is rotated by the pressure roller, but there may be employed arbitrary rotating method such as providing a driving roller and a tension roller inside an endless film and rotating such driving roller thereby rotating the endless film. The image heating apparatus of the present invention is usable not only as an image heat fixing apparatus as described in the embodiment but also applicable a temporarily fixing apparatus for temporarily fixing an unfixed image to a recording material, or a surface improving apparatus for reheating a recording material, bearing a fixed image, thereby improving a surface property such as luster of the image. It is naturally applicable also as an image heating apparatus for heating a heated member, such as a heat pressing apparatus for removing creases for example in a banknote, a heat laminating apparatus, a heat drying apparatus for evaporating moisture contained in paper or the like, an image heating apparatus for drying in an ink jet printer or the like. The present invention is not limited to the aforementioned embodiments but includes any and all modifications within the technical concept of the invention. This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application Nos. 2003-397678 filed on Nov. 27, 2003 and 2004-328926 filed on Nov. 12, 2004, which are hereby incorporated by reference herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image heating apparatus, adapted for use as a heat fixing apparatus for an image fixation of a recording medium bearing a toner image. 2. Related Background Art In an image forming apparatus such as a printer or a copying apparatus, image formation is often executed by an electrophotographic process, and, in such process, a toner image is formed on a recording medium by a transfer method or a direct method, and is fixed by applying heat and pressure to such recording medium. An image heating apparatus serving as a fixing apparatus for heat fixing the toner image has conventionally employed a heat roller system as shown in FIG. 6 . This system is basically constituted of a heat roller 102 of a metallic material or the like provided therein with a heater 101 , and an elastic pressure roller 103 pressed thereto, and a recording medium S bearing an unfixed toner image is introduced into a nip portion N (fixing nip) of the rollers 102 , 103 , and pinched and passed therein to heat the toner image t under heating and pressure. However the fixing apparatus of such heat roller type requires a very long time for elevating the roller surface to a fixing temperature, because of a large heat capacity of the roller. For this reason, in order to achieve a prompt image outputting operation, the roller surface has to be controlled at a certain temperature even while the apparatus is not in use. Therefore, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. H04-44075 etc. propose an image heating apparatus of on-demand type of a configuration, in which a flexible sleeve (film) is employed in place for the highly rigid fixing roller and a heater is contacted with an internal surface of the sleeve, thereby forming a nip portion by the heater and the pressure roller, with the the flexible sleeve being therebetween. Such image heating apparatus of on-demand type is generally constituted of a thin heat-resistant film (for example of polyimide), a heater (heat generating member) fixed at the side of a surface of the film, and a pressure roller provided at the side of the other surface of said film and opposed to the heater through the film for contacting a heated medium to the film. When such apparatus is employed as a fixing apparatus, a recording medium is introduced into and passed by a nip portion (fixing nip) formed by a contact of the heater and the pressure roller through the film, whereby the recording medium is heated by the heater through the film to give the unfixed image with thermal energy, and whereby the toner image is fixed on the recording medium. FIG. 7 is a schematic view showing a principal part of an image heating apparatus as explained above. A ceramic heater 113 , constituting a heat generating member, is basically constituted of a thin oblong plate-shaped ceramic substrate having a longitudinal direction thereof perpendicular to the plane of the drawing, and a heat-generating resistor layer provided on a surface of the substrate, and is a heater of a low heat capacity showing a temperature increase over the entire surface with a steep start-up property by a current supply to the heat-generating resistor layer. A holder 112 supports the heater 113 . The holder 113 is a member formed by heat-resistant resin of a trough shape having a substantially semicircular cross section and having a longitudinal direction thereof perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. The heater 113 is fitted, with a heater surface thereof exposed downwards, in a groove formed on a lower face of the holder 112 and along the longitudinal direction thereof and fixed with a heat-resistant adhesive. A cylindrical heat-resistant film 114 is loosely fitted around the holder 112 with the heater 113 . A pressurizing stay 111 is a rigid member having an inverted U-shaped cross section and a longitudinal direction perpendicular to the plane of the drawing. The pressurizing stay 111 is inserted in the holder 112 . An elastic pressure roller 115 serving as a pressurizing member is rotatably supported by bearings at both ends of a metal core. Above the pressure roller 115 , an assembly of the heater 113 , the holder 112 , the film 114 and the stay 111 is positioned, with the heater 113 facing downwards, parallel to the pressure roller 115 , and longitudinal ends of the pressurizing stay 111 are pressed downwards with urging members (not shown) to press the lower face of the heater 113 to urge it downward, through the film 114 , to the upper surface of the pressure roller 115 against the urging means force of an elastic layer thereof, thereby forming a pressurized nip portion N of a predetermined width. The pressure roller 115 is rotated clockwise as indicated by an arrow and with a predetermined peripheral speed by unillustrated driving means. By a pressurized frictional force at the pressurized nip portion N at the pressure roller 115 and the film 114 in the rotation of the pressure roller 115 , a rotating force is exerted on the cylindrical film 114 , which is thus driven counterclockwise as indicated by an arrow outside the holder 112 , in sliding contact with the downward face of the heater 113 . In a state where the pressure roller 115 is rotated to also rotate the cylindrical film 114 and the heater 113 is energized, showing a rapid temperature increase and controlled at a predetermined temperature, a recording medium S bearing an unfixed toner image t is introduced between the film 114 and the pressure roller 115 at the pressurized nip portion N, in which the recording medium S, with a toner image bearing surface thereof in close contact with the external surface of the film 114 , is pinched and conveyed together with the film 114 . In the course of such conveying process, the recording medium S is heated by the heat of the film 114 , which is heated by the heater 113 , whereby the unfixed toner image t on the recording medium S is heat fixed thereto by heat and pressure. After passing the pressurized portion N, the recording medium S is separated by a curvature from the film 114 and is conveyed for discharge. The image heating apparatus of the aforementioned film heating type, capable of employing a heater of a low heat capacity as the heating member, can achieve an electric power saving and a shorter wait time in comparison with the prior apparatus of a heat roller type or a belt heating type. In such image heating apparatus of on-demand type, the heater 113 and the pressure roller 15 are mutually pressed by pressurizing both longitudinal ends of the pressurizing stay 111 and the pressure roller 115 with urging members such as spring. In such pressurizing configuration, even a slight bending in the pressure roller 115 or the pressurizing stay 111 tends to result in a situation where a pressure at a longitudinal center of the nip is smaller than a pressure at longitudinal ends of the nip. Such uneven pressure distribution renders the nip width, in the conveying direction of the recording medium, uneven over the longitudinal direction, thus often resulting in an uneven image fixing property. In order to compensate such unevenness in the nip width distribution, a heater holding surface of the holder 112 is made somewhat thicker in a longitudinal central portion than in both end portions, in such a shape that the heater 113 is bent and positioned closer to the pressure roller 115 in the longitudinal central portion than in both end portions (such shape being hereinafter called a crown shape). Also in order to discharge the recording medium without creases, it is already known to form the pressure roller in an inversely crowned shape, namely a shape where the diameter is larger in both longitudinal end portions than in a central portion. In the pressure roller of such inversely crowned shape, the pressure roller has a peripheral speed larger in both ends portions than in the central portion, whereby the recording medium is subjected to a tensile force from the center to both ends in the conveying process through the pressurized nip portion. Such phenomenon is considered to suppress generation of creases. However, a mechanism of suppressing crease generation on the recording medium does not necessarily depend only on the peripheral speed difference between the central portion and the end portions of the pressure roller. The aforementioned bending (crowning) of the heater 113 for compensating the unevenness in the nip with of the pressurized nip portion, if made excessively large, may cause creases in the discharged recording medium even if the pressure roller has an inversely crowned shape. An increasing crowning in the heater corresponds to an increase in the nip width (width in the conveying direction of the recording medium) at the longitudinal central portion of the nip. Thus the mechanism of suppressing crease generation on the recording medium is considered to depend not only on the peripheral speed difference between the central portion and the end portions of the pressure roller but also to be delicately related with the difference of the nip width between the longitudinal central portion and the end portions of the nip. In any case, an excessively large crowning of the heater is disadvantageous for crease formation in the recording medium. On the other hand, in a portion immediately after being discharged from the pressurized nip portion N of the film 114 and the pressure roller 115 , the recording medium S is released from a constriction by the pressurized nip portion N and shows a thermal dilatation as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9 , thus generating undulations Sa in the conveying direction. In case such undulations are generated, a convex portion of such undulations contact the film 114 for a longer time, whereby a convex portion of the undulations Sa in the recording medium S tends to receive an excessive heat in comparison with a concave portion. Such undulations Sa are conspicuous in a resinous film such as an OHP sheet or a glossy film. Particularly in case the film 114 is formed by a sleeve constituted of an elastic layer, a releasing layer and a metal film and having a certain heat capacity (for example a heat capacity per unit area is 0.1 J/cm 2 ·K), a convex portion in the undulations Sa generated in the recording medium S receives an excessive heat in comparison with a concave portion. Since such excessive heat deteriorate the surface smoothness in the convex portion, there will result, as shown in FIG. 9 , a deteriorated transparency along the convex portion of the undulations Sa in case the recording medium S is an OHP sheet, or an unevenness in the luster in case the recording medium S is a glossy film. Such image unevenness seems to be appeared in the form of flames, hereinafter it is referred to as a fire mark. Such fire mark tends to become more conspicuous in case the pressurized nip portion N, formed by the heater 113 and the pressure roller 115 across the film 114 , has a small crown amount C in the longitudinal direction of the nip (for example C=100 μm for a nip length L=220 mm), and become less conspicuous as the crown amount C is larger (for example C=300 μm for a nip length L=220 mm). This is presumably because, as explained before, a small crown amount C of the pressurized nip portion N increases an ability of spreading the recording medium S during conveying in the pressurized nip portion N, thereby giving a larger stress to the recording medium S and enhancing the undulations Sa. However, in case of selecting a large crown amount C for giving an emphasis on the influence thereof on the fire mark, the ability of spreading the recording medium S during conveying in the pressurized nip portion N becomes lower whereby the creases become enhanced in a recording medium S of low stiffness such as a thin paper. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention has been made in consideration of the aforementioned technical difficulties and an object thereof is to provide an image heating apparatus capable of suppressing creases and undulations in a recording medium. Another object of the present invention is to provide an image heating apparatus including: a flexible rotatable member; a slidable member contacting an internal surface of said flexible rotatable member; a holder for holding said slidable member; and a pressure roller for forming a nip portion in cooperation with said slidable member, with said flexible rotatable member being interposed; wherein a holding surface of said holder includes a first holding area of a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said holder protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said holder, and a second holding area of a crowned shape, which is provided at a downstream side of the first holding area in a moving direction of said flexible rotatable member and in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said holder protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said holder; and wherein an amount of crown of the second holding area is larger than that of the first holding area. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an image heating apparatus including: a flexible rotatable member; a slidable member contacting an internal surface of said flexible rotatable member; a pressure roller for forming a nip portion in cooperation with said slidable member, with said flexible rotatable member being interposed; and urging means gives a pressure to form the nip portion; wherein a shape of said slidable member, in a state pressurized by said urging means, is a crowned shape in which a central portion in a longitudinal direction of said slidable member protrudes toward the nip portion more than both end portions in a longitudinal direction of said slidable member, and an amount of crown of said slidable member at a downstream side of said slidable member in a moving direction of said flexible rotatable member larger than an amount of crown of said slidable member at a upstream side of said slidable member. Still other objects of the present invention will become fully apparent from the following detailed description which is to be taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20041122 | 20070213 | 20050609 | 58764.0 | 1 | CHEN, SOPHIA S | IMAGE HEATING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,477 | ACCEPTED | Cellular telephone system that uses position of a mobile unit to make call management decisions | A cellular telephone system has call management decisions made based on the exact geographic location of the mobile unit. These call management decisions include billing and taxing decisions, cell site selection, frequency selection and even cellular system selection. The decisions are continuously updated during a call whereby decisions can be made and changed regardless of where a call originated. Cell site location, and even cellular system selection, can be made in a specific manner to best serve the needs of the mobile user, the cellular system as well as the public. It is even possible for a cellular system to locate one or more of its cell sites in the geographic area served by another cellular system. In some cases, cellular systems might even share cell sites. | 1. A telecommunications system, comprising: a data storage system for recording a geographic location associated with a communications identifier, and an updating system responsive to an inaccuracy in the geographic location associated with a communications identifier that exceeds an interval defined by said updating system, and in response thereto updating said data storage system to identify an updated geographic location for said communications identifier. 2. The system of claim 1 wherein said communications identifier is associated with a mobile communication device, and said updating system comprises a positioning system obtaining an exact geographic location for a mobile communication device, and comparing said exact geographic location to a previously determined exact geographic location and said interval. 3. The system of claim 2 wherein said mobile communication device is a cellular telephone. 4. The system of claim 1 wherein said interval requires updating at a preset time interval. 5. The system of claim 1 wherein said interval requires updating according to a distance between the geographic location associated with an identifier and a correct geographic location. 6. The system of claim 1 wherein said interval requires updating upon approach or movement across a geographic boundary. 7. The system of claim 6 wherein said geographic boundary is a political boundary between two governmental authorities. 8. The system of claim 6 wherein said geographic boundary is a telecommunications boundary between territories allocated to different telecommunications service providers. 9. A cellular communications system comprising: a cellular communication network comprising a plurality of cell sites and a plurality of mobile units, for radio frequency communication between said cell sites and mobile units, at least one of said cell sites receiving an identification of a specific mobile unit, said cellular communication network communicating with said specific mobile unit via a cell site chosen based upon signal strength, a positioning system obtaining a position for said specific mobile unit identifying an exact geographic location of the specific mobile unit, and forwarding said exact geographic location and specific mobile unit identification for use in subsequent services. 10. The cellular communications system of claim 9 wherein said specific mobile unit transmits a position signal. 11. The cellular communications system of claim 10 wherein said specific mobile unit derives said position through the use of radio frequency positioning signals. 12. The cellular communications system of claim 11 wherein said specific mobile unit derives said position through the use of a global positioning satellite system. 13. The cellular communications system of claim 10 wherein said specific mobile unit comprises a GPS receiver connected to logic circuitry in said specific mobile unit. 14. The cellular communications system of claim 13 wherein said specific mobile unit includes a duplexer. 15. The cellular communications system of claim 14 wherein said specific mobile unit includes a GPS receiver located between said duplexer and said logic circuitry. 16. The cellular communications system of claim 9 wherein said cellular communication network compares said exact geographic location to geographic locations of cell sites in the cellular communications network. 17. The cellular communications system of claim 16 wherein said cellular communications network selects a chosen cell site for use by said specific mobile unit based on said comparison of said exact geographic location to geographic locations of cell sites, and establishes communication between said specific mobile unit and said chosen cell site based on the exact geographic location of the specific mobile unit. 18. The cellular communications system of claim 16 wherein said cellular communication network determines the geographic location of a cell site using a look-up table. 19. The cellular communications system of claim 9 wherein said positioning system receives said exact geographic location data from voice and data communication signals received by said cell sites. 20. The cellular communications system of claim 9 wherein said data storage system makes said exact geographic location information accessible for emergency services provisioning. 21. The cellular communications system of claim 9 wherein said data storage system makes said exact geographic location information available for one or more of rate, message unit, tax, billing or location services provisioning. 22. The cellular communications of claim 9 wherein said positioning system makes said exact geographic location information accessible to provide proper services for said location. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/662,613 filed Sep. 15, 2000, now allowed, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/848,082, filed Mar. 21, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,324,404, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/555,884, filed Oct. 23, 1995, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,546,445, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/402,976, filed Mar. 13, 1995, now abandoned, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/057,833, filed May 7, 1993, now abandoned, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 07/813,494, filed Dec. 26, 1991 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,235,633. The disclosures of each of these applications is fully incorporated herein by reference. Therefore, as used hereinafter, the term “prior art” refers to art that is relevant prior to the invention dates associated with this incorporated material. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the general art of wireless over-the-air communication, which includes cellular mobile radiotelephone (CMR) technology, and to the particular field of managing communication processes in a wireless over-the-air communication system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is concerned with wireless over-the-air communication using a plurality of transmit/receive cell sites or relay points. It should be understood that the transmit/receive relay points can be either land based or non-land based, such as satellite based, and that as used herein, the term “cell site” or its equivalent refers to one of the relay points of the system. CMR (Cellular Mobile Radio) is an example of one type of wireless over-the-air communication system that can be included in the present disclosure. It is understood that the term CMR is not intended to be limiting, but is merely used as an example for the purposes of discussion. It is also to be understood that the term “cellular telephone system” or its equivalents is intended to be shorthand notation for the term “wireless over-the-air communications system” and no limitation is intended by the use of the term “cellular.” Also, as used herein, the terms “CD (Communication Device)” and “MU (Mobile Unit)” are intended to include any device used to communicate in the wireless over-the-air communication system. Also, the term “cellular telephone system” is used for purposes of discussion but can include any form of wireless over-the-air communication system. It is also noted that many forms of communication are and will be conducted over the wireless over-the-air networks. Therefore, the present disclosure will refer to a “communication process” which is intended to cover calls as well as other forms of communication that can be conducted in this manner. CMR is a rapidly growing telecommunications system. The typical CMR system includes a multiplicity of cells. A particular geographic area can be subdivided into a multiplicity of subareas, with each of the subareas being serviced by a stationary transmitter/receiver setup. The cells are set up to carry signals to and from mobile units in the range of the cell. If one cell site becomes too crowded, it can be divided into smaller cells, by a process known as cell site splitting. Any particular geographic area can become quite complicated with cells overlapping each other, and overlapping cells of other neighboring cellular systems. Further, null zones with inadequate coverage, or even no coverage, can result. It is noted that the term “cellular” is intended to be a term of convenience, and is not intended to be limiting. The present disclosure is intended to encompass any communication system in which an overall area can be divided into one or more subareas, and also to any communication system having at least some portion of the communications occurring over the air. A typical CMR set up is indicated in FIGS. 1 and 2, and will be described so an understanding of the problem to which this invention is directed can be obtained. A typical cellular telephone unit having a unique mobile identification number stored in a suitable location such as an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (not shown). Telephone units of this kind are known to those skilled in this art, and thus will not be described in detail. The telephone unit includes a handset 4 having a keypad 5 as well as a speaker 6 and a microphone 7. A transceiver 8, ordinarily built into the telephone unit, exchanges signals via an antenna 10 with a mobile telecommunications switching office or MTSO 12 via a cell site 14. A duplexer 15 connects the antenna to the transceiver. The cell site 14 includes an antenna 16 connected to a control terminal 17 via a transceiver 18. The cell site 14 is connected to the MTSO via a transmission link 20. The Mobile Telephone Switching Office has historically been known as the center of the wireless over-the-air communications system. It is where the communication process management decisions are made, billing records are produced and where maintenance activities are initiated for wireless over-the-air communications systems. The MTSO is not a specific piece of equipment, but is comprised of many individual pieces. The MTSO will contain a telephone switch, peripheral processors, adjunct processors, and various other information gathering equipment used in the operation and management of a wireless over-the-air communications system. Each of the different pieces of equipment may directly or indirectly be involved providing the highest quality connection possible. The makeup of the MTSO therefore comprises many different pieces of equipment and many components, which can be supplied by different vendors. Therefore, communication process management decisions made at the MTSO can actually, be made outside of a switch and can be made in a cluster of nodes housed along the network or even in separate cell sites. Therefore, as used herein the term MTSO really refers to all of the systems, nodes, modules, equipment and components that combine to define a wireless over-the-air communication process management network, regardless of the physical or system location of these elements. The term MTSO therefore is not intended to be limiting to the “switching office” as it may have been viewed in the prior art. The term is intended to be much broader than that and to include any combinations of equipment, etc that may be connected within the communication processing network of the service provider. The term MTSO is one of convenience and is intended to include all the information processing hardware and software associated with the wireless over-the-air communication process management process within a wireless over-the-air system, no matter where the hardware or software is located in the system. It is also noted that the term “intra-system” refers to actions and components within a particular system; whereas, the term “inter-system” refers to actions and components located outside a particular system. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, the operation of the CMR can be understood. The mobile unit M moves about the geographic areas covered by the various cells. As that mobile unit moves about, it decodes the overhead message control signals generated by various cell site control channels. The mobile unit locks onto the cell site that is emitting the strongest signal. The mobile unit rescans channels periodically to update its status. If, for example, a fixed-position land-based telephone T is used to call the mobile unit, a signal is sent via landlines L, to the central office CO of a public/switched telephone system (PTSN) 12A. This system then utilizes the switching network SN associated therewith to call the MTSO 12 via a transmission link L1. The MTSO then utilizes its own switching network and generates a page request signal to cell sites via transmission links, such as the transmission link 20. The cell site which has been notified of the presence of the mobile unit M sends a signal back to the MTSO via the landlines or wireless links alerting the MTSO of the presence of the mobile unit. The MTSO then orders the mobile unit, via the notifying cell site, to tune to an assigned channel and receive the communication process. On the other hand, during communication process origination, the mobile unit rescans the control channels to determine which is the best server based on signal strength. Upon selecting the best server, the mobile unit transmits cell site information on the control channel receive frequency and then receives a voice channel to tune to if the mobile unit is authorized to place a communication process. As the mobile unit moves, the signal strength between that mobile unit and the originating cell site changes, and perhaps diminishes. Since signal strength is an inverse function of the square of the distance between the mobile unit and the cell site, signal strength can change rapidly and drastically as the mobile unit moves with respect to the cell site and therefore must be monitored closely. The MTSO has a signal strength table, and signal strength from the mobile unit is constantly compared to acceptable signal strength levels in the table. Such a table can be located in each cell site if desired. Should signal strength diminish below a preset range, the MTSO generates a “locate request” signal to all cell sites that neighbor the original cell site. Each of such neighboring cell sites receiving a signal from the mobile unit signals the MTSO, and the signal strengths from such neighboring cell sites are checked against the signal strength table. The MTSO makes a decision as to which cell site should control the communication process, and notifies the original cell site to order the mobile unit to retune to a voice channel of the new cell site. As soon as the mobile unit retunes, the mobile unit completes the communication process via the new cell site channel. This transfer of control is known as a handoff. Typically, governments grant rights to provide wireless communication services to a specified land area based on geographic boundaries. Since wireless propagation does not end at exact geographic boundaries, many conflicts have arisen between service providers as to which service provider should provide service at the location from where the Communication Process (CP) is being originated or received. Today, there are no methods or procedures to resolve these issues. A Communication Process (CP) can be defined as the exchange of information between communication devices, such as, but not limited to, Analog or Digital radiotelephones, digital data communications, analog or digital video, and the like. When the initial wireless systems were built, they were constructed around major metropolitan areas. This created service voids between major metropolitan markets. In these early systems, boundary service problems did not arise because there were areas of “no service” buffering competing systems. Today, as rural systems fill in the patchwork of nationwide coverage, network service provision boundary disputes are becoming common. Prior to the Dennison, et al patent, U.S. Pat. No. 5,235,633 and the patents and applications depending therefrom as continuations and continuations-in-part, the disclosures of which are fully incorporated hereinto by reference, and the invention disclosed herein, it was impossible to honor the exact geographic boundaries. Attempts are currently made to control coverage boundaries by installing directional antennas and adjusting cell site receive and transmit parameters. The methods used to match the system boundaries to the geographic boundaries are not entirely successful due to the variations in terrain, environment and limitations of antenna design and wireless propagation. A common result of these problems is inadequate wireless signal strength or null coverage and border disputes around the geographic boundaries and hence poor service. The incorporated material, including the Dennison et al patent disclose that cell sites sometimes have overlapping coverage due to the aforementioned variations in terrain and environment, and propose a solution. While the proposed solution works well, there is still room for further improvement in the areas of cost, subscriber service, billing and taxing. Furthermore, wireless propagation, such as but not limited to the cellular operating band of 800-900 MHz, is generally line-of-site transmission. This presents substantial challenges when choosing sites in which to place wireless transmit/receive antennas. Boundaries assigned to service providers are based on maps depicting the geographic borders of service boundaries. The question arises in a disputed territory of who will get to service the Communications Process (CP). In the past, it has been the cell site that can provide the highest signal strength from the CD (Communications Device), not the provider that owns the legal territorial rights to the Communication Process (CP) that has serviced the Communication Process (CP). Until the invention disclosed herein, the service provider that could receive the best signal would handle the communication process (CP), and depending on whether the Communication Process (CP) was handed off and/or depending on the agreement made between the wireless communication systems, possibly keep all of the revenue from the communication process CP. Additionally, with real estate values being very high in established communities, cell sites are harder to construct and more expensive to build. Each cell site must be optimized for the maximum effective coverage area to overcome the real estate problems encountered when constructing a cell site. This in turn creates problems with overlapping coverage between wireless systems and thus disputes over which wireless system handles the communication process. Further, due to business considerations, it may be economically advantageous for one wireless system to own a cell site which is geographically located in the geographic area of another wireless system. Cell sites are very expensive to install and maintain, so there is a very real savings for a service provider if fewer cell sites could be constructed while also improving coverage. Another area that would be affected by this is problems of quality service. This is because the service provider has conflicting requirements. To provide good coverage next to borders the provider would like to have high signal strength. To allow for hand-offs between cell sites and networks the signal strength needs to “fade out” at just the right level near the border to invoke a low threshold to start a hand-off process. It would be ideal to have high signal strength right up to a geographic boundary and then drop off beyond that boundary. However, at the present time, presently available systems do not permit this type of coverage. Some areas inherently have wireless propagation problems, such as service areas next to bodies of water or in steep valleys. Wireless propagation can provide some very undesirable results for a number of reasons, some of which have been mentioned above and in the incorporated material. Therefore, there is a need to provide each network information as to which system has a right to handle a Communications Process (CP). For instance, a communications device (CD) might attempt to select a geographically incorrect service provider. Therefore, there is a need for a system that will permit a service provider to redirect the communication process to the geographically correct service provider, especially in a manner that is transparent to the Communications Device (CD) user. Since cellular system geographic borders can be non-linear and can have irregular shapes, problems can arise. Problems associated with irregular boundaries are indicated in FIG. 3. FIG. 3 graphically shows the problem of obtaining coverage for areas that have irregular boundaries. In this figure, areas A and C are serviced by Carrier X, and area B is serviced by Carrier Y. It is noted that areas A and C are intra-system with respect to Carrier X and area B is intra-system with respect to Carrier Y, while areas A and C are inter-system with respect to Carrier Y and area B is inter-system with respect to Carrier X. It is also noted that areas A and B could be covered by just one cell site each but the overlap into adjacent territories would be difficult to resolve. Today, areas such as these would be split into two or more cell sites. For instance, Carrier X might elect to install three cell sites A1, A3 and A4 which provides a minimum of overlap into area B. Overlap is indicated at the shaded areas. Therefore, there is a need for a system what would allow Carrier X to install a cell site with a larger coverage area such as A2 (shown in dotted lines). FIG. 4 shows a prior art attempt of providing sectored cells. Using prior art technology requires installation of directional antennas to minimize the overlap into neighboring territory in order to resolve a border issue. Since these antenna patterns cannot be made to follow curved geographic borders, sectors are installed and directed for the best geographic coverage possible. This often involves obtaining a cell site location close to the border and “shooting back” toward the wireless communication system's own territory. This can leave null zones where cells back onto each other in an effort to keep signals from overlapping into neighboring territory. These null zones will have either poor quality service or even no service at all, thereby resulting in poor service. Therefore, there is a need to overcome this problem as well. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a problem of how geographic terrain can affect prior art systems. In FIGS. 5A and 5B, a small rural network A is located just across the river from a large city C, which is part of a neighboring network B. The river defines the geographic and legal border between these two systems. The city C is in another state just across the river. In some river towns, there is a bluff on each side of the river. The network A can place their cell sites very near the border atop the bluff providing overlapping coverage into the city C. Network A will get all the service of the neighboring community D further away from the city C. Network A now has better line of cell site reception into the river valley with its corresponding traffic at river level than does network B who legally “owns” the territory. Network B would have to install additional cell sites in the river valley to obtain the same coverage. Due to the stronger signal level provided by Network A, Network A will process a communications process (CP). The result is that subscriber's Communication Process (CP) may not be processed by the correct service provider. Note in FIG. 5A that there are two service providers X and Y. The inter-system boundary is shown as a dashed line down the middle of the river. With a bluff on either side of the river, the cells can only service the opposite bluff. This is shown where Y1 cell site cannot “see” the subscriber CD′ hidden below. Cell site Y1 can however find CD3 in service provider X's territory. This issue denies revenue to the wireless communication system that has legal right to serve the subscribers within its licensed geographic service boundaries. Prior art systems are incapable of determining the geographic location of both the communications devices and their service boundaries and thus compromise quality of coverage. Therefore, there is a need to resolve this issue. There is also need for providing a wireless over-the-air communication system with the ability to adjust its coverage and billing as the mobile unit moves. This will permit the system to determine taxes based on where the communication process is actually being made as opposed to the criteria used with the prior art. Still further, there is a need to permit a wireless over-the-air communication system to change frequencies as the mobile unit moves whereby a single wireless service provider can provide service to its subscribers regardless of frequency. Still further, due to various business reasons, a single cell site may advantageously be used by more than one system. It will be necessary to determine which wireless communication system bills the communication process. Prior art systems cannot fully account for this. Still further, if there is a service problem with a mobile unit, prior art systems are not able to accurately identify the exact geographic location of the unit when the problem arose. This makes it difficult for the network to pinpoint coverage problems. Therefore, there is a need for a wireless over-the-air communication system that permits a wireless communication system to exactly and precisely identify the exact geographic location of a mobile unit when a communication problem occurs. Still further, with the advent of emergency response networks that use telephones, such as the E-911 systems, there is a need for a wireless over-the-air communication system that can precisely locate a mobile unit and pass that information on to an emergency response system. The location of an over-the-air system mobile unit making a communication process can also be of use to law enforcement agencies. However, signal strength from one cell site does not provide such location information with sufficient accuracy to be of the best assistance to law enforcement agencies. Therefore, there is a need for an over-the-air communications network that can provide geographic location of a mobile unit during a communication process with accuracy sufficient to satisfy law enforcement agencies. This information should be rapidly updatable so a mobile unit can be tracked. Since the CMR industry is growing rapidly, competition is growing. Therefore, it is in the best interest of a system to be able to provide the best service possible to its subscribers. One way of achieving this objective is to customize the service to the exact needs of each subscriber. This can be achieved by, among other things, customizing and varying a billing rate plan for each subscriber. That is, the subscriber may be able to pay a lower rate when he is at work than he pays when he or she is at home. Therefore, there is need to a wireless over-the-air communication system that can vary rate plans and vary rates in a manner that will permit offering the best rate plan to each subscriber based on that particular subscriber's use and needs. Still further, some communication processes must be handled in a special manner to account for environmental conditions, or system needs, such as down time for a specific cell. Therefore, even if a communication process should be handled by a certain cell site, there may be times when that communication process must be handled by another cell site. Therefore, there is need for a wireless over-the-air communication system that can account for special circumstances associated with a communication process, and alter the system response when the mobile unit meets the criteria for those circumstances, even if the communication process is already in progress when the criteria are met. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is a main object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will permit a wireless communication system to determine the most efficient and accurate service to a mobile unit. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will permit a wireless communication system to accurately bill a subscriber. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will permit a wireless communication system to accurately determine taxes for a subscriber for that subscriber's use of the system. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will be able to handle all communication processes legally permitted it. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will be able to handle all communication processes legally permitted it and to forward communication processes that rightfully belong to another wireless communication system while retaining billing and taxing of any portion of the communication process that belongs to it. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will be able to handle all communication processes legally permitted it based on geographic constraints. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can bill a subscriber based on the geographic location of communication process origination, and then can update and alter that billing as the mobile unit moves. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can co-operate with other wireless networks in handling a communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can share cell sites with other networks while retaining its ability to bill and service its own subscribers. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can provide the most efficient and effective service to its subscribers and users. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can update any communication process management parameter to account for instantaneous geographic location of a mobile unit. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can assign and re-assign a communication process according to the location of the mobile unit during the communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can share geographic boundaries with other wireless over-the-air service providers without border issues. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can change and update its operating frequencies during a communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system which can have the highest possible signal strength at its borders. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system which can identify the location of a mobile unit when a service problem arises. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can efficiently work with emergency service providers. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can efficiently implement and utilize special rate plans. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can efficiently implement and utilize special requirements for a communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can establish parameters for updating mobile unit information based on the particular needs of the mobile unit. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can establish time and/or distance parameters for updating mobile unit information based on the particular needs of the mobile unit. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION These, and other, objects are achieved by a CMR system that allows the Exact Geographic Location (EGL) of a communications device to be tracked and compared to geographic land data and information data and to continuously update this information during the communication process whereby the proper and most efficient service is provided, including proper communication process management and billing decisions. Within the scope of this invention is the ability to solve the above-mentioned problems and achieve the above-mentioned objects. By knowing the exact geographic location of a mobile unit during a communication process, competing service providers can locate their cell sites anywhere where the wireless reception will allow them to provide the best wireless coverage of their territory. The cell sites can even have overlapping coverage, or be inside an adjacent wireless communication system's coverage area. By knowing the location of the calling device at all times during the communication process, the wireless over-the-air communication system can configure the system to work together with other systems and wireless communication systems to process a communication process correctly. Service can be provided by the proper licensed wireless communication system because the exact location of the mobile unit is known at all times during the communication process. Propagation patterns and the like are not needed. By way of background, the operation of a cellular system 20 is shown in FIGS. 6, 7 and 7A. The cellular system 20 uses positional data associated with the mobile unit M′ to make communication process management decisions. To this end, the cellular system 20, while similar in all other respects to the cellular system illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, includes means for accurately and precisely determining the exact position of the mobile unit M′, and then further includes means for using this positional information to determine which cell site is best suited to handle a communication process associated with that mobile unit M′. The means for accurately determining the precise position of the mobile unit includes a Global Positioning System. The GPS includes satellites, such as satellite 22 in geostationary orbit about the earth. Each mobile unit further includes a GPS receiver 24 located between the duplexer and the logic circuitry 25 of the mobile unit. The GPS receiver communicates with the satellite 22 and the exact longitude and latitude of the mobile unit are determined. This information is sent to the MTSO via a cell site, and the MTSO uses a look-up table such as disclosed in FIG. 9, to determine which cell site is most appropriate for use by the mobile unit. The mobile unit communicates with cell sites using unused bits of the aforediscussed overhead messages to send its positional information to the MTSO when the mobile unit is first activated. This positional information is relayed to the MTSO by the first cell site to communicate with the mobile unit. The MTSO then selects the cell site most appropriate for the mobile unit and hands that mobile unit off to that cell site. The cell sites transmit system service boundaries in their overhead messages that are interpreted by mobile units. The mobile units use the location information supplied by the GPS receiver as opposed to signal strength to determine which system to originate on. Communication process termination can utilize the paging process as is currently utilized. A response from a mobile unit includes the location information, and the designated control channel instructs the mobile unit to tune to one of its channels. A communication process in progress utilizes the overhead message of the voice channel to communicate location information. Once a mobile unit that is processing on a particular cell site crosses a cell site boundary, it is instructed to perform a handoff to the cell site that is to service the new location. It is understood that the GPS is used as an example of the preferred source of positional data; however, other sources similar to the GPS can be used without departing from the scope of the present invention. All that is required is that the source of positional data be able to generate precise and accurate locational data on a fixed or a rapidly moving object. It is also helpful, but not absolutely required, that in some circumstances, such as triangulation, the CMR be only passively involved in the determination of the positional data. The handoff process is similar to the present hand-off processes, except it will be controlled according to position of the mobile unit instead of signal strength. This position information is used to determine communication process rating and taxing for billing purposes and communication process routing to make sure that the proper services for that location are provided. A “locate request” signal is not used, since the exact location of the mobile unit is known to the MTSO. However, a signal strength method can also be used in making communication process management decisions if suitable. Such a process would be used if the mobile unit moves into a prior art cellular system. The hereinafter disclosed system has many advantages over the prior art systems. Multiple layers of information can be generated and used. The system using the invention disclosed herein and in the incorporated material may use many levels of mapping such as cell site selection, taxing, billing, special rate plans, and the mapping of E-911 calls to an appropriate service provider. The above and other objects and advantages of the present invention shall be made apparent from the accompanying drawings and the description thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 illustrates a typical prior art mobile cellular telephone and its link with a fixed cell site and an MTSO. FIG. 2 illustrates a typical prior art cellular system in which a mobile unit can be connected with a fixed-position unit. FIG. 3 illustrates an overlapping boundary problem with prior art systems as well as a fading signal at the borders. FIG. 4 illustrates a null zone problem associated with prior art systems. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate boundary issue problems between two prior art systems separated by a natural boundary, such as a river. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a mobile unit of a wireless over-the-air communications system which incorporates a GPS location determining system embodying the present invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a wireless over-the-air communications system incorporating a GPS position locating system for a mobile unit communicating with other units, such as the fixed-position unit shown. FIG. 7A is a block diagram showing systems included in an MTSO. FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating a flow chart for the wireless over-the-air communications system embodying the present invention. FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing a registration process used in the present invention. FIG. 9A is a block diagram showing a communication process rating procedure used in the present invention. FIG. 9B is a block diagram of a communication process routing process used in the present invention. FIG. 10 is a diagram showing a billing process used in the present invention. FIG. 11 illustrates the elimination of a null zone problem with a system embodying the present invention. FIG. 12 illustrates variable billing and/or taxing for a mobile unit using the system of the present invention. FIG. 13 illustrates how cell sites can be shared using the system of the present invention. FIG. 14 illustrates how a cell site for one wireless over-the-air communication system can be located in the geographic boundary of another wireless communication system when the present invention is used to manage communication processes made by a mobile unit. FIG. 15 illustrates the solution to overlapping boundary problems achieved by the present invention. FIG. 16 illustrates how frequency of a communication process can be changed using the system of the present invention during a communication process and without the unit being aware that the frequency is being changed. FIG. 17 illustrates the application of the present invention to a geographic area which includes several countries. The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with a general description of the invention given above, and the detailed description of the embodiments given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS A representation of the logical flow that may occur in a wireless communications system incorporating the use of exact geographic location (EGL) for the communication process management decisions is shown in FIGS. 8-10. The communication process management decisions are based on information provided by the communication device (CD) towards the fixed system and to the communications device from the fixed system. The description of a sample communications process (CP) begins upon the powering up of the communicating device and continues until that communications process is completed. When a communications device is powered up, block 101, the registration process, block 102 is initiated. The registration process is detailed in FIG. 9. The first step in the registration process, block 102 is to determine the exact geographic location, block 201 of the communications device via either GPS, block 202, signal strength, block 203, Loran, block 204, triangulation or other similar location means. The information is used by the initial (Home) serving system and the exact geographic location (EGL) is compared to the service boundaries, block 205 for that home system. A determination is made as to whether or not the Communications Device (CD) is located within the serving system's boundaries via the means of communication data filed in the serving system, block 206. The communication data may include computerized latitude and longitude tables which are then compared to geographic location tables of service allocation. In the absence of comparative tables, algorithms may be run to determine the mapping of exact geographic location (EGL) to service boundaries. If the Communications Device (CD) is located within the serving system's boundaries, the exact geographic location (EGL) is reestablished, block 216 and recorded, block 217 for billing or other purposes if the Communications Device (CD) is determined to be located outside of the serving system's boundaries, then the exact geographic location (EGL) is compared to the neighboring system boundaries, block 208 and block 212 on an interactive basis until the system that is authorized to serve the Communications Device (CD) at the current exact geographic location (EGL) is determined. In addition to the reference tables that assign the service provider, the communication data, blocks 209, 213 also identifies the means of transferring control of the Communications Device (CD) from one system to another. Once the correct system is identified, the Communications Device (CD) is commanded to establish communications with the proper cell site within the correct system 211, 215. An example of this would be commanding the Communications Device (CD) to tune to the neighboring system's control channel. A registration increment timer 103 is then sent to the Communications Device (CD) informing it of the intervals 104 at which re-registration is required. This registration process is continued through the period that the Communications Device (CD) is not in a Communication Process (CP) active state. If a Communication Process (CP) were initiated then the registration process, block 106, FIG. 9, would take place to update the exact geographic location (EGL). Once the exact geographic location (EGL) is established the routing selection for the Communication Process (CP) is begun, block 107. FIG. 9B shows that the first step is to identify the Communications Device (CD), block 401 so that the service characteristics, block 402 can be identified. A determination is then made as to whether or not service is to be provided, block 403. If service is to be provided proper routing is selected, with the most appropriate communications path to connect point A to point B is selected for the specific communication process based on the exact geographic location (EGL) of the Communications Device (CD), block 404. This may include activities and decision to route communication processes through land based networks, microwave, fiberoptic links and the like to allow for cost effective or expeditious connections to be established. If service is to be denied, the wireless communication system can direct the communication process to the appropriate announcement, block 405 and if the Communication Process (CP) being initiated is determined not to be a 911 emergency call, block 406. If a communication process is determined to be a 911 emergency call, then the system identifies the proper routing of the emergency communication process, blocks 407, 408 and 409, and the communication process will be directed to the proper emergency response system. The routing of this emergency call should be accompanied by all of the information that is pertinent and available, blocks 410 and 411. If the exact geographic location (EGL) continues to change, updates should be sent to the serving emergency response system, block 412. If another emergency response system needs to gain control of the call, the system will be able to establish a connection with the new emergency response system, block 413. This event is then recorded upon completion, block 414. With communications established (FIG. 8), block 108, the exact geographic location (EGL) may be stored for Communication Process (CP) management, billing purposes, and other identification needs, block 114. The stored exact geographic location (EGL) is then recorded for establishing the origination point for billing purposes, block 109, emergency 911 call accounting, block 110, taxing purposes, block 111, rating the Communication Process (CP), block 112, or post communication process subscriber service, block 113. The Communication Process (CP) rating process shown in FIG. 9A identifies the subscriber characteristics, blocks 301 and 302. The recorded exact geographic location (EGL) is then compared to the Communication Process (CP) rating table, blocks 303 and 304 to select the correct rating, block 305 for that communication process (CP). This information is then recorded for later processing which may include application of taxes, Communication Process (CP) billing rates, or any other information which could be matched to the exact geographic location (EGL) of the communication process (CP). As the Communication Process (CP) continues, the exact geographic location (EGL) is constantly updated, block 115 or alternately updated at various intervals, block 114a, which intervals can be changed based on the time and/or distance traveled by the mobile unit to meet system needs for efficient communication process management, and these updated Communications Device (CD) locations are used for communication Process (CP) management, block 116, billing decisions, block 119, and other real time processing uses, such as 911 emergency calls made while a non-emergency communication process was in progress, block 120, taxing, block 121, Communication Process (CP) rating, block 122, subscriber service, block 123, and frequency selection, block 124. The intervals at which the updating occurs can be determined on a preset time, such as every minute, or can be determined according to distance traveled by the mobile unit, such as every twenty miles, or the interval can be set according to the nearest border so that the mobile unit will be monitored whenever it reaches a location that would cross over the border if the mobile unit traveled toward that border. In this manner, the billing information, the tax information and the frequency of the communication process can be based on the location of the communication process origination, but can also be continuously updated and changed as the mobile unit moves during the communication process whereby the exact rates and frequencies at any instant during the communication process can be applied to the communication process. As was discussed above, this will even permit separate networks to share cell sites as even though a single cell site handles a communication process, the location of the mobile unit will determine which system receives credit for the communication process and will handle the billing and taxing of the communication process. Alternatively, this will permit separate cellular systems to locate their own cell sites within the geographic area of another cellular system, and may even permit several different systems to share a single cell site. The cell site can re-direct a communication process to another cell site under certain circumstances. For example, even though a particular cell site is chosen to handle a communication process, there may be special circumstances associated with a particular location that dictate all communication processes from that location be handled by a certain cell site. Special environmental conditions may be one such special circumstance, cell sites under repair may be another special circumstance or other business reasons may dictate such re-directing of communication processes. This redirecting can also occur for cellular systems. That is, if a selected cell site is not owned by the cellular system having rights to the communication process made by the mobile unit at that particular location, the communication process could be redirected to another cellular system. In this manner, customization of cellular service can be maximized with billing, taxing, frequency and the like all being selected according to the exact needs of the mobile unit during the communication process, and changed as the needs of the mobile unit change during the communication process. As discussed above, the preferred means for establishing the exact geographic location of the mobile unit includes a satellite communications system; however, other means can also be used. All of this data collection and monitoring continues until the Communication Process (CP) is completed, block 117. When the Communication Process (CP) is complete, and exact geographic location (EGL) of the mobile unit is recorded for various data processing uses prior to the data record closure, block 118. FIG. 10 shows how the billing information is passed along through an external billing system. The MTSO first generates Automatic Message Accounting (AMA) files, usually in magnetic tape format, which holds all the detailed records for communication processes processed from a particular MTSO during that billing period. The AMA records are then processed (formatted into database readable media) at the wireless communication system's billing center which emerge as Call Detail Records (CDR). Call Detail Records are the detailed accounting of all the communication processes assigned to a subscriber's account. The roaming and home reports are combined which are then processed as subscriber bills. It is here in the prior art system that any taxes may be applied by the service provider or by the wireless communication system. Ideally, taxes should be assessed based on the location of the mobile unit when service is provided. This is not the case with prior art systems. For example, home communication processes are taxed according to either the billing address of the subscriber or the zip code or business address of the service provider and roam communication processes, that is communication processes made using a cell site that is not in the mobile unit's home area, are taxed based on the billing address of the roam network or where the cell site is located that services the communication process. Any tax based on the cell site location has the possibility of being in error, especially if the cell site is located adjacent to a border. The prior art has failed to teach the distinction between fixed location of hardware and exact geographic location (EGL) of the Communications Device (CD) for billing. In the present system, the wireless communication system will obtain the instant location of the Communications Device (CD) at the registration process (FIG. 9). In a system where bills are processed externally, billing information combined with the location of on the Call Detail Records can then be compared to lookup tables or algorithms that will assess the proper tax or billing rate depending on the location (origination, termination, duration, instantaneous location, or the like) of the communication process. If needed, the billing location codes could be recorded at some given interval (perhaps, for example, every minute, or after the mobile unit has traveled a certain distance) that would allow for updates and changes to the billing code as the Communications Device (CD) moves through different territories or beyond interval distances which can be calculated directly in a GPS system or indirectly via vector calculations in other systems. One of the additional features that can be provided by the system of the present invention is real time subscriber service (FIG. 8, block 123). Knowing the location of the Communications Device (CD) is important to the wireless service provider to help solve some service problems associated with the wireless network. Although billing and taxing issues are important to current land based wireless communications systems service providers, these issues will be even more important for satellite systems (see FIG. 17) because the footprint of a satellite can cover many states or even different small countries such as in the European Community, with enormous tax generating capacity. With GPS location devices or Loran-C or any other type of location technology used to locate the satellite mobile phones, the problem can be avoided using the system disclosed herein. The exact geographic location of each subscriber unit will be carried along with voice transmission to allow location of the billing unit to be determined for tax assessment billing. The advantages realized by the present invention can also be understood by comparing FIGS. 3-5 to FIGS. 11-16. FIG. 11 shows the identical borders and cells as shown in FIG. 4. However, this time omnidirectional antennas are shown which improve coverage but can cause overlap into a neighboring system. This overlap can be handled as described above by each network having independent inter-system cells which map the exact geographic location (EGL) of the Communications Device (CD) to determine which system will service the CP. FIG. 13 shows still another configuration which could be utilized where borders are concerned. Two or more bordering service providers could erect single cells on or very near the border. Since the systems will track the exact geographic location (EGL) of each communications device (CD), it will know which service provider to connect the Communication Process (CP) to. This system uses a routing processor after the Communication Process (CP) has been accepted. FIG. 14 shows a situation where the cell site from a competitive service provider is inside their borders. As shown, cell site Z3 is in place in service provider Q's territory. Communications Devices which are physically located inside territory Z which come up on cell site Z3 (communication device CD13) will be accepted. Communication device CD14 which will come up on cell site Z3 will be redirected to the control channel of cell site Q2 since it lies within territory Q. FIG. 15 shows the same territory depicted in FIG. 3 which in the prior art had many cells and many border overlap issues, which resulted, in prior art systems, in the service providers adding smaller cell sites to break up the coverage into smaller sells. FIG. 15 shows what can be done with the inventive system to reduce the number of cell sites. By having fewer cells, they will have to be of higher power which allows for better signal strength out at the borders. By using the inventive system to manage the Communication Process, the correct system will handle communication processes even under conditions of overlapping coverage into a neighbor's territory. To illustrate this, the signal values are shown in FIGS. 3 and 15 for cell site coverage of cell sites A1 and B1. In the prior art system (FIG. 3), each service provider will adjust its cell site to give some predetermined signal strength at the border. As an example, this value is shown as −5 dB. This value will be as close to the border as possible to invoke a hand-off to the neighboring service provider (Note, communication device CD5 is at signal strength levels, A1=−2 dB, B=−5 dB). However, the weaker the signal, the poorer the service such as terminated communication processes. However, if a contrast is made with the signal strengths in the inventive system, it will be found that higher values at the borders can be maintained which results in better service. For example, communication device CD6 signal strength A1=1 dB, B1=5 dB. Since most borders are straight lines and wireless communication sometimes propagates in a radial fashion, prior art service providers cannot simply increase the cell site's power to provide higher signal strength values at the borders. Therefore, if a provider sets a cell site to hand off at a certain value, it will hand-off wherever the signal strength decreases to that level, which may be a radial curve, which most times may not follow the geographic service boundaries. Therefore, as can be seen from the figures, if the provider were to increase the signal strength in an area, it may result in more overlap. This overlap is not a problem with the inventive system since the service boundaries are mapped to the exact geographic location (EGL) of the communications device (CD). An example of another advantage realized with the present system is that all communication processes may be processed through the tax data base, but the wireless communication system may have a select group of subscribers that are identified to pay a certain billing rate in a specified geographic area which would constitute an additional loop through another look-up table. For example, as indicated in FIG. 16, company A has negotiated for an attractive airtime rate within its plant's boundaries. This plant also resides in school district B which has assessed it own tax. The company employees will therefore enjoy the attractive rates while inside the plant and must pay the school tax on those communication processes. But if those employees go beyond the plant, they will lose the lower rate. For instance, communication device CD8 may have a low pre-negotiated rate, but pay school district B and state P taxes. Communication device CD9 pays the school district B and state P taxes, and communication device CD10 pays only the state tax. Billing is continuously updated no matter where the communication process originated as the mobile unit moves. Still another application for the technology of this invention could encompass the switching of a dual frequency phone to a second frequency based on exact geographic location (EGL) of the communication device (CD). An example of this would be switching from 800-900 MHz to 2 GHz frequencies used in the upcoming PCS system. This would be useful for the commuter who wants PCS for his Communications Device (CD) in the city and to be able to roam out of PCS territory into cellular territory. It may even come to the time when subscribers are given rate plans that correspond to different zones, such as a 2000 foot perimeter of their residence which would be billed at a residence rate, and be billed at a Home market rate beyond that. Still further, when the subscriber enters into the geographic zone of his or her employer, the MTSO will forward his business communication processes to his communication device (CD), all based on his present exact geographic location. This could be an important competitive advantage to a service provider that owned the 900 MHz in one area and the 2000 MHz rights in a second area. For example, FIG. 16 shows service provider A, which owns the license to 2000 MHz in territory 1, the 900 MHz license in territory 2 and the 2000 MHz license in territory 3. When mobile unit CDX travels on roadway XR, it will pass through all through all three territories. The service provider would like to handle all the billing revenue for its subscribers traveling through territory 2, but does not have the 2000 MHz license in that area. The communication device CDX is therefore instructed to retune to 900 MHz in territory 2 because System A does have rights to communication processes in territory 2 at the 900 MHz frequency. This allows System A to by pass System B even though the System B is a 2000 Mhz service provider adjacent to two System A territories. The preferred means for establishing exact geographic location (EGL) is a satellite communication system such as discussed in the incorporated material. However, other means, including, but not limited to, triangulation and the like, can be used without departing from the scope of the present invention. It is understood that while certain forms of the present invention have been illustrated and described herein, it is not to be limited to the specific forms or arrangements of parts described and shown. While the present invention has been illustrated by a description of various embodiments and while these embodiments have been described in considerable detail, it is not the intention of the applicants to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. The invention in its broader aspects is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative apparatus and method, and illustrative example shown and described. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the spirit or scope of applicant's general inventive concept. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is concerned with wireless over-the-air communication using a plurality of transmit/receive cell sites or relay points. It should be understood that the transmit/receive relay points can be either land based or non-land based, such as satellite based, and that as used herein, the term “cell site” or its equivalent refers to one of the relay points of the system. CMR (Cellular Mobile Radio) is an example of one type of wireless over-the-air communication system that can be included in the present disclosure. It is understood that the term CMR is not intended to be limiting, but is merely used as an example for the purposes of discussion. It is also to be understood that the term “cellular telephone system” or its equivalents is intended to be shorthand notation for the term “wireless over-the-air communications system” and no limitation is intended by the use of the term “cellular.” Also, as used herein, the terms “CD (Communication Device)” and “MU (Mobile Unit)” are intended to include any device used to communicate in the wireless over-the-air communication system. Also, the term “cellular telephone system” is used for purposes of discussion but can include any form of wireless over-the-air communication system. It is also noted that many forms of communication are and will be conducted over the wireless over-the-air networks. Therefore, the present disclosure will refer to a “communication process” which is intended to cover calls as well as other forms of communication that can be conducted in this manner. CMR is a rapidly growing telecommunications system. The typical CMR system includes a multiplicity of cells. A particular geographic area can be subdivided into a multiplicity of subareas, with each of the subareas being serviced by a stationary transmitter/receiver setup. The cells are set up to carry signals to and from mobile units in the range of the cell. If one cell site becomes too crowded, it can be divided into smaller cells, by a process known as cell site splitting. Any particular geographic area can become quite complicated with cells overlapping each other, and overlapping cells of other neighboring cellular systems. Further, null zones with inadequate coverage, or even no coverage, can result. It is noted that the term “cellular” is intended to be a term of convenience, and is not intended to be limiting. The present disclosure is intended to encompass any communication system in which an overall area can be divided into one or more subareas, and also to any communication system having at least some portion of the communications occurring over the air. A typical CMR set up is indicated in FIGS. 1 and 2 , and will be described so an understanding of the problem to which this invention is directed can be obtained. A typical cellular telephone unit having a unique mobile identification number stored in a suitable location such as an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (not shown). Telephone units of this kind are known to those skilled in this art, and thus will not be described in detail. The telephone unit includes a handset 4 having a keypad 5 as well as a speaker 6 and a microphone 7 . A transceiver 8 , ordinarily built into the telephone unit, exchanges signals via an antenna 10 with a mobile telecommunications switching office or MTSO 12 via a cell site 14 . A duplexer 15 connects the antenna to the transceiver. The cell site 14 includes an antenna 16 connected to a control terminal 17 via a transceiver 18 . The cell site 14 is connected to the MTSO via a transmission link 20 . The Mobile Telephone Switching Office has historically been known as the center of the wireless over-the-air communications system. It is where the communication process management decisions are made, billing records are produced and where maintenance activities are initiated for wireless over-the-air communications systems. The MTSO is not a specific piece of equipment, but is comprised of many individual pieces. The MTSO will contain a telephone switch, peripheral processors, adjunct processors, and various other information gathering equipment used in the operation and management of a wireless over-the-air communications system. Each of the different pieces of equipment may directly or indirectly be involved providing the highest quality connection possible. The makeup of the MTSO therefore comprises many different pieces of equipment and many components, which can be supplied by different vendors. Therefore, communication process management decisions made at the MTSO can actually, be made outside of a switch and can be made in a cluster of nodes housed along the network or even in separate cell sites. Therefore, as used herein the term MTSO really refers to all of the systems, nodes, modules, equipment and components that combine to define a wireless over-the-air communication process management network, regardless of the physical or system location of these elements. The term MTSO therefore is not intended to be limiting to the “switching office” as it may have been viewed in the prior art. The term is intended to be much broader than that and to include any combinations of equipment, etc that may be connected within the communication processing network of the service provider. The term MTSO is one of convenience and is intended to include all the information processing hardware and software associated with the wireless over-the-air communication process management process within a wireless over-the-air system, no matter where the hardware or software is located in the system. It is also noted that the term “intra-system” refers to actions and components within a particular system; whereas, the term “inter-system” refers to actions and components located outside a particular system. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2 , the operation of the CMR can be understood. The mobile unit M moves about the geographic areas covered by the various cells. As that mobile unit moves about, it decodes the overhead message control signals generated by various cell site control channels. The mobile unit locks onto the cell site that is emitting the strongest signal. The mobile unit rescans channels periodically to update its status. If, for example, a fixed-position land-based telephone T is used to call the mobile unit, a signal is sent via landlines L, to the central office CO of a public/switched telephone system (PTSN) 12A. This system then utilizes the switching network SN associated therewith to call the MTSO 12 via a transmission link L 1 . The MTSO then utilizes its own switching network and generates a page request signal to cell sites via transmission links, such as the transmission link 20 . The cell site which has been notified of the presence of the mobile unit M sends a signal back to the MTSO via the landlines or wireless links alerting the MTSO of the presence of the mobile unit. The MTSO then orders the mobile unit, via the notifying cell site, to tune to an assigned channel and receive the communication process. On the other hand, during communication process origination, the mobile unit rescans the control channels to determine which is the best server based on signal strength. Upon selecting the best server, the mobile unit transmits cell site information on the control channel receive frequency and then receives a voice channel to tune to if the mobile unit is authorized to place a communication process. As the mobile unit moves, the signal strength between that mobile unit and the originating cell site changes, and perhaps diminishes. Since signal strength is an inverse function of the square of the distance between the mobile unit and the cell site, signal strength can change rapidly and drastically as the mobile unit moves with respect to the cell site and therefore must be monitored closely. The MTSO has a signal strength table, and signal strength from the mobile unit is constantly compared to acceptable signal strength levels in the table. Such a table can be located in each cell site if desired. Should signal strength diminish below a preset range, the MTSO generates a “locate request” signal to all cell sites that neighbor the original cell site. Each of such neighboring cell sites receiving a signal from the mobile unit signals the MTSO, and the signal strengths from such neighboring cell sites are checked against the signal strength table. The MTSO makes a decision as to which cell site should control the communication process, and notifies the original cell site to order the mobile unit to retune to a voice channel of the new cell site. As soon as the mobile unit retunes, the mobile unit completes the communication process via the new cell site channel. This transfer of control is known as a handoff. Typically, governments grant rights to provide wireless communication services to a specified land area based on geographic boundaries. Since wireless propagation does not end at exact geographic boundaries, many conflicts have arisen between service providers as to which service provider should provide service at the location from where the Communication Process (CP) is being originated or received. Today, there are no methods or procedures to resolve these issues. A Communication Process (CP) can be defined as the exchange of information between communication devices, such as, but not limited to, Analog or Digital radiotelephones, digital data communications, analog or digital video, and the like. When the initial wireless systems were built, they were constructed around major metropolitan areas. This created service voids between major metropolitan markets. In these early systems, boundary service problems did not arise because there were areas of “no service” buffering competing systems. Today, as rural systems fill in the patchwork of nationwide coverage, network service provision boundary disputes are becoming common. Prior to the Dennison, et al patent, U.S. Pat. No. 5,235,633 and the patents and applications depending therefrom as continuations and continuations-in-part, the disclosures of which are fully incorporated hereinto by reference, and the invention disclosed herein, it was impossible to honor the exact geographic boundaries. Attempts are currently made to control coverage boundaries by installing directional antennas and adjusting cell site receive and transmit parameters. The methods used to match the system boundaries to the geographic boundaries are not entirely successful due to the variations in terrain, environment and limitations of antenna design and wireless propagation. A common result of these problems is inadequate wireless signal strength or null coverage and border disputes around the geographic boundaries and hence poor service. The incorporated material, including the Dennison et al patent disclose that cell sites sometimes have overlapping coverage due to the aforementioned variations in terrain and environment, and propose a solution. While the proposed solution works well, there is still room for further improvement in the areas of cost, subscriber service, billing and taxing. Furthermore, wireless propagation, such as but not limited to the cellular operating band of 800-900 MHz, is generally line-of-site transmission. This presents substantial challenges when choosing sites in which to place wireless transmit/receive antennas. Boundaries assigned to service providers are based on maps depicting the geographic borders of service boundaries. The question arises in a disputed territory of who will get to service the Communications Process (CP). In the past, it has been the cell site that can provide the highest signal strength from the CD (Communications Device), not the provider that owns the legal territorial rights to the Communication Process (CP) that has serviced the Communication Process (CP). Until the invention disclosed herein, the service provider that could receive the best signal would handle the communication process (CP), and depending on whether the Communication Process (CP) was handed off and/or depending on the agreement made between the wireless communication systems, possibly keep all of the revenue from the communication process CP. Additionally, with real estate values being very high in established communities, cell sites are harder to construct and more expensive to build. Each cell site must be optimized for the maximum effective coverage area to overcome the real estate problems encountered when constructing a cell site. This in turn creates problems with overlapping coverage between wireless systems and thus disputes over which wireless system handles the communication process. Further, due to business considerations, it may be economically advantageous for one wireless system to own a cell site which is geographically located in the geographic area of another wireless system. Cell sites are very expensive to install and maintain, so there is a very real savings for a service provider if fewer cell sites could be constructed while also improving coverage. Another area that would be affected by this is problems of quality service. This is because the service provider has conflicting requirements. To provide good coverage next to borders the provider would like to have high signal strength. To allow for hand-offs between cell sites and networks the signal strength needs to “fade out” at just the right level near the border to invoke a low threshold to start a hand-off process. It would be ideal to have high signal strength right up to a geographic boundary and then drop off beyond that boundary. However, at the present time, presently available systems do not permit this type of coverage. Some areas inherently have wireless propagation problems, such as service areas next to bodies of water or in steep valleys. Wireless propagation can provide some very undesirable results for a number of reasons, some of which have been mentioned above and in the incorporated material. Therefore, there is a need to provide each network information as to which system has a right to handle a Communications Process (CP). For instance, a communications device (CD) might attempt to select a geographically incorrect service provider. Therefore, there is a need for a system that will permit a service provider to redirect the communication process to the geographically correct service provider, especially in a manner that is transparent to the Communications Device (CD) user. Since cellular system geographic borders can be non-linear and can have irregular shapes, problems can arise. Problems associated with irregular boundaries are indicated in FIG. 3 . FIG. 3 graphically shows the problem of obtaining coverage for areas that have irregular boundaries. In this figure, areas A and C are serviced by Carrier X, and area B is serviced by Carrier Y. It is noted that areas A and C are intra-system with respect to Carrier X and area B is intra-system with respect to Carrier Y, while areas A and C are inter-system with respect to Carrier Y and area B is inter-system with respect to Carrier X. It is also noted that areas A and B could be covered by just one cell site each but the overlap into adjacent territories would be difficult to resolve. Today, areas such as these would be split into two or more cell sites. For instance, Carrier X might elect to install three cell sites A 1 , A 3 and A 4 which provides a minimum of overlap into area B. Overlap is indicated at the shaded areas. Therefore, there is a need for a system what would allow Carrier X to install a cell site with a larger coverage area such as A 2 (shown in dotted lines). FIG. 4 shows a prior art attempt of providing sectored cells. Using prior art technology requires installation of directional antennas to minimize the overlap into neighboring territory in order to resolve a border issue. Since these antenna patterns cannot be made to follow curved geographic borders, sectors are installed and directed for the best geographic coverage possible. This often involves obtaining a cell site location close to the border and “shooting back” toward the wireless communication system's own territory. This can leave null zones where cells back onto each other in an effort to keep signals from overlapping into neighboring territory. These null zones will have either poor quality service or even no service at all, thereby resulting in poor service. Therefore, there is a need to overcome this problem as well. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a problem of how geographic terrain can affect prior art systems. In FIGS. 5A and 5B , a small rural network A is located just across the river from a large city C, which is part of a neighboring network B. The river defines the geographic and legal border between these two systems. The city C is in another state just across the river. In some river towns, there is a bluff on each side of the river. The network A can place their cell sites very near the border atop the bluff providing overlapping coverage into the city C. Network A will get all the service of the neighboring community D further away from the city C. Network A now has better line of cell site reception into the river valley with its corresponding traffic at river level than does network B who legally “owns” the territory. Network B would have to install additional cell sites in the river valley to obtain the same coverage. Due to the stronger signal level provided by Network A, Network A will process a communications process (CP). The result is that subscriber's Communication Process (CP) may not be processed by the correct service provider. Note in FIG. 5A that there are two service providers X and Y. The inter-system boundary is shown as a dashed line down the middle of the river. With a bluff on either side of the river, the cells can only service the opposite bluff. This is shown where Y 1 cell site cannot “see” the subscriber CD′ hidden below. Cell site Y 1 can however find CD 3 in service provider X's territory. This issue denies revenue to the wireless communication system that has legal right to serve the subscribers within its licensed geographic service boundaries. Prior art systems are incapable of determining the geographic location of both the communications devices and their service boundaries and thus compromise quality of coverage. Therefore, there is a need to resolve this issue. There is also need for providing a wireless over-the-air communication system with the ability to adjust its coverage and billing as the mobile unit moves. This will permit the system to determine taxes based on where the communication process is actually being made as opposed to the criteria used with the prior art. Still further, there is a need to permit a wireless over-the-air communication system to change frequencies as the mobile unit moves whereby a single wireless service provider can provide service to its subscribers regardless of frequency. Still further, due to various business reasons, a single cell site may advantageously be used by more than one system. It will be necessary to determine which wireless communication system bills the communication process. Prior art systems cannot fully account for this. Still further, if there is a service problem with a mobile unit, prior art systems are not able to accurately identify the exact geographic location of the unit when the problem arose. This makes it difficult for the network to pinpoint coverage problems. Therefore, there is a need for a wireless over-the-air communication system that permits a wireless communication system to exactly and precisely identify the exact geographic location of a mobile unit when a communication problem occurs. Still further, with the advent of emergency response networks that use telephones, such as the E-911 systems, there is a need for a wireless over-the-air communication system that can precisely locate a mobile unit and pass that information on to an emergency response system. The location of an over-the-air system mobile unit making a communication process can also be of use to law enforcement agencies. However, signal strength from one cell site does not provide such location information with sufficient accuracy to be of the best assistance to law enforcement agencies. Therefore, there is a need for an over-the-air communications network that can provide geographic location of a mobile unit during a communication process with accuracy sufficient to satisfy law enforcement agencies. This information should be rapidly updatable so a mobile unit can be tracked. Since the CMR industry is growing rapidly, competition is growing. Therefore, it is in the best interest of a system to be able to provide the best service possible to its subscribers. One way of achieving this objective is to customize the service to the exact needs of each subscriber. This can be achieved by, among other things, customizing and varying a billing rate plan for each subscriber. That is, the subscriber may be able to pay a lower rate when he is at work than he pays when he or she is at home. Therefore, there is need to a wireless over-the-air communication system that can vary rate plans and vary rates in a manner that will permit offering the best rate plan to each subscriber based on that particular subscriber's use and needs. Still further, some communication processes must be handled in a special manner to account for environmental conditions, or system needs, such as down time for a specific cell. Therefore, even if a communication process should be handled by a certain cell site, there may be times when that communication process must be handled by another cell site. Therefore, there is need for a wireless over-the-air communication system that can account for special circumstances associated with a communication process, and alter the system response when the mobile unit meets the criteria for those circumstances, even if the communication process is already in progress when the criteria are met. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is a main object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will permit a wireless communication system to determine the most efficient and accurate service to a mobile unit. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will permit a wireless communication system to accurately bill a subscriber. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will permit a wireless communication system to accurately determine taxes for a subscriber for that subscriber's use of the system. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will be able to handle all communication processes legally permitted it. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will be able to handle all communication processes legally permitted it and to forward communication processes that rightfully belong to another wireless communication system while retaining billing and taxing of any portion of the communication process that belongs to it. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that will be able to handle all communication processes legally permitted it based on geographic constraints. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can bill a subscriber based on the geographic location of communication process origination, and then can update and alter that billing as the mobile unit moves. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can co-operate with other wireless networks in handling a communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can share cell sites with other networks while retaining its ability to bill and service its own subscribers. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can provide the most efficient and effective service to its subscribers and users. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can update any communication process management parameter to account for instantaneous geographic location of a mobile unit. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can assign and re-assign a communication process according to the location of the mobile unit during the communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can share geographic boundaries with other wireless over-the-air service providers without border issues. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can change and update its operating frequencies during a communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system which can have the highest possible signal strength at its borders. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system which can identify the location of a mobile unit when a service problem arises. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can efficiently work with emergency service providers. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can efficiently implement and utilize special rate plans. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can efficiently implement and utilize special requirements for a communication process. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can establish parameters for updating mobile unit information based on the particular needs of the mobile unit. It is another object of the present invention to provide a wireless over-the-air communications system that can establish time and/or distance parameters for updating mobile unit information based on the particular needs of the mobile unit. | 20041122 | 20071030 | 20050407 | 94724.0 | 13 | CHAN, RICHARD | CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEM THAT USES POSITION OF A MOBILE UNIT TO MAKE CALL MANAGEMENT DECISIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,993,753 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness | An apparatus and method for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness. The method includes a motion model that receives location information from one or more receivers and an accelerometer. The motion model determines whether the mobile device is in motion based on the received information. If the mobile device is in motion, a scanning rate for the one or more receivers is determined based on a velocity vector, the velocity vector being determined from the received information; the determined scanning rate is sent to the one or more receivers to enable them to operate at the determined scanning rate; and the process is repeated. If the mobile device is not in motion, the scanning operations for the one or more receivers are halted while the mobile device is stationary; scanning operations for the one or more receivers are resumed when an indication that the mobile device is moving again is received from the accelerometer; and the process is repeated. | 1. A location awareness mobile device power conservation method, comprising: receiving location information from one or more receivers in a mobile device; receiving a signal indicating whether or not the mobile device is in motion from an accelerometer in the mobile device; determining a velocity vector from the location information received; if the velocity vector indicates that the mobile device is not in motion, enabling scanning operations for the one or more receivers to be halted to conserve battery power for the mobile device while the mobile device is stationary; and enabling scanning operations for the one or more receivers to resume when an indication that the mobile device is moving again is received from the accelerometer; and repeating the process until the mobile device is placed in an off position. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: enabling determination of a scanning rate based on the velocity vector: and enabling the scanning rate to be sent to the one or more receivers to enable the one or more receivers to operate at the scanning rate. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more receivers comprises one or more of a Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) receiver, a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver, a cellular receiver, and any other type of receiver capable of providing location information. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more receivers comprise a Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of wireless fidelity access points. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more receivers comprise a cellular receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of cell towers. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more receivers comprise a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver and the location information comprises position and velocity data derived from satellite data. 7. A method for conserving battery power on a mobile device through motion awareness, comprising: a) receiving location information from one or more receivers and an accelerometer; b) determining whether the mobile device is in motion based on the received information; c) if the mobile device is in motion, determining a scanning rate for the one or more receivers based on a velocity vector determined using the received information; sending the determined scanning rate to the one or more receivers to enable the one or more receivers to operate at the determined scanning rate; and returning to a); d) if the mobile device is not in motion, halting scanning operations for the one or more receivers while the mobile device is stationary; resuming scanning operations for the one or more receivers when an indication that the mobile device is moving again is received from the accelerometer; and returning to a). 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more receivers include a Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) receiver, a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver, a cellular receiver, and other types of receivers capable of providing location information. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more receivers comprises a Wireless Fidelity receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of wireless fidelity access points. 10. The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more receivers comprises a cellular receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of cell towers. 11. The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more receivers comprises a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver and wherein the location information comprises position and velocity data derived from satellite data. 12. The method of claim 7, wherein halting scanning operations for the one or more receivers while the mobile device is stationary enables the mobile device to conserve battery power. 13. The method of claim 7, wherein determining whether the mobile device is in motion based on the received information requires location information from at least one receiver and the accelerometer. 14. The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more receivers provide location-aware computing activities. 15. The method of claim 7, wherein the one or more receivers provide always best-connected computing actitivites. 16. An apparatus for conserving battery power in mobile devices, comprising: a motion model to receive location information from one or more receivers and a signal indicating whether or not a mobile device is in motion from an accelerometer, the motion model to generate a velocity vector using the received information; and a power management module, coupled to the motion model, for generating a scanning rate based on the velocity vector, the scanning rate to be applied to the one or more receivers to enable the one or more receivers to scan the air for radio frequency signals at the scanning rate; wherein when the velocity vector indicates that the mobile device is stationary, scanning of the one or more receivers is halted to conserve battery power on the mobile device, and wherein scanning of the one or more receivers is resumed when the accelerometer triggers the motion model to indicate that the mobile device is in motion again. 17. The apparatus of claim 16, further comprising a scan controller coupled to the power manager to control scanning of the one or more receivers. 18. An apparatus for conserving power, comprising: at least one receiver to determine location information for a mobile device; an accelerometer to determine whether the mobile device is in motion; a motion model, coupled to the at least one receiver and the accelerometer to determine a velocity vector based on the information received from the at least one receiver and the accelerometer; a power manager coupled to the motion model to determine a scanning rate for the at least one receiver; and a scan controller, coupled to the power manager and the at least one receiver to enable or disable scanning operations for the at least one receiver based on the scanning rate, wherein when the velocity vector indicates that the mobile device is stationary, scanning of the at least one receiver is halted to conserve battery power on the mobile device, wherein scanning of the at least one receiver is resumed when the accelerometer triggers the motion model to indicate that the mobile device is in motion again. 19. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the at least one receiver to provide always best-connected computing data to the motion model. 20. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the at least one receiver to provide location-aware computing data to the motion model. 21. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the accelerometer to provide an indication of whether or not the mobile device is in motion. 22. An article comprising: a storage medium having a plurality of machine accessible instructions, wherein when the instructions are executed by a processor, the instructions provide for: receiving location information from one or more receivers in a mobile device; receiving a signal indicating whether or not the mobile device is in motion from an accelerometer in the mobile device; determining a velocity vector from the location information received; if the velocity vector indicates that the mobile device is not in motion, enabling scanning operations for the one or more receivers to be halted to conserve battery power for the mobile device while the mobile device is stationary; and enabling scanning operations for the one or more receivers to resume when an indication that the mobile device is moving again is received from the accelerometer; and repeating the process until the mobile device is placed in an off position. 23. The article of claim 22, further comprising instructions for: enabling determination of a scanning rate based on the velocity vector: and enabling the scanning rate to be sent to the one or more receivers to enable the one or more receivers to operate at the scanning rate. 24. The article of claim 22, wherein the one or more receivers comprises one or more of a Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) receiver, a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver, a cellular receiver, and any other type of receiver capable of providing location information. 25. The article of claim 22, wherein the one or more receivers comprise a Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of wireless fidelity access points. 26. The article of claim 22, wherein the one or more receivers comprise a cellular receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of cell towers. 27. The article of claim 22, wherein the one or more receivers comprise a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver and the location information comprises position and velocity data derived from satellite data. 28. An article comprising: a storage medium having a plurality of machine accessible instructions, wherein when the instructions are executed by a processor, the instructions provide for: a) receiving location information from one or more receivers and an accelerometer; b) determining whether the mobile device is in motion based on the received information; c) if the mobile device is in motion, determining a scanning rate for the one or more receivers based on a velocity vector determined using the received information; sending the determined scanning rate to the one or more receivers to enable the one or more receivers to operate at the determined scanning rate; and returning to a); d) if the mobile device is not in motion, halting scanning operations for the one or more receivers while the mobile device is stationary; resuming scanning operations for the one or more receivers when an indication that the mobile device is moving again is received from the accelerometer; and returning to a). 29. The article of claim 28, wherein the one or more receivers include a Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) receiver, a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver, a cellular receiver, and other types of receivers capable of providing location information. 30. The article of claim 28, wherein the one or more receivers comprises a Wireless Fidelity receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of wireless fidelity access points. 31. The article of claim 28, wherein the one or more receivers comprises a cellular receiver and wherein the location information comprises signal strength information from a plurality of cell towers. 32. The article of claim 28, wherein halting scanning operations for the one or more receivers while the mobile device is stationary enables the mobile device to conserve battery power. 33. The article of claim 28, wherein determining whether the mobile device is in motion based on the received information requires location information from at least one receiver and the accelerometer. 34. The article of claim 28, wherein the one or more receivers provide location-aware computing activities. 35. The article of claim 28, wherein the one or more receivers provide always best-connected computing activities. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention are generally related to the field of location aware computing. More particularly, embodiments of the present invention are related to the conservation of power on a mobile device through motion awareness. 2. Description Many mobile device capabilities require the device to know where it is located. Two such capabilities include always best-connected computing and location-aware computing. In the case of always best-connected computing, one common practice for keeping a device online as it roams is to scan the air for received RF (radio frequency) signals and then use the resultant information to determine which cell towers, Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) access points, or Bluetooth devices are nearby in order to make connection decisions. Location-aware computing may also use RF signal information or received Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite data to compute and track the device's current location. Both of these capabilities consume precious battery power. Currently, motion models may be used with always best-connected computing and location-aware computing activities to combat the power drain problem on the mobile device. Motion models often throttle back the always best-connected and location-aware computing activities when the mobile device is determined to be moving slowly or not moving at all and then ramp them back up when the motion model believes that the mobile device is moving again. However, with no other inputs besides the information from the always best-connected and location-aware computing activities to determine when the mobile device is moving again, the motion model is little more than a feedback loop with a negative implication of reducing its accuracy whenever it reduces power consumption. Since scanning and GPS tracking are essentially polling activities, power savings are accomplished by lowering the measurement duty cycle, i.e., scanning less frequently. At lower power states, a lag between actual motion and detection of that motion during the next duty cycle is introduced, thereby artificially establishing a floor for power savings below which this imprecision becomes unacceptable. Thus, what is needed is a method and apparatus for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness that eliminates scan-polling or GPS tracking when the mobile device is stationary. What is also needed is a method and apparatus for incorporating another input to the motion model that determines whether the mobile device is stationary or moving independent of the information from the always best-connected and location-aware computing activities. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form part of the specification, illustrate embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art(s) to make and use the invention. In the drawings, like reference numbers generally indicate identical, functionally similar, and/or structurally similar elements. The drawing in which an element first appears is indicated by the leftmost digit(s) in the corresponding reference number. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary apparatus for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION While the present invention is described herein with reference to illustrative embodiments for particular applications, it should be understood that the invention is not limited thereto. Those skilled in the relevant art(s) with access to the teachings provided herein will recognize additional modifications, applications, and embodiments within the scope thereof and additional fields in which embodiments of the present invention would be of significant utility. Reference in the specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment” or “another embodiment” of the present invention means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in one embodiment” and “in an embodiment” appearing in various places throughout the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Embodiments of the present invention are directed to a method and apparatus for reducing power consumption in a mobile device by detecting when the mobile device is in motion as well as when the mobile device is not in motion. This information may then be used to throttle activities that need not run (or run less often) when the mobile device is not in motion. This is accomplished by adding an accelerometer as an input to the motion model. With the accelerometer, the need for scan-polling or GPS tracking to determine if a mobile device has moved is eliminated. The incorporation of the accelerometer makes detecting new motion event driven. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary apparatus 100 for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness according to an embodiment of the present invention. Apparatus 100 may comprise one or more scanning receivers, such as, for example, a Wi-Fi receiver 102, a GPS receiver 104, and/or a cellular receiver 106. Apparatus 100 also comprises a motion model 108, a power manager 110, a scan controller 112, and an accelerometer 114. Wi-Fi receiver 102, GPS receiver 104, and/or cellular receiver 106 are coupled to motion model 108. Motion model 108 is coupled to power manager 110 and accelerometer 114. Power manager 110 is coupled to scan controller 112. Scan controller 112 is coupled to WiFi receiver 102, GPS receiver 104, and/or cellular receiver 106. Each of receivers 102, 104, and 106 scan for radio signals that may be used by the mobile device to determine the location of the mobile device. Wi-Fi receiver 102 may be used to scan the air for received RF signals and then use the resultant information to determine which Wi-Fi access points are nearby in order to make a connection. Upon determining the information regarding the Wi-Fi access points, Wi-Fi receiver 102 sends signal strength data of the Wi-Fi access points to motion model 108 while Wi-Fi receiver 102 is in the scanning mode. GPS receiver 104 may be used to scan the air for received GPS satellite data to compute and track the mobile device's current location. Upon determining the mobile device's current location, GPS receiver 104 sends position and velocity data to motion model 108 while GPS receiver 104 is in the scanning mode. Cellular receiver 106 may be used to scan the air for received RF signals and then use the resultant information to determine which cell towers are nearby in order to make a connection with the closest cell tower. While determining which cell tower to connect with, cellular receiver 106 sends signal strength data received from the cell towers to motion model 108 while cellular receiver 106 is in the scanning mode. Accelerometer 114 is a device that measures the acceleration of a moving body, such as, for example, the acceleration of the mobile device. In an embodiment, accelerometer 114 may be in the form of a motion-triggered switch (i.e., a mercury switch, a micro-electronic mechanical switch, etc.). Although not required, in some embodiments, accelerometer 114 may include thresholds that are set to filter out jitter noise. Accelerometer 114 sends signals to motion model 108 indicating whether or not the mobile device is in motion. When the scanning operation of the receivers, such as Wi-Fi receiver 102, GPS receiver 104, and/or cellular receiver 106, incorporated in the mobile device have been halted or reduced to a lower duty cycle to conserve power in the mobile device due to the non-motion of the mobile device, it is accelerometer 114 that provides motion model 108 with an indication that the mobile device has started moving again. Thus, by using the accelerometer to trigger motion model 108 that the mobile device is moving again, the lag time between actual motion and detection during the next duty cycle of the one or more receivers incorporated in the mobile device is eliminated. In other words, with the addition of accelerometer 114, motion model 108 may be triggered to wake up by accelerometer 114 without any of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 operating in the scan mode. Thus, accelerometer 114 knows instantaneously when the mobile device is moving again. This enables the scanning operation of the one or more receivers (102, 104, and/or 106) to be shut down completely to conserve more power, yet retain an instantaneous response when the mobile device starts to move again. Therefore, with embodiments of the present invention, the need to wait until the next duty cycle of the operation of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 to determine whether movement of the mobile device has resumed is eliminated. In other words, the lag time between actual motion of the mobile and the detection of that motion is eliminated. In one embodiment, dampening may be required to keep motion model 108 from causing power manager 110 to enable scanning controller 112 to start the scanning of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 prematurely, i.e., slight movement of the mobile device even though the user of the mobile device is stationary. Motion model 108 receives the signal strength data from Wi-Fi receiver 102 and cellular receiver 106, the position and velocity data from GPS receiver 104, and signal data to indicate whether or not the mobile device is in motion from accelerometer 114, and combines the data into a motion model to provide a final velocity vector. The final velocity vector is modeled based on the rate at which the mobile device is computing its location. For example, if the mobile device is moving slowly, the velocity vector is determined at a rate comparable to the slow movement of the mobile device and vice versa. The rate may also be proportional to the amount of power to be conserved. Motion model 108 utilizes all signals from receivers 102, 104, 106 and accelerometer 114 to determine the velocity of the mobile device. Motion model 108 does not rely solely on accelerometer 114 during scanning of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 to determine whether the mobile device is in motion. This is because in some instances there may be an apparent motion of zero indicated by the accelerometer when there is no acceleration, yet the mobile device may be in a moving car, airplane, train, etc. moving at a constant speed. Thus, when it is known that the mobile device is in motion, the data from accelerometer 114 is not as important as the data being received from receivers 102, 104, and/or 106. When motion model 108 can tell that the mobile device is truly at rest, or at least at rest with respect to the Earth, then the data from accelerometer 114 is more important than any data from receivers 102, 104, and/or 106, and often times may be the only data used by motion model 108 to determine whether the mobile device is in motion again. Power manager 110 receives the final velocity vector from motion model 108 and determines a scanning rate. The scanning rate is sent to scan controller 112 to control the scanning operation of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106. If it is determined that the mobile device is not in motion, then the scanning rate may be set at zero by power manager 110, and scan controller 112 will halt the scanning of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106. By halting the scanning of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106, receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 utilize little or no power from the mobile device, thus, conserving the battery power of the mobile device. If it is determined that the mobile device is in motion, then power manager 110 will set the scanning rate proportional to the velocity of the mobile device, and scan controller 112 will control the scanning rate of receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 accordingly. Receivers 102, 104, and/or 106 may now utilize the battery power of the mobile device in proportion to the velocity of the mobile device. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram 200 illustrating an exemplary method for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness according to an embodiment of the present invention. The invention is not limited to the embodiment described herein with respect to flow diagram 200. Rather, it will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the teachings provided herein that other functional flow diagrams are within the scope of the invention. The process begins at 202, where the process immediately proceeds to block 204. Scan controller 112 sends signals to one or more receivers within the mobile device, such as, for example, Wi-Fi receiver 102, GPS receiver 104, and/or cellular receiver 106, directing each of the receivers incorporated in the mobile device to start scanning for location information in block 204. In one embodiment, the scanning rate is a pre-determined start up scanning rate. In block 206, the one or more receivers receive information helpful to determining the position of the mobile device and send the information to a motion module. Depending upon the type of receiver, the information may include signal strength data from a plurality of Wi-Fi access points, signal strength data from a plurality of cell towers, data from a plurality of GPS satellites for deriving position and velocity information, or information from other types of receivers that may be used in determining the location of the mobile device. The motion module also receives information from an accelerometer. The information from the accelerometer indicates whether or not the mobile device is in motion. In block 208, the motion module determines whether the mobile device is in motion based upon the received information. The motion module takes into account all of the information from the receivers and the accelerometer in determining whether or not the mobile device is in motion and outputs a final velocity vector based on all of the information received. This helps to eliminate a false reading from the accelerometer when, for example, the mobile device is in motion, but is traveling at a constant speed. The process then proceeds to decision block 210. In decision block 210, if it is determined that the mobile device is in motion, the process proceeds to block 212. In block 212, the scanning rate for the receivers is determined based on the velocity vector and sent to the scan controller to control the scanning rate of the receivers. The process then proceeds back to block 206 to continue sending the information received from the receivers to the motion model to enable the motion model to determine a final velocity vector. Returning to decision block 210, if it is determined that the mobile device is not in motion, the process proceeds to block 214. In block 214, based on the results of the velocity vector, the scan controller receives a scanning rate of approximately zero, and thereby, halts the scanning of the receivers. Halting the scanning of the receivers causes the receivers to consume little or no battery power from the mobile device. In one embodiment of the invention, the scan controller may cause the receivers to continue scanning, but at a much lower scanning rate, thereby consuming a great deal less power of the mobile device's battery. The process then proceeds to decision block 216. In decision block 216, it is determined whether the mobile device has resumed motion. The motion model will receive an instantaneous signal from the accelerometer, indicating movement of the mobile device, when the mobile device starts moving again. This signal may be referred to as being interrupt driven. If it is determined that the mobile device is stationary (i.e, motion model receives signal from accelerometer indicating that the mobile device is not moving), the process remains at decision block 216. Alternatively, if it is determined that the mobile device has resumed movement, the process proceeds back to block 204, to enable the receivers to resume or start scanning again. Certain aspects of embodiments of the present invention may be implemented using hardware, software, or a combination thereof and may be implemented in one or more computer systems or other processing systems. In fact, in one embodiment, the methods may be implemented in programs executing on programmable machines such as mobile or stationary computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), set top boxes, cellular telephones and pagers, and other electronic devices that each include a processor, a storage medium readable by the processor (including volatile and non-volatile memory and/or storage elements), at least one input device, and one or more output devices. Program code is applied to the data entered using the input device to perform the functions described and to generate output information. The output information may be applied to one or more output devices. One of ordinary skill in the art may appreciate that embodiments of the invention may be practiced with various computer system configurations, including multiprocessor systems, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and the like. Embodiments of the present invention may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks may be performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communications network. Each program may be implemented in a high level procedural or object oriented programming language to communicate with a processing system. However, programs may be implemented in assembly or machine language, if desired. In any case, the language may be compiled or interpreted. Program instructions may be used to cause a general-purpose or special-purpose processing system that is programmed with the instructions to perform the methods described herein. Alternatively, the methods may be performed by specific hardware components that contain hardwired logic for performing the methods, or by any combination of programmed computer components and custom hardware components. The methods described herein may be provided as a computer program product that may include a machine readable medium having stored thereon instructions that may be used to program a processing system or other electronic device to perform the methods. The term “machine readable medium” or “machine accessible medium” used herein shall include any medium that is capable of storing or encoding a sequence of instructions for execution by the machine and that causes the machine to perform any one of the methods described herein. The terms “machine readable medium” and “machine accessible medium” shall accordingly include, but not be limited to, solid-state memories, optical and magnetic disks, and a carrier wave that encodes a data signal. Furthermore, it is common in the art to speak of software, in one form or another (e.g., program, procedure, process, application, module, logic, and so on) as taking an action or causing a result. Such expressions are merely a shorthand way of stating the execution of the software by a processing system to cause the processor to perform an action or produce a result. While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention are generally related to the field of location aware computing. More particularly, embodiments of the present invention are related to the conservation of power on a mobile device through motion awareness. 2. Description Many mobile device capabilities require the device to know where it is located. Two such capabilities include always best-connected computing and location-aware computing. In the case of always best-connected computing, one common practice for keeping a device online as it roams is to scan the air for received RF (radio frequency) signals and then use the resultant information to determine which cell towers, Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) access points, or Bluetooth devices are nearby in order to make connection decisions. Location-aware computing may also use RF signal information or received Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite data to compute and track the device's current location. Both of these capabilities consume precious battery power. Currently, motion models may be used with always best-connected computing and location-aware computing activities to combat the power drain problem on the mobile device. Motion models often throttle back the always best-connected and location-aware computing activities when the mobile device is determined to be moving slowly or not moving at all and then ramp them back up when the motion model believes that the mobile device is moving again. However, with no other inputs besides the information from the always best-connected and location-aware computing activities to determine when the mobile device is moving again, the motion model is little more than a feedback loop with a negative implication of reducing its accuracy whenever it reduces power consumption. Since scanning and GPS tracking are essentially polling activities, power savings are accomplished by lowering the measurement duty cycle, i.e., scanning less frequently. At lower power states, a lag between actual motion and detection of that motion during the next duty cycle is introduced, thereby artificially establishing a floor for power savings below which this imprecision becomes unacceptable. Thus, what is needed is a method and apparatus for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness that eliminates scan-polling or GPS tracking when the mobile device is stationary. What is also needed is a method and apparatus for incorporating another input to the motion model that determines whether the mobile device is stationary or moving independent of the information from the always best-connected and location-aware computing activities. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form part of the specification, illustrate embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art(s) to make and use the invention. In the drawings, like reference numbers generally indicate identical, functionally similar, and/or structurally similar elements. The drawing in which an element first appears is indicated by the leftmost digit(s) in the corresponding reference number. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary apparatus for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary method for conserving power on a mobile device through motion awareness according to an embodiment of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041119 | 20080805 | 20060608 | 99686.0 | G01S514 | 1 | CHEN, SHELLEY | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CONSERVING POWER ON A MOBILE DEVICE THROUGH MOTION AWARENESS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G01S | 2,004 |
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10,993,774 | ACCEPTED | Storage system for sports equipment | A storage system (12) for securing a first piece of sports equipment (10A) and a second piece of sports equipment (10B) to a rigid structure (14) includes a first storage subassembly (16A) and a second storage subassembly (16B). The first storage subassembly (16A) includes a left first frame (18A) and a spaced apart right first frame (18B) that are coupled to the rigid structure (14). The first frames (18A) (18B) cooperate to support the first piece of sports equipment (10A). The second storage subassembly (16B) includes a left second frame (20A) and a spaced apart right second frame (20B). The second frames (20A) (20B) are selectively coupled to the first storage subassembly (16A). The second frames (20A) (20B) cooperate to support the second piece of sports equipment (10B). | 1. A storage system for securing a first piece of sports equipment and a second piece of sports equipment to a rigid structure, the storage system comprising: a first storage subassembly including a left first frame and a spaced apart right first frame that are coupled to the rigid structure, the first frames cooperating to support the first piece of sports equipment; and a second storage subassembly including a left second frame and a spaced apart right second frame, the second frames being selectively coupled to the first storage subassembly, the second frames cooperating to support the second piece of sports equipment. 2. The storage system of claim 1 wherein the left first frame includes a first coupling component and the left second frame includes a second coupling component that engages the first coupling component to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame. 3. The storage system of claim 1 wherein each first frame includes a first coupling component and each second frame includes a second coupling component, wherein the second coupling component of the left second frame engages the first coupling component of the left first frame to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame, and wherein the second coupling component of the right second frame engages the first coupling component of the right first frame to selectively couple the right second frame to the right first frame. 4. The storage system of claim 1 wherein the each frame includes a first coupling component and a second coupling component, wherein the second coupling component of the left second frame engages the first coupling component of the left first frame to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame, and wherein the second coupling component of the right second frame engages the first coupling component of the right first frame to selectively couple the right second frame to the right first frame. 5. The storage system of claim 4 further comprising a first component cover that covers the first coupling component of one of the second frames and a second component cover that covers the second coupling component of one of the first frames. 6. The storage system of claim 1 wherein at least one of the frames includes a base region that is positioned adjacent to the rigid structure and a cantilevering region that cantilevers away from the base region. 7. The storage system of claim 6 wherein the cantilevering region is at an acute angle relative to the base region. 8. The storage system of claim 6 wherein the cantilevering region includes a padded area that engages the piece of sports equipment. 9. The storage system of claim 6 wherein the cantilevering region is selectively secured to the base region. 10. A storage system for securing a first piece of sports equipment and a second piece of sports equipment to a rigid structure, the storage system comprising: a first storage subassembly including a left first frame and a spaced apart right first frame that are coupled to the rigid structure, the first frames cooperating to support the first piece of sports equipment; and a second storage subassembly including a left second frame and a spaced apart right second frame, the second frames being selectively coupled to the first storage subassembly, the second frames cooperating to support the second piece of sports equipment; wherein each of the frames includes a base region that is positioned adjacent to the rigid structure and a cantilevering region that cantilevers away from the base region at an acute angle, wherein the base region of each frame includes a first coupling component and a spaced apart second coupling component, wherein the second coupling component of the left second frame engages the first coupling component of the left first frame to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame, and wherein the second coupling component of the right second frame engages the first coupling component of the right first frame to selectively couple the right second frame to the right first frame. 11. The storage system of claim 10 further comprising a first component cover that covers the first coupling component of one of the second frames and a second component cover that covers the second coupling component of one of the first frames. 12. A storage system for securing a first piece of sports equipment to a rigid structure, the storage system comprising: a first storage subassembly including a left frame and a spaced apart right frame that are coupled to the rigid structure, the frames cooperating to support the first piece of sports equipment, each frame also including a first coupling component that facilitates the selective attachment of a second storage subassembly to the first storage subassembly. 13. The storage system of claim 12 further comprising a first component cover that covers the first coupling component of one of the frames. 14. The storage system of claim 12 wherein each frame includes a base region that is positioned adjacent to the rigid structure and a cantilevering region that cantilevers away from the base region. 15. The storage system of claim 14 wherein the cantilevering region is at an acute angle relative to the base region. 16. The storage system of claim 14 wherein the cantilevering region includes a padded area that engages the piece of sports equipment. 17. The storage system of claim 14 wherein the cantilevering region is selectively secured to the base region. 18. A method for securing a first piece of sports equipment and a second piece of sports equipment to a rigid structure, the method comprising the steps of: fixedly securing a first storage subassembly to the rigid structure, the first storage subassembly including a left first frame and a spaced apart right first frame that cooperate to support the first piece of sports equipment; and selectively coupling a second storage subassembly to the first storage subassembly, the second storage subassembly including a left second frame and a spaced apart right second frame that cooperate to support the second piece of sports equipment. 19. The method of claim 18 wherein the step of selectively coupling includes the step of selectively coupling a first coupling component of the left first frame to a second coupling component of the left second frame. 20. The method of claim 18 wherein each first frame includes a first coupling component and each second frame includes a second coupling component, wherein the second coupling component of the left second frame engages the first coupling component of the left first frame to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame, and wherein the second coupling component of the right second frame engages the first coupling component of the right first frame to selectively couple the right second frame to the right first frame. 21. The method of claim 18 wherein at least one of the frames includes a base region that is positioned adjacent to the rigid structure and a cantilevering region that cantilevers away from the base region. | BACKGROUND Sports equipment such as surfboards and snowboards are becoming increasingly popular. The storage of the surfboards and snowboards can require significant amount of space. Existing storage systems for surfboards and snowboards are not entirely satisfactory, as they do not allow for the addition or subtraction of sports equipment. SUMMARY The present invention is directed to storage system for securing a first piece of sports equipment and a second piece of sports equipment to a rigid structure. In one embodiment, the storage system includes a first storage subassembly and a second subassembly. The first storage subassembly includes a left first frame and a spaced apart right first frame that are fixedly coupled to the rigid structure. The first frames cooperate to support the first piece of sports equipment. The second storage subassembly includes a left second frame and a spaced apart right second frame. The second frames are selectively coupled to the first storage subassembly. The second frames cooperate to support the second piece of sports equipment. In one embodiment, each frame includes a first coupling component and a second coupling component. In this embodiment, the second coupling component of the left second frame engages the first coupling component of the left first frame to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame. Somewhat similarly, the second coupling component of the right second frame engages the first coupling component of the right first frame to selectively couple the right second frame to the right first frame. Additionally, in this embodiment, the storage system can include a first component cover that covers the first coupling component of one of the second frames and a second component cover that covers the second coupling component of one of the first frames. Further, at least one of the frames can include a base region that is positioned adjacent to the rigid structure and a cantilevering region that cantilevers away from the base region. Moreover, the cantilevering region can include a padded area that engages the piece of sports equipment. Moreover, the present invention is directed to a method for retaining multiple pieces of sports equipment with modular capabilities for expansion and ability to transform into multiple racks at any given time. The present invention can allow the end user to increase or decrease the amount of equipment they wish to store on one embodiment, or separate and install two or more individual rack assemblies. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features of this invention, as well as the invention itself, both as to its structure and its operation, will be best understood from the accompanying drawings, taken in conjunction with the accompanying description, in which similar reference characters refer to similar parts, and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of two pieces of sports equipment and one embodiment of a storage system having features of the present invention including a plurality of frames; FIG. 2A is a perspective view of one of the frames of FIG. 1; FIG. 2B is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of one of the frames of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a side view of the frame of FIG. 2; FIGS. 4A-4C are alternative views of a portion of the frame of FIG. 2; FIGS. 5A-5C are alternative views of another portion of the frame of FIG. 2; FIG. 6 illustrates a portion of two frames being coupled together; and FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of the frame. DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a first piece of sports equipment 10A, a second piece of sports equipment 10B, and a first embodiment of a storage system 12 that can be used to store the sports equipment 10A, 10B. In certain embodiments, the storage system 12 is a modular type storage assembly that can be easily expanded to store more than two pieces of sports equipment or retracted to store only one piece of sports equipment. The type of sports equipment 10A, 10B stored on the storage system 12 can vary. For example, one or each piece of sports equipment 10A, 10B can be a fluid related piece of sports equipment such as a surfboard, a snowboard, a waterski, a wakeboard, or snowskis. Alternatively, for example, one or each piece of sports equipment 10A, 10B can be a skateboard. The storage system 12 is secured to a rigid structure 14. With this design, the storage system 12 can be used to store the one or more pieces of sports equipment 10A, 10B on the rigid structure 14. As an example, the rigid structure 14 can be a wall or other support structure, e.g. a pair of spaced apart 2×4's. In the FIG. 1, the storage system 12 includes a first storage subassembly 16A, a second storage subassembly 16B that is selectively secured to the first storage subassembly 16A, and a third second storage subassembly 16C that is selectively secured to the second storage subassembly 16B. Further, the storage system 12 can include one or more additional storage subassemblies (not shown) that can be selectively added to the first storage subassembly 16A. With this design, one or more storage subassemblies can be selectively added to the first storage subassembly 16A to make a modular type storage system 12 that can be easily adjusted to accommodate additional pieces of sports equipment as necessary In FIG. 1, the first storage subassembly 16A supports the first piece of sports equipment 10A, the second storage subassembly 16B supports the second piece of sports equipment 10B, and the third storage subassembly 16C is empty. Alternatively, for example, the first storage subassembly 16A and/or the second storage subassembly 16B can be empty. The design of each storage subassembly 16A-16C can be varied to suit the types of pieces of sports equipment 10A, 10B. In FIG. 1, the design of each of the storage subassemblies 16A-16C is substantially the same. Alternatively, for example, one or more of the storage subassemblies 16A-16C can be different from one or more of the other storage subassemblies 16A-16C. In FIG. 1, (i) the first storage subassembly 16A includes a left first frame 18A and a spaced apart right first frame 18B that cooperate to support the first piece of sports equipment 10A, (ii) the second storage subassembly 16B includes a left second frame 20A and a spaced apart right second frame 20B that cooperate to support the second piece of sports equipment 10B, and (iii) the third storage subassembly 16C includes a left third frame 22A and a spaced apart right third frame 22B that cooperate to support an additional piece of sports equipment (not shown). The distance between the first frame and the second frame of each storage subassembly 16A-16C can be varied to suit the types of pieces of sports equipment 10A, 10B and is generally based on the distance between supporting structures. In alternative, non-exclusive embodiments, the first frame and the second frame of each storage subassembly 16A-16C are typically spaced apart a frame distance 24 that is approximately 16, 32, or 48 inches. Stated alternatively, the frame distance 24 can be between approximately 1 and 5 feet. However, the frame distance 24 can be greater or lesser than these amounts. In one embodiment, only one of the storage subassemblies 16A-16C is fixedly secured to the rigid structure 14. For example, in FIG. 1, the first storage subassembly 16A is fixedly secured to the rigid structure 14. Further, the second and third storage subassemblies 16B, 16C are secured to the rigid structure 14 indirectly via the first storage subassembly 16A. With this design, the second and third storage subassemblies 16B, 16C can be easily added and removed from the rigid structure 14 to expand or contract the storage system 12. In FIG. 1, the storage assembly 12 also includes a fastener assembly 26 that fixedly secures the first frames 18A, 18B to the rigid structure 14. The design of the fastener assembly 26 can vary. In FIG. 1, the fastener assembly 26 includes a left fastener 26A that fixedly secures the left first frame 18A to the rigid structure 14 and a right fastener 26B that fixedly secures the right first frame 18B to the rigid structure 14. In this embodiment, the left fastener 26A is a screw that extends through the left first frame 18A into the rigid structure 14 and the right fastener 26B is a screw that extends through the right first frame 18B into the rigid structure 14. Alternatively, for example, the fastener assembly 26 can include multiple left fasteners 26A or right fasteners 26B. Further, one or both of the fasteners 26A, 26B can have another design. For example, one or both of the fasteners 26A, 26B can be an adhesive. As discussed above, the second storage subassembly 16B is selectively secured to the first storage subassembly 16A, and the third second storage subassembly 16C that is selectively secured to the second storage subassembly 16B. More specifically, (i) the left second frame 20A is selectively secured to the left first frame 18A and the right second frame 20B is selectively secured to the right first frame 18B, and (ii) the left third frame 22A is selectively secured to the left second frame 20A and the right third frame 22B is selectively secured to the right second frame 20B. In one embodiment, each frame 18A-22B includes a first coupling component 28A and a second coupling component 28B that facilitate the selective coupling of the second and third subassemblies 16B, 16C to the first subassembly 16A. In this embodiment, (i) the second coupling component 28B of the left second frame 20A engages the first coupling component 28A of the left first frame 18A to selectively couple the left second frame 20A to the left first frame 18A, (ii) the second coupling component 28B of the right second frame 20B engages the first coupling component 28A of the right first frame 18B to selectively couple the right second frame 20B to the right first frame 18B, (iii) the second coupling component 28B of the left third frame 22A engages the first coupling component 28A of the left second frame 20A to selectively couple the left third frame 22A to the left second frame 20A, and (iv) the second coupling component 28B of the right third frame 22B engages the first coupling component 28A of the right second frame 20B to selectively couple the right third frame 22B to the right second frame 20B. The design for each coupling component 28A, 28B can vary as long as the second coupling component 28B can be selectively coupled to the first coupling component 28A. As an example, when the second coupling component 28B of the left second frame 20A is coupled to the first coupling component 28A of the left first frame 18A, the left second frame 20A is inhibited from moving up and down along the rigid structure 14 (along the Y axis) relative to the left first frame 18A. However, the left second frame 20A is not inhibited from being pivoted and/or moved outward relative to the left first frame 18A to selectively couple and uncouple the frames 18A, 20A. The other frame arrangements can be coupled and uncoupled in a similar fashion. The design of each frame 18A-22B can be varied to suit the types of pieces of sports equipment 10A, 10B. In one of embodiment, each frame 18A-22B has substantially the same size, shape and configuration. Alternatively, one or more of the frames 18A-22B can have a different size, shape and/or configuration than the other frames 18A-22B. In FIG. 1, each frame 18A-22B has substantially the same design. In this embodiment, each frame 18A-22B includes a base region 30 that is positioned adjacent to and parallel with the rigid structure 14 and a cantilevering region 32 that cantilevers away from the base region 30. FIG. 2A is a perspective view of a frame 218 including the base region 30 and the cantilevering region 32 that can be used as one of the frames 18A-22B in FIG. 1. In this embodiment, the base region 30 and the cantilevering region 32 are manufactured as a homogeneous, one-piece component. The frame 218 can be made of a rigid material. Non-exclusive examples of suitable materials include plastic, aluminum or steel. In FIG. 2A, the base region 30 is generally rectangular beam shaped and includes a top 234A and a bottom 234B. In this embodiment, the second coupling component 28B is positioned at the top 234A and the first coupling component 28A is positioned at the bottom 234B. Alternatively, for example, the base region 30 can have another shape. The dimensions of the base region 30 can vary. As non-exclusive embodiments, the base region 30 has a length of approximately 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 inches and a width of approximately 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, or 2 inches. However, other dimensions can be utilized. In FIG. 2A, the cantilevering region 32 is generally rectangular beam shaped and includes a distal end 236A that is positioned away from the base region 30 and a proximal end 236B that is secured to the base region 30. Alternatively, for example, the cantilevering region 32 can have another shape. The dimensions of the cantilevering region 32 can vary. As non-exclusive embodiments, the cantilevering region 32 has a length of approximately 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22 or 24 inches and a width of approximately 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, or 2 inches. However, other dimensions can be utilized. In FIG. 2A, the cantilevering region 32 is connected to the base region 30 intermediate the top 234A and the bottom 234B. In one embodiment, the cantilevering region 32 is connected to the base region 30 approximately half way between the top 234A and the bottom 234B. Alternatively, the cantilevering region 32 can be connected to the base region 30 closer to the top 234A than the bottom 234B or the cantilevering region 32 can be connected to the base region 30 closer to the bottom 234B than the top 234A. Further, in FIG. 2A, the cantilevering region 32 extends away from the base region 30 at an angle 238 that is acute. As non-exclusive embodiments, the angle 238 can be approximately 40, 50, 60, 65, 70, or 80 degrees. However, other angles can be utilized. In one embodiment, a transition 240 between the base region 30 and the cantilevering region 32 is curved. This can protect the piece of sports equipment. FIG. 2B is a perspective view of another embodiment of a frame 218B including the base region 30B and a first cantilevering region 32B that can be used as one of the frames 18A-22B in FIG. 1. In this embodiment, the base region 30B and the first cantilevering region 32B are manufactured as a two-piece assembly with the base region 30B and the first cantilevering region 32B made as separate components that are later secured together. This design can allow for easier attachment of the base region 30B to the rigid structure 14. Further, this design can be easier to manufacture. FIG. 2B also illustrates a second cantilevering region 32C. In one embodiment, the first cantilevering region 32B or the second cantilevering region 32C can be selectively and detachably secured to the base region 30B. The second cantilevering region 32C can be short and/or at a different angle than the first cantilevering region 32B. With this design, longer or shorter cantilevering regions 32B, 32C can be added as necessary to the base region 30B without removing the base region 30B from the rigid structure 14. This can allow the assembly to be easily changed to receive alternatively sized pieces of sports equipment. In one embodiment, the base region 30B includes a base aperture 230B that is sized and shaped to receive the proximal end 236B of the respective cantilevering region 32B, 32C. With this design, each of the cantilevering regions 32B, 32C can be alternatively, partly and selectively inserted into the base region 30B. FIG. 3 is a side view of the frame 218 from FIG. 2A. FIGS. 4A-4C are alternative views of one embodiment of the first coupling component 28A. In this embodiment, the first coupling component 28A is a protrusion that is integrally formed into the bottom 234B of the frame 218. The protrusion is defined by a pair of opposed protrusion walls 442 that converge away from the bottom 234B, and a protrusion top 444 that is flat. FIGS. 5A-5C are alternative views of one embodiment of the second coupling component 28B. In this embodiment, the second coupling component 28B is a slot that is integrally formed into the top 234A of the frame 218. The slot defines a pair of opposed slot walls 546 that diverge away from the top 234A, and a slot bottom 548 that is flat. FIG. 6 illustrates a portion of an upper frame 618 and a lower frame 620 that are uncoupled. In this position, the lower frame 620 can be moved along the X axis relative to the upper frame 618 to couple the frames 618, 620 together. When coupled, the frames 618, 620 are inhibited from being moved relative to each other along the Y axis. With this design, the lower frame 620 can be moved along the X axis to selectively couple and decouple the frames 618, 620. FIG. 7 is an exploded, perspective view of another embodiment of the frame 718. In this embodiment, the cantilevering region 732 and a portion of the base region 730 includes a padded area 750 that protects the piece of sports equipment. The design of padded area 750 can vary. In one embodiment, the padded area 750 is a piece of resilient material that fits into a groove 752 in the frame 718. Alternatively, for example, the padded area 750 can be a piece of resilient material that encircles a portion of the cantilevering region 732 and the base region 730 or the padded area 750 can be secured with an adhesive to the frame 718. Additionally, in one embodiment, the storage system can include a first component cover 754 that covers the first coupling component 728A of the frame 718 and a second component cover 756 that covers the second coupling component 728B of the frame 718. In one embodiment, each cover 754, 756 is a cap made of a resilient material that is sized and shaped to snuggly fit over the respective coupling component 728A, 728B. Alternatively, each cover 754, 756 can sized and shaped to mate with the respective coupling component 728A, 728B. For example, the first component cover 754 can be sized and shaped somewhat similar to the second coupling component 728B and the second component cover 756 can be sized and shaped somewhat similar to the first coupling component 728A. The covers 754 and 756 can be injection molded. It is to be understood that the storage system 12 disclosed herein is merely illustrative of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention and that no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown other than as described in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Sports equipment such as surfboards and snowboards are becoming increasingly popular. The storage of the surfboards and snowboards can require significant amount of space. Existing storage systems for surfboards and snowboards are not entirely satisfactory, as they do not allow for the addition or subtraction of sports equipment. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention is directed to storage system for securing a first piece of sports equipment and a second piece of sports equipment to a rigid structure. In one embodiment, the storage system includes a first storage subassembly and a second subassembly. The first storage subassembly includes a left first frame and a spaced apart right first frame that are fixedly coupled to the rigid structure. The first frames cooperate to support the first piece of sports equipment. The second storage subassembly includes a left second frame and a spaced apart right second frame. The second frames are selectively coupled to the first storage subassembly. The second frames cooperate to support the second piece of sports equipment. In one embodiment, each frame includes a first coupling component and a second coupling component. In this embodiment, the second coupling component of the left second frame engages the first coupling component of the left first frame to selectively couple the left second frame to the left first frame. Somewhat similarly, the second coupling component of the right second frame engages the first coupling component of the right first frame to selectively couple the right second frame to the right first frame. Additionally, in this embodiment, the storage system can include a first component cover that covers the first coupling component of one of the second frames and a second component cover that covers the second coupling component of one of the first frames. Further, at least one of the frames can include a base region that is positioned adjacent to the rigid structure and a cantilevering region that cantilevers away from the base region. Moreover, the cantilevering region can include a padded area that engages the piece of sports equipment. Moreover, the present invention is directed to a method for retaining multiple pieces of sports equipment with modular capabilities for expansion and ability to transform into multiple racks at any given time. The present invention can allow the end user to increase or decrease the amount of equipment they wish to store on one embodiment, or separate and install two or more individual rack assemblies. | 20041120 | 20070508 | 20060525 | 79329.0 | A47F700 | 1 | PUROL, SARAH L | STORAGE SYSTEM FOR SPORTS EQUIPMENT | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | A47F | 2,004 |
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10,993,800 | ACCEPTED | Continuous fluid sampler and method | An aseptic, continuous sampling arrangement used in a fluid transportation system, the arrangement including an elbow pipe and a septum cartridge. The sampling arrangement further including a needle, a tube, and a collection reservoir, arranged such that the collection reservoir is in fluid contact with the fluid transportation system. The sampling arrangement configured to create a non-laminar fluid flow region from which a continuous sample of fluid material is drawn. | 1. A method of continuous aseptic sampling, comprising the steps of; (a) providing a fluid transportation structure that creates a non-laminar flow of a fluid in a sampling area within a fluid transportation system, the fluid transportation structure including an aperture located proximate the non-laminar sampling area; (b) providing a replaceable septum to seal the aperture of the fluid transportation structure and prevent the introduction of contaminates into the sampling area, the septum including an outer surface area and a plurality of guide holes covered by a cover piece that provides indication of used guide holes and unused guide holes; (c) providing a sterilized penetrating member, tubing, and a reservoir, wherein the penetrating member, tubing and reservoir are all in fluid communication with each other, the tubing and reservoir being sealed from environmental contaminates; (d) performing aseptic cleansing of the outer surface area and cover piece of the septum; (e) inserting the sterilized penetrating member into an unused guide hole wherein the guide hole directs the penetrating member into and through the septum, the septum constructed to further wipe and remove contaminates from the penetrating member during insertion; and (f) creating a pressure differential between the reservoir and the fluid transportation structure such that a sampling fluid continuously flows from the fluid transportation structure to the reservoir. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the method of continuous aseptic sampling includes removing the penetrating member from the septum upon obtaining a sufficient sample size, the septum functioning to re-seal the sampling area to prevent entry of contaminates into the sampling area after removal of the penetrating member. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the method of continuous aseptic sampling includes monitoring fluid flow and controlling flow rate by selectively introducing or increasing a restriction on the tubing. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein controlling the flow rate by introduction of a restriction is accomplished by use of a clamp. 5. The method of claim 3, wherein controlling the flow rate by introduction of a restriction is accomplished by use of a peristaltic pump. 6. A method of continuous aseptic sampling, comprising the steps of: (a) providing a fluid transportation structure having a portion configured therein to create a non-laminar fluid flow in a sampling region, and providing a sampling assembly having a penetrable member positioned in an opening located in the sampling region; and (b) obtaining an aseptic, continuous fluid sample from the non-laminar fluid flow in the sampling region, while simultaneously sealing the sampling region. 7. The method of claim 6, further including collecting the fluid sample from the non-laminar fluid flow in a collection reservoir. 8. The method of claim 7, further including cooling the fluid sample collected in the collection reservoir. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the step of collecting the fluid sample in the collection reservoir includes extending a length of tubing between the penetrable member and the collection reservoir, and creating a pressure differential between the collection reservoir and the fluid transportation structure to provide aseptic, continuous fluid communication between the fluid transportation structure and the collection reservoir. 10. The method of claim 6, further including retrofitting an existing fluid transportation system with the fluid transportation structure having the portion configured to create the non-laminar fluid flow. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the step of retrofitting includes fitting a pipe having an aperture and an angular configuration to the existing fluid transportation system such that fluid from the system flows through the pipe. 12. The method of claim 11, further including securing the penetrable member within the aperture of the pipe. 13. The method of claim 6, wherein the step of obtaining a continuous, aseptic fluid sample includes inserting a sampling body into and through the penetrable member to contact the non-laminar fluid flow created in the sampling region. 14. The method of claim 6, wherein the step of obtaining the aseptic, continuous fluid sample from the non-laminar fluid flow in the sampling region includes obtaining a milk sample from a milk processing system. 15. The method of claim 14, further including detecting microbial contamination in the milk sample for purposes of dairy herd management. 16. The method of claim 14, further including testing the milk sample for the purpose of monitoring mastitis in a dairy herd. 17. A method of continuous sampling, comprising: (a) providing an elbow pipe having an internal volume and an aperture; (b) providing a needle, a bag, and a tube interconnected between the needle and the bag to provide fluid communication therebetween; (c) inserting the needle through a removable septum positioned within the aperture of the elbow pipe; and (d) collecting a fluid sample from the internal volume of the elbow pipe in the bag. 18. The method of claim 16, further including regulating the rate of the fluid sample collection with a flow control device. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of application Ser. No. 10/022,294, filed Dec. 14, 2001; which application is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This disclosure concerns a sampling arrangement. More specifically, this disclosure describes the assembly and method of use of a sampling arrangement for aseptic, continuous sampling of a fluid material. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There are numerous applications wherein it is desirable to obtain discrete or continuous samples from fluid transportation systems or fluid processing enclosures. Enclosures and fluid transportation systems, as used herein, refer to any closed containment structure without respect to its size. Thus it includes such small enclosures such as cans that may be used in shipping starter bacteria from a culture lab. On the other end of the spectrum, it includes large tanks and associated pipelines, which may have capacities of several thousand gallons, such as are used in the dairy processing industry. Efficient and effective techniques and apparatus for obtaining aseptic samples from such systems and enclosures, are particularly desirable. Examples of industries that require such aseptic sampling include, but are not limited to, the pharmaceutical, bioengineering/biotechnology, brewing/distilling, food processing and dairy processing industries. Applications for such samplings range broadly from process monitoring to laboratory and research applications. For example, sampling is commonly used on dairy farms for herd management or in regulated manufacturing facilities. The sampling is used to detect and control microbial contamination, spoilage microorganisms, food-borne illness, and environmental mastitis both within systems being sampled and externally of such systems. While preferred embodiments of this invention will be described with respect to its sampling use and application in the dairy industry, it will be understood that the invention is not to be construed as limited to use in that industry or to the application described, or to any limitations associated with the specifics of the components or methods disclosed with respect to such preferred embodiments. Various methods and devices have been employed to perform sampling tasks. Typical sampling techniques commonly involve discrete or isolated sampling from a laminar portion of a fluid transport line. Typical such sampling systems and techniques that have been used in the dairy processing industry are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,941,517; 5,086,813; and 5,269,350. To the extent that such patents may be used to assist the reader in understanding principles and examples of sampling apparatus and methods, they are herein incorporated by reference. While the apparatus and techniques described in these patents are particularly applicable to systems designed to accommodate them, there also exists a need to perform sampling in existing enclosures and fluid transportation systems that have not been designed for sampling functions. Such systems typically require redesign or retrofitting to accommodate sampling functions. Such retrofitting can be expensive and/or difficult to achieve, can require significant system downtime in implementation of the sampling function and/or replacement of parts to maintain the system, or can lead to system degradation or contamination of the system being sampled. For example, one known method of discrete sampling of fluid involves inserting a needle through a sealing gasket located between connecting ends of pipelines of the fluid transportation system. Problems arises from this method as this method is not aseptic because the gasket becomes so perforated after repeated sampling that the gasket may lose its sealing integrity or introduce contaminants into the system though the perforations. This method requires that the gasket be replaced, which can become expensive both in labor costs and shut down costs. There are many applications wherein it is desirable to obtain a continuous sample from fluid transportation systems or fluid processing enclosures. The discrete sampling methods typically extract a discrete sample size limited to the volume of a hypodermic needle and syringe. Typically the needle is inserted, fluid is drawn, and the needle is removed. It would be beneficial in some applications to have a system that could draw a continuous, controlled and constant sample volume over an extended period of time. A sampling device that facilitates this feature would also need to accommodate larger volume samples and a means to cool the sample during longer sampling time periods. While continuous sampling techniques have been tried, they have generally not been particularly effective, efficient or reliable in maintaining the aseptic condition of the system during the sampling interval. Known discrete sampling techniques have not proven to be readily adaptable to continuous sampling techniques. For example, if the sample is taken from a region of laminar fluid flow, the sampling needle can create a venturi effect in the fluid flow being sampled, which can cause reverse flow siphoning from the collected sample and back into the sampled fluid. If such suction effect is disrupted by providing the sampling system with an air gap, the aseptic nature of the sampling system is compromised. Improvement in methods and devices for sampling is needed, generally to better accommodate: ease of repeated continuous sampling of large volumes; structural integrity of fluid transport equipment; management of contamination; and convenience of continuous and controlled volume sampling. The present invention addresses these and other needs for continuous sampling of fluid transportation systems or fluid processing enclosures. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an efficient, effective and reliable assembly and method for aseptic continuous sampling of a fluid material. The principles of this invention can be simply implemented with readily available materials and techniques that enable application of the invention to sampling equipment of original design, as well as to relatively simple and inexpensive retrofitting of existing fluid enclosures or fluid transportation systems. The principles of this invention can readily be implemented in kit form for retrofitting applications. Further, replacement of expendable parts for maintaining the sampling system can be readily and inexpensively achieved without costly system down time and by minimizing contamination to the sampled system. In one aspect of the invention, the disclosure describes a continuous sampling arrangement including a collection container, a connecting conduit in closed fluid communication with the collection container, a collector in fluid communication with the connecting conduit, a pipe elbow having an aperture, and a septum positioned within the pipe aperture. The septum is constructed to provide for penetration of the needle to facilitate fluid communication between the pipe elbow and the collection container. In another aspect of the invention, the disclosure describes a continuous sampling arrangement configured to create a non-laminar flow area from which a continuous sample is drawn. A septum is placed adjacent the non-laminar flow area to facilitate penetration of a needle into the non-laminar flow area and provide fluid communication between the non-laminar flow area and a collection container. In yet another aspect, a method for aseptic continuous sampling is disclosed wherein the principles described herein in a variety of embodiments are used in aseptic processes of sampling fluids. In still another aspect, the invention relates to a kit that retrofits to existing fluid transportation systems or enclosures to permit aseptic continuous sampling according to the principles disclosed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Referring to the drawings wherein like numerals represent like parts throughout the several views, FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a system incorporating a continuous sampling arrangement in accordance with the principles disclosed; FIG. 2 is a detailed schematic illustration of one embodiment of the continuous sampling arrangement in accordance with the principles disclosed; FIG. 3 is a side view of a pipe elbow depicted in the sampling arrangement of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a top view of the pipe elbow depicted in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a top view of one embodiment of a septum used in the sampling arrangement of FIG. 2; FIG. 6 is a top fractional view of another embodiment of a septum used in the sampling arrangement of FIG. 2; FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view of the septum shown in FIG. 5, taken generally along line 7-7 of FIG. 5; FIG. 8 is a fragmentary perspective view of a needle depicted in the sampling arrangement of FIG. 2; and FIG. 9 is an illustration of one embodiment of a regulating device that can be used in the sampling arrangement of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION This invention provides an apparatus and method for the continuous aseptic sampling of fluid material from a fluid transportation system or fluid processing enclosure 5, schematically illustrated in FIG. 1. A fluid material 6 to be sampled is illustrated as flowing through a fluid line 20 by the fluid flow arrow designation “F”. A preferred sampling arrangement of the present invention is schematically illustrated at 10 and is depicted as operatively connected, by the dashed line 8, to sample the fluid material 6 (as hereinafter described in more detail). The principles described herein for the sampling arrangement 10 can be used in various industries and in various applications where aseptic sampling of material is desired. Aseptic sampling involves transferring fluids to or from process systems that are sensitive to contamination from the outside environment. For example, the pharmaceutical, bioengineering/biotechnology, brewing/distilling, food processing and dairy processing industries are in need of aseptic sampling technology. Such sampling technology can be applied broadly, the applications ranging from process monitoring to laboratory and research applications. For example, the fluid processing enclosure or fluid transportation system 5 illustrated in FIG. 1 may comprise a dairy processing system used in the dairy industry. An example of one type of fluid processing enclosure or fluid transportation system 5 that has been used in the dairy processing industry is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,269,350 and herein incorporated by reference. In such a system, the fluid material 6 therein may include raw milk or a processed milk product. The sampling arrangement 10 may be incorporated or retrofitted to the fluid transportation system 5 to provide continuous aseptic sampling for detecting microbial contamination or monitoring mastitis, coliform, food-borne illness bacteria, or spoilage bacteria in a dairy herd, for example. While preferred embodiments of this invention will be described with respect to its sampling use and application in the dairy industry, it will be understood that the invention is not to be construed as limited to use in that industry or to the particular application described. The Structural Components, Generally. Referring to FIG. 2, the preferred sampling arrangement 10 depicted includes: an elbow 12 having flanges 14 and a port 22; a least one septum or septum cartridge 40 (shown in phantom); a connecting conduit 16; and a collection container 18. In general, the sampling arrangement 10 comprises an arrangement that provides for a continuous draw of fluid from a flow F within a fluid line 20, and deposits the fluid sample in the collection container 18 to provide the user with an accumulated process sample. It is to be understood that the fluid line 20 may comprise a variety of fluid transportation systems or fluid containment enclosures, and is not limited to pipe constructions. The collection container 18 may include a pouch, bag, reservoir, or other closed container of a typical construction and size, such as those used in the medical industry. In the illustrated embodiment, a medical type bag comprising a 2-liter collection pouch or bag is used. A variety of sizes and constructions of containers is contemplated. As illustrated, the pipe segment or elbow 12 of the sampling arrangement 10 is in direct fluid communication with the fluid line 20 of the fluid transportation system. In accordance with the principles of the present invention, it is desirable to perform sampling from an area or region of non-laminar flow within the line 20. The elbow 12 provides a turbulent or non-laminar flow region within its interior flow cavity by its non-linear configuration. It is to be understood that there are other means of creating a non-laminar flow region within the fluid flow line, such as having a protrusion or device extending into the flowing fluid within a substantially straight portion of the fluid line. Therein fluid turbulence or non-laminar flow is formed downstream of the extending device or protrusion. Creation of a non-laminar sampling region eliminates the problem of reversed fluid flow from the sample to the main fluid line, which commonly occurs in devices and methods of the prior art. Referring now to FIGS. 3 and 4, the connection flanges 14 of the elbow 12 extend circumferentially at each end of the elbow 12. The flanges 14 may include grooves (shown in phantom) sized to receive sealing gaskets (not shown) to seal the connections between pipe segments when installed in common fluid transportation line systems. In accord with the principles of the present invention, the sampling arrangement is generally adapted to be retrofit within existing fluid lines of various fluid flow systems 5 (FIG. 1). Certainly the sampling arrangement 10 can be incorporated as original equipment into new installations of fluid transportation lines as well. Other means of connection or retrofit adaptation, including welding, are contemplated as a means of installation. The sampling arrangement is generally designed with standard plumbing components to facilitate retrofit modifications. It is to be understood that non-standard elements, such as non-standard pipe diameter, fittings, or material, are within the scope of the principles disclosed. Preferably the elbow 12 is made of industry standard stainless steel, such as 304 or 316L stainless steel. Other materials applicable for use in the industry into which the sampling arrangement is implemented are contemplated. The elbow depicted in FIG. 3 incorporates a standard 90-degree elbow. The angular configuration of the elbow will typically be a standard dimension within the range of 35 degrees to 180 degrees, typically 90 degrees. The preferred diameter of the elbow pipe is at least 1 inch, typically from about 1.5 to 3.5 inches in diameter. The elbow 12 according to the present invention includes at least one aperture or port 22. The elbow 12 may be located in any configuration in the fluid transportation system where the port 22 is operably in fluid communication with the fluid material 6 within the system. Thus, the interior angle of the elbow 12 may be oriented, for example, upward, downward or sideways in a fluid line arrangement. It is also contemplated that to ensure that the port is operably in fluid communication with the fluid material 6, the port 22 may be configured in alternative locations on the elbow 12. In the illustrated embodiment, the port 22 is located on the outer radius of the elbow 12. Alternative embodiments may include, for example, an elbow having a port located on the interior radius of the elbow. Preferably, the port 22 is disposed at or within a non-laminar flow region of the elbow 12. As depicted in FIG. 3, the port 22 may include a transversely extending pipe portion or conduit 26. The conduit 26 is sized to receive a septum cartridge 40. The conduit 26 may include an externally threaded region 28 for purposes of securing the septum cartridge 40. In one embodiment, the thread comprises a standard 1.5″-8 ACME thread corresponding to a mating internally threaded nut 30. The threaded nut 30 may include an internal annular shoulder 32 (shown in phantom). The annular shoulder 32 acts as a bearing surface that engages a first surface 46 of the septum cartridge 40 (shown also in FIG. 7) to secure the septum cartridge in sealing manner when assembled within the port 22. Other types of fasteners commonly used as securing or retaining means within this context are contemplated and may include, for example, a hex nut, a knurled lock nut, or a keyed nut. Referring generally to FIG. 2, the septum cartridge 40 is in fluid communication with the interior cavity of the fluid line 20 by means of the aperture or port 22 in the elbow 12. As shown in FIGS. 5-7, the septum cartridge 40 generally comprises a cap 45, a central core member or boot 49, and a plurality of guide holes 48 formed through the cap. For purposes of clarifying features, the septum cartridge 40 can be considered to have a top 41 and a bottom 42. The cross-section of the boot 49 is seen to increase progressively from the bottom 42 toward the top 41 of the septum cartridge 40. The boot 49 is sized such that when the boot is placed within the port 22 of the elbow there is compressive contact between the interior surfaces defining the port 22 and the boot 49. The boot thereby functions as a sealing member. The boot 49 illustrated is generally conical, but could adopt a variety of shapes as will be obvious from the following discussion of the functioning of the septum cartridge in combination with other components of the invention. The boot 49 may be made of material that is generally considered to be of a rubber compound. While compounding of an acceptable rubber composition is believed to be within the skill of the rubber molding art, it is found that rubber compounds based on ethylene propylene diene monomer terpolymer (EPDM) are particularly advantageous, having suitable sealing characteristics. EPDM is a known elastomer, and recognized by those skilled in the polymer arts. Other elastomers are contemplated, such as those derived from, or modified with, butene isoprene, ethylene, and the like. In an alternative embodiment, the boot may comprise a silicon compound. Silicon also provides suitable sealing characteristics. Materials such as Viton or other FDA approved elastomers are also contemplated for use in manufacture of the boot. Preferably, the cap 45 includes an annular radially extending portion 34 defining the first upwardly oriented surface 46 and an opposing second lower surface 47. The outer diameter of the annular portion 34 is preferably only slightly less than the inner diameter of the internal shoulder 32 on the threaded nut 30 for purposes of engaging and retaining the septum cartridge 40 within the port 22 of the elbow in the sampling arrangement 10. The cap 45 is made of a material that is normally not penetrable by conventional hypodermic needles. A typical material for fabrication of the cap may include one of the engineering plastics, such as nylon, polypropylene, or high-density polyethylene. The penetrability of the septum cartridge 40 is thus provided by one or more of the integrally formed guide holes 48, which begin from a top surface 43 of the cap 45 and extend downwardly through the cap 45. The guide holes 48 are integral with the cap 45 and located to correspond to the boot 49. The guide holes 48 extend downwardly through the cap structure 45 and are oriented and positioned so that a sampling needle 50 (shown in FIG. 8) may pass through the guide hole 48 and into the boot 49. The guide holes 48 are generally sized to be only slightly larger than the needle, such that the needle slidably fits snugly within the guide hole, preferably without substantial friction, but with a close enough fit to ensure that the guide hole provides direction to the needle as it is inserted through the boot. In one embodiment (FIG. 5), the septum cartridge 40a includes seven guide holes. In another embodiment (FIG. 6), the septum cartridge 40b includes twelve guide holes. Typically the septum cartridge includes at least one guide hole, generally 1 to 15 guide holes. A cover film 60 covers the top surface 43 of the cap 45, including the guide holes 48 formed in the top surface 43 of the cap 45. The cover film 60 easily identifies used holes to reduce the risk of contamination from reinserting a needle into a previously used guide hole. The cover film 60 may be made from any readily pierceable film material. A typical film material is a vinyl tape having an adhesive coating to securably attach the cover film 60 to the top surface of the cap 45. Referring to FIGS. 2 and 8, the penetrating body or needle 50 is in fluid communication with the connecting conduit 16, and the connecting conduit 16 is in fluid communication with the collection container 18. In the preferred embodiment, the needle comprises a beveled end 51 having an aperture 52 that defines a hollow portion running longitudinally through the needle 50. It is to be understood that other penetrating bodies, such as lumens, hollow members, or inserting devices may be used in accordance with the principles disclosed. In use, the needle 50 penetrates the cover 60, passes through a selected guide hole 48, and penetrates through the boot 49. As the needle penetrates the boot, the needle displaces the elastomeric/rubber material of the boot which forms a fluid impenetrable seal about the needle. The beveled end 51 of the needle 50 progresses through the boot 49 and emerges from the boot at the bottom 42 of the septum cartridge 40. The needle therein enters into the flow of fluid F. The needle 50 is sized and adapted for use with the septum cartridge 40. Typically the needle comprises a 12 gauge to 22 gauge needle, preferably a 16 gauge needle. The needle generally has a length of from about 1.0 inches to 4.5 inches. Preferably the needle is at least 1.5 inches in length if the port 22 is bottom placement oriented and at least 2.0 inches if the port 22 is top placement oriented. What is meant by top and bottom placement oriented is how the sampling port is oriented with respect to ground. Thus, if the elbow is top placement oriented, a longer needle 50 is needed to ensure the needle aperture 52 is submerged within the fluid material when operatively inserted through the septum 40. Still referring to FIG. 2, the connecting conduit 16 also includes sealing ends 62 at locations where the fluid flow transitions from the needle 50 to the connecting conduit 16 and from the connecting conduit 16 to the collection container 18. A typical, usable connecting conduit is the type used by the medical industry in fluid administration sets. Conduit in accordance with the principles disclosed includes, for example, tubing, flexible piping or flexible lumen constructions that provide closed, aseptic fluid communication between ends. Preferably the connecting conduit 16 is of sufficient length to reach from the elbow 12 to an area where the collection container 18 is placed. The length may thus vary and typically falls within the range of 5 inches to 65 inches, and preferably is about 38 inches in length. In one embodiment, the connecting conduit comprises a 0.121 inch inside diameter and a 0.166 outside diameter. It is to be understood that typical fluid administration sets having a needle, connecting conduit, and a collection pouch are contemplated for use in this sampling arrangement. In use, the needle 50 is inserted through the septum 40 into a non-laminar fluid flow region of the elbow 12. Sampling at a non-laminar fluid flow region addresses the problem of reversed fluid flow often created by a venturi effect of prior sampling systems. The venturi effect is created where the velocity of the laminar fluid flow flowing past an orifice or tube opening (such as in a needle) causes a corresponding decrease in fluid pressure, which creates a siphoning or suction. Thus, instead of drawing sampled fluid from the fluid line into a collection container, sampled fluid is actually drawn from the collection container back into the fluid line. The sampling arrangement 10 of the present invention reduces or eliminates this problem. Some Selected Alternate Embodiments Alternative embodiments incorporating the principles of the present invention will be apparent from the description below and in the context of the illustrations in FIGS. 2 and 9. In one alternative embodiment, the sampling arrangement 10 includes a flow restricting device. The flow restricting device may comprise a clamp 64 as shown in FIG. 2. The clamp 64 compressively engages the outer surface of the connecting conduit 16 and is adjustable such that flow through the tube may be restricted to a desired flow rate. Thereby, the continuous sampling rate may be increased or decreased during sampling as needed. Another embodiment of the sampling arrangement includes an alternative means of regulating flow. FIG. 9 depicts a fragmented portion of a sampling arrangement including a metering or peristaltic pump 68. The peristaltic pump 68 cooperatively engages connecting conduit 16 and is adjusted as is known in the art to provide a desired regulated flow rate. The clamp 64 and the peristaltic pump 68 are products of common manufacture. The clamp may comprise any clamping device suitable to provide restriction in the connecting conduit 16. The peristaltic pump may comprise, for example, a variable flow pump having a medium flow rate of 4.0 to 85.0 milliliters per minute. Specifically, a Medium Flow variable flow pump, Model Number 54856-075, manufactured by MASTERFLEX is one variable flow pump that may be used. Yet another embodiment of the present invention provides for cooling of the extracted sample held by the collection container. If it is desirable to keep the extracted sample cool during collection, the collection container 18 may be placed in an insulated cooler 70 surrounded by ice or cold packs as shown in FIG. 1, for example. Common coolers can be modified to include a hole 72 in the top or lid through which the connecting conduit 16 can be routed. The alternative embodiments herein described may be used in combination with each other or used independent of one another. The Method of Continuous Sampling, Generally. In operation, the elbow 12 is installed at a convenient sampling location along a fluid line 20. The elbow is preferably oriented such that the port 22 is in direct fluid contact with the material transferred within the fluid line, to reduce the potential of air drawn during sampling. The boot 49 of the septum cartridge 40 is placed into the sampling port 22 until the second surface 47 of the cap 45 rests against the outer edge of the sampling port 22. The securing nut 30 is installed onto the conduit of the port 22 to sealingly, operatively secure the septum within the port. For aseptic sampling, the sampling arrangement, including the port, nut, septum cartridge, etc, are sanitized with a common alcohol prep or other sanitizer. In particular, aseptic sampling is optimized when the cover film 60 is cleansed with a disinfectant, and a sterilized needle 50 is inserted through the disinfected cover film, through an unused guide hole, and through the septum boot. The needle is preferably directed or slanted toward the center of the septum boot at insertion. This provides greater assurance that the needle penetrates through the entirety of the boot. In effect, the boot essentially squeegees or cleanses the needle of any contaminants missed during initial aseptic disinfectant processes. Directing the needle toward the center of the boot also reduces the possibility of contacting the wall of the extended portion of the elbow. The needle may be oriented such that the beveled end 51 faces toward the flow of the fluid material to aid in fluid sampling. A pressure differential is applied between the collection container and the fluid line to effect the fluid sampling or material transfer. The pressure differential maybe applied in a number of ways. One way is by introducing pressure into the fluid line. Another is by reducing pressure in the connecting conduit or collection container. Any means of generating an adequate pressure differential between the fluid line and the collection container is effective to cause the flow of material through the needle. Other methods of applying the pressure differential and thus effecting the transfer of a sample will be obvious to those skilled in the art. Material from a tank, for example, thus flows from the fluid line 20, through the needle 50, and into the collection container 18 by way of the connecting conduit 16. In one alternative application, the collection container may be placed into a cooling container 70 of ice or ice water, for example, to reduce or eliminate bacterial growth during the sampling process. The flow from the fluid line 20 to the collection container 18 may be adjusted to a particular flow or sampling rate by means of the clamp restriction. The flow may likewise be metered wherein the peristaltic pump is assembled to the connecting conduit to regulate the flow. When the desired sample has been collected, the collection container is removed from the connecting conduit 16 and sealed. The needle 50 is removed from the septum cartridge 40. As the needle end is withdrawn, the material of the boot 49 withdraws into the position held prior to needle penetration. The boot 49 of the septum 40 thus closes and seals the passageway of the now removed needle. After performing a number of sampling procedures, so that all guide holes have been used, the septum cartridge 40 is removed and discarded. The punctured cover film 60 provides a ready indictor of those guide holes that have been used. A new septum cartridge easily replaces the used septum cartridge for future samplings. The above specification, examples and data provide a complete description of the manufacture and use of the invention. Many embodiments of the invention can be made according to the disclosed principles. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There are numerous applications wherein it is desirable to obtain discrete or continuous samples from fluid transportation systems or fluid processing enclosures. Enclosures and fluid transportation systems, as used herein, refer to any closed containment structure without respect to its size. Thus it includes such small enclosures such as cans that may be used in shipping starter bacteria from a culture lab. On the other end of the spectrum, it includes large tanks and associated pipelines, which may have capacities of several thousand gallons, such as are used in the dairy processing industry. Efficient and effective techniques and apparatus for obtaining aseptic samples from such systems and enclosures, are particularly desirable. Examples of industries that require such aseptic sampling include, but are not limited to, the pharmaceutical, bioengineering/biotechnology, brewing/distilling, food processing and dairy processing industries. Applications for such samplings range broadly from process monitoring to laboratory and research applications. For example, sampling is commonly used on dairy farms for herd management or in regulated manufacturing facilities. The sampling is used to detect and control microbial contamination, spoilage microorganisms, food-borne illness, and environmental mastitis both within systems being sampled and externally of such systems. While preferred embodiments of this invention will be described with respect to its sampling use and application in the dairy industry, it will be understood that the invention is not to be construed as limited to use in that industry or to the application described, or to any limitations associated with the specifics of the components or methods disclosed with respect to such preferred embodiments. Various methods and devices have been employed to perform sampling tasks. Typical sampling techniques commonly involve discrete or isolated sampling from a laminar portion of a fluid transport line. Typical such sampling systems and techniques that have been used in the dairy processing industry are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,941,517; 5,086,813; and 5,269,350. To the extent that such patents may be used to assist the reader in understanding principles and examples of sampling apparatus and methods, they are herein incorporated by reference. While the apparatus and techniques described in these patents are particularly applicable to systems designed to accommodate them, there also exists a need to perform sampling in existing enclosures and fluid transportation systems that have not been designed for sampling functions. Such systems typically require redesign or retrofitting to accommodate sampling functions. Such retrofitting can be expensive and/or difficult to achieve, can require significant system downtime in implementation of the sampling function and/or replacement of parts to maintain the system, or can lead to system degradation or contamination of the system being sampled. For example, one known method of discrete sampling of fluid involves inserting a needle through a sealing gasket located between connecting ends of pipelines of the fluid transportation system. Problems arises from this method as this method is not aseptic because the gasket becomes so perforated after repeated sampling that the gasket may lose its sealing integrity or introduce contaminants into the system though the perforations. This method requires that the gasket be replaced, which can become expensive both in labor costs and shut down costs. There are many applications wherein it is desirable to obtain a continuous sample from fluid transportation systems or fluid processing enclosures. The discrete sampling methods typically extract a discrete sample size limited to the volume of a hypodermic needle and syringe. Typically the needle is inserted, fluid is drawn, and the needle is removed. It would be beneficial in some applications to have a system that could draw a continuous, controlled and constant sample volume over an extended period of time. A sampling device that facilitates this feature would also need to accommodate larger volume samples and a means to cool the sample during longer sampling time periods. While continuous sampling techniques have been tried, they have generally not been particularly effective, efficient or reliable in maintaining the aseptic condition of the system during the sampling interval. Known discrete sampling techniques have not proven to be readily adaptable to continuous sampling techniques. For example, if the sample is taken from a region of laminar fluid flow, the sampling needle can create a venturi effect in the fluid flow being sampled, which can cause reverse flow siphoning from the collected sample and back into the sampled fluid. If such suction effect is disrupted by providing the sampling system with an air gap, the aseptic nature of the sampling system is compromised. Improvement in methods and devices for sampling is needed, generally to better accommodate: ease of repeated continuous sampling of large volumes; structural integrity of fluid transport equipment; management of contamination; and convenience of continuous and controlled volume sampling. The present invention addresses these and other needs for continuous sampling of fluid transportation systems or fluid processing enclosures. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides an efficient, effective and reliable assembly and method for aseptic continuous sampling of a fluid material. The principles of this invention can be simply implemented with readily available materials and techniques that enable application of the invention to sampling equipment of original design, as well as to relatively simple and inexpensive retrofitting of existing fluid enclosures or fluid transportation systems. The principles of this invention can readily be implemented in kit form for retrofitting applications. Further, replacement of expendable parts for maintaining the sampling system can be readily and inexpensively achieved without costly system down time and by minimizing contamination to the sampled system. In one aspect of the invention, the disclosure describes a continuous sampling arrangement including a collection container, a connecting conduit in closed fluid communication with the collection container, a collector in fluid communication with the connecting conduit, a pipe elbow having an aperture, and a septum positioned within the pipe aperture. The septum is constructed to provide for penetration of the needle to facilitate fluid communication between the pipe elbow and the collection container. In another aspect of the invention, the disclosure describes a continuous sampling arrangement configured to create a non-laminar flow area from which a continuous sample is drawn. A septum is placed adjacent the non-laminar flow area to facilitate penetration of a needle into the non-laminar flow area and provide fluid communication between the non-laminar flow area and a collection container. In yet another aspect, a method for aseptic continuous sampling is disclosed wherein the principles described herein in a variety of embodiments are used in aseptic processes of sampling fluids. In still another aspect, the invention relates to a kit that retrofits to existing fluid transportation systems or enclosures to permit aseptic continuous sampling according to the principles disclosed. | 20041119 | 20060516 | 20050331 | 99674.0 | 1 | NOLAND, THOMAS | CONTINUOUS FLUID SAMPLER AND METHOD | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,994,687 | ACCEPTED | Method and system for coherently caching I/O devices across a network | The cache keeps regularly accessed disk I/O data within RAM that forms part of a computer systems main memory. The cache operates across a network of computers systems, maintaining cache coherency for the disk I/O devices that are shared by the multiple computer systems within that network. Read access for disk I/O data that is contained within the RAM is returned much faster than would occur if the disk I/O device was accessed directly. The data is held in one of three areas of the RAM for the cache, dependent on the size of the I/O access. The total RAM containing the three areas for the cache does not occupy a fixed amount of a computers main memory. The RAM for the cache grows to contain more disk I/O data on demand and shrinks when more of the main memory is required by the computer system for other uses. The user of the cache is allowed to specify which size of I/O access is allocated to the three areas for the RAM, along with a limit for the total amount of main memory that will be used by the cache at any one time. | 1. A method for coherently caching I/O devices available for shared access on a network comprising: creating a data structure for each of a plurality of I/O devices connected to said network, each said data structure including a list of all computers on said network that permit caching with respect to the I/O device corresponding to said data structure; receiving a write instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices; writing data from said instruction into one of the caches; and communicating with all computers in the list of computers in the data structure corresponding to said one of said I/O devices to invalidate data blocks associated with addresses in said write instruction. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said plurality of caches includes a first cache having data buckets of a first size and a second cache having data buckets of a second size larger than said first size. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising invalidating all data blocks cached by coherently caching computers in the network when a computer joins said network. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein each of said caches include a plurality of queues in which the data structures for the data buckets are listed. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein said plurality of queues include a least recently used queue, a free queue for available data buckets, and an in-progress queue for data buckets that are in the midst of an instruction, such that a plurality of instructions may be in progress at one time with respect to different data buckets. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising listening on said network for a request from a computer to connect to said network. 7. The method of claim 6, further comprising stopping cache operations when a computer connects to said network. 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising receiving a write complete instruction from said one of said I/O devices and responsively initiating said communicating with all computers. 9. A caching system comprising: a plurality of computers, each having a memory; a network interconnecting said plurality of computers; a plurality of I/O devices connected to said network; and cache software resident in each of said computers, wherein the cache software comprises: remote message code that communicates with the cache software on any of said computers; data structure code that creates a data structure for each of selected ones of said I/O devices, each said data structure including a list of all of said computers that cache data from the I/O device corresponding to said data structure; and write instruction code that receives a write instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices, wherein the remote message facility communicates with each computer in the list of computers in the data structure corresponding to said one of said I/O devices to invalidate data in the caches of each computer in the list. 10. The caching system of claim 9, wherein said plurality of I/O devices comprises a plurality of disk drives. 11. The caching system of claim 9, wherein the cache software further includes read instruction code that receives a read instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices and that reads data from the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses corresponding to data in the cache. 12. The caching system of claim 11, wherein the cache software further includes code that writes data into the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses that do not correspond to any data in the cache. 13. The caching system of claim 9, wherein the cache software further includes write complete code that receives a write complete instruction from said one of said I/O devices and that initiates the sending of messages to cache software on other computers. 14. The caching system of claim 9, wherein said plurality of computers includes a plurality of computers running an Open VMS operating system. 15. The caching system of claim 9, wherein said plurality of computers includes a first plurality of computers interacting as a VAXcluster. 16. The caching system of claim 15, wherein said plurality of computers further includes a second plurality of computers interacting as a VMScluster. 17. The caching system of claim 9, wherein the cache software further comprises listening code that listens on said network for a request from a computer to connect to said network. 18. The caching system of claim 17, wherein the cache software further comprises invalidation code that invalidates all data in the cache of the computer in which said cache software resides when a computer connects to said network. 19. The caching system of claim 9, wherein the cache software creates a plurality of caches in the memory of the computer in which said cache software resides, each of said caches including a plurality of data buckets and data structures for identifying the data buckets. 20. The caching system of claim 19, wherein the plurality of caches created by each cache software includes a first cache having data structures for data buckets having a first size and a second cache having data structures for data buckets having a second size larger than said first size. 21. The caching system of claim 19, wherein each cache includes a plurality of queues in which the data structures for identifying the data buckets are listed. 22. The caching system of claim 21, wherein said plurality of queues include a least recently used queue, a free queue for available data buckets and an in-progress queue for data buckets that are in the midst of an instruction, such that a plurality of instructions may be in progress on one computer at one time with respect to different data buckets. 23. A method for coherently caching I/O devices available for shared access on a network comprising: creating a cache in the memory of a computer connected to the network; creating a data structure for each of a plurality of I/O devices connected to said network for which data may be cached by said computer, each said data structure including a list of all computers on said network that cache data from the I/O device corresponding to said data structure; receiving a write instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices; and communicating over the network with each computer in the list of computers in the data structure corresponding to said one of said I/O devices to invalidate data associated with the write instruction. 24. The method of claim 23, further comprising listening on said network for a request from a computer to connect to said network. 25. The method of claim 24, further comprising stopping cache operations when a computer connects to said network. 26. The method of claim 23, further comprising writing data into the cache in response to receiving the write instruction. 27. The method of claim 23, further comprising receiving a read instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices from said computer. 28. The method of claim 27, further comprising reading data from the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses corresponding to data in the cache. 29. The method of claim 27, further comprising writing data into the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses that do not correspond to any data in the cache. 30. The method of claim 23, further comprising receiving a write complete instruction from said one of said I/O devices before commencing said communicating over the network. 31. The method of claim 23, wherein said creating a cache comprises creating a plurality of caches in the memory, each cache having a different bucket size for storing data. 32. The method of claim 23, further comprising creating a plurality of queues each containing a list of data structures corresponding to data buckets of the cache, said plurality of queues including a least recently used queue, a free queue for available data buckets and an in-progress queue for data buckets that are in the midst of an instruction, such that a plurality of instructions may be in progress at one time with respect to different data buckets. 33. A method for coherently caching I/O devices available for shared access on a network comprising: providing each of a plurality of computers on the network with cache software; operating the cache software in each of the plurality of computers; intercepting a write instruction to a disk I/O device; and intercepting a write complete instruction from said one of said I/O devices and responsively sending remote messages to the other cache software caching this I/O device to purge obsolete images of the data associated with the write instruction. 34. A caching system comprising: a network; a plurality of computers interacting as a shared disk access cluster on said network, each computer having a memory; a plurality of I/O devices connected to said network; a plurality of cache drivers, each resident in one of said computers, to create a cache in the memory of the computer in which the cache driver resides, said cache being configured to cache data from selected ones of said I/O devices, wherein each cache driver knows of the existence of all other cache drivers caching the selected I/O device, and wherein each cache driver includes: remote messaging code that forms a computer communication channel with a cache driver on any of said computers for sending messages relating to caching, wherein said remote messaging code saves a remote connection address for each of the communication channels; and listening code that listens on said network for a request from a computer to connect to said network. 35. The caching system of claim 34, wherein each of said cache drivers stops cache operations when a new computer connects to said network. 36. The caching system of claim 34, wherein each cache driver further includes code that allocates extra message buffers for newly created computer communication channels. 37. The caching system of claim 34, wherein each of said cache drivers further includes code that initiates a timing delay after a computer connects to said network and code that compares a count of the number of computers on the network with a count of the number of computer communication channels that have been formed by said cache driver so that caching is only reinitiated when said counts are equal. 38. The caching system of claim 34, wherein each of said cache drivers further includes write code that receives a write instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices and invalidation code that uses said remote messaging code to invalidate data in the caches of any computer that is caching said one of said plurality of I/O devices. 39. The caching system of claim 34 wherein each of said cache drivers further includes read code that receives a read instruction to one of said plurality of I/O devices and reads data from the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses corresponding to data in the cache. 40. The caching system of claim 39, wherein said read code writes data into the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses that do not correspond to any data in the cache. 41. The caching system of claim 34, wherein each of said cache drivers creates a plurality of caches in the memory of the computer in which said cache driver resides. 42. The caching system of claim 41, wherein the plurality of caches created by each cache driver includes a first cache having data buckets of a first size, and a second cache having data buckets of a second size larger than the first size. 43. The caching system of claim 34, wherein each of said computers runs an operating system and each of said cache drivers allocates to the cache, space in the memory of the computer in which the cache driver resides, when creating the cache. 44. The caching system of claim 43, wherein each of said cache drivers further comprises system memory check code that checks on how much of the memory of the computer is available to the operating system. 45. The caching system of claim 44, wherein each of said cache drivers further comprises code that releases space in the memory of the computer in which the cache driver resides from the cache back to the operating system in response to a determination by the system memory check code that the operating system has insufficient memory available. 46. A caching system comprising: a network; a first computer connected to said network said first computer having a memory; a second computer connected to said network said second computer having a memory; one or more I/O devices connected to said network; and a plurality of cache drivers, each resident in one of said first and second computers to create a cache in the memory of the computer in which the cache driver resides for caching data from selected ones of said one or more I/O devices, each cache driver including remote messaging code that forms a computer communication channel with a cache driver on another computer on said network via which messages relating to caching may be communicated, said remote messaging code further saving a remote connection address for each computer communication channel formed from the computer in which the cache driver resides. 47. The caching system of claim 46, wherein each of said cache drivers is configured to initiate a timing delay after another computer connects to said network and is further configured to compare a count of the number of computers on the network with a count of the number of computer communication channels that have been formed by said cache driver so that caching is only reinitiated when said counts are equal. 48. The caching system of claim 46, wherein each of said cache drivers is configured to stop cache operations when another computer connects to said network. 49. The caching system of claim 46, wherein each cache driver is further configured to allocate message buffers for newly created computer communications channels. 50. The caching system of claim 46, wherein at least one of said cache drivers is configured to receive a write instruction to one of said one or more I/O devices and is further configured to use the computer communication channels to invalidate data in the cache of any computer that is caching said one of said one or more I/O devices. 51. The caching system of claim 46, wherein each of said cache drivers is configured to receive a read instruction to one of said one or more I/O devices and is further configured to read data from the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses corresponding to data in the cache. 52. The caching system of claim 51, wherein each of said cache drivers is further configured to write data into the cache when the read instruction relates to addresses that do not correspond to any data in the cache. 53. The caching system of claim 46, wherein each of said first and second computers runs an operating system and each of said cache drivers allocates to the cache, space in the memory of the computer in which said cache driver resides, when creating the cache. 54. The caching system of claim 53, wherein each of said cache drivers monitors how much of the memory of the computer is available to the operating system. 55. The caching system of claim 54, wherein each of said cache drivers releases space in the memory of the computer in which the cache driver resides from the cache back to the operating system in response to a determination that the operating system has insufficient memory available. 56. A method for accelerating access to data on a network having two or more computers with shared access to disk I/O devices connected to said network, said method comprising: creating caches in RAMs of a plurality of the computers connected to the network, each cache knowing of the existence of all other caches capable of caching a given I/O device; receiving a write instruction to the given one of the I/O devices connected to the network; sending the write instruction to the given I/O device; receiving a write completion instruction from given the I/O device; communicating over the network to invalidate data in other remote caches known to be caching the given I/O device. 57. The method of claim 56, further comprising creating a data structure in the computers for each of the I/O devices connected to said network and cacheable by the respective computer, each said data structure including a list of all computers on said network that cache the I/O device corresponding to said data structure and wherein said step of communicating comprises communicating over the network with each computer in the list of computers in the data structure corresponding to the given I/O device to invalidate data cached from the given I/O device. 58. The method of claim 56, further comprising updating data in the cache of the computer that received the write instruction before sending the write instruction to the I/O device. 59. The method of claim 58, further comprising creating a data structure in the computers for each of the I/O devices connected to said network and cacheable by the respective computer, each said data structure including a list of all computers on said network that cache the I/O device corresponding to said data structure, and wherein said step of communicating comprises communicating over the network with each computer in the list of computers in the data structure corresponding to the given I/O device to invalidate data cached from the given I/O device. 60. The method of claim 58, wherein the write instruction is specifically addressed to only data being written to the given I/O device and said step of communicating over the network invalidates only the specifically addressed data cached from the given I/O device. 61. The method of claim 56, wherein said receiving of the write I/O completion signal from the given I/O device occurs before the step of communicating over the network. 62. The method of claim 56, further comprising listening on the network for a request from a computer to connect to the network. 63. The method of claim 62, further comprising stopping caching when a computer connects to the network. 64. The method of claim 56, wherein the write instruction is specifically addressed to data in the given I/O device and said step of communicating over the network invalidates only the specifically addressed data cached from the given I/O device. 65. The method of claim 56, wherein the write instruction is specifically addressed to data in the given I/O device and said step of communicating over the network invalidates only data blocks that overlap with the specifically addressed data. | This is a continuation of co-pending U.S. Ser. No. 10/709,040, filed Apr. 8, 2004 which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/683,853, filed Oct. 10, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/052,873, filed Jan. 16, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,651,136, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/300,633, filed Apr. 27, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,370,615, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 08/657,777, filed May 31, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,918,244, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 08/238,815, filed May 6, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,577,226, the full disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a disk caching technique using software, in particular, disk caching software for use on an OpenVMS operating system. OpenVMS is the operating system used on VAX and Alpha AXP computers. Computer users are always looking for ways to speed up operations on their computers. One source of the drag on computer speed is the time it takes to conduct an input/output operation to the hard disk drive or other mechanical disk devices. Such devices are slowed by mechanical movement latencies and I/O bus traffic requirements. One conventional method for avoiding this speed delay is to cache frequently accessed disk data in the computer main memory. Access to this cached data in main memory is much quicker than always accessing the hard disk drive for the data. Access speed to a hard disk drive is replaced by main memory access speed to the data resident in the cache. There is a significant down side to the conventional form of caching techniques. Caches are conventionally organized as to be made up of fixed sized areas, known as buckets, where the disk data is stored, with all the buckets added together making up the fixed total size of the computer main memory allocated for use by the cache. No matter what size the original disk access was this data has to be accommodated in the cache buckets. Thus, if the disk access size was very small compared to the cache bucket size, then most of the bucket storage area is wasted, containing no valid disk data at all. If the disk was accessed by many of these smaller accesses, then the cache buckets would get used up by these small data sizes and the cache would not apparently be able to hold as much data as was originally expected. If the disk access size was larger than the cache bucket size, either the data is not accommodated in the cache, or several cache buckets have to be used to accommodate the disk data which makes cache management very complicated. With this conventional approach to disk caching the computer user has to try to compromise with the single cache bucket size for all users on the computer system. If the computer is used for several different applications, then either the cache bucket size has to be biased to one type of application being at a disadvantage to all the other applications, or the cache bucket size has to averaged against all applications with the cache being at less an advantage as would be desired. It is an object of the present invention to reduce this down side of using a disk cache. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, the total cache is organized into three separate caches each having a different cache bucket size associated with it for small, medium, and large, disk access sizes. The computer user has control over the bucket sizes for each of the three cache areas. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, the computer user has control over which disks on the computer system will be included in the caching and which disks on the computer system are to be excluded from the caching. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, the total cache size contained in the computer main memory, being made up of the three cache areas, does not have a singular fixed size and will change dependent on the computer systems use. The total cache size is allowed to grow in response to high disk access demand, and to reduce when the available computer main memory becomes at a premium to the computer users. Thus the computer main memory used by the cache fluctuates dependent on disk data access and requirements of the computer main memory. The computer user has control over the upper and lower limits of which the total cache size occupies the computers main memory. The total cache will then be made up of mainly the small, or the medium, or the large bucket areas, or a spread of the three cache area sizes dependent on how the cached disks are accessed on the system. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, once the total cache size has grown to its upper limit further new demands on cache data are handled by cache bucket replacement, which operates on a least recently used algorithm. This cache bucket replacement will also occur if the total cache size is inhibited from growing owing to a high demand on computer main memory by other applications and users of the computer system. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, when a disk which is being cached is subject to a new read data access by some computer user, the required disk data is sent to the computer user and also copied into an available cache bucket dependent on size fit. This cache bucket is either newly obtained from the computer main memory or by replacing an already resident cache bucket using a least recently used algorithm. If this disk data, now resident in the cache, is again requested by a read access of some computer user, the data is returned to the requesting user directly from the cache bucket and does not involve any hard disk access at all. The data is returned at the faster computer main memory access speed, showing the speed advantage of using a disk cache mechanism. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, when a disk which is being cached is subject to a new read data access by some computer user and this disk access is larger than all three cache bucket sizes, the disk data is not copied to the cache. This oversize read access, along with other cache statistics are recorded allowing the computer user to interrogate the use of the cache. Using these statistics the computer user can adjust the size of the three cache buckets to best suit the disk use on the computer system. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, when a write access is performed to a disk which is being cached and the disk data area being written was previously read into the cache, i.e. an update operation on the disk data, the current cache buckets for the previous read disk data area are invalidated on all computers on the network. Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent during the following description of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention taken in conjunction with the drawing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1A to 1B is a schematic block diagram of the disk cache software of the invention implemented on a computer running an OpenVMS operating system. FIGS. 2A to 2D-1 are flow diagrams of the program steps for initial loading into the computer system for the disk cache software of the invention. FIGS. 3A to 3C are flow diagrams of the program steps performed when the disk cache software is started for the present invention. FIGS. 4A to 4H-2 are flow diagrams on the program steps for selecting a disk I/O device to be included into, or excluded from, the cache software of the invention. FIGS. 5A to 5P are flow diagrams on the program steps performed by the active data caching of a disk I/O device in the cache software of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, a disk cache (10) of the present invention is schematically shown in FIG. 1A to 1B. All data accesses by the operating system of the associated computer to any of the disks (12) on the system are intercepted by the cache driver (10). The operating system may be any commonly available system, however, the presently preferred embodiment of the invention is implemented in conjunction with an OpenVMS system (14). When the cache driver (10) is first loaded on the operating system all the disks (12) present on the computer system are located and a disk control structure, referred to herein as a TCB (“the control block”)(16), is built for each separate disk (12). The disks (12) can be locally connected to the computer containing this cache driver (10), or the disks (12) can be remotely connected to some other computer that this computer has a remote connection to. The presently preferred embodiment of the invention uses remote disks that are connected by the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster software. The VMS cluster software is operable on 64-bit or 32-bit architecture computer systems. The VAXcluster software only permits 32-bit computers. A TCB (16) disk control structure contains the cache status information for the disk (12), cache monitor statistics for the disk (12), and a list of remote computers containing their own copy of the cache driver (10) that can access the disk (12). The cache driver (10) maintains remote message communication channels (18) with other cache drivers loaded on other computers that can access a common set of disks (12). Whenever the OpenVMS system (14) changes the data on the disk (12), for example by doing a write data access to the disk (12), the cache driver (10) uses its remote message communication channels (18) to send a message to each of the remote cache drivers in the list contained in the TCB (16) disk control structure. Conversely, a remote cache driver would send a message to this cache driver (10), via the remote message communication channels (18), to inform this cache driver (10) of a change in the data for some remotely connected disk (12). The cache driver (10) would use this incoming message to invalidate any possible previously locally cached data for the area on the remotely connected disk (12) that has been changed by the remote OpenVMS system. The cached disk (12) data is held in computer RAM (20) allocated from OpenVMS systems (14) available free memory. This RAM (20) area is allocated on demand in chunks (22) that relate to the bucket size for which of the three caches, small, medium, or large, that the disk (12) read access size fits. For each cache data bucket (22) a corresponding bucket control structure, referred to herein as a TCMB (“the cache memory block”) (24), is built with the TCMB (24) space allocated from the OpenVMS systems (14) pool. The TCMB (24) bucket control structure contains pointers to the RAM (20) area containing the cache data bucket (22). The TCMB (24) bucket control structure is held in one of three queues off a cache control structure, referred to herein as a TCH (“the cache hash”)(26). There are three TCH (26) cache control structures, one for each of the three cache bucket sizes, small, medium and large. Each TCH (26) cache control structure contains cache statistics for the particular sized cache, small, medium, or large, three queue list heads where TCMB (24) bucket control structures are held, these being the free queue (27), the LRU queue (28), and the in-progress queue (29). Each TCH (26) cache control structure also contains a disk block value hash table (30) which also points to TCMB's (24) for a set of disk block areas. When the OpenVMS system (14) performs a read data I/O access to a disk (12) the cache driver (10) software intercepts the I/O. Using the size of the read data access the cache driver (10) selects which of the three caches, small, medium, or large, the data transfer fits. Having selected the appropriate sized cache the TCH (26) cache control structure is selected. Using the read data I/O access disk block as a pointer into the disk block value hash table (30) of the TCH (26), the cache driver (10) attempts to locate a matching TCMB (24) bucket control structure. If a matching TCMB (24) for the disk (12) and its disk area is found a cache hit is assumed and the data is returned to the OpenVMS system (14) from the cache data bucket (22) held in the computer RAM (20). The data is returned at the faster computer main memory access speed, showing the speed advantage of using a disk cache mechanism. If no matching TCMB (24) bucket control structure is found for the disk (12) and its disk area, a cache miss is assumed. For a cache miss an unused TCMB (24) bucket control structure and its corresponding cache data bucket (22) is assigned for the read data I/O access. This unused TCMB (24) with its corresponding cache data bucket (22) is first attempted to be allocated from the TCMB free queue (27) off the associated TCH (26) cache control structure. How TCMB's (24) with their corresponding cache data buckets (22) get to the free queue (27) will be described later. If there are no TCMB's (24) on the free queue (27), the cache driver (10) attempts to allocate extra computer RAM (20) space for a new cache data bucket (22), matching the bucket size, with a new TCMB (24) bucket control structure. If the OpenVMS system (14) indicates there is insufficient available free memory for this new cache data bucket (22) and TCMB (24) assignment, or the cache driver has reached its memory limit set by the computer user when the cache was started, the cache driver (10) attempts to reuse a TCMB (24) with its corresponding cache data bucket (22) from the back of the TCMB least recently used, LRU, queue (28) off the appropriate TCH (26) cache control structure. How TCMB's (24) with their corresponding cache data buckets (22) get to the LRU queue (28) will be described later. If there are no TCMB (24) bucket control structures with their corresponding cache data bucket (22) on the LRU queue (28), no cache data space can be assigned to this read data I/O access and the disk (12) is accessed normally for the required read data. If a TCMB (24) bucket control structure with its corresponding cache data bucket (22) was obtained from one of the three sources described above, cache data space can be assigned for this disk (12) read data. The disk (12) is accessed normally, however the read data is not only sent to the requesting user on the OpenVMS system (14), but also copied to the cache data bucket (22). The corresponding TCMB (24) bucket control structure, for the cache data bucket (22), is filled in to contain a pointer to the corresponding TCB (16) disk control structure along with the disk block area that the cache data bucket (22) contains. Whilst the disk (12) read data I/O was in progress the TCMB (24) bucket control structure and its corresponding cache data bucket (22) was placed on the in-progress queue (29) of the associated TCH (26). This allows the cache driver (10) to deal with another disk cache access whilst current accesses are progressing, making the cache driver multithreaded. When the disk (12) read data I/O completes and the disk data has been copied to the cache data bucket (22), the corresponding TCMB (24) bucket control structure is placed at the front of the LRU queue (28) off the associated TCH (26) cache control structure. The starting disk block that this cached data bucket (22) and corresponding TCMB (24) bucket control structure is hashed, using the size of the cache bucket as the hash control, and the resulting hash value is used to place the TCMB (24) in a chain of similar hash values within the disk block value hash table (30) of the associated TCH (26) cache control structure. When the OpenVMS system (14) performs a write data I/O access to a disk (12) the cache driver (10) software intercepts the I/O. The cache driver (10) will search for possible matching TCMB (24) bucket control structures with their corresponding cache data buckets (22) in all three TCH (26) cache control structures, for the disk and the range of disk blocks in the write data I/O access. Using the write data I/O access disk block as a pointer into the disk block value hash table (30) of each of the three TCH's (26), the cache driver (10) attempts to locate matching TCMB (24) bucket control structures. For each matching TCMB (24) bucket control structure found, the TCMB (24) and its corresponding cache data bucket (22) are invalidated. The invalidated TCMB (24) and its cache data bucket (22) are normally placed on the free queue (27) of the associated TCH (26) cache control structure to be used by some future cache data operation, however, if the OpenVMS system (14) indicates there are insufficient available free pages for the OpenVMS system (14), the cache data bucket (22) RAM space is returned to the OpenVMS system (14) free pages and the corresponding TCMB (24) space is returned to the OpenVMS system (14) pool. The TCB (16) disk control structure is located from invalidated TCMB (24) bucket control structure, with the TCMB (24) then disassociated with the TCB (16) disk control structure. The list of remote computers that can access the disk (12) is obtained from the TCB (16) disk control structure and a message is sent to all these remote computers using the remote message communication channels (18). On receipt of the message the cache driver (10) on the remote computers will invalidate any TCMB (24) bucket control structures and the corresponding cache data buckets (22) for the disk (12) and the disk block area range found in the write data I/O. Every so often, using a timing mechanism present within the OpenVMS system (14), a system memory check (32) will run. This system memory check (32) looks at the available free pages and pool of the OpenVMS system (14). If the checks indicate there is insufficient memory available to the OpenVMS system (14) cache data buckets (22) are released, along with their corresponding TCMB (24) bucket control structures, back to the OpenVMS system (14) in a similar way to the write data I/O described above. The cache data buckets (22) are released by first using the free queue (27) of TCMB's (24) for the TCH's (26), then the LRU queue (28), and finally the in-progress queue (29), until the OpenVMS system (14) indicates that it again has sufficient available free pages. In order to set the cache (10) characteristics and select disks (12) to include in the cache of the invention a user command interface (34) is provided. In the presently preferred embodiment, this is accessed via a CACHE command. The CACHE commands allow the cache (10) to start with selected characteristics such as the bucket size of the three caches for small, medium, and large, disk transfers, along with the upper and lower limits of computer RAM (20), which the cache driver (10) can use to accommodate the cache data buckets (22). The CACHE commands allow which disks (12) on the system are to be included in the cache and which disks (12) are to be excluded from the cache. The CACHE commands allow the computer user to view the status of the cache, along with the cache and disk statistics, either as a one shot display or continuously updated in a screen display bar chart. The support code (36) for the cache of the invention periodically obtains cache and disk use statistics from the cache driver (10). This period is set from the CACHE command of the user interface (34). The cache and disk statistics obtained by the support code (36) is written to log files (38). These log files (38) contain cache statistics over a period of time, in order to be used by the computer user in adjusting the cache characteristics to best match the system on which the cache (10) of the invention is being used. Referring now to FIGS. 2A to 2D-1, the instruction flow for the initial loading into the computer system of the cache software is illustrated. The operating software loads the cache software of the invention into the system (40) and calls the cache software at its controller initialisation entry point. The cache status is set to ‘off’ (42). The routine “io intercept global” is called (44). Referring to FIG. 2b for the “io intercept global” program flow (64), the program gets the start of the locally attached I/O device list for the computer system (66). The program gets the next I/O device from the I/O device list (68), which at this point will be the first I/O device in the list, and checks to see if the I/O device is one of the disk device types (70). If not, the program checks to see if all the I/O devices for the system have been checked (72). If there are further I/O devices connected to the system (72) the program repeats the loop by getting the next I/O device in the list (68) until all devices have been checked. When an I/O device is found to be one of the disk device types supported by the cache software of the invention (70), the program intercepts the I/O entry point for the I/O device (74) by replacing it with an entry into the program routine “process io” (400, FIG. 5A) within the cache software of the invention. A TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device is built (76). The TCB is set to ‘exclude’ mode and ‘statistics only’ mode (78), this stops the disk I/O device from being cached when the user starts the cache, until the user selectively includes this disk I/O device in the set of cached disks by the appropriate CACHE user command (34, FIG. 1A). The list of remote computers in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) that will contain their own copy of the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) that access the disk I/O device is cleared (80). The program flow then returns to the loop to see if there are further I/O devices attached to this computer system (72). Having searched through all the I/O devices connected to this computer system (72), the program will get the I/O device list of the next remote computer system that this local computer system can access (82). The presently preferred embodiment of the invention is implemented in conjunction with an OpenVMS system and uses the VMS cluster and VAX cluster software, within the OpenVMS system, to access remote I/O devices and computer systems. The program will check to see if all the remote computer systems have been searched (84), if not, the program repeats the loop searching for disk I/O devices supported by the cache software of the invention (68). When the program has searched through all the remote computer system I/O devices, the “io intercept global” program flow exits (86). Returning now to FIG. 2A, once all the disk I/O devices that the cache software of the invention supports have been intercepted (44), the program continues to set-up the remote computer communication channels. The presently preferred embodiment of the invention is implemented in conjunction with an OpenVMS system and uses the VMScluster and VAXcluster software, within the OpenVMS system, for the remote computer communications. The message structures for the remote computer communications are initialised (46). The cache status flag ‘disable’ is set (48), the ‘disable’ flag is used to indicate that the remote computer connections are inconsistent, which will temporarily disable caching operations until the remote computer connections are completely formed in a consistent state. Using the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster programs, the cache software of the invention is set to listen for incoming requests for connections from remote computer systems (50). On receipt of an incoming connection request, the program routine “someone found us” (104, FIG. 2C) within the cache software of the invention will be called. Using the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster programs, the cache software of the invention is set to poll for remote computer systems that are running the cache software of the invention (52). When a remote system running the cache software of the invention is found, the program routine “connect to remote” (90, FIG. 2C) within the cache software of the invention will be called. The program routines “connect to remote” (90, FIG. 2C) and “someone found us” (104, FIG. 2C) will form the remote computer communications channels down which cache software message communications of the invention will be sent. To enable the cache software of the invention to identify OpenVMS computer systems joining the network of VMScluster and VAXcluster systems, the cache software of the invention is set to poll for remote computer systems running the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster program “connection manager” (54). The OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster program “connection manager” has to be run by all OpenVMS computer systems participating in the network of computers of a VMScluster and VAXcluster. When a remote system running the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster program “connection manager” is found, the program routine “found connection manager” (110, FIG. 2C) within the cache software of the invention will be called. The timer program “scan routine” (120, FIG. 2D) within the cache software of the invention is set to run in 40 seconds from this point, using a timer mechanism within OpenVMS (56). The cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) is set to be on-line and available to the OpenVMS system (58). The load initialization for the cache software of the invention then exits (60). Referring to FIG. 2C, the remote communication connection program routines “connect to remote” and “someone found us” along with “found connection manager”, will be described. When the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system finds that a remote system is running the cache software of the invention, it calls the program routine “connect to remote” (90). The program requests the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system to attempt to form a connection with the remote system (92). When a message is received from a remote system running the cache software of the invention, the program routine “message receive” (286 FIG. 4D, 372 FIG. 4H, 644 FIG. 5N) within the cache software of the invention will be called. When the remote system running the cache software of the invention accepts the connection, the program proceeds by disabling the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system from polling for this remote system again, in order that only one connection is formed between the two systems (94). Extra message buffers are allocated for this new remote connection (96). The program then calls “io intercept global” (FIG. 2B) to look for any new disk I/O devices that may have come available to cache with the presence of this new remote system (98). The remote connection address is then saved within the cache software of the invention (100) and the “connect to remote” program exits. On the remote system running the cache software of the invention, when a connect request is received the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system calls the “someone found us” program (104). The program disables the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system from polling for this remote system again, in order that only one connection is formed between the two systems (106). The program then requests that the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system accepts the connection from the remote system (108). When a message is received from a remote system running the cache software of the invention, the program routine “message receive” (286 FIG. 4D, 372 FIG. 4H, 644 FIG. 5N) within the cache software of the invention will be called. The program then proceeds to its exit in the same way as “connect to remote” (96-102). When a new OpenVMS system joins the network of computer systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster system, the cache software of the invention on each of the current OpenVMS systems will be called at its “found connection manager” (110) program entry point. The program firstly sets the cache ‘disable’ status flag (112) The ‘disable’ flag is used to indicate that the remote computer connections are inconsistent, which will temporarily disable caching operations until these connections are completely formed in a consistent state. The program disables the OpenVMS VMScluster and VAXcluster system from polling for the “connection manager” on this remote system again (114), as the cache software of the invention is now aware of this new system. The timer program “scan routine” (120, FIG. 2D) within the cache software of the invention is set to run in 60 seconds from this point. The “found connection manager” program then exits (118). Referring now to FIG. 2D, the timer program “scan routine” (120) will be described. The program looks into the OpenVMS system database and counts all the computer systems present in the network of computer systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster systems, storing this count as the ‘node count’ (122). The program counts all the remote connections this cache software of the invention has to other cache software of the invention present on other computer systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster system, storing this count as the ‘connection count’ (124). The program then compares the ‘node count’ against the ‘connection count’ for equality (126). If the counts are equal the cache ‘disable’ status flag is cleared (128), allowing cache operations to proceed. Otherwise the cache ‘disable’ status flag is set (130), disabling cache operations until the counts become equal. The program then looks to see if the cache is off (132), if so, the “scan routine” is scheduled to run again in 10 seconds from this point (134) and the program exits (136). The cache is set to off when the cache software of the invention is loaded into the operating software. The cache is set to on by the user CACHE command. If the cache is turned on, the program proceeds to calculate the hit rate of the three caches, small, medium, and large, based on the number of hits over time (138). The program checks the available free memory of the OpenVMS system (140). If the available free memory is low (142), the cache software of the invention will release some of the memory held by the cache back to the OpenVMS system (144). The memory will be chosen from the cache with the lowest hit rate, then the next lowest, etc., until the OpenVMS systems available free memory is nominal. The detailed program flow for the release of memory is not included in these descriptions. The “scan routine” is scheduled to run again in 60 seconds from this point (146) and the program exits (148). Referring now to FIGS. 3A to 3C, the program steps performed when the disk cache software is started for the present invention will be described. The cache is started from the user CACHE command interface (34, FIG. 1A). The CACHE command can work either as a menu driven interactive display mode, or as a single command line input for which the presently preferred embodiment defines as the CACHE START command. When starting the cache the user can specify the bucket sizes for the three caches, small, medium, and large, along with other factors, such as the maximum amount of memory the cache software of the invention is allowed to use for the cached data. Default values will be used for any of the factors not specified by the user when the cached is started. From the CACHE START command the program starts executing in the user interface code (34, FIG. 1A), called at the “start command” entry point (150). The program begins by checking that the user has sufficient operating system privilege to alter the cache state (152). If not, the program exits in error (154). The program obtains the total amount of memory in the system from OpenVMS (156). The program checks whether cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) has been loaded into the system (158). If not, the cache driver is loaded (160) into the computer system. The current settings for the cache is obtained from the cache driver characteristics and status (162). These settings will be used as the defaults for any factors not specified by the user in the CACHE command, allowing the cache to be restarted with the same characteristics between successive starting and stopping of the cache, except for those that the user explicitly changes. From the obtained current cache status the program checks whether the cache is already on (164), having already been started and if so, exits in error (166). The program sets all the required cache characteristics from those explicitly specified by the user in the CACHE command and the defaults for any not specified (168), into a set-up buffer. If the OpenVMS system is cooperating in a VMScluster and VAXcluster (170), the program verifies that the OpenVMS system ‘alloclass’ parameter is set to some non-zero value (172). If the OpenVMS system ‘alloclass’ parameter is currently set to O, the program exits in error (174). The OpenVMS system ‘alloclass’ parameter forms part of the disk I/O device name, allowing consistent multipath accesses for the disk I/O devices in the VMScluster and VAXcluster environment. The program checks that the software licence for the cache software of the invention is valid (176). If not, the program exits in error (178). The maximum amount of disk I/O devices allowed to be cached is obtained from the software licensing information, the value is placed into the cache set-up buffer (180). The cache set-up buffer is then sent (182) by the user command interface code (34, FIG. 1A) to the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A). The remaining cache start and set up takes place in the cache driver, which runs at a high privilege on the system, allowing the code to directly interface into the OpenVMS system. On receipt of the cache start set-up information, the cache driver begins execution at its “start setmode” entry point (184). The program checks to see if the cache is currently shutting down (186), from a previous user request to stop the cache software of the invention. If so, the program exits in error (188) and the user is requested to wait until caching is fully stopped. The program will check to see if the cache is currently on (190), having already been started from a previous request. If so, the program exits in error (191). The program copies the set-up buffer information from the user start request into the characteristic data cells for the cache (192). The program allocates and initialises the three TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structures from the system pool (194), for the three caches, small, medium and large. For each TCH cache control structure, the program allocates the disk block value hash table (30, FIG. 1A), dependent on the cache size (196). Each disk block value hash table (30, FIG. 1A) is allocated from the systems available free memory. The cache bucket size for each of the three caches, small, medium, and large, from the user set-up buffer are recorded in the associated TCH (198) The program then gets the first TCB (16, FIG. 1A) disk control structure (200), setting the TCB to ‘exclude’ mode and ‘default’ mode (202). If there are more TCB's (204), the program gets the next TCB and repeats the loop (200-204), setting each TCB to ‘exclude’ mode and ‘default’ mode until all TCB's are acted upon. The TCB ‘exclude’ mode inhibits the disk I/O device associated with that TCB to have its data cached, until the user explicitly includes that disk I/O device. The TCB ‘default’ mode operates as an indicator to the active caching “process io” program (400, FIG. 5A) that caching has been started. The cache is turned on by clearing the cache ‘off’ status flag and setting the cache ‘on’ status flag (206). The program then exits in success (208). Referring now to FIGS. 4A to 4H-2, the program steps for selecting a disk to be included into, or excluded from, the cache software of the invention will be described. The user selects a disk I/O device to be included, or excluded, from the cache software of the invention via the user CACHE command interface (34, FIG. 1A). The CACHE command can work either as a menu driven interactive display mode, or as a single command line input for which the presently preferred embodiment defines as the CACHE DISK command. When using the CACHE DISK command, the user specifies the name of the disk I/O device as known by the OpenVMS system and whether the disk is to included, or excluded from, the cache software of the invention. From the CACHE DISK command the program starts executing in the user interface code (34, FIG. 1A), called at the “disk command” entry point (210). The program begins by checking that the user has sufficient operating system privilege to alter the cache state (212). If not, the program exits in error (214). The program checks to see if the disk I/O device does in fact exist on the OpenVMS system, by attempting to assign an I/O channel to the disk I/O device. (216). Failure to assign an I/O, channel to the disk I/O device results in the program exiting in error (218). The program gets the characteristics of the disk I/O device (220) and from these characteristics, checks that the disk I/O device is one of the disk I/O device types that are supported by the cache software of the invention (222). If not, the program exits in error (224). The presently preferred embodiment of the invention supports all mechanical disk I/O devices and solid state disk I/O devices that can exist on an OpenVMS system. The presently preferred embodiment of the invention does not support pseudo disk I/O devices that can exist on an Open VMS system, such as a RAMdisk. These pseudo disk I/O devices do not exist on an I/O bus channel, but totally within the physical memory of the Open VMS system Caching these pseudo disk I/O devices in physical memory achieves little, if no, speed advantage on the read I/O and write I/O data transfers to these devices and further reduces the amount of available physical memory to the OpenVMS system unnecessarily. Having verified that the disk I/O device specified in the CACHE DISK command is one of the supported types by the cache software of the invention, the program then checks the CACHE DISK command for an exclude request (226). If the CACHE DISK command requests that the disk I/O device be excluded from the cache software of the invention, the program sends an “exclude disk” I/O command (228) to the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A), specifying the name of the disk I/O device to be excluded from the cache software of the invention. If the CACHE DISK command is not an exclude request, the program checks whether this is an include request (230). If neither an exclude or include request was specified with the CACHE DISK command, the program exits in error (232). For a CACHE DISK include request command, the program checks whether the OpenVMS system is participating in a VMScluster and VAXcluster (234). If not, the program sends an “include disk” I/O command (236) to the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A), specifying the name of the disk I/O device to be included in the active cache operations of the invention. If the OpenVMS system is participating in a VMScluster and VAXcluster (234), the program checks whether the disk I/O device specified in the CACHE DISK include request command is the quorum disk for the VMScluster and VAXcluster (238). If the disk I/O device is the quorum disk for the VMScluster and VAXcluster, the program exits in error (240), else the program sends an “include disk” I/O command (236) to the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A), specifying the name of the disk I/O device to be included in the cache software of the invention. Caching the quorum disk of a VMScluster and VAXcluster could cause possible VMScluster and VAXcluster problems. Not all VMScluster and VAXcluster configurations use a quorum disk. Those VMScluster and VAXcluster configurations that do use a quorum disk use a file on the quorum disk to identify new OpenVMS systems joining the VMScluster and VAXcluster. The new OpenVMS system joining the VMScluster and VAXcluster would not have the cache software of the invention running in its system memory. A write to the file on the quorum disk by this new OpenVMS system would not be intercepted by the cache software of the invention, running on the present OpenVMS systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster. The cache for the quorum disk data blocks that contain the file for the quorum disk of a VMScluster and VAXcluster would not get altered, and the present OpenVMS systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster would not notice this new OpenVMS system attempting to join the VMScluster and VAXcluster. For this reason the cache software of the invention will not include the quorum disk of a VMScluster and VAXcluster in its caching operations. Referring to FIG. 4B, the “include disk” I/O command in the cache driver will now be described. The cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) begins at its “include disk” I/O command entry point (242). Using the disk I/O device in the “include disk” I/O command, the program gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (244). The program checks the number of disks currently cached against the maximum permitted disks (246). The maximum permitted disks that can be cached by the invention at any one time was set during a CACHE START (FIGS. 3A to 3C) function. If the current amount of disks cached by the invention are at the maximum permitted, the program exits in error (248), else the program counts this disk as one more cached by the invention (250) The TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device to be included in the cache has the ‘exclude’ mode bit cleared (252). Clearing the ‘exclude’ mode bit in the TCB for the disk I/O device will allow the disk's data to be cached, as will be seen in the description for active cache operations. The program will check if there are any remote connections to cache drivers (10, FIG. 1A) in other OpenVMS systems of a VMScluster and VAXcluster (254). If there is a remote connection, the program will build an “include disk” communications message (256) and send this message to the remote OpenVMS system (258), specified in the remote connection. The program will then loop to see if there are any more remote connections sending a communications message to each remote connection. If there were no remote connections originally, or the “include disk” communications message has been sent to each remote connection present, the program checks whether the disk I/O device being included in cache operations is part of a disk volume shadow set (260). If not the program exits (262), with the disk I/O device specified in the user CACHE DISK command being successively included in cache operations. If the disk I/O device being included is part of a disk volume shadow set (260), the program gets the name of the shadow set master device (264) from data structures for the disk I/O device from within the OpenVMS system. The program then gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the shadow set master device (266) and clears the ‘exclude’ mode bit in this TCB (268). From the shadow set master device the program gets the first disk I/O device that is a member of the disk volume shadow set (270). The program locates the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for this disk volume set member disk I/O device (272) and clears the ‘exclude’ mode bit in this TCB (274). The program will check if there are any remote connections to cache drivers (10, FIG. 1A) in other OpenVMS systems of a VMScluster and VAXcluster (276). If there is a remote connection, the program will build an “include disk” communications message (278) and send this message to the remote OpenVMS system (280), specified in the remote connection. The program will then loop to see if there are any more remote connections, sending a communications message to each remote connection. If there were no remote connections originally, or the “include disk” communications message has been sent to each remote connection present the program gets the next disk I/O device that is a member of the disk volume shadow set (282). The program loops for each successive disk volume shadow set member disk I/O device, clearing the ‘exclude’ mode bit for each disk I/O device TCB (270-282). When all the disk volume shadow set member disk I/O devices have been dealt with, the program successfully exits (284). This procedure ensures that all members of a disk volume shadow set, including the shadow set master device, are included in cache operations whenever a single disk volume set member disk I/O device, or the shadow set master device, is named as the disk in the CACHE DISK include command, ensuring consistent cache operations for the complete disk volume shadow set. Referring to FIG. 4D, the program flow for an “include disk” message received over a remote communications channel connection will be described. For all received remote communications message the cache software of the invention will be called at the “message receive” (286) entry point. The program gets the message type from the communications message packet (288) and for an “include disk” message dispatches to the “remote include” program flow (290). The communications message contains the name of the disk I/O device being included, the program will search down all TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structures within the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) on this OpenVMS system (292) looking for a TCB for this disk I/O device. If this OpenVMS system can access the disk I/O device named in the communication message, indicated by the presence of a TCB for that disk I/O device, the program continues, else the program exits (294) and ignores the communications message. The program checks whether the disk I/O device named in the communications message is a member of a disk volume shadow set (296). If not, the program sets the ‘broadcast’ mode bit in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device named in the communications message (298), entering the remote connection address, over which the message was received, in the TCB for the disk I/O device (300). The program then exits (302). The ‘broadcast’ mode bit will cause the cache software of the invention to communicate to all remote connection addresses, found within the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure, any write I/O data operations to the disk I/O device from this OpenVMS system. This will ensure that the cache drivers (10, FIG. 1A), on those remote connections, that have the disk I/O device included in their cache operations maintain a consistent view of the data within their cache. This is described further within the “active cache operations” FIGS. 5A to 5P. If the disk I/O device named in the communications message is a member of a disk volume shadow set (296), the program gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the shadow set master device (304). The ‘broadcast’ mode bit is set (306) in the shadow set master device (TCB). The remote connection address over which the message was received is entered in the TCB for the shadow set master device (308), before proceeding with the TCB for the disk I/O device (298) as described above. Referring back to FIG. 4A, the program flow for a CACHE DISK command that excludes a disk from cache operations will now be described. The user CACHE command interface (34, FIG. 1A), having processed the CACHE DISK command for an exclude function would send an “exclude disk” I/O command (228) to the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A), specifying the name of the disk I/O device to be excluded from the active cache operations of the invention. Referring now to FIG. 4E, the “exclude disk” I/O command in the cache driver will now be described. The cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) begins at its “exclude disk” I/O command entry point (310). Using the disk I/O device in the “exclude disk” I/O command, the program gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1A) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (312). The program reduces the number of disks currently cached by one (314). The program will check if there are any remote connections to cache drivers (10, FIG. 1A) in other OpenVMS systems of a VMScluster and VAXcluster (316). If there is a remote connection, the program will build an “exclude disk” communications message (318) and send this message to the remote OpenVMS system (320), specified in the remote connection. The program will then loop to see if there are any more remote connections, sending a communications message to each remote connection. If there were no remote connections originally, or the “exclude disk” communications message has been sent to each remote connection present, the program checks whether the disk I/O device being excluded from cache operations is part of a disk volume shadow set (322). If not, the program calls the routine “clear cache data” (350, FIG. 4G) to remove any cached data for the disk I/O device being excluded (324). On return the program sets the ‘exclude’ mode bit within the TCB (325) for the disk I/O device and then successfully exits (326). By setting the ‘exclude’ mode bit in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure, the disk I/O device will have its I/O data excluded from being cached by the invention. If the disk I/O device being excluded from the active cache operations of the invention was a member of a disk volume shadow set (322), the program gets the name of the shadow set master device (328) using data structures within the OpenVMS system. The program then gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the shadow set master device (330) and sets the ‘exclude’ mode bit within that TCB (332). The program gets the first disk volume shadow set member device (334) using data structures within the OpenVMS system. The TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for this shadow member disk I/O device is located (336). The program will check if there are any remote connections to cache drivers (10, FIG. 1A) in other OpenVMS systems of a VMScluster and VAXcluster (338). If there is a remote connection, the program will build an “exclude disk” communications message (340) and send this message to the remote OpenVMS system (342), specified in the remote connection. The program will then loop to see if there are any more remote connections, sending a communications message to each remote connection. If there were no remote connections originally, or the “exclude disk” communications message has been sent to each remote connection present, the program calls (344) the routine “clear cache data” (350, FIG. 4G) to remove any cached data for the shadow set member disk I/O device being excluded. On return the program sets the ‘exclude’ mode bit in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B disk control structure for the disk volume shadow set member (345). The program gets the next shadow set member disk I/O device (346) and loops (336), sending the “exclude disk” communications message to all remote OpenVMS systems that can access this device and clears the data for this disk I/O device from the cache, using the routine “clear cache data”. When the program has dealt with all the disk volume shadow set members the program successfully exits (348). The cache software of the invention ensures a consistent view for a disk volume shadow set, by excluding all members of a disk volume shadow set whenever a single shadow set member disk I/O device is excluded. Referring to FIG. 4G, the program flow for the “clear cache data” (350) routine will now be described. The program gets the next—TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure for the three caches, small, medium, and large, of the invention (352). At this point, this Will be the first TCH in the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) of the invention. The program gets the disk block value hash table (30, FIG. 1A) for this TCH (354). The disk block value hash table consists of a list of singularly linked lists of TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures with associated cache data buckets (22, FIG. 1B) contained in the cache RAM (20, FIG. 1B). The program gets the next list entry in the disk block value hash table (356) and gets the next TCMB in that list entry (358). If there are no TCMB's in this list, or the program has reached the end of the list, the program loops to get the next list entry in the disk value hash table (356), until the program has dealt with all the list entries in the disk value hash table, when the program loops to get the next TCH (352). When the program locates a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure in the disk value hash table (30, FIG. 1A), the program checks whether the disk I/O device being excluded from the cache operations if the invention is associated with this TCMB (360). If not, the program loops the get the next TCMB in the list (358). When the program finds a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure associated with the disk I/O device being excluded from the cache operations of the invention, the program removes the TCMB from the list entry within the disk value hash table (362) and removes the TCMB from the LRU queue (28, FIG. 1A) of TCMB's. The TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure is then placed on the free queue (27, FIG. 1A) of TCMB's (364). The program then loops to deal with the next TCMB from the list entry in the disk value hash table (358). When all three TCH (26) cache control structures for the three caches, small, medium, and large, of the invention have been operated upon, the program clears the disk block allocated count within the TCB (368) and then returns to the caller of the “clear cache data” routine (370). This disk block allocation count, within the TCB, is both used as a performance monitor value and as an indicator that the disk I/O device, associated with this TCB, owns some cache data buckets (22, FIG. 1B) contained in the cache RAM (20, FIG. 1B). Referring to FIG. 4H, the program flow for an “exclude disk” message received over a remote communications channel connection will be described. For all received remote communications message the cache software of the invention will be called at the “message receive” (372) entry point. The program gets the message type from the communications message packet (374) and for en ‘exclude disk’ message dispatches to the “remote exclude” program flow (376). The communications message contains the name of the disk I/O device being excluded, the program will search down all TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structures within the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) on this OpenVMS system (378) looking for a TCB for this disk I/O device. If this OpenVMS system can access the disk I/O device named in the communication message, indicated by the presence of a TCB for that disk I/O device, the program continues, else the program exits (380) and ignores the communications message. The program checks whether the disk I/O device named in the communications message is a member of a disk volume shadow set (382). If not, the program deletes the remote connection address, over which the message was received, from the TCB for the disk I/O device (384). If the TCB for the disk I/O device contains other remote connection addresses (386), the program exits (390), indicating that other remote OpenVMS systems can access the device and have the disk I/O device included in their active cache operations of the invention. If the TCB for the disk I/O device now contains no more remote connection addresses (386), the program clears the ‘broadcast’ mode bit in this TCB (388) before exiting (390). The ‘broadcast’ mode bit of the TCB was described above in the “remote include” (290, FIG. 4D) program flow. If the disk I/O device named in the ‘exclude disk’ communications message was a member of a disk volume shadow set (382), the program gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the shadow set master device (392). As with the disk I/O device named in the ‘exclude disk’ message described above, the program deletes the remote connection address, over which the message was received, from the TCB for the shadow set master device (394). If there are no other remote connection addresses present in the TCB for the shadow set master device (396), the program clears the ‘broadcast’ mode in the TCB for the shadow set master device (398), else the ‘broadcast’ mode bit is left set. The program continues to deal with the TCB for the disk I/O device named in the ‘exclude disk’ message (384). Referring to FIGS. 5A to 5P, program flow performed by the active data caching of a disk I/O device in the cache software of the invention will be described. Whenever any I/O operation is performed on a disk I/O device, that I/O operation will be intercepted by the cache software of the invention and the program will commence running at the “process io” (400) entry point. The disk I/O device interception was enabled for the cache driver (10, FIG. 1B), when the cache software was initially loaded into the OpenVMS system and when a new OpenVMS system joined the systems participating in a VMScluster and VAXcluster, see the description for FIGS. 2A-2D above. The program locates the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (402). If the TCB is not found, the program calls “io intercept device” (404) to build a TCB for the device. The program flow for “io intercept device” is not included in the description for the invention. The program flow for “io intercept device” builds a single TCB for a disk I/O device unit, in the same manner as “io intercept global” (64, FIG. 2B) does for all disk I/O device units. The presently preferred embodiment of the invention operates on the OpenVMS system. The OpenVMS system specifies the I/O entry point for an I/O device in the device driver for the controller of the I/O device. The controller of the I/O device can have several I/O device units connected to it, but all these I/O device units share the same I/O entry point for the controller. An I/O device unit is identified by a data structure connected in a list of I/O device unit data structures off a single data structure for the I/O device controller. The program “io intercept global” (64, FIG. 2B), called during initial loading of the cache software of the invention and when a new OpenVMS system joins a VMScluster and VAXcluster, locates all disk I/O device units accessible by the OpenVMS system, building a TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for that disk I/O device unit, by looking at all the I/O device unit data structures off all the single data structure for the disk I/O device controllers. OpenVMS systems can implement a storage device architecture, known as Digital Storage Architecture (DSA), along with a communications protocol, known as Mass Storage Control Protocol (MSCP), which dictate that a disk I/O device is allowed to come on-line and available to the OpenVMS system after the OpenVMS system has been loaded and initialised. The software for the DSA and MSCP will cause a new data structure, for this recently available disk I/O device, to be built and connected into the list of other I/O device unit structures off the single data structure for the I/O devices controller. This newly available disk I/O device still shares the same I/O entry point for its controller, in this way the cache software of the invention can intercept an I/O operation for this newly available disk I/O device, but not have a TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure built for it via “io intercept global” (64, FIG. 2B). Hence the need for the “io intercept device” (404) program within the “process io” (400) program flow. Having located the TCB (402), or having built a new TCB for a newly available disk I/O device (404), the I/O intercept “process io” program flow proceeds. The program checks whether the disk I/O device, whose I/O operation has been intercepted, is a disk volume shadow set master device (406). If so, the program exits via the “basic statistics” program flow (660, FIG. 50). Disk volume shadow set master devices are not physical disk I/O device units. Disk volume shadow set master devices are pseudo disk I/O devices generated by an OpenVMS system to bind together a set of physical disk I/O devices forming the disk volume shadow set. Therefore no caching of I/O data is performed by the invention for disk volume shadow set master devices. Any I/O data destined for the disk volume shadow set will be redirected by the software for the disk volume shadow set master device to an appropriate physical disk I/O device, within the disk volume shadow set. The I/O operation intercept “process io” (400) program flow will subsequently intercept the I/O operation to the physical disk I/O device, caching the I/O data for that physical disk I/O device as necessary. Having determined that the disk I/O device, whose I/O operation has been intercepted, is a physical device (406), the program looks at the current mode of the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the I/O device (410). If the current mode of the TCB is unknown (412), the program exits via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (414). If the current mode of the TCB is ‘statistics only’ (416), the program exits via the “basic statistics” program flow (660, FIG. 50). The mode of ‘statistics only’ is the mode the TCB is set to when the TCB is initially built and active cache operations have not been started via a user CACHE START command. When active cache operations have been started via a user CACHE START command, all TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structures are set to ‘default’ mode (202, FIG. 3C). If the current mode of the TCB is ‘default’ (420), the program exits via the “cache on” program flow (424 FIG. 5B). Referring now to FIG. 5B, the program flow for “cache on” (424) will be described. The program firstly checks whether this is a process swap I/O operation (426). If so, the program increments by one the count for the number of process swap I/O operations on the OpenVMS system (428). The swap count, not shown in these descriptions of the invention, will affect the total amount of RAM the cache software of the invention is allowed to have for its cached data storage. The program dispatches on the I/O function of the intercepted I/O operation on the disk I/O device (430). The presently preferred embodiment of the invention only supports the OpenVMS I/O functions; ‘io_unload’, ‘io_packack’, ‘io_readlblk’, ‘io_readpblk’, ‘io_writelblk’, ‘io_writepblk’, and ‘io_dse’. For all other OpenVMS I/O functions (431) the program exits via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (432). If the OpenVMS I/O function is ‘io_unload’ (final disk volume dismount operation), or ‘io_packack’ (initial disk volume mount operation) (433), the program calls (434) the “clear cache data” (350, FIG. 4G) program flow, on return exiting via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (432). If the OpenVMS I/O function is ‘io_readlblk’ (read logical blocks of disk 110 data), or ‘io_readpblk’ (read physical blocks of disk I/O data) (435), the program dispatches to the “read data” (440, FIG. 5C) program flow. If the OpenVMS I/O function is ‘io_writelblk’ (write logical blocks of disk I/O data), or ‘io_writepblk’ (write physical blocks of disk I/O data), or ‘io_dse’ (write data security erase pattern) (437), the program dispatches to the “write data” (572, FIG. 5K) program flow. Referring to FIG. 5C, the “read data” (440) program flow will now be described. The program checks that the byte count for the intercepted read I/O data function is a non-zero positive value (442). If not, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. The program records the positive byte count of the intercepted read I/O data function in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (446). The program increments the read I/O data function count by one in the TCB (448). The byte count of this intercepted read I/O data function is maximized against previous intercepted read I/O data function byte counts for the disk I/O device (450), the maximized value being recorded in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device. The above three recorded values form part of the performance monitoring capabilities of the invention. The program checks whether the cache status flag ‘disable’ is set (452), if so, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. The cache status flag ‘disable’ indicates that some OpenVMS system in the VMScluster and VAXcluster does not have the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A) of the invention loaded. This normally would indicate that some OpenVMS system is currently joining the VMScluster and VAXcluster and has not yet successfully loaded the cache software of the invention. Alternatively, this would indicate an inconsistent installation of the cache software of the invention. In any case, the cache status flag ‘disable’ indicates an inconsistent view of the cache for the invention across the VMScluster and VAXcluster, preventing active cache operations (and possible subsequent corruption) of the data contained in a disk I/O device. The program next checks the ‘exclude’ mode bit in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (454). If this ‘exclude’ mode bit is set, indicating that the I/O data for the disk I/O device is currently excluded from the cache of the invention, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. The user CACHE DISK command is used to include a disk I/O device into the active cache operations of the invention, by clearing the ‘exclude’ mode bit in TCB for the disk I/O device (274, FIG. 4C). The program checks whether the disk I/O device is currently subject to mount verification on the OpenVMS system (456), indicating that the OpenVMS system is checking the integrity of the volume mounted in the disk I/O device. If so, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow, allowing the read I/O data to come directly from the disk I/O device. The program next checks whether the read I/O data function involves a partial block transfer (458). If so, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. Having carried out the initial checks over the disk I/O device and its intercepted read I/O data transfer, the program can now access the cache of the invention. The program matches the byte count size of the intercepted read I/O data transfer against the three cache sizes (460), small, medium, or large, attempting to choose which of the three TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structures this read I/O data will be targeted at. If the byte count size of the intercepted read I/O data transfer is larger than the largest of the three caches, the program increments by one (462) the oversize count in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device, recording for the performance monitoring capabilities of the invention. The program then exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. Having chosen which of the three caches, small, medium, or large, the byte count size of the intercepted read I/O data fits (460). The program hashes the starting disk block value of the intercepted read I/O data transfer (464) and uses this hash value as a pointer into the disk block value hash table (30, FIG. 1A), to find the start of the hash chain for the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures with a matching disk block value. Using the cache bucket size against the starting disk block value of the intercepted read I/O data transfer, the program calculates the lowest disk block starting value (466) that could include this intercepted read I/O data transfer starting disk block in its cache bucket. If this lower limit involves searching the previous hash chain list (468), the program starts searching from this previous hash chain (470). The program gets a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the hash chain (472) and checks whether the disk I/O device associated with the TCMB is the same I/O device as in the intercepted read I/O data transfer (474). If not, the program loops to get the next TCMB (472). When the end of the hash chain is reached, the program checks whether the search commenced with the previous hash chain list as to that required from the starting disk block value in the intercepted read I/O data transfer when the lowest disk block limit was calculated (476). If so, the program starts searching at the start of the actual hash chain (478) for the starting disk block value in the intercepted read I/O data transfer and loops to get a TCMB from that hash chain (472). When the program locates a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure on the hash chain that is associated with the disk I/O device in the intercepted read I/O data transfer (474), the program checks whether the block range limits of the intercepted read I/O data transfer fall within the range of disk blocks in the TCMB cache data bucket (480), if it does then a cache hit is assumed (482) and the “read cache hit” (546, FIG. 5I) program flow is followed. If the disk block range does not match (480), the program loops to get the next TCMB from the hash chain (472). When all the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures have been searched in the one, or two, hash chains into which the disk block range could fall, with no matching disk block range found for the disk I/O device, a cache miss is assumed (484) and the program follows the “read cache miss” program (486, FIG. 5F) flow. Referring to FIG. 5F, the “read cache miss” program (486) flow will be described. The cache miss count is incremented by one (488) in the TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure, for the selected cache, small, medium, or large. This cache miss count in the TCH is used in the performance monitoring by the invention. The program attempts to allocate a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure, with its corresponding cache data bucket (22, FIG. 1B), from the free queue (27, FIG. 1A) of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure (490). If the program obtains a TCMB from the free queue, this TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure is filled in with the I/O transfer specifications from the intercepted read I/O data transfer (492). The TCMB is paced on the in-progress queue (29, FIG. 1A) of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure (494). The read data I/O transfer is adjusted (496), so that once again the I/O transfer will be intercepted by the routine “read complete” (524, FIG. 5H) in the cache software of the invention, when the read I/O data has completely transferred from the disk I/O device, into the OpenVMS system memory area originally specified in the intercepted read I/O data transfer. The adjusted read I/O data transfer request is then sent to the disk I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (498) and the program exits (500). If the program failed to get a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the free queue (490), the program checks there is sufficient available free memory in the OpenVMS system (502) to allocate a new TCMB and corresponding cache data bucket. If there are sufficient available free memory to allocate more cache space, the program checks whether the cache of the invention has reached its allowable memory limits (504), set by the user when the cache was started with a CACHE START command. If not, the program can allocate a new TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the OpenVMS system pool (506) and enough RAM space from the available free memory of OpenVMS to hold the corresponding cache data bucket (508) for the TCMB. The TCMB is associated with the disk I/O device, whose read I/O data transfer was intercepted, and the disk block allocated count within the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure, for the disk I/O device, is increased for this intercepted read I/O data transfer (510). The allocated memory count of the selected TCH (26 FIG. 1A) cache control structure, is increased by the equivalent cache bucket size (512), to indicate more RAM allocated to this cache. The program proceeds as if a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) was obtained from the free queue (492-500). If there were insufficient available free memory within the OpenVMS system (502), or the cache of the invention has reached its allowable memory limits (504), the program has to try and reuse a current cache bucket for this new intercepted read I/O data transfer (514). The program checks whether the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure has any RAM space allocated, by checking its allocated memory count (516). If the TCH has no allocated memory space then it cannot have any TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures associated with it, so the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. If the TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure has memory allocated to it, the program removes (518) a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the front of the LRU queue (28, FIG. 1A). The program reduces (520) the disk block allocated count within the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device, that was originally associated with this TCB. The TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the LRU queue is reallocated to the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure, for the disk I/O device of this newly intercepted read I/O data transfer (522). The disk block allocated count in the TCB for this disk I/O device incremented for this intercepted read I/O data transfer. The program proceeds as if a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) was obtained from the free queue (492-500). Referring to FIG. 5H, after the adjusted read I/O data transfer sent to the disk I/O device completes, the cache software of the invention once again intercepts this I/O completion at its “read complete” (524) program entry point. From the completed read I/O data transfer, the program locates the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure associated with the originally intercepted read I/O data transfer (526). The program checks whether the I/O completed successfully by the disk I/O device (528). If so, the program verifies that the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure has not been invalidated (530) whilst it was on the in-progress queue (29, FIG. 1A). If not, the intercepted read I/O data transfer can be cached, so the program copies the read I/O data (532) from the OpenVMS system memory area to which the disk I/O data was transferred into the cache data bucket (22, FIG. 1B) specified in the associated TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure. The TCMB is then removed from the in-progress queue of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure (534) and placed at the front of the LRU queue (536). The starting disk block value in the read I/O data transfer is hashed and the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure is placed at the end of the resultant hash chain, for the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure (538). The program sends the read I/O data completion onto the originator of the intercepted read I/O data transfer (540), then exits (541). If the I/O completed in error (528), or the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure was invalidated (530), the read I/O data is not cached. The TCMB is removed from the in-progress queue (542) and placed on the free queue (543) of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure. The invalidate count within the TCH is incremented by one (544) for the performance monitoring of the invention. The program sends the read I/O data completion onto the originator of the intercepted read I/O data transfer (540), then exits (541). Referring back to FIG. 5E, if a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure, found on a hash chain (472), matches the disk I/O device (474) and the disk block range (480) within the intercepted read I/O data transfer, a cache hit is assumed (482). Referring now to FIG. 5I, the program follows the “read cache hit” (546) program flow. The matching TCMB is moved to the front of the LRU queue of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure (548). The data in the corresponding cache data bucket (22, FIG. 1B) is copied to the OpenVMS system memory area specified in the intercepted read I/O data transfer (550). The program checks whether the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure has been invalidated (552). If not, the cache hit count of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure is incremented by one (554). The read I/O data completion is sent onto the originator of the intercepted read I/O data transfer (556) and the program exits (558). For this cache hit, no disk I/O device data transfer was involved, the requested read I/O data transfer was sent to the requester at memory speed from the RAM area of the cache, illustrating the speed advantage of using the cache of the invention for read I/O data transfers. If the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure for the cache hit was invalidated (552), the program increments by one the cache miss count (560) in the TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure. The program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow, with the read I/O data transferring directly from the disk I/O device. Referring to FIG. 5J, the “I/O function exit” (564) program flow will be described. The “I/O function exit” (564) exit path is followed by the read I/O and write I/O active cache operations of the invention, when the cache has been turned on by a user CACHE START command and the I/O data is not targeted at the cache data held in the RAM (20, FIG. 1B). The program calculates the minimum required OpenVMS system free memory (565) from the set-up information sent to the cache driver (10, FIG. 1A), by the user CACHE START command, and compares this value to the current available free memory on the OpenVMS system (566). If there are more available free memory on the OpenVMS system than the minimum requirements of the cache of the invention, the program exits via the intercepted disk I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (568). If the value of the current available free memory on the OpenVMS system is less than the minimum requirements of the cache of the invention, the program releases and returns to OpenVMS sufficient cache data buckets (22, FIG. 1B) from the RAM (20, FIG. 1B), until the OpenVMS system available free memory is greater than the requirements of the cache of the invention, or no more RAM (20, FIG. 1B) is owned by the cache of the invention (570). Releasing and returning the cache data buckets (22, FIG. 1B) also entails returning the corresponding TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures to the OpenVMS system pool. The program will choose the cache data buckets (22, FIG. 1B) starting from the cache that has been least used, determined by the cache hit rate in the performance counters of the TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structures, working towards the cache that has most use. The program flow for the release of the cache data buckets and TCMB's is not detailed in these descriptions. Once sufficient cache data buckets (22, FIG. 1B) have been returned to the OpenVMS system, so that there are sufficient available free memory on the OpenVMS system, the program exits via the intercepted disk I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (568). Referring to FIG. 5K, the “write data” (572) program flow will now be described. The program checks that the byte count for the intercepted write I/O data function is a non-zero positive value (574). If not, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. The program records the positive byte count of the intercepted write I/O data function in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (578). The program increments the write I/O data function count by one in the TCB (580) The above two recorded values form part of the performance monitoring capabilities of the invention. The program checks whether the intercepted disk I/O device is currently subject to mount verification on the OpenVMS system (582), indicating that the OpenVMS system is checking the integrity of the volume mounted in the disk I/O device. If so, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow, allowing the write I/O data to go directly to the disk I/O device. The program next checks the ‘exclude’ mode bit in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (584). If this ‘exclude’ mode bit is set, indicating that the I/O data for the disk I/O device is currently excluded from the cache of the invention on this OpenVMS system, the program checks whether other OpenVMS systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster have the disk I/O device included in their active cache operations of the invention, by checking whether the ‘broadcast’ mode bit is set in the TCB (586). If no other OpenVMS systems in the VMScluster and VAXcluster have the intercepted disk I/O device included in their active cache operations of the invention, the program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow. If the ‘broadcast’ mode bit is set in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device (586), the “write invalidate” (626, FIG. 5P) program flow is entered. If the intercepted disk I/O device has been included in the active cache operations of this OpenVMS system (584), the program calls the “cache data invalidate” program (588, FIG. 5L). Referring to FIG. 5L, the “cache data invalidate” program invalidates the cached data blocks in all three caches, small, medium, and large, that match the disk block range in this intercepted write I/O data transfer for the disk I/O device The program selects a TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure (589) and calculates the lowest and highest possible cached disk block range, using the starting disk block value and byte count in the intercepted write I/O data transfer against the cache bucket size for the selected cache of the invention (590). The program hashes the lowest and highest disk block range values (592). The program will use these hash values as pointers into the disk block value hash table (30, FIG. 1A) of the TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure, to find the start of the hash chain for the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures with matching disk block values. Using the lowest calculated hash pointer the program selects the equivalent hash chain list (594) of TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures in the disk block value hash table (30, FIG. 1A). The program selects a TCMB on the hash chain (596) and checks whether the disk I/O device associated with the TCMB is the same as the disk I/O device in the intercepted write I/O data transfer (598). If not, the program loops to get the next TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the hash chain list (596). If this TCMB is associated with the disk I/O device in the intercepted write I/O data transfer, the program checks whether the disk block range in the TCMB falls anywhere within the range of disk blocks in the intercepted write I/O data transfer (600). If not, the program loops to get the next TCMB (596). If any of the disk blocks in the selected TCMB do fall in the range of disk blocks in the intercepted write I/O data transfer, the program reduces the allocated block count in the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device, by the cache bucket size (602). The program then removes the TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the hash chain list (604). The TCMB is removed (606) from the LRU queue (28, FIG. 1A) and inserted (608) on the free queue (27, FIG. 1A) of the selected TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure. The program increments by one the cache invalidate count of the TCH (610) as part of the performance monitoring of the invention and loops to get the next TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the hash chain list (596). Once all the TCMB's in the hash chain has been searched, the program checks whether it has searched all the hash chain lists in the lowest and highest disk block range of the intercepted write I/O data transfer (612). If not, the program selects the next hash chain list to search (614) and loops to get a TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from that list (596). When all the possible hash chain lists for the range of disk blocks in the intercepted write I/O data transfer have been searched, the program selects (616) the in-progress queue (29, FIG. 1A) of the TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure to search next. The program selects a TCMB on the in-progress queue (618) and checks whether the disk I/O device associated with the TCMB is the same as the disk I/O device in the intercepted write I/O data transfer (620). If not, the program loops to get the next TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structure from the in-progress queue (618). If this TCMB is associated with the disk I/O device in the intercepted write I/O data transfer, the program checks whether the disk block range in the TCMB falls anywhere within the range of disk blocks in the intercepted write I/O data transfer (622). If not, the program loops to get the next TCMB (618) lf any of the disk blocks in the selected TCMB do fall in the range of disk blocks in the intercepted write I/O data transfer, the program sets the ‘invalidated’ bit in the TCMB (624) and loops to get the next TCMB on the in-progress queue (618). When the program has searched all TCMB (24, FIG. 1A) bucket control structures on the in-progress queue, the program loops (589) to get the next TCH (26, FIG. 1A) cache control structure. When the program has dealt with all three TCH's, the “cache data invalidate” program returns to its caller (625). Referring back to FIG. 5K, on return from the “cache data invalidate” program, the “write invalidate” (626, FIG. 5P) program flow is entered. Referring now to FIGS. 5M and 5P, the “write invalidate” (626) program flow will be described. The intercepted write I/O data transfer is altered to once again intercept the I/O transfer when it completes (628). The cache software of the invention will be called at its “write complete” (632) entry point when the write I/O data transfer completes. The program exits via the “I/O function exit” (564, FIG. 5J) program flow, with the adjusted write I/O data transfer being sent to the disk I/O device. When the write I/O data transfer has been completed by the disk I/O device, the cache software of the invention intercepts the I/O completion and is called at its “write complete” (632) entry point. The program gets the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the intercepted disk I/O device (634). The program will check if there are any remote connections to cache drivers (10, FIG. 1A) in other OpenVMS systems of a VMScluster and VAXcluster (636). If there is a remote connection, the program will build an “invalidate disk” communications message (638) and send this message to the remote OpenVMS system (640), specified in the remote connection. The program will then loop to see if there are any more remote connections (636), sending a communications message to each remote connection. If there were no remote connections originally, or the “invalidate disk” communications message has been sent to each remote connection present, the program sends the write I/O data completion onto the originator of the intercepted write I/O data transfer (642) The program then exits (643). Referring to FIG. 5N, for all received remote communications message the cache software of the invention will be called at the “message receive” (644) entry point. The program gets the message type from the communications message packet (648) and for an ‘invalidate disk’ message dispatches to the “remote invalidate” program flow (650). The program will check if the cache of the invention has been started (652) on this OpenVMS system, by a user CACHE START command. If not, the program exits (654) ignoring this message. If the cache of the invention has been started, the program attempts to locate a TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device named in the ‘invalidate disk’ communications message (656). If this OpenVMS system does not have a TCB for the disk I/O device, the program exits (654) ignoring the message. The program then calls the “cache data invalidate” program (588, FIG. 5L), described above and on return exits (658). Referring back to FIG. 5A, if the intercepted I/O operation was to a disk volume shadow set master or the cache has not been started on the OpenVMS system via a CACHE START command, the active cache operations of the invention calls the “basic statistics” (660, FIG. 50) program flow. Referring to FIG. 50, the “basic statistics” (660) program flow will now be described. The program dispatches on the I/O function of the intercepted I/O operation on the disk I/O device (662). The presently preferred embodiment of the invention only supports the OpenVMS I/O functions; ‘io_readlblk’, ‘io_readpblk’, ‘io_writelblk’, ‘io_writepblk’, and ‘io_dse’. For all other OpenVMS I/O functions (663) the program exits via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (664). For intercepted read I/O data operations, ‘io_readlblk’ and ‘io_readpblk’ (665), the program records the performance monitoring read I/O data statistics (666) into the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device. The program then exits via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (664). For intercepted write I/O data operations, ‘io_writelblk’, ‘io_writepblk’, and ‘io_dse’ (667), the program records the performance monitoring write I/O data statistics (668) into the TCB (16, FIG. 1B) disk control structure for the disk I/O device. The program checks whether the intercepted disk I/O device is a disk volume shadow set master (669). If so, the program exits via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (664), having no cached data for these pseudo devices. If the intercepted disk I/O device is some physical device, the program checks whether the ‘broadcast’ mode bit is set in the TCB (670). If not, the program exits via the I/O devices original program for its I/O entry point (664). If the ‘broadcast’ mode bit is set in the TCB for the disk I/O device, some other OpenVMS system in the VMScluster and VAXcluster has this disk I/O device included in their active cache operations, the “write invalidate” (626, FIG. 5P) program flow is then entered. This now completes the description for active cache operations by the invention. Reference Material The present preferred embodiment of the invention operates under the OpenVMS system. The help in an understanding of the I/O processes in this cache application the reader may find the following OpenVMS documentation useful. The contents of the following books are hereby incorporated by reference herein. Title: VAX/VMS Internals and Data Structures: version 5.2 Authors: Ruth E. Goldenberg, Lawrence J. Kenah, with the assistance of Denise E. Dumas Publisher: Digital Press ISBN: 1-55558-059-9 Title: VMS File System Internals Author: Kirby McCoy Publisher: Digital Press ISBN: 1-55558-056-4 Open VMS Manuals: The following manuals are contained in the various OpenVMS Manual documentation sets and kits available from Digital Equipment Corporation. The following two manuals are contained in the Open VMS Optional Documentation kit: Title: OpenVMS VAX Device Support Manual Order No.: AA-PWC8A-TE Title: OpenVMS VAX Device Support Reference Manual Order No.: AA-PWC9A-TE The following manual is contained in the Advanced System Management kit within the Open VMS Standard Documentation set: Title: VMScluster Systems for Open VMS Order No.: AA-PV5WA-TK The following two manuals are contained in the Open VMS Systems Integrated Products documentation: Title: VAX Volume Shadowing Manual Order No.: AA-LB18A-TE Title: Volume Shadowing for Open VMS Order No.: AA-PVXMA-TE The above OpenVMS manuals can be obtained from Digital Equipment Corporation at the following address: Digital Equipment Corporation P.O. Box CS2008 Nashua, N.H. 03061 USA All of the above listed OpenVMS manuals are hereby incorporated by reference herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a disk caching technique using software, in particular, disk caching software for use on an OpenVMS operating system. OpenVMS is the operating system used on VAX and Alpha AXP computers. Computer users are always looking for ways to speed up operations on their computers. One source of the drag on computer speed is the time it takes to conduct an input/output operation to the hard disk drive or other mechanical disk devices. Such devices are slowed by mechanical movement latencies and I/O bus traffic requirements. One conventional method for avoiding this speed delay is to cache frequently accessed disk data in the computer main memory. Access to this cached data in main memory is much quicker than always accessing the hard disk drive for the data. Access speed to a hard disk drive is replaced by main memory access speed to the data resident in the cache. There is a significant down side to the conventional form of caching techniques. Caches are conventionally organized as to be made up of fixed sized areas, known as buckets, where the disk data is stored, with all the buckets added together making up the fixed total size of the computer main memory allocated for use by the cache. No matter what size the original disk access was this data has to be accommodated in the cache buckets. Thus, if the disk access size was very small compared to the cache bucket size, then most of the bucket storage area is wasted, containing no valid disk data at all. If the disk was accessed by many of these smaller accesses, then the cache buckets would get used up by these small data sizes and the cache would not apparently be able to hold as much data as was originally expected. If the disk access size was larger than the cache bucket size, either the data is not accommodated in the cache, or several cache buckets have to be used to accommodate the disk data which makes cache management very complicated. With this conventional approach to disk caching the computer user has to try to compromise with the single cache bucket size for all users on the computer system. If the computer is used for several different applications, then either the cache bucket size has to be biased to one type of application being at a disadvantage to all the other applications, or the cache bucket size has to averaged against all applications with the cache being at less an advantage as would be desired. It is an object of the present invention to reduce this down side of using a disk cache. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, the total cache is organized into three separate caches each having a different cache bucket size associated with it for small, medium, and large, disk access sizes. The computer user has control over the bucket sizes for each of the three cache areas. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, the computer user has control over which disks on the computer system will be included in the caching and which disks on the computer system are to be excluded from the caching. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, the total cache size contained in the computer main memory, being made up of the three cache areas, does not have a singular fixed size and will change dependent on the computer systems use. The total cache size is allowed to grow in response to high disk access demand, and to reduce when the available computer main memory becomes at a premium to the computer users. Thus the computer main memory used by the cache fluctuates dependent on disk data access and requirements of the computer main memory. The computer user has control over the upper and lower limits of which the total cache size occupies the computers main memory. The total cache will then be made up of mainly the small, or the medium, or the large bucket areas, or a spread of the three cache area sizes dependent on how the cached disks are accessed on the system. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, once the total cache size has grown to its upper limit further new demands on cache data are handled by cache bucket replacement, which operates on a least recently used algorithm. This cache bucket replacement will also occur if the total cache size is inhibited from growing owing to a high demand on computer main memory by other applications and users of the computer system. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, when a disk which is being cached is subject to a new read data access by some computer user, the required disk data is sent to the computer user and also copied into an available cache bucket dependent on size fit. This cache bucket is either newly obtained from the computer main memory or by replacing an already resident cache bucket using a least recently used algorithm. If this disk data, now resident in the cache, is again requested by a read access of some computer user, the data is returned to the requesting user directly from the cache bucket and does not involve any hard disk access at all. The data is returned at the faster computer main memory access speed, showing the speed advantage of using a disk cache mechanism. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, when a disk which is being cached is subject to a new read data access by some computer user and this disk access is larger than all three cache bucket sizes, the disk data is not copied to the cache. This oversize read access, along with other cache statistics are recorded allowing the computer user to interrogate the use of the cache. Using these statistics the computer user can adjust the size of the three cache buckets to best suit the disk use on the computer system. In accordance with the embodiment of the invention, when a write access is performed to a disk which is being cached and the disk data area being written was previously read into the cache, i.e. an update operation on the disk data, the current cache buckets for the previous read disk data area are invalidated on all computers on the network. Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent during the following description of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention taken in conjunction with the drawing. | 20041122 | 20060919 | 20050324 | 61232.0 | 1 | NAMAZI, MEHDI | METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR COHERENTLY CACHING I/O DEVICES ACROSS A NETWORK | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,994,960 | ACCEPTED | Gas-gas-water treatment system for groundwater and soil remediation | A sparging system for in-situ groundwater remediation for removal of contamination including dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrocarbon petroleum products including the use in injection wells of microfine bubble generators, matched to substrates of selected aquifer regions, for injection and distribution of said bubbles containing oxidizing gas through said aquifer and to selectively encapsulating gases including oxygen and ozone in duo-gas bubbles which, in the presence of co-reactant substrate material acting as a catalyst, are effective to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics, or Criegee decomposition of leachate plumes containing dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons. | 1-12. (canceled) 13. A method for removing contaminants from a site, said contaminants including dissolved hydrocarbon products, said method comprising: injecting into a well, a gas including ozone under conditions to break carbon-carbon bonds in the contaminants in the site, the gas injected as microbubbles; injecting water into the well; and alternating injection of water with injection of the gas to produce the microbubbles, with the microbubbles having a bubble diameter of less than about 200 microns, the contaminants being pulled into the bubbles to decompose the contaminants in a reaction with the ozone in the bubbles. 14. The method of claim 13 wherein the hydrocarbon products contaminants are dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrocarbon petroleum products. 15. The method of claim 13 wherein injecting gas as microbubbles occurs through a microporous diffuser having 5-50 micron channel size resistance to flow over 1 to 3 psi, and with an annular pack of packing material. 16. The method of claim 13 wherein injecting gas as bubbles occurs through a microporous diffuser. 17. The method of claim 13 wherein injecting gas as bubbles occurs through a shielded microporous diffuser, which is injected into the site, the shielded diffuser having microporous material molded around an internal metal perforated tubing and attached to an anchor which pulls the bubble generator out when the protective insertion shaft is retracted. 18. The method of claim 13 further comprising: pushing a shaft to a desired depth and inserting a bubble generator through the shaft the bubble generator having a molded tubing and the shaft having a drive detachable point, and pulling the shaft upwards, pulling off the detachable drive point and exposing the bubble generator. 19. The method of claim 13 wherein alternating water injection with bubble production promotes continuous movement of microbubbles through porous aquifers. 20. An apparatus for in-situ removal of contaminants from soil and an associated subsurface groundwater aquifer at a site, the apparatus comprising: a microbubble generator to produce microbubbles for extracting contaminants from groundwater; an ozone source coupled to the microbubble generator to produce the microbubbles encapsulating ozone; a pump for forming a pressure wave for dispersion flow of the microbubbles into the soil and associated groundwater aquifer; and a co-reactant material to act as co-reactant with ozone in the microbubbles for decomposing the contaminants. 21. The apparatus of claim 20 further comprising: packing material disposed about the microbubble generator having a porous structure matching the condition of porosity of the soil. 22. The apparatus of claim 20 further comprising: a remote sensing device to monitor pressure of injection in the groundwater to regulate dispersion of the microbubbles. 23. The apparatus of claim 21 wherein the microbubble generator is a microporous diffuser having porosity matched to the soil porosity. 24. The apparatus of claim 21 further comprising: casing disposed in the ground, the casing having an upper well screen disposed at a vertical distance above the microporous diffuser; and wherein a lateral extent of treatment is related to a distance between the microporous diffuser and the well screen. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applications Ser. No. 29/038,499, entitled Bubbler Sparge Unit for Groundwater Treatment, filed on May 5, 1995, Ser. No. 08/638,017 entitled Groundwater and Soil Remediation with Microporous Diffusion Methods and Apparatuses, filed Apr. 25, 1996, and Ser. No. 08/756,273 entitled Microporous Diffusion Apparatus, filed Nov. 25, 1996, all of William B. Kerfoot, which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention (Technical Field) The present invention relates to sparging systems and methods of in-situ groundwater remediation for removal of contamination including dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrocarbon petroleum products. Remediation of saturated soils may also be obtained by employment of the present invention. In particular, the present invention is directed to the use in injection wells of microfine bubble generators, matched to substrates of selected aquifer regions, for injection and distribution of said bubbles containing oxidizing gas through said aquifer. Further, the present invention relates to selectively encapsulating gases including oxygen and ozone in duo-gas bubbles which, in the presence of co-reactant substrate material acting as a catalyst, are effective to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics, or Criegee decomposition of leachate plumes containing dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons. 2. Background Prior Art The introduction of air bubbles into aquifers for the purpose of remediation is a recent advancement in in-situ treatment of groundwater (Marley, et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1991). Contained air entrainment has been used for many years to provide vertical movement of water in low-head aquariums and in the development of public well supplies (Johnson, 1975). Aeration of aquifers for plume management was suggested to accelerate bacterial degradation of dissolved organic compounds (JRB, 1985). As bubble volume increases in density above re-aeration needs by approaching ratios beyond I to I0 (I water to I0 air), gas transfer begins to dominate. In this case, volatile organics may be physically transported from the saturated aquifer to the overlying unsaturated zone (vadose zone). There is a well-recognized need for a simple test to evaluate a potential site to assist with design of sparging systems deployed on a remediation site. Whereas hydraulic tests have been performed for some period of time based upon the well-known Theis equation, the introduction of air bubbles (particularly microscopic bubbles) is new. Also, whereas the introduction of air to the pressure vessel is continuous, the production of bubbles, particularly the microscopic variety, is a discrete discontinuous process. Bubbles, once generated, may take preferential pathways, determined largely by the substratum and, secondarily, by the introduction of pressure (Ji, et al., 1993). Applicant is aware of prior art devices that have used injection of air to facilitate biodegradation of plumes. U.S. Pat. No. 5,2211,159 to Billings shows injection of air into aquifer regions to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics together with simultaneous soil vacuum extraction. Also in U.S. Pat. No. 4,730,672 to Payne, there is disclosed a closed-loop process for removing volatile contaminants. However, Payne deals only with volatile contaminants. Payne discloses a withdrawal well surrounded by multiple injection wells. Pressurized air is injected into the groundwater through the injection wells, and is withdrawn under vacuum from the withdrawal well whereupon contaminants are removed from the air stream and the air is then recycled through the system. The U.S. Pat. No. 4,588,506, to Raymond et al. discloses the injection of a diluted solution of hydrogen peroxide into a contaminated soil for enhancing biodegradation of organic contaminants in the soil. Raymond discloses intermittent spiking of the hydrogen peroxide concentration to eliminate biota to increase soil permeability. Raymond has the disadvantage of failing to deliver oxygen through the system, and depends on a complicated process of hydrologic management of the subsurface which has rendered the process uneconomical. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,167,806 to Wang et al. there is disclosed apparatus for treatment of a contaminated liquid stream comprising generating extremely fine gas bubbles through porous diffusers, wherein the gas may be a combination of air and ozone. One process disclosed by Wang involves removing dissolved organics from contaminated groundwater by means of generating micro gas bubbles. In the first stage of the process for removing dissolved organics, which involves generating bubbles, no vacuum is employed, as gas bubbles are completely dissolved by the method. Wang teaches an enhanced dissolved aqueous reaction. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,832,122 to Corey et al. is disclosed an in-situ method for removing contamination from groundwater comprising a horizontal well positioned in the saturated zone which has multiple apertures for injecting gas. The apertures are shown in the figures to be sequentially arranged and closely spaced so that the bubbles zones produced from each one would overlap with the adjacent zones. Corey et al. teaches that the configuration of the injection system is dictated by the size and shape of the plume, drilling economics, and the subsurface geology (column 1, lines 4-9, 41-43, 64-68; column 2, lines 1-8, 43-48). Corey also teaches an enhanced dissolved aqueous reaction. U.S. Pat. No. 4,614,596 to Wyness discloses a method for dissolving a gas in an aqueous stream which comprises diffusing a gas in an aqueous stream to produce small gas bubbles which are rotated to provide a long flow distance over which the bubbles have increased contact time. The figures show that the bubbles are dispersed within and outward from a vessel, or well casing, by maximizing the dispersal of bubbles from a well casing and maximizing contact with the bubbles. Wyness also teaches an enhanced dissolved aqueous reaction. Notwithstanding the teachings of Wang et al., Corey et al., and Wyness, there has not been shown a sparging system for remediating a site in a controlled manner of poorly biodegradable organics, employing oxidizing gas encapsulated in microbubbles generated from microporous diffusers matched to soil porosity pulsed in a wave form for even distribution through the substrate (aquifer structure) employing a co-reactant in the form of substrate material. Further, the prior art fails to show matching of micron sized bubble formation with substrate material of a selected aquifer or to show the beneficial effect of uniform distribution of sized bubbles through such a formation by means of a pulsed wave form without fracturing said substrate. The present invention accomplishes this by injecting micron size bubbles into aquifer regions in combination with substrate materials acting as a catalyst to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics by means of a gas/gas/water reaction which overcomes at least some of the disadvantages of prior art. SUMMARY The present invention relates to injection of oxidizing gas in the form of microfine bubbles into aquifer regions by means of a sparging system which includes one or more injection wells to encourage in-situ remediation of subsurface leachate plumes by means of a gas-gas-water reaction. The present invention is directed to sparging systems and methods of in-situ groundwater remediation in combination with co-reactant substrate materials acting as a catalyst to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes for removal of dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrocarbon petroleum products. Remediation of saturated soils may also be obtained by employment of the present invention. In particular the present invention employs sparging apparatus including microporous bubble generators for generating micron sized duo-gas bubbles into aquifer regions by means of one or more vertically arranged injection wells having a bubble chamber for regulating the size of bubbles. The sparging system of the present invention encourages biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics or Criegee decomposition of leachate plumes containing dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons. The following systems and methods for removing contaminants from soil and an associated subsurface groundwater aquifer using microporous diffusers and duo-gas systems are particularly useful in that they promote extremely efficient removal of poorly biodegradable organics, particularly dissolved chlorinated solvents, without vacuum extraction, and wherein remediation occurs by destroying organic and hydrocarbon material in place without release of contaminating vapors. In the present invention the groundwater and soil remediation system comprises oxidizing gas encapsulated in microbubbles generated from microporous diffusers matched to soil porosity. A unique bubble size range is matched to underground formation porosity and achieves dual properties of fluid like transmission and rapid extraction of selected volatile gases, said size being so selected so as to not to be so small as to lose vertical mobility. In order to accomplish a proper matching, a prior site evaluation test procedure is devised to test effectiveness of fluid transmission at the site to be remediated. The advantage of controlled selection of small bubble size is the promotion of rapid extraction of selected volatile organic compounds, such as PCE, TCE, or DCE by incorporating the exceptionally high surface to gas volume ratio. The dual capacity of the small production and rise time is matched to the short lifetime of an oxidative gas, such as ozone to allow rapid dispersion into water saturated geological formations, and extraction and rapid decomposition of the volatile organic material. The unique apparatus of the present invention provides for extraction efficiency with resulting economy of operation by maximizing contact with oxidant by selective rapid extraction providing for optimum fluidity to permit bubbles to move like a fluid through media which can be monitored. The use of microporous bubble generators provides a more even distribution of air into a saturated formation than the use of pressurized wells. A microfine sparge system installed to remediate contaminated groundwater is made more cost-effective by sparging different parts of the plume area at sequenced times. Through the proper placement of bubble generator locations and sequence control, any possible off-site migration of floating product is eliminated. With closely spaced bubble generators, water mounding is used to advantage in preventing any off-site escape of contaminant. The mounding is used to herd floating product toward extraction sites. In the present invention, the concept of microfine sparge system manipulation is predicated upon a thorough knowledge of the features of the groundwater or saturated zones on a site selected for remediation. Balancing the volume of air to the microfine system sparge loci enables control of sparging efficiency and balancing of any downgradient movement of a contaminated plume while remediation is accomplished. Critical to microfine sparge system design and accomplishment of any of the above points is to initially perform a “sparge point test” for the purpose of evaluating the characteristics of the site for matching purposes. Furthermore, the present invention overcomes the limitations expressed above of the prior technology. The invention employs the well recognized Criegee mechanisms which describes the gaseous reaction of ozone with the incoming PCE, TCE and DCE, and vinyl chloride into microbubbles produced by bubble generators with the resultant products then hydrolysed, i.e., reacted with water to decomposed into HCl and CO2. It is this physical/chemical reaction which produces the rapid removal rate employed by the present invention (see reference Maston S 1986, “Mechanisms and Kinetics of Ozone Hydroxal Radical Reactions with Model Alafadic and Olanfadic Compounds:, Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.). Unlike the prior art, the contaminated groundwater is injected with an air/ozone mixture wherein microfine air bubbles strip the solvents from the groundwater and the encapsulated ozone acts as an oxidizing agent to break down the contaminants into carbon dioxide, very dilute HCl and water. This process is also known as the C-Sparger™ process. Accordingly, the object and purpose of the present invention is to provide microporous diffusors for removal of contaminants from soil and associated subsurface groundwater aquifer, without requiring vacuum extraction. Another object is to provide duo-gas systems to be used in combination with the microporous diffusers to promote an efficient removal of poorly biodegradable organics, particularly dissolved chlorinated solvents, without vacuum extraction. A further object is to provide for economical and efficient remediation of contaminated groundwater by providing a calculated plan of sparging different parts of a plume area at sequenced times. Yet a further object is to control off-site migration of floating product by employing a water mounding technique which effectively herds floating product to extraction sites. Another object is to provide microfine sparge system manipulation predicated on performance of a site evaluation test. A further object is to provide that remediation occurs by destroying organic and hydrocarbon material in place without release of contaminating vapors to the atmosphere. Yet a further object is to obtain economy of operation by maximizing contact with the oxidant to achieve selective rapid extraction. Another object is to provide a microfine sparge system providing for optimum fluidity to permit bubbles to move like a fluid through media. The invention will be described for the purposes of illustration only in connection with certain embodiments; however, it is recognized that those persons skilled in the art may make various changes, modifications, improvements and additions on the illustrated embodiments all without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross sectional schematic illustration of a soil formation showing the system of the present invention as disclosed in the parent applications and incorporated herein. FIG. 2 shows an enlarged piping schematic of the present invention of FIG. 1 showing the unique fine bubble production chamber; FIG. 3 is an electrical schematic for a 3 well system of the present invention of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 shows an internal layout of the Control Module box for a three well system of the present invention of FIG. 1; FIG. 5A shows the geometry of the bottom panel on the Control Module identifying the external connections and ports for three well units of the invention of FIG. 1; FIG. 5B is the left side view of FIG. 5A; FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of a soil formation showing the method for the present invention. FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating pore size compared with air bubble size. FIG. 8 is an illustration of radiation of bubbles from standard 0.010 (10 Slot) well screen compared to microporous diffusor. FIG. 9 is an illustration of permeability of glass beads compared with permeability of soil fractions. FIG. 10 is a plan view of three different types of bubble generators and installations of the present invention. FIG. 11 is an illustration of flow chart for a sparge test according to the present invention. FIG. 12 is a schematic illustration of apparatus used in in-situ sparge test according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is a graph illustrating pressure/flow relationship observed in different formations. FIG. 14 is a graph illustrating influence of depth and pressure on radius of bubble zone. FIG. 15 is a graph illustrating PCE removal rate as function of bubble size. FIG. 16 is an illustration of flushmount wellhead assembly in roadbox according to the present invention. FIG. 17 is a schematic illustration of the use of zone control in the present invention. FIG. 18 is a schematic illustration of depiction of bubble zone and mounding. FIG. 19 is a schematic illustration of bubble zone and mounded area above the active aeration according to the present invention. FIG. 20 is a graphic illustration of the relationship between bubble zone width, depth of bubble generator and pressure for a medium sand aquifer. FIG. 21 is an illustration of sequential rise in water table from bubbling and concentric zones permitting containment of any floating contaminant—side view. FIG. 22 is schematic illustration of sequential rise in water table from bubbling and concentric zones permitting containment of any floating contaminant—top view. FIG. 23A is a schematic illustration of contrast between aeration gaps with non-overlapping and thirty percent (30%) overlapping sparged zones. FIG. 23B is a cross sectional schematic illustration of bubble generator (Spargepoint®) apparatus well pumping above. FIG. 24 is a plan view of a “C-Sparger™ system. FIG. 25 is a cross sectional schematic illustration of an inwell assembly. FIG. 26 is a top view of a tenpoint diffusor installation. FIG. 27 is a cross sectional schematic illustration of deep slant-well installations to create selective bubble fence using equal spacing of ten diffusers. FIG. 28 is a graphical illustration of PCE concentrations. FIG. 29 is a cross sectional schematic illustration of a soil formation showing the systems and methods of the present invention. FIGS. 30-40 are directed to the improvements in the present invention set forth herein. FIG. 30 shows movement of microbubbles through saturated pores as diameter of bubble increases, showing coalescing. FIG. 31 is a graphical illustration of PCE removal rate as function of bubble size. FIG. 32 is a graphical illustration of rapid reaction of gas/gas mixture when passing through moistened sand. FIG. 33 is a schematic diagram of gas/gas/water reactions contrasted with previous known ozone reactions. FIG. 34 is a diagram of ozone reactions illustrating Criegee mechanism for gas/gas/water reaction with tetrachloroethene (PCE). FIG. 35 shows a microbubble generator column chamber and process. FIG. 36 shows pressure waves created by C-Sparger™ unit during operation. FIG. 37 is a graphical illustration of frequency of microbubbles entering monitoring well screen at 15 ft. distance compared to pressure wave from C-Sparger™ unit during water pumpage (pump), lower bubble generator (Spargepoint®) operation (lover SP) and in-well bubble generator (Spargepoint®) operation (in-well SP). FIG. 38 shows induced, recirculation from bubble distribution. FIG. 39 is a graphical illustration of expanding zone of influence when air and then air/ozone mixtures are injected with C-Sparger™ recirculation system. FIG. 40 shows remote C-Sparger™ process interrogator and controller. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Referring to the FIGS. 1-29 there is shown a microfine sparge system employing oxidizing gas encapsulated in microbubbles generated from microporous diffusers matched to soil porosity in a wave form employing a co-reactant in the form of substrate material for use with injection wells known as the C-Sparger™ system. Said system consists of the following components: a vertical injection well, a master control unit, and at least one in-well bubble generator. Each master control unit can operate up to a total of three injection wells, simultaneously permitting treatment of an area up to 50 feet wide and 100 feet long. Actual performance characteristics of the system depend upon site conditions which are determined in advance by an evaluation test. Inasmuch as treatment takes place in-situ, vapor capture is not normally necessary. The master unit consists of the combination of a gas generator, a compressor, a pump control unit, a timer, gas feed lines, and a power source for providing electrical power to the apparatus. The In-Well Bubble Generating unit consists of a fixed packer consisting of a microfine bubble diffuser, commonly called (Spargepoint®), a water pump, air/ozone line, check valve, and connecting fittings. The master control unit is typically mounted on a secure foundation such as 4×4 post or building wall 40 adjacent the injection well. A heavy-duty power cable, not over 50 feet in length, may be used to run from the power source to the master control unit. I. Evaluation Test The first step in preparing a site for treatment is to conduct an evaluation test to determine whether or not an aquifer has characteristics which make it suitable for treatment by the microbubble sparging system of the present invention. The test employs one or more microporous bubble generators known as Spargepoint™ which produce extremely fine bubbles and are sized to penetrate fine sands by matching the bubble size to the soil porosity. The bubble generator (Spargepoint®) may be injected with a hydraulic or pneumatic hammer into the aquifer or inserted through a hollow stem auger usually up to 10 feet below static water level. (See FIG. 11 for flow chart of sparge test). Prior to conducting an evaluation test, reconnaissance steps normally performed at a site include 1) soil coring to establish the extent of volatile organic carbon (vocn) contamination and 2) soil types with depth and hydrocarbon content. Monitoring wells are usually installed for later observation points, typically having well screens which extend five to seven feet below static water with one to three feet above depending upon historic record of water level changes for the area. If floating nonaqueous liquid petroleum is observed (greater than sheen thickness), efforts to remove the product should be undertaken prior to evaluation testing. Oil corings are commonly scanned with a PID detector to establish the three-dimensional extent of petroleum contamination. Subsamples can be forwarded to a laboratory to determine precise chemical composition. The next step is to prepare a site map, noting the distances between the test point and adjacent wells. Immediately prior to conducting the test, check water elevation in monitoring wells and/or point piezometers. The following is a list of the materials and a stepwise procedure (see FIG. 11) for conducting a sparge test with the micro-bubbler generator: ¾-inch OD×18 inch (for 0.5 inch ID schedule 90 PVC); Wellhead surface assembly, (¼ inch connections, 0-2.5 cfm); Gas tank regulator, (acetylene torch type, zero air or nitrogen, 0-100 psi adjustable, 0-3 cfm flow capacity, male ¼ inch NPT connector); Zero air tank (medium, 500 cf. 15600 to 2000 psi) 90 lbs; ¼ inch compression fittings, ¼ inch copper tube. (See FIG. 12 for assembly of parts). Suggested well locations are at 5, 10, 15, and 20 feet from point of bubble injection. The screen should be five (5) feet, with two (2) feet placed into the unsaturated (vadose) zone and 3 feet below static water level. NOTE: Initially water may move out of wellpoint causing a period of time (1-2 minutes) before bubbling begins. A step-wise PROCEDURE is as follows: A. Connect ¼ inch NPT of flowmeter assembly to regulator output; B. Test before connection to wellhead to check flow to ⅔ cfm, with tubing wide open; (1) Leave ¾-inch NPT wellhead connector off; (2) Shut valve (b) on regulator, open valve on flowmeter; (3) Adjust pressure to 20 psi; (4) Slowly open valve (b); (5) Briefly check flow up to 2-3 cfm. Shut down by turning valve (b) off; C. Connect ¼ inch compression fitting to wellhead stickup 0.5 inch PVC pressure cape (either glue or screw top to casing, leaving enough for later completion); D. Bring pressure down to 10 psi; (1) Slowly open valve (b); (2) Check flow (yield) on flowmeter, in cfph (cubic ft. per hour). Divide by 60 to get cfm. (3) If yield is less than 0.3 cfm, increase pressure valve to 15 psi; maintain for 5 minutes opening valve b to maximum flow. (4) Maintain for 30 minutes if flow is near 0.5 cfm. (5) Check observation wells with electronic dip meter to record water levels at 15 minute intervals. Check surface with flashlight for bubbles reaching surface. Verify with transparent bailers. It normally takes 30 to 40 minutes for bubbles to appear. (6) After one hour, increase pressure by another 5 psi, again opening valve (b) to maximum. (a) Record maximum yield from flowmeter. (b) Repeat procedure 1-6. (7) Record pressure and maximum flow, and confirm distance of bubbling out from the injection location. (8) Continue with stepwise procedure recording pressure and yield; plot on graph paper. Record water elevations in wells and time of onset of bubbling. A test is usually conducted for a period of three hours, using about 150 to 200 cubic feet of gas. (9) After onset of bubbling, insert a bubble trap into the well. This allows quantification of the volume of gas being evolved into the unsaturated zone. A sample of the gas can be analyzed later to determine volatile mass transfer. As a substitute, count the number of bubbles present in a volume of water obtained with a bailer or peristaltic pump. (10) If you are dealing with silt or clay you may want to modify the procedure to increase pressure at 10 psi intervals up to 50 psi. Check for fracturing by sudden change in slope upwards (increase in permeability). If bentonite or grout seal fails, flow also increases suddenly with a noticeable drop in water elevation in monitoring wells. Normally test is completed when 25 or 30 psi is reached or non-linear conditions are encountered. (11) In clay soils there may be substantial back pressure following cessation of test. Be careful unhooking lines. Wait until pressure reads below 20 psi before disengaging line or use a t-valve in line for venting. II. Interpretation of Results Upon completion of a qualifying sparge test, there should be sufficient data to plot curves for the relationship between pressure and gas yield, zone of influence and bubble region. These plots will determine whether the area is amenable for use of the sparging system of the present invention. The injection of air into an aquifer closely approaches Darcian flow, as long as fracturing pressures are not exceeded. With microporous materials, the initial bubble can be sized below or matching the interparticle pore space, allowing gas conductivity to more approximate fluid conditions (Kerfoot, 1993). The injection of air then approximates the more familiar injection of water, exhibiting mounding and outward movement until equilibrium is reached. The creation of bubbling occurs when the gas pressure overcomes the hydraulic head (depth of water from static elevations to bottom of bubbler), the line friction, the membrane resistance of the bubbler wall, and the back pressure of the formation. The hydraulic head is converted to psi equivalents by multiplying depth of water by 0.43. The resistance of a half (½) inch tube is negligible under ten feet. The membrane resistance of a three quarter (¾) inch bubble generator is roughly two psi. For a ten (10) foot installation, the critical bubbling pressure would be the following: Hydraulic Head: 10 ft. × .43 = 4.3 Line Friction: Negligible = .0 Bubbler Wall Resistance: = 2.0 Critical Bubbling Pressure 6.3 psi The most crucial pressure to overcome is the formation back pressure which varies with the surface to volume relationship of the pore spaces and the extent of their occlusion by fines. For a rough approximation, previous field tests have shown the following ranges: Gravel .2 to 2 psi Coarse sand .3 to 4 psi Medium sand .5 to 6 psi Fine sand 1.0 to 10 psi Silty sands 3.0 to 30 psi III. Interstitial Gas: Velocity and Soil Conductivity—Darcy's Law (1) Gas is a fluid that, unlike water, is compressible. Vapor flow rates through porous material, such as soil, are affected by the material's porosity and permeability, as well as the viscosity, density, and pressure gradient of the gas. The movement of gas through soil can be approximated by Darcy's law. A simple formulation of Darcy's law for saturated gas flow in one dimension is: V = V n = q A n = k ( ⅆ P / ⅆ m ) u n where: V=seepage velocity (cm/sec) V=gas yield (cm3)/(cm2)(sec)) q=flow rate (cm3/sec) k=gas permeability (cm2) (Darcies) A=cross-sectional area (cm2) u=viscosity (g/cm)(sec)) dP/dm=pressure gradient (g/cm)(sec2)/cm n=specific porosity (i.e., void nonwetted volume) (2) The simplified Darcy equation can be used in conjunction with simple vadose-zone well tests to directly relate soil permeability to gas viscosity, flow rate, and pressure gradient. By using direct gas velocity and rearranging the Darcy equation to solve for gas permeability (k), the following equation is derived and compared with its groundwater equivalent (Masserman, 1989): Gas flow: Gas flow : k = V n ⅆ P / ⅆ m Groundwater equivalent: Groundwater equivalent : k = V n ⅆ h / ⅆ l (3) The slope (dh/dl) change in water head with change in distance (dl) is replaced by the pressure gradient (dp/dm) in the soil gas equivalent. The solution for k can be found for a known gradient and porosity. Effective porosity (n) remains unchanged, except that moisture content must be considered with gas movement. The viscosity of air (u) is estimated from Table 1. TABLE 1 VISCOSITY OF AIR Temperature (□C.) Viscosity (g/(cm)(sec))* 0 0.00017 9 0.000176 18 0.000182 29 0.000186 40 0.00019 *The Units are called Poises. Source: CRC 1972 (4) Petroleum engineers have defined the Darcy as a unit of permeability. Technically, one Darcy is defined as the permeability that will lead to a specific discharge (v) of 1 cm/sec for a fluid with a viscosity of 1 centipoise under a pressure gradient that makes the term pg/u (dp/dl) equal to 1 atmosphere, where p is density, u viscosity, and g is the force of gravity. To convert Darcies to cm2, multiply by 9.88×10−9. To convert Darcies to gas conductivity in cm/sec, multiply by 9.11×107. To convert Darcies to cm/sec, divide by 103. The differential equations that govern pressure flow of gas and vapor in soil are non-linear since gas density depends upon gas pressure. Masserman 1989 has pointed out, however, that if the maximum pressure difference between any two points in the flow field is less than approximately 0.5 atmospheres, the differential equations developed to model groundwater flow provide good approximations of gas flow. Analytical models used to evaluate groundwater flow can then be designed to estimate gas flow in sandy soils. (5) Following Darcy's Law, the rate of gas discharge from the bubble generator increases proportionately to the pressure (head) applied above critical bubbling pressure. The outflow through the aquifer can be predicted by an analogy to the Darcy equation: Q o = K g A ( hm - hx ) x WHERE: Qo=gas flow (cfm) Kg=bubble conductivity A=cross-sectional flow area (ft2) (hm-hx)=pressure head (ft) x=distance from source (ft) Since the area of a ¾ inch bubble generator (Spargepoint®) is fixed at 0.29 square feet, the gas yield is directly proportional to pressure. (A plot of pressure versus gas flow should be a straight line.) If, however, sufficient excessive pressure is applied to fracture the formation, thereby increasing its conductivity, the line will bend in the direction of more flow with less pressure. This creates an undesirable condition where a greater air volume can bypass soil without permeating through it. As a result, extraction efficiency drops rapidly as large channels are formed. Secondly, within confined aquifers or semi-confined aquifers, the cross-sectional area through which the air bubbles (fluid) is being injected may be limited having a ceiling or floor, and thereby limit the volume which can be injected. See FIG. 13 for depiction of the pressure/flow relationship in different formations. (6) Referring to the drawings there is shown use of unique microporous diffusors in place of standard slotted well screen to improve bubble dispersion through soil and improve rate of gaseous exchange. A normal 10-slot PVC well screen contains roughly twelve percent (12%) open area. Under pressure most air exits the top slits and radiates outwards in a starlike fracture pattern, evidencing fracturing of the formation. The effectiveness of treatment is dependent upon uniformity of dispersion of the gas as it travels through the formation. A porous structure with appropriate packing matches the condition of the pores of the soil with thirty percent (30%) pore distribution. The dispersion of bubbles as a fluid can be checked with Darcy's equation. The use of microporous materials to inject gases into groundwater saturated formations has special advantages for the following reasons: (1) Matching permeability and channel size; (2) Matching porosity; (3) Enhancing fluidity, which can be determined in-situ. The most effective range of pore space for the diffusor depends upon the nature of the unconsolidated formation to be injected into, but the following serves as a general guide: (1) Porosity of porous material: thirty percent (30%); (2) Pore Space: 5-200 microns: (1) 5-20 very fine silty sand; (b) 20-50 medium sand; (c) 50-200 coarse sand and gravel. The surrounding sand pack placed between the bubble generator and natural material to fill the zone of drilling excavation should also be compatible in channel size to reduce coalescing of the produced bubbles. The permeability range for fluid injection function without fracturing would follow: (1) 102 to 10−6 cm/sec, corresponding to 2 to 2000 Darcies; or (2) 20−2 to 10−6 cm/sec: or (3) 100 to 0.01 ft/day hydraulic conductivity. (7) Permeability is the measure of the ease of movement of a gas through the soil. The ability of a porous soil to pass any fluid, including gas, depends upon its internal resistance to flow, dictated largely by the forces of attraction, adhesion, cohesion, and viscosity. Because the ratio of surface area to porosity increases as particle size decreases, permeability is often related to particle size, see FIG. 9. An estimate of the permeability of a soil can be obtained by comparing its grain size in millimeters with glass beads of a similar size, see FIG. 9. This method is generally limited to uniformly graded sands, i.e., sands with a uniformity coefficient of less than 5.0. Permeability (k) is a function only of the soil medium and is expressed as an area (cm2). Reference is made to FIG. 8 and FIG. 9. IV. Equipment 1. Unique Microporous Diffusors—types a. Direct substitute for well screen, 30% porosity 5-50 micron channel size resistance to flow only 1 to 3 psi, can take high volume flow, need selective annular pack (sized to formation). High density polyethylene or polypropylene is light weight, inexpensive. b. Diffusor on end of narrow diameter pipe riser VVA 14-291. This reduces the residence time in the riser volume. c. Shielded microporous diffusor which is injected with a hand-held or hydraulic vibratory hammer. The microporous material is molded around an internal metal (copper) perforated tubing and attached to an anchor which pulls the bubble generator out when the protective insertion shaft is retracted. Unit is connected to surface with {fraction (3/16)} or ¼ inch polypropylene tubing with a compression fitting. d. Thin bubble generators with molded tubing can be inserted down narrow shaft for use with push or vibratory tools with detachable points. The shaft is pushed to the depth desired, then the bubble generator inserted, the shaft is pulled upwards, pulling off the detachable drive point and exposing the bubble generator. V. Bubbling Radius and Bubble Conductivity of an Aquifer The back pressure from the aquifer and radius of bubbling represent some of the major unknowns in the sparging system field design. The following test was designed and field tested to evaluate the capacity of the aquifer for sparging and to provide critical design information. A microporous bubbler of known characteristics is placed by injection or hollow stem auger a fixed distance below static water. A gas tank (zero air or nitrogen) with unlimited pressure and outfitted with a flowmeter provides the source of gas. The pressure is increased in a stepwise manner while observing flow. The yield versus pressure is then recorded. The shape of the curve indicates the pressure range of normal function acceptance of flow under Darcian conditions and non-Darcian fracturing pressures. Observation points away from the source use water table levels in both well screens and point piezometers. The rise in water level is recorded and the presence of bubbles noted. There is always a lag in time between bubble injection at depth and arrival at the surface. The yield curves and bubble zones are compared against theoretical and other curves observed for known formations. VI. Mounding The phenomenon of groundwater mounding occurs when a fluid is introduced into soil in unconfined sandy aquifers. Small bubbles displace an equivalent volume of water creating a movement of water horizontally and vertically. Hantush (1976) and Fielding (1981) have developed equations to depict two-dimensional behavior of groundwater in a constant-recharging system. Assuming a radial flow of bubbles in an aquifer of thickness (d), the head distribution can be represented as: ( hm - hx ) = Q 2 1 K g ( d + hx ) WHERE: Kg=bubble conductivity of aquifer (hm-hx)=pressure head (ft) m=maximum water rise D=depth of aquifer π=pi, a constant (3.14 . . . ) Qo=gas outflow (cfd) x=distance from source (ft) In a theoretical depiction, the introduced bubbles exit the sparge bubble generator and migrate vertically resulting in a symmetrical spheroid shape. In reality, circular regions rarely are found. More commonly, an elliptical region is found, reflecting higher hydraulic conductivity in one axis than another, inherent with the depositional history of the formation. (See FIG. 19 for a depiction of groundwater mounding caused by sparging). VII. Bubble Radius and Distribution As with mounding, it is often convenient to think of bubble movement as being symmetrical and circular. In reality, it is rarely so uniform. However, there are some general finds which can serve as guidelines in interpreting results of the bubble tests. First of all, bubbles in a more uniform sandy deposit move upwards at about a 45□ angle when released at critical bubbling pressure. Doubling the depth doubles the radius. Unfortunately, stratified deposits may also be encountered which may divert bubble vertical movement. For every doubling of pressure above critical bubbling pressure, the radius of influence will expand 1.42 times its original radius. This approximation is based upon maintaining a fixed thickness of aquifer while doubling the volume of the cylinder. An approximation of the relationship between depth, radius and pressure for a medium to fine sand is presented in FIG. 20. The relationship observed between depth of the bubbler and radius of the bubble zone with air pressure set to only 10 psi above critical bubbling pressure with a three quarter (¾) inch diameter bubble generator. The diameter observed for bubbling was noticeably less than the measured zone of influence of the displaced water. At ten feet below static water, a 10-foot pressure radius was observed at the top of the water when operated at critical bubbling. The radius of the observed bubble zone fit closely the relationship predicted by Repa and Kufs, 1985. At a fixed pressure set at 10 psi above critical bubbling, the radius expands linearly, (directly proportional), to increasing depth. VIII. Pressure Influence A second test was conducted on an 18-inch bubble generator (Spargepoint®) located five (5) feet below static water. Pressure was increased in increments (5.0 psi) well above critical bubbling pressure (see FIG. 13). Although the bubbling zone radius was five (5) feet at critical bubbling pressure, it expanded with increased pressure to approximately the square root of the pressure increase: r = Pressure Critical Pressure ⋀ 0.5 dc where: r=radius of bubbling zone dc=depth of installation IX. Pressure Versus Flow As pressure increases, the gas flow to the bubble generator (Spargepoint®) also increases (see FIG. 13). For comparison, the gas yield (flow) was measured with the bubbler in air, the main resistance being through the porous sidewalls of the cylinder. The bubble generator was also placed in medium sand with less than one foot of waterhead. The same pressure was applied. If the critical bubbling pressure is subtracted, the sand and water curve will show the expected flow in medium sand. For example, at a 10-foot depth (critical bubbling=7.8 psi) and 15 psi pressure, about 1.2 cfm would be expected. If a fine porous diffusor (10 micron) is used with a highly permeable deposit (medium sand, 100 ft/day hydraulic conductivity), the resistance to flow may be so low that a shallow curve of pressure versus flow occurs. If so, assume that the radius of bubbling will increase by the square root of 2 (i.e., 1.4) times each time the flow volume is doubled. X. Degree of Overlap of Bubble Zones It is important to achieve overlap of the zones of aeration. To achieve thirty percent (30%) overlap, the distance between aeration zones should be set at ¼ db (db=the diameter of bubble zone). Critical bubbling pressure (pressure to initiate bubbling) is defined as: Pc (psi)=[0.43×depth below water (ft)]+3.5 (psi). The diameter of the bubbling zone produced by the bubble generator when supplied with the critical bubbling pressure is equal to the installation depth of the bubble generator below the static groundwater surface: Dc (ft)=Installation Depth below Water (ft). The increase in the radius of the bubbling zone produced by the bubble generator when supplied with greater than the critical bubbling pressure is defined as: R = [(Pressure/Pc){circumflex over ( )}0.5] × Dc; Input bubble generator (Spargepoint ®) 10.0 (ft); depth below static groundwater level. Critical bubbling pressure is calculated as 6.0 (psi); Critical bubbling radius is calculated as 20.0 (ft); Input proposed delivery pressure to spargepoints 12 (psi); Bubbling zone radius based on input pressure 12.0 30 (ft); and volume (20 scfm) Recommended horizontal spacing between bubble 22.0 (ft); generators Estimated air flow through (Spargepoint ®) based 20 (cfm); on input pressure Correction for vertical/horizontal (V/H) permeability if ratio of V/H is: 1:1 multiply R by 1 1:10 multiply R by 1.5 1:100 multiply R by 2.0. XI. Gas/Gas/Water Reactions During Microsparging Detail on Process and Delivery System MICROSPARGING: The unique use of Microfine Bubble injection for simultaneous extraction/decomposition reactions in saturated and partially-saturated capillary zones (soil and geological formations). As opposed to simply creating smaller and smaller sized bubbles for the purpose of injecting into free water, the microsparge process involves generation of fine bubbles which can enter and pass through the torturous pathways of the substrate (aquifer structure) and promote rapid gas/gas/water reactions with volatile organic compounds which the substrate participates in, instead of solely enhancing dissolved (aqueous) disassociations and reactions. The microsparging process encompasses the following unique aspects: (1) The production of microbubbles and selection of appropriate size distribution for optimizing gaseous exchange in sandy aquifers (i.e., passage through interconnected fine capillary-sized passageways), using microporous materials, bubble chamber, and pulsed gas/water injection. (2) Physical methodology and equipment for promoting the continuous movement of microbubbles through porous aquifers without coalescing or adhesion (i.e., small bubbles will not move through fine channels without assistance, otherwise they accumulate, coalesce, or immobilize). The injected air/water combination moves as a fluid through the aquifer without fracturing or channeling, which interfere with even distribution and efficiency of exchange. The injected gas/water combination is pulsed in such a way to move the bubbles on a pressure wave for lateral distribution. The wave form has an amplitude which falls above critical bubbling pressure but below fracturing pressure for formation. The pulsing is done to create short-term tidal waves in three dimensions. The combination of recirculating the water also assists in creating and promoting vertical airlift which induces the generation of a three-dimensional eddy current adjacent to the spargewell, greatly assisting in evening the reaction rate throughout a broad aquifer region. (3) The use of microencapsulated ozone to enhance and promote in-situ stripping of volatile organics and simultaneously terminate the normal reversible Henry's reaction. (4) The demonstration and enhancement of unique gas/gas/water reactions for the rapid decomposition of HVOCs and petroleum products (BTEX-related compounds). In her doctoral thesis, Masten (1986) identified a particular chemical pathway by which ozone can react with chlorinated olefinic VOCs (PCE, TCE, DCE) to decompose the molecule by direct rather than indirect means (i.e., hydroxide or super oxide formation). Heretofore, the reaction had not been demonstrated to be significant in aqueous remediation processes, since the reaction progresses very slowly with PCE. For instance, if an HVOC/ozone gaseous mixture or microbubble injection occurs into free water alone, forming superhydroxides as the primary reactive agents (Masten and Hoigne (1992). The process described here is called C-Sparging and involves promoting simultaneous VOC in-situ stripping and gaseous decomposition, with moisture (water) and substrate as co-reactants in the later stages. This is not a dissolved aqueous reaction. The following text elaborates on this by demonstrating that the reaction kinetics are entirely different from existing aqueous literature values. Bench scale and field testing demonstrate the facilitating role of the mineral substrate as part of the reaction process. (5) Remote Process Controller and Monitor: This allows for the capacity for sensor feedback and remote communication to the Timer/Sequencer ozone (or oxygen or both) generator to achieve a certain level of gaseous content (e.g., dissolved oxygen, ozone, or other gas) and rate of mixing to promote efficient reactions. This is done by sensors placed in monitoring wells at certain distances from the central spargewell. A groundwater flow meter and pressure sensor monitors rate and direction of rotation of a three-dimensional gyre (or eddy) produced by pulsing the unit. The unique combination of pressure and flow allows a quick determination of where and how fast mixing will occur. Oxygen content, redox potential, and dissolved VOC concentration of the water can be monitored at a nearby monitoring well or top well screen of the spargewell. The operator can access the information, modify operations and diagnose the condition of the unit by telephone modem or satellite cell phone. This provides on-site process evaluation and adjustment without operator presence. Appropriately-sized micro-fine bubbles, generated in a pulsing manner, which easily penetrate sandy formations, and/or bubble generation and selection chambers which allow alternating water/bubble/water/bubble fluid flow, have unexpected benefits when used with multiple gas systems. Firstly, microfine bubbles substantially accelerate the transfer rate of volatile organic compounds like PCE from aqueous to gaseous state. The bubble rise has the potential to transfer the PCE to the watertable surface and above (vadose zone). The ten-fold difference in surface-to-volume ratio of bubble generator (Spargepoint®) microbubbles compared to bubbles from well screens results in at least four-fold improvement in transfer rates. Further reducing the size of the bubbles to microfine sizes, from {fraction (1/10)} to ½ mean pore size, appears to boost extraction rates between 4 and 20 fold. These sizes boost exchange rates but do not tend to be retarded in rise time by too small a size. Secondly, when an oxidizing gas (ozone) is added into the microbubbles, the rate of extraction is enhanced further by maintaining a low interior (intrabubble) concentration of PCE, while simultaneously degrading the PCE by a gas/gas/water reaction. The combination of both processes acting simultaneously provides a unique rapid removal system which is identified in the field by a logarithmic rate of removal of PCE, and a characteristic ratio of efficiency quite different from dissolved (aqueous) ozone reactions. The compounds commonly treated are HVOCs (halogenated volatile organic compounds), PCE, TCE, DCE, vinyl chloride (VC), petroleum compounds (BTEX: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes). The rapid removal in saturated soils or unsaturated but wet soils can be so complete as to not require any vacuum extraction to recover the remaining solvents. XII. Gaseous Exchange and Partitioning Enhancement If gaseous exchange is proportional to available surface area, with partial pressures and mixtures of volatile gases being held constant, a halving of the radius of bubbles would quadruple (i.e., 4×) the exchange rate. If, in the best case, a standard well screen creates air bubbles 200 times the size of a medium sand porosity, a microporous diffusor of 5 to 20 micron size creates a bubble {fraction (1/10)} the diameter and six to ten times the volume/surface ratio. TABLE 2 Diameter Surface Area Volume Surface Area/ (microns) 4π r2 4/3π r3 Volume 200 124600 4186666 0.03 20 1256 4186 0.3 Theoretically, the microporous bubbles exhibit an exchange rate of ten times the rate of a comparable bubble from a standard ten slot well screen. The relationship between exchange efficiency and bubble configuration can be further explained by the surface to volume change between spheres (unconfined microbubbles) and cylinders (confined bubbles within capillary tubes). The injection of air into geological formations without concern for volume/pore size relationships will result in elongate cylinders of gas (“microchannels”) as observed by the University of Connecticut (1995). The effect of changing from spherical or small cylinder (radius 2×length) to elongate cylinder dramatically affects the ratio of exchange surface area to volume. To illustrate, the loss of efficiency from spherical to elongate cylinder can be shown by contrasting the ratios of transforming from one quarter (¼) pore size (given as 1.0) to ten (10) times pore size for a constrained gas bubble. As a micron-sized unconstrained bubble enters the channel, it retains a spherical shape and an AnV ratio of 24. As the volume expands to pore size, the ratio decreases to an AnV ratio of six (6). As the bubble volume becomes larger, it is forced to elongate into a cylinder. When the cylinder elongates, the A/V ratio shrinks further and begins to converge between 2.0 and 4.0. The surface to volume ratio has reduced to about one-twelfth (spheroid) or one-sixth (cylinder) of that found with spherical (or mini-cylinders) of one quarter (¼) pore size. TABLE 3 SURFACE TO VOLUME (A/V) RATIO CHANGES AS FUNCTION OF PORE SIZE AS BUBBLE VOLUME INCREASES D(i.e., 2 r) or has as 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 Fraction of Pore Size SPHERE SPHEROID Area = 4π r2 0.0314 0.19625 0.785 3.14 18.8 37.7 69 131 Volume = 4/3π r3 0.0005 0.00817 0.065 0.53 6.3 15.7 31 62 Ratio 62 24 12 5.9 3 2.4 2.2 2.1 CYLINDER (diameter is constant at 1.0, for h greater than 1) Area 2π r(r + h) 0.0471 0.2944 1.17 4.71 7.9 17.2 33 64 Volume π r2h 0.0008 0.0123 0.098 0.78 1.6 3.9 7.9 16 Ratio 59 24 12 6 4.9 4.4 4.2 4 In wastewater treatment, the two-film theory of gas transfer (Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., 1991) states the rate of transfer between gas and liquid phases is generally proportional to the surface area of contact and the difference between the existing concentration and the equilibrium concentration of the gas in solution. Simply stated, if we increase the surface to volume ratio of contact, we increase the rate of exchange. If, secondly, we consume the gas (VOC) entering the bubble (or micropore space bounded by a liquid film), the difference is maintained at a higher entry rate than if the VOC is allowed to reach saturation equilibrium. In the case of a halogenated volatile organic carbon compound (HVOC), PCE/gas/gas reaction of PCE to by-products of HCl, CO2 and H2O accomplishes this. In the case of petroleum products like BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes), the benzene entering the bubbles reacts to decompose to CO2 and H2O. The normal equation for the two-film theory of gas transfer is stated (Metcalf and Eddy, 1991) rm=KgA(Cs-C) where: rm=rate of mass transfer Kg=coefficient of diffusion for gas A=area through which gas is diffusing Cs=saturation concentration of gas in solution C=concentration of gas in solution. The restatement of the equation to consider the inward transfer of phase change from dissolved HVOC to gaseous HVOC in the inside of the bubble would be: Cs=Saturation concentration of gas phase of HVOC or VOC in bubble C=Initial concentration of gase phase of HVOC or VOC in bubble volume. XIII. Partitioning Enhancement Soil vapor concentrations are related to two governing systems: water phase and (non-aqueous) product phase. Henry's and Raoult's Laws (DiGiulio, 1990) are commonly used to understand equilibrium-vapor concentrations governing volatization from liquids. When soils are moist, the relative volatility is dependent upon Henry's Law. Under normal conditions (free from product) where volatile organic carbons (VOCs) are relatively low, an equilibrium of soil, water, and air is assumed to exist. The compound tetrachloroethene (PCE), has a high exchange capacity from dissolved form to gaseous form. If the surface/volume ratio is modified at least 10 fold, the rate of removal should be accelerated substantially. FIG. 15 plots a curve of the removal rate of PCE for an aqueous solution equivalent to 120 ppb, subjected to differing bubble sizes. The air volume and water volume was held constant. The only change was the diameter of bubbles passed through the liquid from air released from a diffusor. XIV. PCE Removal Rate as Function of Bubble Size Ozone Encapsulation—C-Sparing™ Ozone is an effective oxidant used for the breakdown of organic compounds in water treatment. The major problem in effectiveness is a short lifetime. If ozone is mixed with sewage-containing water above ground, the half-life is normally minutes. Ozone reacts quantitatively with PCE to yield breakdown products of hydrochloric acid, carbon dioxide, and water. To offset the short life span, the ozone could be injected with microporous diffusors, enhancing the selectiveness of action of the ozone. By encapsulating the ozone in fine bubbles, the bubbles would preferentially extract volatile compounds like PCE from the mixtures of soluble organic compounds they encountered. The ozone destruction of organics would then target volatile organics selectively pulled into the fine air bubbles. Even in a groundwater mixture of high organic content like diluted sewage, PCE removal could be rapid. Gas entering a small bubble of volume (4π r3) increases until reaching an asymptotic value of saturation. If we consider the surface of the bubble to be a membrane, a first order equation can be written for the monomolecular reaction of the first order. The reaction can be written as follows: ⅆ x ⅆ t = K ( Q - X ) Where X is the time varying concentration of the substance in the bubble, Q is the external concentration of the substance, and K is the absorption constant. If at time t=0, X=0, Then: X=Q (1−e−kt) The constant K is found to be: K = ⅆ x / ⅆ t Q - X By multiplying both numerator and denominator by V, the volume of the bubble, we obtain K = v ⅆ x / ⅆ t v ( Q - X ) which is the ratio between the amount of substance entering the given volume per unit time and quantity V (Q-X) needed to reach the asymptotic value. By (1) analyzing the concentration change within the fine bubbles sent through a porous matrix with saturated (water filled) solution interacting with the matrix (sand), and (2) determining the rate of decomposition of the products [TCE+ozone=CO2 +HCl] and [Benzene+ozone=CO2 +HOH], we can characterize the kinetic rates of reaction. The rate which the quantity K1QV of the substance flows in one unit of time from aqueous solution into the bubble is proportional to Henry's Constant. The second rate of decomposition within the bubble can be considered as k1, a second rate of reaction (−k2X), where ⅆ x ⅆ t = k 1 Q - k 2 X and, at equilibrium, as dx/dt+0, we would have X = k 1 k 2 Q However, if the reaction to decompose is very rapid, −k2X goes to zero, the rate of reaction would maximize K1Q, i.e., be proportional to Henry's Constant and maximize the rate of extraction since VOC saturation is not occurring within the bubbles. The unique combination of microbubble extraction and ozone degradation can be generalized to predict the volatile organic compounds amenable to rapid removal. The efficiency of extraction is directly proportional to Henry's Constant. Multiplying the Henry's Constant (the partitioning of VOCs from water to gas phase) times the reactivity rate constant of ozone for a particular VOC yields the rate of decomposition expected by the microbubble process. The concentration of HVOC expected in the bubble is a consequence of rate of invasion and rate of removal. In practice, the ozone concentration is adjusted to yield 0 concentration at the time of arrival at the surface. rvoc=rate of VOC mass transfer, μg/ft3·h (μg/m3·h) (KLa)voc=overall VOC mass transfer coefficient, l/h C=concentration of VOC in liquid Cs=saturation concentration of VOC in liquid μg/ft3 (μg/m3) The saturation concentration of a VOC in wastewater is a function of the partial pressure of the VOC in the atmosphere in contact with the wastewater. c g C s = H c therefore , C g = H c · C s ( equation 1 ) Cg=concentration of VOC in gas phase μg/ft3 (μg/m3) Cs=saturation concentration of VOC in liquid μg/ft3 (μg/m3) Hc=Henry's Constant The rate of decomposition of an organic compound Cg, (when present at a concentration [C]) by ozone can be formulated by the equation: - ( ⅆ [ C g ] ⅆ t ) O 3 = K o3c [ O 3 ] [ C g ] Or, after integration for the case of a batch reactor: - ln ( [ C g ] end [ C g ] o ) = K 03 c [ O 3 ] t [ C g ] end [ C g ] o = ⅇ o3c - k [ O 3 ] t C end = C o ⅇ o3c - k [ O 3 ] t ( equation 2 ) [O3]=concentration of ozone averaged over the reaction time (t) [Cg]o=halocarbon initial concentration [Cg]end=halocarbon final concentration Substituting: From Henry's Law: Cg=Hc·Cg (equation 3) With ozone rm=KgA (Cg−C) rm=KgA ([Hc·Cs]−C) rm=KgZ ([Hc·Cs]−C) rm=KgZ ([Hc·Cs]−C−K03c[03][Cg])([Hc·Cs]−K03c[03][Cg])=0 (equation 4) Rate of decomposition is now adjusted to equal the total HVOC entering the bubble. SET: [Hc·Cs]=K03c[03][Cg] (equation 5) Therefore surface concentration=0. This condition has not been formulated before. It speeds up the rate of extraction because the VOC never reaches equilibrium or saturation in the bubble. Table 4 gives the Henry's Constants (Hc) for a selected number of organic compounds and the second rate constants (Rc) for the ozone radical rate of reaction observed in solely aqueous reactions where superoxide and hydroxide reactions dominate. The third column presents the observed rates of removal in field trials with the C-Sparger™ process. TABLE 4 REMOVAL RATE COEFFICIENTS FOR THE MICROBUBBLE/OZONE PROCESS - C-Sparger ™ Ozone Aqueous C-Sparger ™ Second Order Rate Organic Rate Constanta Henry's Removal Compound (M−1 SEC−1) Constantb Coefficient(t)c Benzene 2 5.59 × 10−3 0.06 Toluene 14 6.37 × 10−3 0.07 Chlorobenzene 0.75 3.72 × 10−3 0.013 Dichloroethylene 110 7.60 × 10−3 0.035 Trichloroethylene 17 9.10 × 10−3 0.05 Tetrachloroethylene 0.1 25.9 × 10−3 0.06 Ethanol 0.02 .04 × 10−3 0.0008 aFrom Hoigne and Bader, 1983 bFrom EPA 540/1-86/060, Superfund Public Health Evaluation Manual, presented as × 10−3 cFrom Site Tests (KVA, 1995, 1996, 1997) The C-Sparger™ process rapid removal rate clearly does not follow Hoigne and Baker (1983) rate constants. There is a close correlation to Henry's Constant as would be expected from equation 5. The presence of the substrate (sand) and moisture is necessary to complete the reaction. The active ingredient in the sand matrix appears to be an iron silicate. The breakdown products include CO2 and dilute HCl. Two sets of equations are involved in the reactions: Dissolved Halogenated Compounds Dissolved Petroleum Distillates The eligible compounds for the C-Sparger™ process are normally unsaturated (double bond), halogenated compounds like PCE, TCE, DCE, Vinyl Chloride, EDB; or aromatic ring compounds like benzene derivatives (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes). However, pseudo Criegee reactions with the substrate and ozone appear effective in reducing certain saturated olefins like trichloro alkanes (1, 1-TCA), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and chlorobenzene, for instance. The following characteristics appear desirable for reaction: Henry's Constant: 102 to 10−4 m3 .atm/mol Solubility: 10 to 20,000 mg/l Vapor pressure: 1 to 3000 mmhg Saturation concentration: 5 to 9000 g/m3 XV. Treatment System Example The following report describes a pilot test of the C-Sparger™ process for remediation of dissolved chlorinated solvents from groundwater. The test was conducted by Mateboer Milieutechniek B. V. for the Provincial Government of Utrecht at Rembrandt Street in Bilthoven, The Netherlands, from Mar. 27, 1997 through Apr. 4, 1997. The test involved installation of a C-Sparger™ well (TW), some additional monitoring wells (four 2 inch ID), the use of previously existing miniwells, and a fire well across the site. XVI. Site Description The field test is positioned in a small park area midway on a long plume of predominantly trichloroethene (TCE) originating at a commercial building and traveling over 800 ft. across a predominantly commercial and residential area. The plume region lies in a thick fine sand deposit which contains gravel (streambed) deposits. Groundwater exists at a depth of 7.5 ft. (2.5 m) below grade. About one half of the area of groundwater overlying the TCE plume is contaminated with dissolved hydrocarbons (BTEX) from a nearby commercial fuel spill. Soil borings taken by Tauw Engineering in the vicinity of the plume showed a shallow surface loam extending to 6 feet (2 m) deep. Groundwater occurred at 7.5 ft. (2.5 m). Fine sand occurred in many wells to over 18 ft. (6 m) deep. Often gravel layers were intercepted at 12 ft. (4 m) to 18 ft. (6 m) deep. A thick clay layer, which probably serves as a bottom confining layer, was found at (110-120 ft. (38-40m) depth. A hydraulic conductivity (K) of 7.5×10−2 cm/sec has been estimated for the sand deposits. Previous groundwater sampling had identified a narrow, long HVOC plume on two transects A-A′ and B-B′ extending from a source near A (wells 120 and 121) at a commercial facility to under Rembrandt Street, and ending under another commercial complex (beyond well 140) near Rembrandt Street. The distance was about 765 ft. (225 m) long. The top of the plume was at about 30 ft. (22 m) below grade. The highest total HVOC content was expected to be about 790 ppb combined PCE and TCE (miniscreen 129). The location of the monitoring wells were varied in distance and depth from the test spargewell (TW) to be able to give a 3-dimensional picture of the test results. The larger diameter (2-inch ID) wells allowed groundwater flow measurements as well as pressure change to be monitored during treatment. A variety of physical and chemical measurements were performed during the test. TABLE 5 GROUNDWATER MONITORING DURING PILOT TEST Physical Measurement Chemical Monitoring Temperature, turbidity pH, Fe, redox potential Static Water Elevation dissolved oxygen (DO) Groundwater Flow HVOCs including PCE, TCE, DCE, Vc, DCA Head Pressure change VOCs including benzene, toluene, xylenes, ethylbenzene, ozone concentration XVII. C-SPARGER™ WELL INSTALLATION The C-Sparger™ double-screen well with lower bubble generator (FIG. 2) was installed with a recirculating water system and casing. A small flow (2 gal/min) was obtained from a shallow fire well for makeup water. The lower bubble generator was set at a depth of 7.8 ft. (2.6 m). A One-half inch tubing extended to the surface from a compression fitting on the bubble generator. A four inch ID triple-screened well extended from 69 ft. (23 m) to one foot above grade. 6 ft. long ( 2 m) screens were placed with bottom edges at 69 ft. (23 m), 39 ft. (13 m), and 7.5 ft. (2.5 m). The middle casing between the two lower screens received 3 ft. (1 m) of bentonite grout, 3 ft. (1 m) of cement/bentonite, and 3 ft. (1 m) of bentonite to seal the annular space to prevent “short-circuiting” of water. Water and fine bubbles are injected into the formation from the lowest screen and return water enters the middle screen. The most upper screen collects gases from just above the water table (2.5 m) to assure vapor control. XVIII. Radius of Influence The C-Sparger™ system is designed to achieve the injection and distribution of microbubbles into the aquifer to be treated. The pressure of the gas injection, use of microporous bubblers, and a recirculating well system all function to distribute fine bubbles, containing air/ozone gas through the fine sands under Darcian flow approximating fluid flow. The injection of the air/ozone approximates the injection of water, exhibiting mounding and outward movement until equilibrium is reached. Despite numerous monitoring well corings depicting uniform fine sand formation with occasional gravel deposits, the immediate injection pressures and distribution suggested hydraulic conductivities consistent with semi-confined conditions. The presence of microbubbles, gas release, and dissolved oxygen changes normally demark the expansion of the treatment zone. On Apr. 1st, operation of the C-Sparger™ unit began at about 2:00 PM. By the afternoon of Apr. 2nd, gas bubbles were found discharging at minipoint 129, over 51 ft. (17.1 m) from the spargewell (TW) installation (Table 6). Well D, only about 7 ft.(2.2 m) from the injection area showed almost immediate oxygen changes and water which was effervescent with fine bubbles. However, the lateral spread from this long axis progressed slowly (Well A and C), as if the wells were in tight (silty) material. Tables 6 and 7 give the results of field measurements taken during sampling. Pictorial depictions are presented using the combined bubble presence, D.O. redox, and temperature change. The bubble zone was still expanding during the ten day test. Based upon the time sequence, a long axis extending outwards about 100 ft. (30 m) in a westerly and easterly direction would be reached, with a minor axis (at right angles) of about 56 ft. (18 m). Each well would then treat a region 200 ft. long by about 100 ft. wide and 90 ft. (30 m) deep. Although an elliptic zone is considered here, the occurrence of bubbles at miniwell 126 about day 5 complicates the picture. We must assume that a buried gravel streambed, about 30 feet wide was originally intercepted and either small streamlets (braided streams) intercepted it or some secondary fracturing by air pockets was occurring to create the offshoot to miniwell 126. A geological basis exists for assuming gravel streambeds originating east-west across the region from glacial streams. Side connections could occur. TABLE 6 DISSOLVED OXYGEN (D.O.) CHANGES OBSERVED IN MONITORING WELLS NEAR THE SPARGEWELL DAY WELL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TW 2.8 11.5 — — — — — — — — — D 1.2 14.2 12.2 11.8 8.9 — 12 12.3 13 9.2 15.8 129 0 1.6 9.3 9.2 7.4 — 7.9 8.6 9.1 8.5 9.4 C 0 0.7 1.4 0.9 1.1 — 3.5 3.4 5.7 5.2 8.2 A 0 0 0.1 3.1 8.6 — 8.6 8.8 11.6 11.7 9.3 B* 0 0 0 0.2 0 — 0 0 0 0 0 126 0 0 0 3.5 3.7 — 5.9 6.3 6.8 6.7 6 (14-15) *Well B showed a continual increase in redox potential despite exhibiting no oxygen increase. A hydrocarbon plume with high oxygen demand existed in the region. XIX. Groundwater Flow Measurements Circulation Pattern Definition Direct groundwater flow measurements were performed with a KVA Model 40 GeoFlo Meter prior to the startup and during the operation to determine background velocity and changes. Initial measurements indicated a flow near the spargewell (TW) in a north westerly direction at a velocity of between 0.6 and 0.8 ft/d, coinciding with the direction of movement of the plume. Additional measurements were taken after beginning injection to determine the velocity of groundwater eddies created by the double-screen well system and rising bubbles which expand the treatment zone both vertically and horizontally across the site. The observed change in direction and rate coincided with a slow vertical mixing rate (which is 5.4 m. east of TW). The change was measured at about 3 ft/d in an easterly direction. At well B (which is 11 m. west of TW) a velocity change of 0.5 ft/d occurred towards the TW well. The A well is shallow (37 ft. below grade) and the B well significantly lower (49 ft. below grade). Groundwater moving in towards the spargewell would reach a maximum at about 71 ft. (27 m) below grade. The outward gyre would reach a maximum velocity at about 36 ft. (12 m). The vertical eddy for mixing appeared to reach a velocity with a diameter of about 60 ft. (20 m) by day 10 of the test, with an estimated velocity of about 10 ft/day (3.3 m/d). This is slow by normal standards and probably the result of loss of pressure along the narrow gravel streambed, intercepted between 60 ft. and 75 ft. deep (20 and 25 m). XX. Chemical Results VOC Removal—Chlorinated and Petroleum Compounds The site held a combination of a lower dissolved chlorinated solvent plume, dominated by PCE and TCE, and an upper dissolved fuel spill, dominated by BTEX compounds. A large region of the wells exhibited elevated HVOCs in groundwater, with initial samples from wells D, B, C and miniwell 129 (14-15 m) showing concentrations of 2,100 ppb; 14,500 ppb; 12,500 ppb; and 1,450 ppb, respectively, well above the 880 ppb originally expected. Groundwater from the spargewell (TW) and wells A, B, C, and D exhibited total BTEX concentrations ranging from 62 to 95 μg/1-ppb. Concentration of HVOCs (VOCs) located in the gravel zone underwent immediate rapid reduction (wells TM, D, 129). Nearby wells located at right angles (probably in fine sands) to the buried gravel streambed, showed a slower removal, converging on a logarithmic decay rate. Those in the outlying wells, mainly requiring recirculation to treat the groundwater, tended to show decaying oscillating concentrations with time, reflecting the circular water movement. The process of removal of dissolved volatiles is similar to detoxification in human bodies. Elimination and detoxification processes correspond to first order reactions where the rate of decrease in concentration of the toxic substance is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance. The following differential equation expresses the direct relationship between the rate of elimination and the concentration of the dissolved volatile compound: dc/dt=−bc where: dc=change in concentration of dissolved volatile dt=change in time b=fraction of volatile substance that leaves groundwater in one unit of time (day) c=concentration of volatile compound If b=0.20. 20 percent of the volatile substance present at any given time is eliminated per unit of time (day). To determine the actual amount of substance eliminated per unit of time, the initial concentration was compared to later concentrations at increasing time intervals from start of operation. The amount of material eliminated is obtained from: Bc (dc/dt)=fc where: Bc=volume of groundwater block (prism) containing the chlorinated substance C=concentration of volatile substance in groundwater, in μg/1-ppb f=a constant The following equation offers the simple solution: C=Coe−bt where: e=an exponent Co=Initial concentration of volatile organic compound in groundwater (μg/1-ppb) The equation shows the behavior of the phenomenon of “exponential decay”, since the exponential term e−bt appears in it. The curve starts from a known groundwater concentration and decreases in proportion to the remaining concentration, thus log C/Co=bt/2.303 Or log C=logCo−bt/2.303 For C=Co/2, b−0.693/t1/2 The constant t1/2 corresponds to the length of time needed for the concentration of Co to decrease by 50%; i.e., t1/2 is the half-life of the substance in the groundwater. In FIGS. 10 and 11, the mean-logC/Co is plotted versus time to derive the approximate decay rate observed for the site conditions. Note that because the y-axis is the negative logarithm, a positive (upwards) slope indicates proportional reduction. The decay constants for both HVOCs and BTEX compounds were computed. In some cases, a linear mean value was clearly being fitted to a dampened oscillating decay as a first approximation. HVOC removal rates fell between 0.09 and 0.14t. BTEX removal rates fell between 0.07 and 0.20t. This corresponds to a steady rate of reduction to ½ value every 7 to 11 days. In a conservative estimate it would take slightly less than 100 days to reduce the core region (50 ft wide by 30 ft deep by 200 ft long) to below 5 μg/1-ppb, assuming no other sources invade the eddies with the treatment volume. With HVOCs, the time to bring core region concentrations to 1 μg/1-ppb ranged from 50 to 100 days. For BTEX compounds, the level ranged between 20 to 60 days. Please note that the HVOC removal rate is somewhat slower since the beginning concentration of 2000 ppb total HVOC is higher than the starting point of the BTEX compounds (50-70 ppb). XXI. Bubble Chamber (Selector and Injector) To generate a higher proportion of micron-sized bubbles, a recirculating liquid flow system under pressure was combined with a porous cylinder, with counter-gravity flow (for segregating bubble size) to create a micro-bubble production chamber. The combination of flow across porous plates has been known to fractionate bubbles to produce small bubbles (Adler, Bourbigot, and M. Faivre, 1985). To increase the number of fine ozoneated bubbles and decrease their size, the partial water flow was pressurized, saturated with ozone and then released, producing fine bubbles with a size between 50 to 200 μm (boisoon, Faivere, and Martin, 1995). The concept of mounting a porous plate with vigorous mixing vertically below a pulsing water pump, then allowing a time delay or low volume flow to allow segregation of small bubbles from large bubbles, can product 10 to 100 μm bubbles suitable for injection into finely porous geological formations (fine silts and sands to mediums sands). Groundwaters are naturally lower temperatures (40□−50□F), which allow low loss of ozone (2% to 5%) during compression. The process can be visualized in three steps. Firstly (step A) generation of a large range of bubble sizes at one time, secondly (step B) the segregation step when larger bubbles segregate out and form a gas space at the top, and thirdly (step C) the fine bubbles remaining are then pumped out the lower well screen as water under pressure is introduced from the top (FIG. 35). XXII. Induction of Microbubble Movement The induction of microbubble flow through a sandy saturated deposit (aquifer) can be compared to that of transferring electron movement through alternating current. An alternating wave of pressure is created where the amplitude varies continuously. p=Pmax·sin θ where: p=the instantaneous pressure amplitude in inches (cm) of water Pmax=the maximum pressure in inches (cm) of water θ=the angle at which pressure is being calculated These values are repeated during the remainder of the first alternation, but in reverse order if a model value is chosen as reference. The magnitude of Pmax lies above critical bubbling pressure but below fracturing pressure of formation. The pulsing pressure wave can be seen at distance from the C-Sparger™ well (FIG. 36). Cycle time can vary from 30 minutes to 10 minutes. The movement of microbubbles and inbetween water occurs as a response to the pressure different, and has a similar equation: v=Vmax·sin θ where: v=the instantaneous velocity in ft/day Vmax=the maximum velocity in ft/day θ=the angle at which instantaneous velocity is being calculated Because of the nature of resistance and storage capacity in an aquifer, pressure change (inductance) and bubble flow (velocity) may have a phase difference. The alternating pressure of the C-Sparger™ unit creates a wavefront which pushes the microbubbles along. By alternating water injection with microbubble production, a continuous flow of microbubbles is produced. When a monitoring well is encountered, the fine bubbles can be seen to enter the screens in spurts (FIG. 37). Microbubbles, being less dense than water, will tend to rise, resulting in a parabolic upwards pathway. The rising rate (velocity) produces a displacement of water upwards which creates an inflow of lower water, inducing an eddy and mixing with a particular radius of the installed spargewell. XXIII. Recirculation Mechanics The use of the bubble chamber, composed of vertically offset well screens, creates large circular eddies on each side of the C-Sparger™ unit when it is placed in an unconfined aquifer. The rise of bubbles, combined with pulsed liquid recirculation between the screens, drives a mass of groundwater vertically which then moves along the surface region before diving below. The net effect is to act as a big vacuum cleaner, sucking water from below and lateral to it and exposing the circulating water to continual treatment and removal of VOCs. The advantages are several: (1) Rates of reaction within the circulating cell do not diminish (exponentially decay) with distance from the bubble emission source as would be the case if reaction were bubble density dependent. Instead the recirculating water creates a rate of removal which is uniform within the circulating cell of water. Concentration level then is only affected by initial rate of removal and the absence of influx from another source or upgradient groundwater. (2) The system can expand its region of effect beyond the upper regions which the bubbles transmit through. It can “vacuum” concentrations along a bottom confining layer and circulate them within the region of exposure to the bubbles. (3) The lateral extent of treatment depends upon the distance between the lower bubble generator and the topmost well screen. Generally, the cross-sectional area of influence is about 2.5 times the vertical distance between the lower sparge bubble generator and the upper screen. (4) The mixing capacity of recirculation allows mechanics to be used equivalent to Diffused-Air Aeration Process Mechanics. The three-dimensional recirculation cell can be considered similar to the boundaries of a tank (FIG. 38). If groundwater flow is very slow, the cell is considered a fixed reactor with only circulation and no inflow. If groundwater movement is significant, the transfer into the cell is equivalent to inflow and the loss of groundwater downgradient, the discharge effluent. The tremendous advantage that the microbubble injection has over slotted well screen injection can be shown in FIG. 39. A flow of 5 CFM to a five-foot long, two-inch slotted PVC monitoring well screen placed 10 feet below static water results in a measured rise in dissolved oxygen at distances of 15 feet. With the use of a microporous bubble generator (Spargepoint®) under pulsed operation at the same position, the radius increases to over 20 feet. If the C-Sparger™ unit is used with microbubble production chamber and pulsed recirculation, the zone expands to beyond a 50-foot radius. Enlarging the distance between recirculating well screens can even further enlarge the radius. XXIV. Process Control, Monitoring, Communicator Unit The C-Sparger™ unit is equipped with a telephone modem diagnostic sensor unit and monitoring well sensor which feed back to the sequencer to control the groundwater/soil remediation process. A remote unit can then monitor the extent of treatment and induced groundwater mixing and determine when to move to another spargewell. An operator can dial the unit and receive past and ongoing data on groundwater condition and machine operation. The recorded data can be dumped for graphic presentation. XXV. Elimination of the Need for Vapor Extraction The need for vapor control exists when vapors of VOCs, partitioned from dissolved form into the microbubbles, reach the unsaturated zone, releasing vapors. Without reaction with a decomposing gas, such as ozone, a large mass can be transmitted in a short time, creating potential health problems near residential basement areas. The combined extraction/decomposition process has the capacity to eliminate the need for vapor capture. If the decomposition rate with ozone exceeds the vertical time-of-travel, vapors will not be produced or their concentration will be so low as to not require capture. By controlling the size of microbubbles and matching them to suitable slow rise times, the need for vapor control is eliminated. The rise time of bubbles of different sizes was computed for water, giving the upwards gravitational velocity. The upwards velocity provides the positive pressure to push the bubbles through the porous media, following Darcy's equation. The actual rise time is dependent upon the size of the bubble, the frequency of agitation (pulsing) and pressure differential during pulses. By timing the rise rate in the field, the rise time, proportional to upwards pressure, can be calculated. Following is rise time in medium to coarse sand, based upon 15 minute pulse cycles of generation with an equivalent pressure differential of 20 psi at the source, 0.5 ft. change at 30 ft. radius from generation (Table 7). TABLE 7 BUBBLE TIME (MINUTES) FOR MIGRATION UPWARD VELOCITY UPWARDS DIAMETER IN WATER (3 METERS) 10 mm .25 m/s 19 min. 2 mm .16 m/s 30 min. .2 mm .018 m/s 240 min. .02 mm .005 m/s 600 min. Local recirculation of the water by a vertical bubble production chamber (double-screen well), greatly increases the rate of reaction by circulating water through the bubble pulses. XXVI. Elimination Rate of PCE Relative to Ozone Content The reaction of ozone with tetrachloroethene (PCE) in the presence of substrate (sub) sand will produce degradation products of hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide. By adjusting the ozone concentration to match the dissolved PCE level, the PCE can be removed rapidly without excess ozone release to the air or release of PCE vapor into the unsaturated zone. The reaction of ozone and PCE in the air bubbles is a gas reaction. The molecular weight of PCE is 168 gm/mole; ozone is 48 gm/mole. A mass of 3.5 grams of PCE reacts with one gram of 03 needed to react with 1 mole PCE. To calculate the concentration of gms/day ozone to match the removal need, the total mass of dissolved PCE in the treated water column is computed. Assuming a porous cylinder of 8 meters radius and 2 meters deep (contaminated zone), the liquid volume of medium sand (0.30 porosity) is about 60,000 liters. If the mean PCE concentration is 100 ppb, 6.0 gm of PCE are contained within the cylindrical water column. From a mass balance standpoint, about 2 grams of ozone would be sufficient to remove the 100 ppb PCE concentration if both could be instantaneously brought into contact. If the ozone generating unit produces 5 g/1440 minutes and it is operated 200 min/day then 0.609 gms/day would be released. Dividing the grams of PCE by 3.5 yields the ozone needed, and then dividing by the rate of production of ozone gives an approximation of removal rate, assuming good distribution of bubbles throughout the medium sand contaminated area. 2 gms .674 gms / day = 30 days for complete removal , assuming 100 % extraction and no ozone decay . XXVII. Bubble Mechanics In reality, the reaction rate is dependent upon the total number of bubbles (area of extraction), the efficiency of distribution of the bubbles, and the rate of transfer into the bubbles. The rate of decomposition within the bubbles is a ratio proportional to concentration, i.e., it slows as concentration decreases. XXVIII. Use of Specially-Designed Wellheads (1) The hydraulic conductivity of saturated sandy formations may vary over a range of 1000 fold. In glacial outwash, a 50 fold range may be common in a short distance. If a series of spargepoints are placed at a fixed depth across formations of varying resistances, like fine sand (k=5 ft/d), medium sand (k=100 ft/d), and coarse gravel (k=1000 ft/d), the point in coarse gravel would steal all the flow. To compensate for this, a resistance element, like a needle valve, may be placed inline with a flowmeter to allow the flow to be equalized to each point. The capacity to maintain pressure at the wellhead is simultaneously measured by a pressure gauge. (2) By comparing flow and pressure, the performance can be checked with the original site test procedure. The wellheads are often installed at the top of the bubble generator to limit the number of individual lines back to the compressor/ozonator. Placed in a wellhead, a vertical mount block flow meter cannot be easily read. To allow easy reading, a 45 degrees angle mirror was installed and the scale printed in mirror image to allow for easy reading. XXIX. Mounding During the pilot test a noticeable rise in ground water levels should occur. The phenomenon of groundwater mounding occurs when a fluid is introduced into soil in unconfined sandy aquifers. Small bubbles displace an equivalent volume of water, creating a movement of water horizontally and vertically. Hantush (1976) and Fielding (1981) have developed equations to depict two-dimensional behavior of groundwater in a constant-recharging system. Assuming a radial flow of bubbles in an aquifer of thickness (D), the head distribution can be represented as: ( hm - hx ) = Q o 2 K g ( D + hx ) where: Kg=bubble conductivity (hm-hx)=pressure head (ft) m=maximum water rise (ft) D=depth of aquifer π=pi, a constant (3.14 . . . ) Qo=gas outflow (cfd) x=distance from source (ft) In a theoretical depiction, the introduced bubbles exit the bubble generator and migrate vertically, resulting in a symmetrical sphered shape. In reality, circular regions rarely are found. More commonly, an elliptical region is found, reflecting higher hydraulic conductivity in one axis than another, inherent with the depositional history of the formation. See FIG. 19 for a depiction of groundwater mounding caused by sparging. XCX. Zone Sparging—Multiple Zones With One System The simplest sparging system attaches ten or twenty sparging points to one gas supply. The individual flow controllers adjust each sparging point for even air flow and sparging. A zone control system adds an electronic or mechanical programmable timer that opens and closes valves to direct the air supply to the appropriate manifold. The zone control is added to the system to expand the system and improve control of the sparging. Sequential periods of aeration improve the sparging action and expand the capabilities of a single air source for the system. If, for example, one microfine sparge system can provide adequate gas supply to 10 sparge bubblers, zone control can increase this to 20, 30 or more. XXXI. Product Migration Control Through Zone Sparging If the potential of product migration exists, a design for controlling the movement of floating product off-site is accomplished by sequential sparging using discrete zones of sparge bubble generators. Stylized illustration of such a system shows that an outer ring of sparge locations provides a barrier for outward migration of contaminants by concentric mounding focused toward the center. Control of the height of water mounding through the length of time of sparging or pressure/air volume control per sparge locus serves to push any floating product in a predictable direction, toward extraction wells. Using sequential timing and air volume control is an effective strategy for product migration abatement. Concentric zones permit containing any floating contaminant. Concentric zones of sparging centers, activated for different lengths of time and volumes of air, will form a barrier to off-site product migration. A contaminated region with overlapping zones of sparging contains a plume. The midpoint of Region A is located just outside the contaminated zone. The sequence of sparging involves first zone A, then zone B, and finally zone C. Greater volume and/or duration of sparging in zone A forms a barrier ridge, forcing product toward the center of zone C. Individual sparge bubble generator effects are shown graphically as the location of introduced bubbles in the saturated zone. The shape of the bubbled zone is composed of the original groundwater zone plus an area above static water level where water is mounded and is governed by the air pressure and volume. Higher pressure and greater volume gives a wider diameter of influence while lower pressure and lower volume influence a smaller diameter area. Overlap of these affected areas increases the thickness of the uniformly sparged areas, decreasing the areas missing the introduction of air. If there is a natural groundwater flow and directional transmissivity in an aquifer, then the sparged zone becomes distorted downgradient and non-uniform in diameter. The more knowledge available of the water bearing zone, the more likely it is to predict the effects of sparging and control them. The sparged area then actually becomes a barrier inhibiting contaminant migration. XXXII. Degree of Overlap of Bubble Zones Two important reasons exist which support overlapping sparge bubble generator zones of influence: (1) even distribution of the aeration and gas transfer in sparging, and (2) elimination of vertical gaps in the treated areas. While a two-dimensional set of circles can be arranged in a triangular or rhomboid configuration with circumferences touching, the region within is not equally saturated with air bubbles. From a single source, bubbles are ejected outwards. Their density decreases exponentially with distance in a uniform medium. Overlapping sparging centers compensate by increasing the bubble density in the outer regions of influence where the number of bubbles are smaller. In a three-dimensional perspective, the spacing of the sparging points leaves gaps between the conical zones where the bubbles rise. The closer the points, the smaller the stagnant zones become. Overlap in the vertical as well as horizontal dimension tends to create eddies of groundwater as well as promote gaseous transfer from entrapment in the saturated formation to rising bubbles of introduced air. XXXIII. The Use of Alternating (Pulse) Pumpage and Bubble Injection Purpose: If a bubble generator is placed within a well, the microbubbles will not penetrate into the formation. Installation of an inverted submersible pump with a pneumatic packer to alternately pump the well volume water containing the microbubbles out into the formation allows the bubble generator to be installed in an existing elongate well screen. The function of the inverted pump also adds two additional advantages to normal microbubble production: (1) the periodic outwards pressure enlarges the bubble radius over that of a microporous point alone and, (2) the alternating of water pulsing after bubble production decreases the formation of air channels which tend to enlarge with continual air injection. Plugging the forming channels with water resists the re-entry of air, producing far more channels, the pathways varying in time. XXXIV. Use of a Physical Arrangement of Sequentially Arranged Spargepoints Installed at an Angle The use of angled straight boring for sparging allows unique affects ideal for treatment of groundwater plumes of petroleum based volatile organics or volatile solvents. Increasing the depth below static water directly increases the radius of bubbling, creating a natural widening of the bubble zone. With an inclined well, multiple bubblers can create a broadening pattern from dense to diffuse with distance. By overlapping the slanted installation, a three-dimensional bubble “fence” is created by the staggered placement of bubble emitters. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of the Invention (Technical Field) The present invention relates to sparging systems and methods of in-situ groundwater remediation for removal of contamination including dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrocarbon petroleum products. Remediation of saturated soils may also be obtained by employment of the present invention. In particular, the present invention is directed to the use in injection wells of microfine bubble generators, matched to substrates of selected aquifer regions, for injection and distribution of said bubbles containing oxidizing gas through said aquifer. Further, the present invention relates to selectively encapsulating gases including oxygen and ozone in duo-gas bubbles which, in the presence of co-reactant substrate material acting as a catalyst, are effective to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics, or Criegee decomposition of leachate plumes containing dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons. 2. Background Prior Art The introduction of air bubbles into aquifers for the purpose of remediation is a recent advancement in in-situ treatment of groundwater (Marley, et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1991). Contained air entrainment has been used for many years to provide vertical movement of water in low-head aquariums and in the development of public well supplies (Johnson, 1975). Aeration of aquifers for plume management was suggested to accelerate bacterial degradation of dissolved organic compounds (JRB, 1985). As bubble volume increases in density above re-aeration needs by approaching ratios beyond I to I0 (I water to I0 air), gas transfer begins to dominate. In this case, volatile organics may be physically transported from the saturated aquifer to the overlying unsaturated zone (vadose zone). There is a well-recognized need for a simple test to evaluate a potential site to assist with design of sparging systems deployed on a remediation site. Whereas hydraulic tests have been performed for some period of time based upon the well-known Theis equation, the introduction of air bubbles (particularly microscopic bubbles) is new. Also, whereas the introduction of air to the pressure vessel is continuous, the production of bubbles, particularly the microscopic variety, is a discrete discontinuous process. Bubbles, once generated, may take preferential pathways, determined largely by the substratum and, secondarily, by the introduction of pressure (Ji, et al., 1993). Applicant is aware of prior art devices that have used injection of air to facilitate biodegradation of plumes. U.S. Pat. No. 5,2211,159 to Billings shows injection of air into aquifer regions to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics together with simultaneous soil vacuum extraction. Also in U.S. Pat. No. 4,730,672 to Payne, there is disclosed a closed-loop process for removing volatile contaminants. However, Payne deals only with volatile contaminants. Payne discloses a withdrawal well surrounded by multiple injection wells. Pressurized air is injected into the groundwater through the injection wells, and is withdrawn under vacuum from the withdrawal well whereupon contaminants are removed from the air stream and the air is then recycled through the system. The U.S. Pat. No. 4,588,506, to Raymond et al. discloses the injection of a diluted solution of hydrogen peroxide into a contaminated soil for enhancing biodegradation of organic contaminants in the soil. Raymond discloses intermittent spiking of the hydrogen peroxide concentration to eliminate biota to increase soil permeability. Raymond has the disadvantage of failing to deliver oxygen through the system, and depends on a complicated process of hydrologic management of the subsurface which has rendered the process uneconomical. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,167,806 to Wang et al. there is disclosed apparatus for treatment of a contaminated liquid stream comprising generating extremely fine gas bubbles through porous diffusers, wherein the gas may be a combination of air and ozone. One process disclosed by Wang involves removing dissolved organics from contaminated groundwater by means of generating micro gas bubbles. In the first stage of the process for removing dissolved organics, which involves generating bubbles, no vacuum is employed, as gas bubbles are completely dissolved by the method. Wang teaches an enhanced dissolved aqueous reaction. In U.S. Pat. No. 4,832,122 to Corey et al. is disclosed an in-situ method for removing contamination from groundwater comprising a horizontal well positioned in the saturated zone which has multiple apertures for injecting gas. The apertures are shown in the figures to be sequentially arranged and closely spaced so that the bubbles zones produced from each one would overlap with the adjacent zones. Corey et al. teaches that the configuration of the injection system is dictated by the size and shape of the plume, drilling economics, and the subsurface geology (column 1, lines 4-9, 41-43, 64-68; column 2, lines 1-8, 43-48). Corey also teaches an enhanced dissolved aqueous reaction. U.S. Pat. No. 4,614,596 to Wyness discloses a method for dissolving a gas in an aqueous stream which comprises diffusing a gas in an aqueous stream to produce small gas bubbles which are rotated to provide a long flow distance over which the bubbles have increased contact time. The figures show that the bubbles are dispersed within and outward from a vessel, or well casing, by maximizing the dispersal of bubbles from a well casing and maximizing contact with the bubbles. Wyness also teaches an enhanced dissolved aqueous reaction. Notwithstanding the teachings of Wang et al., Corey et al., and Wyness, there has not been shown a sparging system for remediating a site in a controlled manner of poorly biodegradable organics, employing oxidizing gas encapsulated in microbubbles generated from microporous diffusers matched to soil porosity pulsed in a wave form for even distribution through the substrate (aquifer structure) employing a co-reactant in the form of substrate material. Further, the prior art fails to show matching of micron sized bubble formation with substrate material of a selected aquifer or to show the beneficial effect of uniform distribution of sized bubbles through such a formation by means of a pulsed wave form without fracturing said substrate. The present invention accomplishes this by injecting micron size bubbles into aquifer regions in combination with substrate materials acting as a catalyst to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics by means of a gas/gas/water reaction which overcomes at least some of the disadvantages of prior art. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention relates to injection of oxidizing gas in the form of microfine bubbles into aquifer regions by means of a sparging system which includes one or more injection wells to encourage in-situ remediation of subsurface leachate plumes by means of a gas-gas-water reaction. The present invention is directed to sparging systems and methods of in-situ groundwater remediation in combination with co-reactant substrate materials acting as a catalyst to encourage biodegradation of leachate plumes for removal of dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrocarbon petroleum products. Remediation of saturated soils may also be obtained by employment of the present invention. In particular the present invention employs sparging apparatus including microporous bubble generators for generating micron sized duo-gas bubbles into aquifer regions by means of one or more vertically arranged injection wells having a bubble chamber for regulating the size of bubbles. The sparging system of the present invention encourages biodegradation of leachate plumes which contain biodegradable organics or Criegee decomposition of leachate plumes containing dissolved chlorinated hydrocarbons. The following systems and methods for removing contaminants from soil and an associated subsurface groundwater aquifer using microporous diffusers and duo-gas systems are particularly useful in that they promote extremely efficient removal of poorly biodegradable organics, particularly dissolved chlorinated solvents, without vacuum extraction, and wherein remediation occurs by destroying organic and hydrocarbon material in place without release of contaminating vapors. In the present invention the groundwater and soil remediation system comprises oxidizing gas encapsulated in microbubbles generated from microporous diffusers matched to soil porosity. A unique bubble size range is matched to underground formation porosity and achieves dual properties of fluid like transmission and rapid extraction of selected volatile gases, said size being so selected so as to not to be so small as to lose vertical mobility. In order to accomplish a proper matching, a prior site evaluation test procedure is devised to test effectiveness of fluid transmission at the site to be remediated. The advantage of controlled selection of small bubble size is the promotion of rapid extraction of selected volatile organic compounds, such as PCE, TCE, or DCE by incorporating the exceptionally high surface to gas volume ratio. The dual capacity of the small production and rise time is matched to the short lifetime of an oxidative gas, such as ozone to allow rapid dispersion into water saturated geological formations, and extraction and rapid decomposition of the volatile organic material. The unique apparatus of the present invention provides for extraction efficiency with resulting economy of operation by maximizing contact with oxidant by selective rapid extraction providing for optimum fluidity to permit bubbles to move like a fluid through media which can be monitored. The use of microporous bubble generators provides a more even distribution of air into a saturated formation than the use of pressurized wells. A microfine sparge system installed to remediate contaminated groundwater is made more cost-effective by sparging different parts of the plume area at sequenced times. Through the proper placement of bubble generator locations and sequence control, any possible off-site migration of floating product is eliminated. With closely spaced bubble generators, water mounding is used to advantage in preventing any off-site escape of contaminant. The mounding is used to herd floating product toward extraction sites. In the present invention, the concept of microfine sparge system manipulation is predicated upon a thorough knowledge of the features of the groundwater or saturated zones on a site selected for remediation. Balancing the volume of air to the microfine system sparge loci enables control of sparging efficiency and balancing of any downgradient movement of a contaminated plume while remediation is accomplished. Critical to microfine sparge system design and accomplishment of any of the above points is to initially perform a “sparge point test” for the purpose of evaluating the characteristics of the site for matching purposes. Furthermore, the present invention overcomes the limitations expressed above of the prior technology. The invention employs the well recognized Criegee mechanisms which describes the gaseous reaction of ozone with the incoming PCE, TCE and DCE, and vinyl chloride into microbubbles produced by bubble generators with the resultant products then hydrolysed, i.e., reacted with water to decomposed into HCl and CO 2 . It is this physical/chemical reaction which produces the rapid removal rate employed by the present invention (see reference Maston S 1986, “Mechanisms and Kinetics of Ozone Hydroxal Radical Reactions with Model Alafadic and Olanfadic Compounds:, Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.). Unlike the prior art, the contaminated groundwater is injected with an air/ozone mixture wherein microfine air bubbles strip the solvents from the groundwater and the encapsulated ozone acts as an oxidizing agent to break down the contaminants into carbon dioxide, very dilute HCl and water. This process is also known as the C-Sparger™ process. Accordingly, the object and purpose of the present invention is to provide microporous diffusors for removal of contaminants from soil and associated subsurface groundwater aquifer, without requiring vacuum extraction. Another object is to provide duo-gas systems to be used in combination with the microporous diffusers to promote an efficient removal of poorly biodegradable organics, particularly dissolved chlorinated solvents, without vacuum extraction. A further object is to provide for economical and efficient remediation of contaminated groundwater by providing a calculated plan of sparging different parts of a plume area at sequenced times. Yet a further object is to control off-site migration of floating product by employing a water mounding technique which effectively herds floating product to extraction sites. Another object is to provide microfine sparge system manipulation predicated on performance of a site evaluation test. A further object is to provide that remediation occurs by destroying organic and hydrocarbon material in place without release of contaminating vapors to the atmosphere. Yet a further object is to obtain economy of operation by maximizing contact with the oxidant to achieve selective rapid extraction. Another object is to provide a microfine sparge system providing for optimum fluidity to permit bubbles to move like a fluid through media. The invention will be described for the purposes of illustration only in connection with certain embodiments; however, it is recognized that those persons skilled in the art may make various changes, modifications, improvements and additions on the illustrated embodiments all without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | 20041122 | 20060404 | 20050505 | 69012.0 | 1 | PRINCE JR, FREDDIE GARY | GAS-GAS-WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM FOR GROUNDWATER AND SOIL REMEDIATION | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,994,973 | ACCEPTED | Centralized authorization and fraud-prevention system for network-based transactions | A system and method for authorizing certain aspects of network based transactions between a customer and a merchant is disclosed. At a credit card authorization system, merchant information, transaction information, and a credit card number of a customer is received from an e-commerce merchant. An authorization form at the credit card authorization system that contains the transaction information is created. An internet browser associated with the customer is caused to display the authorization form. A signature phrase is received from the customer via the authorization form. The received signature phrase is verified that it corresponds to a signature phrase stored in a credit card account associated with the credit card number. The internet browser associated with the customer is caused to be transferred to a web site associated with the e-commerce merchant. | 1. A method for authorizing transactions, comprising: receiving, at a credit card authorization system, merchant information, transaction information, and a credit card number of a customer from an e-commerce merchant; creating an authorization form at the credit card authorization system that contains the transaction information; causing an internet browser associated with the customer to display the authorization form; receiving a signature phrase from the customer via the authorization form; verifying that-the received signature phrase corresponds to a signature phrase stored in a credit card account associated with the credit card number; and causing the internet browser associated with the customer to be transferred to a web site associated with the e-commerce merchant. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the signature phrase stored in a credit card account is one of a plurality of signature phrases stored in the credit card account. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising: causing the internet browser associated with the customer to display the URL associated with the credit card authorization system in conjunction with the authorization form. 4. A method for authorizing transactions over a network, comprising: receiving, at an authorization system, account information and user node information after a user has initiated a transaction from a merchant using a network interface on a node associated with the user in communication with a node associated with the merchant; determining whether the account information corresponds to an account entry in an authorization database; creating an authorization form at the authorization system; sending the authorization form from the authorization system to the network interface on the node associated with the user as indicated by the user node information; receiving an authentication phrase from the user via the authorization form; verifying that the received authentication phrase corresponds to an authentication phrase in the account entry; and transferring the network interface of the user from the authorization system to the node associated with the merchant. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the authentication phrase is a signature phrase. 6. The method of claim 5 wherein the signature phrase is transformed by the authorization form. 7. The method of claim 5 wherein the signature phrase is used for a plurality of different transactions with different merchants. 8. The method of claim 4 further comprising: forwarding an indication that the transaction is verified to the merchant. 9. The method of claim 4 wherein the same authorization system is for verifying different transactions for different merchants. 10. The method of claim 4 wherein the authorization form includes a logo associated with the authorization system'. 11. The method of claim 4 wherein the authorization form includes information associated with the user but not provided by the user to the merchant. 12. A method for authorizing e-commerce transactions, comprising: a) receiving at a central authorization facility, a first merchant information and a first user information from a first merchant for a first transaction; b) verifying from at least one of the first merchant information and the first user information whether signature authorization is to occur; c) if signature authorization is to occur, preparing an authorization form at the central authorization facility; d) providing the authorization form to a node indicated by the first user information; e) receiving signature authorization from the node through the authorization form; f) authorizing the first merchant to obtain credit authorization for the first transaction if the signature authorization corresponds to the first user information; g) indicating the authorization to the first merchant; and h) transferring an internet browser associated with the first user to a node indicated by the first merchant information. 13. The method of claim 12 further comprising: i) receiving at the central authorization facility, a second merchant information and the first user information from a second merchant for a second transaction; j) repeating steps b)-h) for the second merchant, wherein the same signature authorization is used to authorize the second transaction. 14. The method of claim 12 further comprising: i) receiving at the central authorization facility, the first merchant information and a second user information from the first merchant; j) repeating steps b)-h) for the second user information. 15. The method of claim 12 further comprising: i) providing software to the merchant for performing step a). 16. The method of claim 12 wherein the signature authorization is in the form of a signature phrase. 17. The method of claim 12 wherein the first user information includes a credit card account number. 18. The method of claim 17 wherein the central authorization facility is associated with an issuer of a credit card for the credit card account number. 19. The method of claim 12 wherein the node indicated by the first account information is an electronic address for a user who initiated the transaction. 20. A method for verifying the identity of a customer over a network, comprising: receiving, at a verification system, merchant information and customer account information after a customer has initiated a transaction from a merchant using a network interface; determining whether the customer account information corresponds to an account entry in a verification database; creating an authentication form at the verification system; causing a network interface of the user to display the authentication form; receiving an authentication phrase from the user via the authentication form as displayed to the user; verifying that the received authentication phrase corresponds to a stored authentication phrase in the account entry; and transferring the network interface of the user to a node associated with the merchant. 21. The method of claim 20 further comprising: verifying that the merchant information corresponds to the merchant. 22. The method of claim 20 further comprising: sending verification information to the merchant. 23. The method of claim 20 further comprising: sending information about the transaction to a credit authorization system. 24. The method of claim 20 further comprising: receiving authorization for the transaction from a credit authorization system. 25. The method of claim 20, wherein the verification system is a credit authorization system. 26. A method for authorizing transactions between a customer and an e-commerce merchant, comprising: receiving, at a credit card authorization system, e-commerce merchant information and a credit card number of a customer for a first transaction; determining whether the credit card number corresponds to a credit card account in a credit card database; creating an authorization form at the credit card authorization system for the first transaction; displaying the authorization form to the customer via an internet browser; receiving a first signature phrase from the customer indicating authorization for the first transaction; verifying that the received signature phrase corresponds to a stored signature phrase in the credit card account; and transferring the internet browser of the user to a URL associated with the e-commerce merchant. 27. A method for authorizing transactions, comprising: receiving, at a credit card authorization system, merchant information, transaction information, and a credit card number of a customer from an e-commerce merchant after a transaction is initiated by the customer; creating an authorization form at the credit card authorization system that contains the transaction information; causing an internet browser associated with the customer to display the authorization form; receiving a phrase from the customer via the authorization form; verifying that the received phrase corresponds to a signature phrase stored in a credit card account associated with the credit card number, wherein the signature phrase is stored in the credit card account prior to the initiation of the transaction; and causing the internet browser associated with the customer to be transferred to a web site associated with the e-commerce merchant. 28. The method of claim 27, further comprising: transmitting the signature phrase via the authorization form to the credit card authorization system, wherein-the signature phrase is not transmitted to the e-commerce merchant. | RELATED APPLICATION The present application is a continuation of, and claims priority to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/427,968, entitled Centralized Authorization and Fraud-Prevention System for Network-Based Transactions, filed Oct. 27, 1999, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates generally to electronic commerce and, more particularly, to a system and method for authorizing certain aspects of network based transactions. BACKGROUND There are many emerging trends in the communications world, including the increase in network technology and the proliferation of data networks. These trends have advanced the proliferation of e-commerce, i.e., commerce that occurs over an electronic network such as the Internet. E-commerce enables certain customers to purchase goods and services using an account number by contacting a merchant directly over the network. Common e-commerce scenarios include a person at home using a credit card to purchase a product from an on-line store over the Internet, and an employee of a corporation acting as a buyer/authorizer for acquiring resources using a company issued account number. SUMMARY A centralized authorization and fraud-prevention system for network-based transactions is disclosed. In one embodiment a method for authorizing transactions comprises receiving, at a credit card authorization system, merchant information, transaction information, and a credit card number of a customer from an e-commerce merchant. An authorization form is created at the credit card authorization system that contains the transaction information and an internet browser associated with the customer is caused to display the authorization form. A signature phrase is received from the customer via the authorization form, the received signature phrase is verified that it corresponds to a signature phrase stored in a credit card account associated with the credit card number. The internet browser associated with the customer is transferred to a web site associated with the e-commerce merchant. In another embodiment, a method for authorizing transactions over a network comprises receiving, at an authorization system, account information and user node information after a user has initiated a transaction from a merchant using a network interface on a node associated with the user in communication with a node associated with the merchant, determining whether the account information corresponds to an account entry in an authorization database, creating an authorization form at the authorization system, sending the authorization form from the authorization system to the network interface on the node associated with the user as indicated by the user node information, receiving an authentication phrase from the user via the authorization form, verifying that the received authentication phrase corresponds to an authentication phrase in the account entry, and transferring the network interface of the user from the authorization system to the node associated with the merchant. In a further embodiment, a method for authorizing e-commerce transactions, comprises receiving at a central authorization facility, a first merchant information and a first user information from a first merchant for a first transaction and verifying from at least one of the first merchant information and the first user information whether signature authorization is to occur. If signature authorization is to occur, an authorization form is prepared at the central authorization facility. This embodiment also provides the authorization form to a node indicated by the first user information, receives signature authorization from the node through the authorization form, authorizes the first merchant to obtain credit authorization for the first transaction if the signature authorization corresponds to the first user information, indicates the authorization to the first merchant, and transfers an internet browser associated with the first user to a node indicated by the first merchant information. In yet another embodiment, a method for verifying the identity of a customer over a network comprises receiving, at a verification system, merchant information and customer account information after a customer has initiated a transaction from a merchant using a network interface, determining whether the customer account information corresponds to an account entry in a verification database, creating an authentication form at the verification system, causing a network interface of the user to display the authentication form, receiving an authentication phrase from the user via the authentication form as displayed to the user, verifying that the received authentication phrase corresponds to a stored authentication phrase in the account entry; and transferring the network interface of the user to a node associated with the merchant. In an additional embodiment, a method for authorizing transactions between a customer and an e-commerce merchant comprises receiving, at a credit card authorization system, e-commerce merchant information and a credit card number of a customer for a first transaction, determining whether the credit card number corresponds to a credit card account in a credit card database, creating an authorization form at the credit card authorization system for the first transaction, displaying the authorization form to the customer via an internet browser, receiving a first signature phrase from the customer indicating authorization for the first transaction, verifying that the received signature phrase corresponds to a stored signature phrase in the credit card account, and transferring the internet browser of the user to a URL associated with the e-commerce merchant. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram of a network and several nodes for implementing one embodiment of the present invention. The nodes represent a customer, a merchant, and an authorization system. FIG. 2 is an illustration of a portion of a database in the authorization system of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is an illustration of a screen for activating or modifying an entry in the database of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a flowchart of an account activation/modification process. FIG. 5 is a flow chart of a transaction process. FIG. 6 is an illustration of a screen of an exemplary transaction being performed by the process in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a flow chart of an authorization process. FIG. 8 is an illustration of a screen of an exemplary authorization being performed by the process of FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention provides a unique system and method for authorizing certain aspects of network based transactions. It is understood that the following disclosure provides many different embodiments, or examples, for implementing different features. Techniques and requirements that are only specific to certain embodiments should not be imported into other embodiments. Also, specific examples of networks, components, and formats are described below to simplify the present disclosure. These are, of course, merely examples and are not intended to limit the invention from that described in the claims. A number of items are used herein to describe certain account information. “Account number” refers to a number that identifies a specific account from an account issuer. One example-of an account number is a credit card number issued from a bank or other financial entity. Another example is a corporate charge account number provided by a corporation. Additional examples of account numbers include debit card numbers, organizational card numbers, membership identification numbers, social security numbers, e-mail addresses, and the like. “Account code” refers to a unique number or phrase that is assigned to a specific account by the account issuer and indicates certain rights, such as ownership, to the account. Often, the account code is used to verify that the user of a specific account number is legitimate. Common examples of account codes include PINs, employee codes, and passphrases. “Signature Phrase” is a term used in the following disclosure to indicate a new and unique phrase associated with a particular account and that is created either by the user/owner of the account or by the account issuer. The Signature Phrase is not associated with the account, except as provided in the present disclosure. There may be multiple Signature Phrases for a specific account. “Activation code” is a term used in the following disclosure to designate numbers or phrases that are used to access, activate, or modify a database entry of the present invention that relates to a specific account. An activation code may be an account code or a Signature Phrase. Exemplary Network Referring now to FIG. 1 of the drawings, the reference numeral 10 designates, in general, a system for implementing electronic commerce (e-commerce). The system 10 is centered around a network 12, which may be any combination of the Internet, local area networks, and Intranets. For the sake of example, the network 12 will be considered to be the Internet and will utilize Transfer Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to transmit data between various nodes connected to the network. Communication techniques such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Secure HyperText Transmission Protocol (HTTPS) can be used to provide extra security for Internet transactions. Three nodes 14, 16, and 18 are illustrated as being attached to the network 12. The nodes 14-18 are illustrated as personal computers, but it is understood that each node can actually represent one or more different computing devices, including mainframes, servers, wireless telephones, personal digital assistants, and the like. Referring to node 14 for example, the node includes a processing unit, a memory, and a network interface, generally represented as computer 14a. The computer 14a also includes a customer interface, which in the present example includes a monitor 14b and keyboard 14c. It is understood that each of the listed components may actually represent several different components. For example, the computer 14a may actually represent a distributed processing system including different levels of main memory, hard disks, server/client memory, and remote storage locations. Furthermore, it is understood that, in many implementations, the nodes 14, 16, and 18 may be configured differently from each other and/or may have different components. In continuance with the present example, the node 14 will represent an e-commerce customer who wishes to purchase an item or to otherwise authorize a transaction, and the node 16 will represent an e-commerce merchant willing to sell the item or complete the transaction. The node 18 will represent an authorization system that will facilitate the transaction between the customer 14 and the merchant 16. In the present embodiment, before the transaction is completed, two preliminary steps may be performed pertaining to the authorization system 18. First, a database 50 of various entries is established. The entries correspond to account numbers and other related information. In one example, account numbers and other related information are furnished by account issuers to the authorization system. In another example, an account number and other related information may be provided by the customer, either before initiating a transaction or during the transaction. Second, a particular entry in the database 50 must be activated. Once activated, a person or other entity having rights to an account identified by the account number can authorize e-commerce transactions using a Signature Phrase. If the entry is self-activating, as discussed further below, this second step may not be necessary. Once these steps have been performed, the customer 14 can complete an e-commerce transaction using the customer's account by providing a Signature Phrase without the Signature Phrase or account code actually residing at the authorization system 18 or being provided to the merchant 16. The completion of the transaction may also include a certification process for further authentication. Both the transaction completion and the certification process are individually discussed in greater detail below. It is understood, however, that different embodiments may utilize some steps while not utilizing others. Furthermore, a wide range of modifications, changes and substitutions are intended in the following disclosure. The Database Referring also to FIG. 2, in one embodiment, the authorization system 18 includes a database 50 having one or more entries, represented by entries E1 and E2. Each entry may include one or more records, and each record may include one or more items. It is understood that the illustration of the database 50 in FIG. 2 is not to scale, and the illustrated size of specific entries, records, and items is not indicative of the actual size of each. In furtherance of the present example, entry E1 includes four records: a header record 52 and three H3 records 54, 56, and 58. These records are filled with various items at different times, and may be expanded or compressed as necessary. The Header Record The header record 52 includes an account identifier 60 that identifies a unique account number for a specific account. In the present example, the account identifier 60 includes two items: H1 and H2. The H1 item represents the result of a hash function on a particular account number for the customer 14 (FIG. 1), as represented by the following formula: H1=Hash(account number) (1) A hash function is an example of a data transformation function that is performed on a string of data (the account number in the present example) to generate a unique representation (the “hash”) corresponding to the string of data. The hash is generated in such a way that it is extremely unlikely that some other text will produce the same hash value. In one implementation, a message digest five (MD5) hash function is applied to the account number to produce a 128-bit representation of that number. It is also understood that the hash is a one-way function. That is, the account number cannot be derived from its hash. The H2. item represents the hash of the account number combined with a bit string, denoted P1, as represented by the following formula: H2=Hash(account number+P1) (2) The bit string P1 may be a published, widely known constant. By having the extra item H2, two hashes representing the account number are created, thereby further securing a unique identity for each particular entry in the database 50. By using both items H1 and H2, it is possible to identify the entry E1 for one and only one account number. Also, it is understood that in the present example, the actual account number is not stored in the database 50. Instead, only the items H1 and H2 are stored. Since each account number produces a unique hash pair, the account number is, in effect, stored in the database 50 by the reference to the two hashes. Furthermore, since the account number cannot be derived from the hashes, the account number cannot be obtained by computer hackers or other personnel. The header record 52 also includes a SIGPHRASE item that stores the Signature Phrase to be used with, or instead of, the account code previously assigned to the account. For example, since a customer may be reluctant to use a bank-issued PIN in e-commerce transactions, the customer can establish the Signature Phrase to act in lieu of the PIN. As a result, the Signature Phrase works identically to the PIN in e-commerce transactions, but does not work in other transactions such as automated teller machines. The Signature Phrase may be a relatively long alphanumeric string, the extended length of which increases overall security. This item is preferably hashed for security reasons. Each entry in the database 50 may also include one or more additional items. Certain items may be associated with the header record 52 while other items may be associated with one or more H3 records 54-58. The number and arrangement of items in any particular record is flexible to specific applications and/or preferences. These additional items are collectively illustrated as an OTHER item in the database 50, and may include one, more, or all of the items listed in Table 1, below. TABLE 1 Item Description ISSID Identifies the account issuer LOGO Identifies entity associated with the account NOTE Options for issuer notifications of authorizations POLICY# Issuer policy parameter sheet to be applied to this entry EMAILID E-mail address of customer or appropriate entity EMAILOP E-mail rules EDITID Master editing code CSTAT Card or account status FSIG Forced signature DATES Dates record was created or updated STATUS Current status of record GP Greeting phrase for authorization form 2ndPH Additional Signature Phrase with restrictions 2ndPH$ Restrictions for the Signature Phrase 3rdPH 3rdPH Additional Signature Phrase with restrictions 3rdPH$ Restrictions for the Signature Phrase 3rdPH It is understood that all of the items in Table 1 are merely illustrative. Many different items can be used instead of, or in addition to, any of the items herein discussed. Several of these items are provided when the entry is created, either by the issuer or by a specific customer (certain entries can accommodate multiple customers, each with a unique Signature Phrase). Other items may be modified, accessed, or removed at various times, such as is discussed in the “Account Activation and Modification” section, below. The ISSID item identifies the account issuer. The issuer may be a particular bank or other financial entity, a corporation that has provided purchasing accounts to its employees to allow the employee to incur indebtedness on its behalf, or other similar entity. In the corporation example, the issuer may designate the corporation itself or a specific department in the corporation. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The LOGO item provides a logo that can represent various entities, programs, or the like that are associated with the account number. For example, the LOGO item may identify a particular airline whose logo appears on a credit card associated with the account number. Alternatively, or in addition, the LOGO item may represent a card member status, such as a “gold” or “platinum” member. Further still, the LOGO item may include a Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) sub-item that can be used for visual enhancement. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The NOTE item allows the account issuer to provide specific notifications for authorizations by this account. For example, a corporation may provide purchasing accounts to various employees, yet still desire to exercise a certain amount of control over the account. This NOTE item may indicate, for example, that a notification of all transaction authorizations by this account should be sent to the corporate accounting department. The NOTE item may also be customer-specific, such as allowing the president of the corporation to conduct transactions without notifying the accounting department. Further still, the NOTE item may include an e-mail address sub-item to which notifications may be sent. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The POLICY# item is a reference number to a parameter sheet associated with the particular entry. The parameter sheet may have general formatting and rules that can be applied to the authentication and transaction processes. For example, a corporation can assign a specific class identifier to the customer/employee 14. Employees in class “A” may have one specific group of restrictions, and employees in class “B” may have a different group of restrictions. In some embodiments, this item cannot be later altered by the customer/employee. The EMAILID item is an e-mail address for communication to the customer 14 or other desired recipients. The e-mail address may be used, for example, when it appears someone other than the customer is attempting to use the customer's account number in a transaction. The authorization system 18 can send an e-mail to the designated recipients informing them of each account usage or only that the account is apparently being improperly used. Another example use of the e-mail address is if a customer with specific restrictions attempts a transaction that contradicts those restrictions, the authorization system 18 can send an e-mail notifying the account issuer of the transaction. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The EMAILOP item is a set of rules to specify when e-mail notification is to occur. For example, certain customers may request notification upon every transaction, every transaction that fails authorization, or every transaction over a certain dollar amount. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The EDITID item is a master-control item that allows the issuer to make changes to the entry. This item may act as an issuer-version password code that allows the issuer to make edits to the entry. For example, a corporation may cancel an account of an employee who is leaving the company. This item is preferably hashed for security reasons. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The GP item is a greeting phrase that is selected by the customer in the activation process and can be used during transaction authorization. For example, the greeting phrase may be “Hello Ms. Smith”, or may preferably be a more personalized quote, such as “How about those Dallas Cowboys!” The greeting not only personalizes the transaction, but also serves as a subtle identifier for the authorization system 18. That is, the customer 14 can distinguish the authorization system 18 from other systems that do not have the greeting phrase, as will be discussed in greater detail in the Transaction section below. The 2ndPH and 3rdPH items are additional, specialized Signature Phrases. These additional Signature Phrases can identify certain transaction restrictions. An example is if the customer establishes a separate Signature Phrase for a child. The child may use the account according to the restrictions. These items are preferably hashed for security reasons. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The 2ndPH$ and 3rdPH$ items are lists of restrictions for a particular customer who uses an additional specialized Signature Phrase 2ndPH and 3rdPH, respectively. One example of a restriction is a money limit per transaction. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The CSTAT item may include generic account status descriptions, such as “live,” “dead,” or “suspended.” In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The FSIG item is used for a corporate issuer to mandate a particular Signature Phrase to be used for the account. That is, the corporate issuer does not want the customer/employee to change the Signature Phrase. In some embodiments, the customer cannot alter this item. The H3 Record Each of the H3 records 54, 56, and 58 includes a representation of an account code for the account identifier 60 in question. In the case of credit card issuers, the account code may be a PIN. In the case of corporate account issuers, the account code may be an employee code. As will be discussed in greater detail below, the account code can be used as an activation code for initial account activation and accessing the account thereafter. In the present example, the account code is represented by an item H3, which represents the hash of item H1 combined with the account code, as represented by the following formula: H3=Hash(H1+account code) (3) By storing the hash of the account code in the H3 record, instead of the actual account code, an additional level of security is provided. Each of the H3 records 54, 56, and 58 may be formatted in different ways, and may have different data stored therein. The actual number of H3 records is also flexible. For example, there may be no H3 records at all, or there may be many different H3 records. Data management routines can be used to maintain the number of H3 records to an appropriate amount. In the present embodiment, if there are no H3 records, then some item must eventually be provided to verify a specific customer's use or access to the entry. For example, a corporation may utilize the FSIG item to mandate a particular Signature Phrase to be used for the account entry. In this example, there is no H3 record, only a Signature Phrase and other header record items. Each H3 record may also include a DATE item and a STATUS item. The DATE item represents the time when the record was entered in the database 50. In some embodiments, this item is automatically updated. The STATUS item identifies a current status of the respective record. In some embodiments, this item can be altered by the customer or the account issuer. For the sake of example, Table 2 below illustrates possible STATUS values. TABLE 2 Value Description 1 The H3 record was used in an account activation or access process. 2 The H3 record has not been used in an account activation or access process. The specific use of the DATE and STATUS items is discussed in greater detail in the “Activation and Modification” section and the “Transaction” section, below. Database Population The database 50 can be populated with entries in various ways. One way is for the database to receive data from one or more account issuers (e.g., banks or corporations). The data may be delivered electronically or may be manually entered, such as through one or more data storage or transmission mediums. The minimum amount of information required to initially populate the database is the account number. The account issuer, generally, delivers the account number (or hashes H1 and H2) and the account code (or hash H3) to authorization system 18. If the actual account number and/or account code(s) are delivered (preferably by secure means), the authorization system can, in one embodiment, format the data appropriately and perform the hash functions and store the hash values for H1, H2, and H3 in the database. If hash values H1, H2, and H3 are provided by the account issuer, they are stored in the database. Once hash values H1, H2, H3 have been generated and stored, the actual account number and/or account code(s) can be erased. Alternatively, the database could store the actual account number and account code, which would become items H1, H2, and H3 in the database. While this latter embodiment is less secure, it may be easier for the issuer, merchant or customer to implement. In another embodiment, as discussed in the next section, the customer manually provides the account number, account code, and the Signature Phrase to the database 50 at the time the customer creates/activates the account. Account Activation and Modification Once the database 50 has been established, but before the authorization system 18 can be used to complete an actual transaction (discussed in greater detail below), the specific entries of the database involved in the transaction should be activated. There are various methods for activating the entries in the database 50. For one, the entries may be self-activated. That is, once the data for the entry is provided to the authorization system 18, transactions may use the entries accordingly. For example, a corporation may provide an employee with an account number and a Signature Phrase that is already activated (FSIG, Table 1). The activation and modification process may be performed by the customer 14 separately from any transaction, or may be initiated during a specific transaction. These and other methods are discussed in greater detail with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4 Referring to FIG. 3, in one embodiment, the customer 14 may initiate an activation and modification process by accessing a specific site 80 on the network 12. In the present example, the network 12 is the Internet and the specific site is a site that is provided by, or associated with, the authorization system 18. For the sake of clarity, the site 80 is illustrated as a screen in FIG. 3, such as may appear in a web browser on the customer's computer 14a. In actuality, the site 80 is a set of computer instructions that reside on a server connected to the network, such as the authorization system 18. In addition to the screen, the site 80 may also include various functional routines that may or may not be apparent to the customer 14. Some of these functional routines may be provided to and reside on the customer's computer 14a, while other functional routines may reside on the computer that is supporting the site 80 (e.g. the authorization system 18 ). The site 80 may be accessed, for example, by the customer 14 entering a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) on the customer's computer 14a. The URL may be provided to the customer 14 in various manners. For example, the issuer of the account may mail the URL to the customer along with the account code. Alternatively, the URL can be provided by the merchant 16, can be linked from the account issuer's own web site, or other possible methods. Upon accessing the site, a screen 81 will appear on the monitor 14b of the customer's computer 14a. In the present example, the screen 81 includes a logo 82. The logo may be specific to the authorization system 18, or may instead be specific to the issuer of the account number being activated. Although optional, the logo 82 can provide a certain degree of comfort to the customer 14 that the site is authentic, thereby encouraging the customer to complete an activation and modification process. The screen 81 also includes instructions 84 and inputs 86 and 88 to receive the customer's account number and activation code (account code (e.g., PIN) or Signature Phrase). Although the illustrated instructions 84 are quite simple, they may be more elaborate to provide more information about the activation and modification process. In some embodiments, the site 80 includes one or more scripts 90 running in the background of the customer's computer 14a. The scripts 90 are illustrated in phantom because, although they reside on the customer's computer 14a, they may not be visible on the monitor 14b. For example, the scripts 90 may include the hash function (as used equations 1, 2, and 3, above) and other necessary instructions. Once the account number and account code or Signature Phrase have been entered into the inputs 86, 88, the customer may then select the “Access or Activate Account” option 92 to initiate an activation and modification process. Referring now to FIG. 4, one embodiment of an activation and modification process is designated generally with the reference numeral 100. The activation and modification process 100 is not only used for activating an entry in the database 50, but may also be used to enter, access, or change certain items in a specific database entry. Execution of the activation and modification process is initiated at step 102 by the customer 14 accessing the authorization system 18. In the present example, the customer 14 accesses the authorization system 18 by entering the account number and an activation code for inputs 86, 88 and selecting the Access or Activate Account option 92, as discussed above with reference to FIG. 3. At step 104, a hash is created for the account number. In the preferred embodiment, the hash is created at authorization system 18. In another embodiment, the hash is created at the customer computer 14a. At step 106, the H1, H2 values are compared to H1, H2 items in the database 50 (FIG. 2) and at step 108, a determination is made as to whether the H1, H2 values derived from the account number provided by the customer 14 are in the database 50. If the hash values H1, H2 are in the database 50, a specific entry is identified and the authorization system 18 may now erase the actual account number (if any was provided). By erasing the actual account number as soon as possible, the possibility of theft is reduced. Execution then proceeds to step 110, where the authorization system 18 hashes the entered activation code (account code or Signature Phrase) and compares the hash value to the signature phrases (e.g., SIGPHRASE, 2ndPH, 3rdPH) in the account. Should this compare fail, the hash value is compared to the latest H3 record for the account. If at step 111 either compare succeeds, the account may be made available for viewing or update purposes. Execution then proceeds to step 114 where the authorization system 18 determines if the customer 14 may enter, access, or change items in the account entry. If the customer 14 is allowed to access or change specific items in the entry, execution proceeds to step 116 where the customer may change the specific items (such as in Tables 1 and 2, above) accordingly. An example of one change is activating the account entry if not already activated. In the case of an account that has not theretofore been activated, the customer 14 may be prompted to provide a Signature Phrase, which is stored in the SIGPHRASE item in the header record 52. In another embodiment, the account issuer (such as a corporation) may have already provided a forced Signature Phrase (e.g., using the FSIG item in Table 1). Other items may also be accessed, updated, or changed, as allowed by any previous restrictions to the account entry. As discussed below under “Transaction,” the Signature Phrase will act as an authorizing code in the e-commerce transaction. The extended length of the Signature Phrase increases overall security. In the preferred embodiment, a hash of the Signature Phrase is stored in database 50. In the present example, the account number and the Signature Phrase are now activated for transactions. If the activation code provided by the customer 14 is not found in the specified entry at step 111, then execution proceeds to an error handling routine at step 118. In one implementation, the error handling routine 118 initiates an additional attempt at authorization by using external systems, such as an automated teller machine network. The appropriate entity (e.g., the customer 14 ) may also be informed of the current situation, be it by error (e.g., the customer typed in the wrong activation code) or other condition. Alternatively, the error handling routine 118 may simply provide a message to the customer 14 to help the customer provide a proper activation code and return execution to step 110. In one implementation, the customer 14 is allowed only two attempts at providing a proper activation code. If two successive attempts fail, the account entry will be locked from further activity for an extended period of time. This effectively eliminates “brute-force” attacks on the activation code. If an account issuer has not previously populated the database with the account number, then at step 108 the hash values H1, H2 would not be in the database 50. Then, execution would proceed to step 120, where the account number and account code or Signature Phrase, if any, are submitted by authorization system 18 for a separate (and normally external) authorization process. For example, the separate authorization process can be a standard authorization technique of account numbers and account codes, such as is used by automated teller machines for PIN verification. At step 122, in this example, a determination is made as to whether the separate authorization process indicates a valid account number and account code (if provided). The customer 14 may be further prompted to update additional needed items for verification, such as a credit card expiration date. If the separate authorization process did indicate a valid account number and account code, execution proceeds to step 124 where a new database entry including H1, H2, and H3 (if applicable) is created. Execution then proceeds to steps 114 and 116 described above. At step 116, the customer is prompted to provide a Signature Phrase, which is stored under SIGPHRASE in the header record 52. Alternatively, the authorization and modification process 100 can provide the account number to a third party (e.g. the account issuer) at step 120, who may authorize the activation of the account. If the account is authorized at step 122, then at step 124 the third party may provide a Signature Phrase for use by the customer 14. The Signature Phrase may be a forced signature, such as is indicated by the FSIG item in the header record of the newly created account entry. If at step 122 the separate authorization process or third party did not indicate a valid account number and activation code or did not otherwise authorize the account, execution proceeds to the error handling routine 118. In some embodiments, activation may be an automatic update that occurs immediately upon a match between the activation code and the H3 record or previously stored Signature Phrase (step 111 ) or upon successful authorization (step 122 ). For example, once the customer enters the proper account number and account code, the STATUS value for the H3 record of the identified account code, if available, is now set equal to 1 (Table 2). Additionally, the CSTAT value may be set to an active status. Not only does the activation and modification process 100 allow the customer 14 to activate a pre-existing entry in the database 50, it also allows the customer to access, enter, or change certain items in the entry. In some embodiments, an account entry that is not activated is only accessed with an account code. Once the account is activated, the account entry may be accessed with an account code or a previously created Signature Phrase. The Signature Phrase works similarly to the account code, with any restrictions and permissions that are dictated by the items in the identified account entry. Referring again to steps 110-114, in some embodiments, a specific account entry may have several Signature Phrases, and permission to enter, access, or change certain items may be different for each subordinate Signature Phrase of the account. For example, a family of customers may have a single account number with different Signature Phrases for different members of the family. Depending on the Signature Phrase provided to access the account entry, certain items may or may not be accessible for review, change, update, and/or deletion. Furthermore, in one embodiment, if the account code, rather than the Signature Phrase, is used to access the account, the customer will not be permitted to view previously established database information, but will be permitted only to create new information. This would prevent an unauthorized person that has obtained a customer's account number and account code from viewing all of the customer's previously established account information. The Transaction Just as there are many different types of customers 14, networks 12, and merchants 16, there are also many different transaction scenarios. Referring to FIG. 5, a general transaction method 150 is disclosed, it being understood that the general transaction method 150 is directed to just one example scenario. At step 152, the customer 14 selects various items at one or more merchant 16 Internet sites by accessing the merchants over the network 12. At step 154, the customer 14 goes to checkout at the merchant site and fills in the necessary information and at step 155, then customer 14 initiates authorization. At step 156, the merchant 16 prepares and forwards specific information to an authorization process. In one implementation, the specific information is forwarded as “BUY” button 212 (FIG. 6) in HTML format. Referring also to FIG. 6, for the sake of example, the merchant 16 is an Internet bookstore and the customer 14 selects two books using an Internet browser connected to the bookstore's web site. An exemplary screen 200 of the bookstore's web site includes a logo 202 for the merchant, a description of the items being purchased 204, credit card account information 206, a shipping address 210, and a BUY button 212. In accordance with step 154 (FIG. 5), the customer 14 has filled in the necessary information, which in the present example includes credit card information including card number and a shipping address. The customer 14 has also initiated an authorization process by selecting the BUY button 212 using an appropriate key on the keyboard 14c (FIG. 1). In the present example, the BUY button 212 is specifically associated with the authorization system 18. The BUY button 212 includes several functional items provided by the merchant, such as one or more of the items listed in Table 4, below. TABLE 4 Item Description TURL Target link (URL) to a specific site on the authorization system 18 CC# Account number (e.g., credit card number). RURL Return link (URL) to screen 200 on the merchant's computer MID Merchant identification AMT Amount of the transaction REF A merchant's transaction reference number TD A description of the transaction MSIG Merchant's digital signature of the present data The CC# item may simply be the actual account number (not preferred for security reasons), or may instead be a representation of the CC# such as with the hashes H1, H2 (equations 1 and 2, above). The MSIG item represents the digital signature of the merchant and might not be used in every embodiment. Some or all of the Table 4 items in the BUY button 212 are assembled and hashed for use in creating the MSIG item. The digital signing process is described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/340,853, filed Jun. 28, 1999, and the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference as if reproduced in their entirety. The resulting MSIG item authenticates the information and enables the authorization system 18 to confirm that the information has not been tampered with. Furthermore, certain items collected in Table 4 may be encrypted using public key encryption using the public key of authorization system 18. The public key encryption process is also described in the above-referenced and presently incorporated patent application. The information is then electronically sent to the authorization system 18. On the other end, the authorization system 18 performs applicable signature verification and decryption processes, as described in the above-referenced and presently incorporated patent application Referring now to FIG. 7, one embodiment of the authorization process is designated generally by the reference numeral 250. The authorization process may be performed at the authorization system 18 after being accessed through the Internet link indicated by the TURL included in the BUY button 212 of FIG. 6. At step 252, the authorization process receives the information sent from the BUY button 212. The authorization process may check the received MID item (Table 4) to verify the merchant 16 may use the authorization system 18 and, further, may check the validity of the MSIG digital signature against appropriate data provided within the BUY button. In one embodiment, the BUY button 212 has the already hashed account number values H1 and H2, so the authorization process receives the account information as H1, H2. In another embodiment, the BUY button 212 has only the account number. In this embodiment, the authorization process 250 hashes the received account number. In another, less secure, implementation, the account number stored in the database 50 is not hashed. Such a determination is made responsive to the format of the items in the database 50. At step 254, a determination is made as to whether there is an entry in the database 50 that corresponds with the received account number or hash values. If the account number or hash values are not in the database 50, execution proceeds to step 255 and a RETURN code is returned to the merchant 16. Table 5, below, lists several potential RETURN codes. TABLE 5 Code Description 1 Account number not on file. 2 Account number in database, account not activated. 3 Account number in database, Signature Phrase given is good. 4 Cancel button selected - No Signature Phrase given. 5 Account number in database, Signature Phrase given is bad. 6 Account number in database, Signature Phrase given is good, restriction violation. 7 System not available. 8 Merchant signature is bad. 9 Transaction already processed. 10 Date/Time Expired. 11 Improper merchant delivery. If at step 254 there is a corresponding entry, execution proceeds to step 256 where a authorization form is created for display on the customer's computer monitor 14b. The authorization form is created using data from the BUY button 212 and the corresponding account in database 50. At step 258, the authorization form and any necessary scripts (or other instructions) are provided to the customer's computer 14a. Referring now to FIG. 8, a typical example of an authorization form is generally designated with the reference numeral 300. The authorization form 300 may utilize several of the items included in database 50. Since a wide range of flexibility is anticipated in items overall, many different authorization forms can be created. The authorization form 300 includes a merchant logo 302 and an issuer logo 304, derived from the LOGO item in the entry in the database 50. In the present example, the merchant logo 302 is “BOOKSTORE WEBSITE” and the issuer logo 304 is “CENTRAL AIRLINES VISA.” The authorization form 300 also includes the custom greeting 306 derived from the GP item. The custom greeting 306 provides a level of comfort and familiarity to the customer 14, and also provides some assurance that the customer is indeed communicating with the authorization system 18. Since valuable information is being considered, some entities (e.g., merchants or thieves) may try to duplicate (“spoof”) the appearance of the authorization system 18 as seen by the customer 14 in performing a transaction, to thereby improperly retrieve the customer's Signature Phrase. By having the custom greeting 306, it will be difficult for the entity to duplicate the exact look of the authorization form 300. The absence of the custom greeting 306 will notify the customer 14 that something is amiss. There are additional ways to help prevent spoofing of the authorization form 300. For one, the authorization form can be provided by the authorization system 18 in GIF format, thereby making it difficult to modify its appearance. Additionally, the authorization form 300 may include instructions (e.g., text or graphical) to direct the attention of the customer 14 to check the current URL of the browser on the computer 14a. The URL should be from the authorization system 18, and not some other entity (e.g., the merchant 16 ), thereby further notifying the customer 14 when something is amiss. The authorization form 300 also includes the merchant's name 308 and total amount 310 derived from the merchant provided data MID and AMT, respectively. Furthermore, the authorization form 300 includes a date/time stamp 312 and a contract clause 314, thereby giving the authorization form the look and appearance of a conventional, paper charge slip. However, instead of executing a physical signature such as on a paper charge slip, the customer 14 executes the authorization form 300 by entering a Signature Phrase in the input 316. Since the Signature Phrase is a very confidential and personal item, it is very much like a physical signature. In another implementation, customer 14 executes the authorization form 300 by entering a PIN or other account code. In one embodiment, the authorization form 300 can include a script 320 or other calculation module. The script 320 includes the hash function to convert the Signature Phrase or account code provided by the customer 14 into a hash value. Since the script 320 is part of the authorization form 300, it resides on the customer's computer 14a. As a result, the Signature Phrase or account code itself is never transmitted over the network 12, thereby reducing the likelihood of theft. In other embodiments, the actual Signature Phrase or account code may be securely transmitted over the network 12. At step 260, the authorization process receives the Signature Phrase or account code, or hash thereof, as discussed above. In the case of an account code hash, the BUY button would have to include the actual account number in order to compute a correct hash to compare to an H3 record in the database 50. This would not be the case if the database 50 stored the actual account code. At step 262, the received data is compared with the appropriate entry of the database 50. According to the comparison, a RETURN code (such as from Table 5, above) is returned to the merchant 16. Referring again to FIG. 5, at step 158, the returned RETURN code is analyzed. If the RETURN code indicates a successful authorization (e.g., value 3 of Table 5, above), execution proceeds to step 160 where the authorization is recorded and at step 162, the transaction is completed and fulfilled according to the merchant's ( 16 ) customary credit card authorization and fulfillment processes. If at step 158 the RETURN code does not indicate a successful authorization, execution proceeds to step 164 where further action may be employed. Examples of further action may be dependent on the level of information provided to the merchant, such as may be indicated by the particular RETURN code. In the example of Table 5, RETURN codes 1, 2, and 4-11 indicate unsuccessful authorization. If the RETURN code is 1, 2, or 7, the merchant 16 may wish to operate according to conventional fraud-detection techniques. For example, the merchant 16 can review internal lists of bad accounts or use external service providers to make a decision whether to complete and fulfill the transaction accordingly. If the RETURN code is 5, the merchant 16 and/or the authorization system 18 can treat the transaction as fraudulent. The attempted transaction can be forwarded to the appropriate entities, such as the police or the account issuer, and/or the recipient(s) identified in the EMAILID (Table 1) can be informed. If the RETURN code is 6, the customer can be informed of the restriction and a new transaction can be initiated. Furthermore, proper notification to a specific entity, such as to the recipient identified in the EMAILID, can be given. If the RETURN code is 8-11, software or other correction may be required. In the interim, the merchant 16 may wish to operate according to conventional authorization and fraud-detection techniques. Transaction Certificate In some embodiments, the authorization system 18 may provide a transaction certificate to the merchant 16, the account issuer, and/or the customer 14. One goal of the certificate is to provide a self-validating record that authenticates and memorializes a specific execution of the authorization form 300 by the customer 14 for the transaction. Table 6 provides one embodiment of a certificate. TABLE 6 Item Description RETURN Table 5, above DATE/TIME An exact time and date. H1 Equation 1, above H2 Equation 2, above MID Table 4, above REF Table 4, above AMT Table 4, above H4 Hash of specific optional purchase information provided by merchant and acknowledged by customer APPCODE Approval code OTHER2 Additional data. SEQ Sequence number from the authorization system ROOT Root certificate of the authorization system SIGNATURE Digital signature from the authorization system Several of the items in the certificate of Table 6 are discussed elsewhere in the present disclosure. The RETURN code and DATE/TIME value are generated by the authorization process 250. For the utmost accuracy, an atomic clock can be used to provide the DATE/TIME value. The values H1, H2, MID, AMT, and REF may be provided by the merchant 16 to the authorization system 18. The APPCODE may be a traditional approval code, such as provided by conventional credit card authorization or fraud detection systems, and may require external systems to participate in order to obtain this code. The authorization system 18 hashes certain information included in Table 4 to generate the H4 value. In one embodiment, the H 4 value is the hash of the TD item from Table 4. Including the H4 value in the transaction certificate uniquely associates the transaction certificate to the particular transaction description. The SEQ value is a unique value given by the authorization system 18 for a specific certificate. For the sake of example, every certificate issued by the authorization system 18 may be numbered sequentially, e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . The ROOT value represents a root certificate of the authorization system 18. In one embodiment, the ROOT value includes a public encryption key for the authorization system 18, digitally signed by four separate private keys, whose corresponding public keys are known. The SIGNATURE value is a digital signature provided by the authorization system 18. The authorization system 18 produces its digital signature by using a private key that corresponds to the ROOT public encryption key (discussed above) to digitally sign the transaction certificate. The process of digitally signing is described in greater detail in the presently incorporated U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/340,853. Some or all of the items in the certificate are assembled and hashed for use in the digital signature. The digital signature thereby authenticates the transaction certificate and enables the merchant site system to confirm that the information included in the transaction certificate originated at the site and has not been tampered with during transmission. Furthermore, the combination of the SIGNATURE and ROOT values makes the transaction certificate self-validating. When the merchant 16 receives the transaction certificate, the merchant can perform a verification process to check the validity of the digital signature from the authorization system 18. Once the validity is confirmed, the merchant 16 can automatically process the transaction using conventional credit card authorization processing techniques, if applicable. If all tests pass, a record can be formatted and stored per the merchant's specifications. Conclusion The authorization system enables customers to affirmatively assert “right-of-use” for a particular account or credit card by using, in one embodiment, a Signature Phrase that is linked to the account by an affirmative activation process that uses the account issuer's specified account code for initial authentication. This, in turn, enables the merchant to complete and fulfill a transaction with a high degree of confidence that the authorizing customer is the account owner, or is at least authorized to use the account on the behalf of the owner. By establishing a Signature Phrase to authorize transactions, customers and merchants alike are more likely to use e-commerce. In some embodiments, the Signature Phrase never leaves the customer's computer, and is therefore not subject to compromise. In some embodiments where the Signature Phrase is provided to the authentication system, the Signature Phrase can be modified through a transformation function and then erased. Alternatives such as additional Signature Phrases with restriction and notification requirements provide unique flexibility while maintaining a very secure transaction. The authentication system does not require any unique customer side software for it to operate. The authentication system provides a charge slip approach to e-commerce. The transaction certificate adds further integrity to the affirmative transaction authorization. In case of a dispute between the customer and the merchant, the transaction certificate can affirmatively confirm what was authorized. Since the transaction certificate is complete and self-validating, only the transaction certificate needs to be stored at the authorization system. It is understood that modifications, changes and substitutions are intended in the foregoing disclosure and in some instances some features of the disclosure will be employed without corresponding use of other features. Furthermore, additional features may be employed without changing the operation of the present invention. For example, the authorization system may periodically check an account code and account number with a separate, commonly external authorization process. Accordingly, it is appropriate that the appended claims be construed broadly and in a manner consistent with the scope of the disclosure. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>There are many emerging trends in the communications world, including the increase in network technology and the proliferation of data networks. These trends have advanced the proliferation of e-commerce, i.e., commerce that occurs over an electronic network such as the Internet. E-commerce enables certain customers to purchase goods and services using an account number by contacting a merchant directly over the network. Common e-commerce scenarios include a person at home using a credit card to purchase a product from an on-line store over the Internet, and an employee of a corporation acting as a buyer/authorizer for acquiring resources using a company issued account number. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A centralized authorization and fraud-prevention system for network-based transactions is disclosed. In one embodiment a method for authorizing transactions comprises receiving, at a credit card authorization system, merchant information, transaction information, and a credit card number of a customer from an e-commerce merchant. An authorization form is created at the credit card authorization system that contains the transaction information and an internet browser associated with the customer is caused to display the authorization form. A signature phrase is received from the customer via the authorization form, the received signature phrase is verified that it corresponds to a signature phrase stored in a credit card account associated with the credit card number. The internet browser associated with the customer is transferred to a web site associated with the e-commerce merchant. In another embodiment, a method for authorizing transactions over a network comprises receiving, at an authorization system, account information and user node information after a user has initiated a transaction from a merchant using a network interface on a node associated with the user in communication with a node associated with the merchant, determining whether the account information corresponds to an account entry in an authorization database, creating an authorization form at the authorization system, sending the authorization form from the authorization system to the network interface on the node associated with the user as indicated by the user node information, receiving an authentication phrase from the user via the authorization form, verifying that the received authentication phrase corresponds to an authentication phrase in the account entry, and transferring the network interface of the user from the authorization system to the node associated with the merchant. In a further embodiment, a method for authorizing e-commerce transactions, comprises receiving at a central authorization facility, a first merchant information and a first user information from a first merchant for a first transaction and verifying from at least one of the first merchant information and the first user information whether signature authorization is to occur. If signature authorization is to occur, an authorization form is prepared at the central authorization facility. This embodiment also provides the authorization form to a node indicated by the first user information, receives signature authorization from the node through the authorization form, authorizes the first merchant to obtain credit authorization for the first transaction if the signature authorization corresponds to the first user information, indicates the authorization to the first merchant, and transfers an internet browser associated with the first user to a node indicated by the first merchant information. In yet another embodiment, a method for verifying the identity of a customer over a network comprises receiving, at a verification system, merchant information and customer account information after a customer has initiated a transaction from a merchant using a network interface, determining whether the customer account information corresponds to an account entry in a verification database, creating an authentication form at the verification system, causing a network interface of the user to display the authentication form, receiving an authentication phrase from the user via the authentication form as displayed to the user, verifying that the received authentication phrase corresponds to a stored authentication phrase in the account entry; and transferring the network interface of the user to a node associated with the merchant. In an additional embodiment, a method for authorizing transactions between a customer and an e-commerce merchant comprises receiving, at a credit card authorization system, e-commerce merchant information and a credit card number of a customer for a first transaction, determining whether the credit card number corresponds to a credit card account in a credit card database, creating an authorization form at the credit card authorization system for the first transaction, displaying the authorization form to the customer via an internet browser, receiving a first signature phrase from the customer indicating authorization for the first transaction, verifying that the received signature phrase corresponds to a stored signature phrase in the credit card account, and transferring the internet browser of the user to a URL associated with the e-commerce merchant. | 20041123 | 20061114 | 20050616 | 78756.0 | 3 | WORJLOH, JALATEE | CENTRALIZED AUTHORIZATION AND FRAUD-PREVENTION SYSTEM FOR NETWORK-BASED TRANSACTIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,995,049 | ACCEPTED | Electrohydrodynamic spraying system | An electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus includes a liquid inlet and a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, where the spray nozzle has an opening downstream of the liquid inlet. An inner electrode is situated at least partially inside the spray nozzle. An outer electrode is situated external to the spray nozzle and within about 100 mm of the opening of the nozzle. The electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus can be combined with a substrate to form an electrohydrodynamic spray system. The electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus or system can be used to form nanostructures such as nanodrops, nanoparticles and thin films. | 1. An electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus, comprising: a liquid inlet; a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, the spray nozzle comprising an opening downstream of the liquid inlet; an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle; and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle, and within 100 mm of the opening. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer electrode is positioned from 50 mm upstream of the opening to 30 mm downstream of the opening. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer electrode is positioned from 30 mm upstream of the opening to 20 mm downstream of the opening. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer electrode is positioned from 15 mm upstream of the opening to 15 mm downstream of the opening. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the shortest distance between the opening and the outer electrode is from 2 mm to 50 mm . 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the shortest distance between the outer electrode and the opening is from 5 mm to 45 mm . 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the shortest distance between the outer electrode and the opening is from 5 mm to 30 mm. 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer electrode is configured as an open geometrical shape. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the outer electrode comprises at least two electrode portions. 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the at least two electrode portions are electrically isolated from each other. 11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer electrode is configured as a closed geometrical shape. 12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the outer electrode is configured as a cup, ring or cone. 13. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the outer electrode has a diameter from 2 mm to 100 mm. 14. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the outer electrode has a diameter from 7 mm to 80 mm. 15. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the outer electrode has a diameter from 10 mm to 70 mm. 16. An electrohydrodynamic spray system, comprising: an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having a liquid inlet; a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, the spray nozzle comprising an opening downstream of the liquid inlet; an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle; and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle, and within 100 mm of the opening; and a substrate positioned downstream of the spray nozzle. 17. The system of claim 16, wherein the substrate is electrically grounded. 18. The system of claim 16, wherein the substrate is connected to a voltage source. 19. The system of claim 16, wherein the substrate is non-conductive. 20-30. (canceled) 31. A method of making nanostructures, comprising: introducing a liquid into a spray nozzle comprising an opening; applying a charging voltage to the liquid; forcing the liquid through the opening of the spray nozzle to form a liquid spray; applying an electric field to the liquid in close proximity to the opening of the spray nozzle; and collecting the liquid spray on a substrate. 32-58. (canceled) | BACKGROUND Electrohydrodynamic spraying has been used to process liquids into structures having sizes on the micrometer and nanometer scale. An electrohydrodynamic spraying apparatus applies a charging voltage to a liquid, resulting in an accumulation of repulsive electrostatic force within the liquid. When the repulsive electrostatic force exceeds the surface tension force, the surface of the liquid is disrupted to form small jets of liquid. These small jets then break up into streams of charged liquid clusters, which are referred to as “nanodrops” when the dimensions of the clusters are on the order of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. Typically, nanodrops produced by electrohydrodynamic spraying are directed to the surface of a substrate material, which may be neutral or which may have an electric charge opposite that of the drops. If sufficient numbers of nanodrops accumulate on the substrate, the nanodrops will tend to coalesce and form a thin film. Nanodrops containing reactive material can be subjected to reaction conditions such that the nanodrops are converted into nanoparticles. Nanodrops also may be converted into nanoparticles by directing the nanodrops into a flask containing an appropriate liquid. For example, nanodrops containing a polymer can be converted into nanoparticles if the liquid in the flask is a nonsolvent for the polymer. A specific example of electrohydrodynamic spraying is the Charged Liquid Cluster Beam (CLCB) technique. In CLCB, the electrostatic charge is injected into the liquid by a sharp, high-voltage electrode immersed in the liquid, where the liquid flows past the electrode and through a spray nozzle. The resulting nanodrops can then be directed to a substrate material. The size of the nanodrops is strongly dependent on the voltage applied to the electrode and on the flow rate of the liquid past the electrode. Modification of temperature gradients between the liquid and the spray nozzle and between the spray nozzle and the substrate can provide control over the final nanostructure formed on the substrate. Typical nanostructures include nanodrops, nanoparticles, and thin films. For thin film structures, all of these processing parameters also can be adjusted to control the morphology of the thin film, such as the size and shape of the film, the thickness of the film, and any variations or gradients in the thickness of the film. Electrohydrodynamic spraying techniques, including CLCB, typically have been limited to use with substrates having a surface area less than 10 square centimeters (cm2). The electrostatic repulsion between the liquid jets tends to configure the spray from the nozzle in the shape of a cone. If the target surface area is too large and/or if the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate is too great, the spray cone will tend to spread out and form a ring on the substrate. Electrostatic repulsion between nanodrops formed from an individual liquid jet can further contribute to the non-uniformity of the film, leading to an overall morphology of a ring made up of circular patches of nanodrops. In addition to limiting the sizes of films produced, these disadvantages can also hinder the adjustment of an electrohydrodynamic spraying apparatus to accommodate different materials or applications. For example, the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate cannot be changed without affecting the morphology of the deposited nanodrops and the resulting thin film. It is thus desirable to provide an electrohydrodynamic spraying system that can deposit a uniform thin film onto a substrate over a relatively large area. It is also desirable that such a system would be capable of adjustment so as to provide films having varying morphologies. BRIEF SUMMARY In a first embodiment of the invention, there is provided an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus, comprising a liquid inlet; a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, the spray nozzle comprising an opening downstream of the liquid inlet; an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle; and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle, and within 100 mm of the opening. In a second embodiment of the invention, there is provided an electrohydrodynamic spray system, comprising an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having a liquid inlet; a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, the spray nozzle comprising an opening downstream of the liquid inlet; an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle; and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle, and within 100 mm of the opening; and a substrate positioned downstream of the spray nozzle. In a third embodiment of the invention, there is provided a method of making nanostructures, comprising introducing a liquid into a spray nozzle comprising an opening; applying a charging voltage to the liquid; forcing the liquid through the opening of the spray nozzle to form a liquid spray; applying an electric field to the liquid in close proximity to the opening of the spray nozzle; and collecting the liquid spray on a substrate. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many of the features and dimensions portrayed in the drawings, and in particular the presentation of layer thicknesses and the like, and the spacing there between, have been somewhat exaggerated for the sake of illustration and clarity. FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a cross-sectional view of an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus; FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of an end view of the apparatus of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a spray nozzle; FIGS. 4A-4E are schematic illustrations of an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus, illustrating exemplary configurations of the outer electrode; FIGS. 5A-5E are schematic illustrations of an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus, illustrating exemplary configurations of the outer electrode; FIG. 6 is a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrograph of a polymeric thin film on a substrate; FIG. 7 is an SEM micrograph of a polymeric thin film on a substrate; FIG. 8 is an optical micrograph of a patterned thin film of nanoparticles on a substrate; FIG. 9 is an SEM micrograph of the film of FIG. 8; FIG. 10 is a schematic illustration of a cross-sectional view of an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus; and FIG. 11 is a schematic illustration of an electrohydrodynamic spray system containing two spray apparatus operating at opposite polarities. DETAILED DESCRIPTION An electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus includes a liquid inlet, a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, an inner electrode, and an outer electrode. The spray nozzle has an opening through which a liquid, introduced through the liquid inlet, is sprayed. The inner electrode is at least partially inside the spray nozzle, and the outer electrode is external to the spray nozzle, within about 100 millimeters (mm) of the opening. The electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus can provide a thin film having a uniform thickness over a large area. In a first aspect of the invention, an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus includes a liquid inlet, a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle, and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle. The spray nozzle has an opening downstream of the liquid inlet, and the outer electrode is positioned within 100 mm of the opening. In a second aspect of the invention, an electrohydrodynamic spray system includes an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus and a substrate. The electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus has a liquid inlet, a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle, and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle. The spray nozzle has an opening downstream of the liquid inlet, and the outer electrode is positioned within about 100 mm of the opening. The substrate is positioned downstream of the spray nozzle. In a third aspect of the invention, a method of making nanostructures includes introducing a liquid into a spray nozzle having an opening, applying a charging voltage to the liquid, forcing the liquid through the opening of the spray nozzle to form a liquid spray, applying an electric field to the liquid in close proximity to the opening of the spray nozzle, and collecting the liquid spray on a substrate. An example of an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus is shown schematically in FIGS. 1-2. Spray nozzle 100 is in fluid communication with liquid inlet 102, to allow a liquid to be fed through the opening 104 and onto substrate 106. An inner electrode 110 is at least partially inside the spray nozzle and is connected to a first voltage source 112. An outer electrode 120 is external to the spray nozzle and is connected to a second voltage source 122. Application of the appropriate voltages to the inner and outer electrodes produces a spray of nanodrops from the nozzle onto the substrate. The nozzle 100 may have any enclosed shape, provided there is an opening for the liquid inlet and an opening for the release of the liquid. In one example, the nozzle 100 is a simple tube. In another example, the nozzle 100 may have a reducing region 103 near the opening 104, with a tube 105 between the reducing region and the liquid inlet. The nozzle may be made of an electrically insulating material such as a polymer, glass or ceramic. The nozzle may also be made of a metal, which may be desirable for spraying at elevated temperatures. The nozzle opening 104 may be substantially circular, or it may have other shapes. For example, the nozzle opening may be in the shape of an oval, a polygon (with sharp or rounded corners), or a slit. The size of the opening may be as small as possible, provided the liquid does not clog the opening. Practically, a lower limit on the size of the opening will be affected by the viscosity of the liquid, as liquids with higher viscosities will require larger openings in order to be sprayed at an acceptable flow rate. For a substantially circular opening, the inner diameter of the nozzle tube may be less than about 2.0 mm, preferably is from about 0.3 mm to about 2.0 mm, and more preferably is from about 0.4 mm to about 1.0 mm. If no reducing region is present, the inner diameter of the tube defines the size of the nozzle opening. The diameter of the opening in the optional reducing portion may be less than about 0.5 mm, preferably is from about 0.01 mm to about 0.5 mm, and more preferably is from about 0.10 mm to about 0.30 mm. The inner electrode 110 may be any electrode capable of delivering charge to the liquid flowing through the spray apparatus. Preferably, the inner electrode is a solid conductive needle having a sharp point at the end 114. The inner electrode material may be any electrically conducting material and preferably is a metal. Specific examples of inner electrode materials include platinum, steel or tungsten. Preferably the maximum diameter of the inner electrode is less than half the diameter of the nozzle tube. Preferably the point at the end of the inner electrode has a diameter less than about 5 microns. When sufficient voltage is applied to the inner electrode, the inner electrode serves as a continuous supply of field injection charge. This field injection charge causes the liquid present in the spray nozzle to become charged. The field injection likely occurs at the tip of the inner electrode, since a strong electric field can result from the small radius of curvature of the tip and the high voltage applied to the tip, typically about 10-20 kV. The charged liquid thus emerges from the opening of the nozzle in the form of a spray. Referring to FIG. 3, the end 114 of the inner electrode may have different positions relative to the opening 104 of the nozzle. For example, the end of the inner electrode may be positioned at the nozzle opening, at position 150. In another example, the end of the inner electrode may be positioned upstream of the nozzle opening, at position 160, such that the inner electrode is completely inside the nozzle. In another example, the end of the inner electrode may be positioned downstream from the nozzle opening, at position 170, such that the end of the inner electrode protrudes outside of the nozzle. The inner electrode may be positioned along the axis 101 of the nozzle, it may be positioned parallel to the axis of the nozzle, or it may be positioned at an angle relative to the axis of the nozzle. Preferably, the inner electrode is positioned along the axis of the nozzle. Inner electrodes positioned completely inside the spray nozzle typically have longer lifetimes than inner electrodes that protrude past the opening. The optimal position for the inner electrode relative to the nozzle opening may depend on the properties of the liquid to be sprayed. Preferably, the end of the inner electrode is completely inside the nozzle and is from about 0 mm to about 10 mm from the nozzle opening. More preferably, the end of the inner electrode is completely inside the nozzle and is from about 0.5 mm to about 7.0 mm from the nozzle opening, more preferably from about 1.5 mm to about 4.0 mm from the nozzle opening. The outer electrode 120 may be any electrode capable of applying an electric field to an area in close proximity to the opening of the spray nozzle. The outer electrode is electrically isolated from the inner electrode. The outer electrode material may be any electrically conducting material and preferably is a metal, such as platinum, steel or tungsten. The characteristics of the outer electrode can affect the uniformity of the spray produced. Examples of these characteristics include the shape, position, orientation, and size of the second electrode. The outer electrode may be configured as any closed or open geometrical shape, examples of which are illustrated in FIGS. 4A-4E and FIGS. 5A-5E. Possible configurations include, but are not limited to, a cup (FIG. 4A), a cone (FIG. 4B) a ring such as a circular ring (FIG. 4C) or an elliptical ring (FIG. 4D), a square (FIG. 4E), a semicircle (FIG. 5A), a line (FIG. 5B), or a point (FIG. 5C). The outer electrode may also be made of two or more separate electrode portions, which may be at the same voltage or at different voltages. For example, the outer electrode may be configured as two or more semicircles (FIG. 5D) or as two or more lines (FIG. 5E). Thus, the outer electrode may be configured in a closed geometrical shape (FIGS. 4A-4E) or in an open geometrical shape (FIGS. 5A-5E). For ease of description, the outer electrode is illustrated in the other Figures herein as a circular ring; however, any of the spray nozzles described may be used with a non-circular outer electrode. Referring again to FIG. 3, the outer electrode 120 may have different positions relative to the opening 104 of the nozzle. For example, the outer electrode may be positioned at the nozzle opening, at position 150. In another example, the outer electrode may be positioned before the nozzle opening, at position 160. In another example, the outer electrode may be positioned past the nozzle opening, at position 170. The outer electrode may be oriented such that the nozzle axis 101 is normal to the plane 180 of the outer electrode, or it may be oriented such that the nozzle axis is at an angle relative to the plane of the outer electrode. The outer electrode may also be non-planar. Since the outer electrode may be positioned downstream from the opening of the spray nozzle, it is possible that some spray loss may occur due to liquid impinging on the electrode. Thus, it may be desirable to minimize the thickness of the electrode. The outer electrode may be as thin as possible, provided the electrode can maintain its shape. The shape and orientation of the outer electrode, among other parameters, can affect the symmetry of the spray produced by the apparatus. The more symmetrical the shape of the electrode, the more symmetrical will be the spray. For a symmetrically shaped outer electrode, the closer the nozzle axis is to a normal orientation relative to the plane of the electrode, the more symmetrical will be the spray. An outer electrode that is asymmetrically shaped and/or tilted with respect to the nozzle axis can be used to provide an asymmetric spray, which may be desirable in some applications. With respect to the size of the outer electrode, the longest distance from one side of an outer electrode to another side of the outer electrode may be up to about 100 mm. For an outer electrode in the shape of a circular ring, cup or cone, this distance corresponds to the diameter of the electrode. The outer electrode may be as small as is allowed by the nozzle configuration. For example, if the outer electrode is upstream of the nozzle opening, the lower limit of the size of the outer electrode is determined by the outer diameter of the nozzle. Preferably the longest distance from one side of an outer electrode to another side of the outer electrode is from about 2 mm to about 100 mm, more preferably from about 7 mm to about 80 mm, more preferably from about 10 mm to about 70 mm. Smaller dimensions for the outer electrode are desirable when multiple spray nozzles are used in combination, such as for large area spraying. For multiple spray nozzle systems, the size of the outer electrode is limited by the distance between adjacent nozzles. The outer electrodes in a multiple nozzle system may be electrically isolated, or they may be in electrical communication with each other. In one example, a single conducting plate, with holes sized and positioned to coordinate with the spray nozzles, can be used as the outer electrode. In this example, each hole functions as the outer electrode for its corresponding spray nozzle. The position of the outer electrode relative to the nozzle can be quantified based on the distance from the electrode to the nozzle opening. For a circular ring, cup or cone outer electrode, the electrode may be upstream of the nozzle opening preferably by a distance of about 60% or less of the ring diameter, and may be downstream of the nozzle opening preferably by a distance of about 35% or less of the ring diameter. Preferably, the electrode is spaced from the nozzle opening, whether upstream or downstream, by a distance of about 20% or less of the ring diameter. For a cup, cone or ring electrode having a diameter from about 2 mm to about 100 mm, this position range approximately corresponds to a range of from about 50 mm upstream to about 30 mm downstream of the nozzle opening; preferably from about 30 mm upstream to about 20 mm downstream of the nozzle opening; more preferably from about 15 mm upstream to about 15 mm downstream. Practically, if the outer electrode is too far upstream, it will have minimal influence on the quality of the spray; and if the outer electrode is too far downstream, it will partially block the path of the spray and lead to spray loss. One characteristic of the outer electrode that depends both on the size of the electrode and its position relative to the spray nozzle is the characteristic of the shortest distance between the outer electrode and the nozzle opening. The outer electrode is sized, positioned and oriented such that the electrode is less than about 100 mm from the nozzle opening. Preferably, the shortest distance between the opening and the outer electrode is from about 2 mm to about 50 mm . More preferably, the shortest distance between the opening and the outer electrode is from about 5 mm to about 45 mm; more preferably still from about 5 mm to about 30 mm. The substrate 106 may be any material that can support the deposited nanodrops, nanoparticles, or thin film. The substrate may be electrically conductive, and may be grounded or held at an electric potential. An electrically grounded substrate can provide for dissipation of the charge on the deposited nanodrops. The substrate can also be connected to a voltage source. For example, if the substrate is held at a voltage that is of opposite polarity relative to the voltage of the inner and outer electrodes, the deposited nanodrops can be neutralized upon contact with the substrate. In some cases, it may be desirable for the substrate to have an opposite polarity relative to the inner and outer electrodes, as this can reduce the loss of spray to the areas surrounding the substrate. The substrate also may be non-conductive. For non-conductive substrates, the polarity of the charge of the nanodrops may be alternated from positive to negative during the spraying and deposition process, so as to allow for continued deposition of nanodrops on the substrate. The spray apparatus and the substrate may be moveably positioned relative to each other, and the distance between the spray apparatus and the substrate can be varied widely. For a given set of spray conditions, including the configuration of the spray apparatus, the composition of the liquid, and the voltages applied to the inner and outer electrodes, the distance between the spray apparatus and the substrate can be adjusted to optimize the structure of the deposited spray. For covering larger areas with a spray of nanodrops, a larger distance between the spray apparatus and the substrate may be desirable. Preferably, the distance between the nozzle opening of the spray apparatus and the substrate is from about 5 centimeters (cm) to about 60 cm. More preferably, the distance between the nozzle opening of the spray apparatus and the substrate is from about 5 cm to about 40 cm, and even more preferably is from about 10 cm to about 30 cm. The spray apparatus may have a variety of orientations relative to the substrate. For example, the substrate may be substantially horizontal, and the spray apparatus may be above the substrate and in a substantially vertical orientation. In another example, the substrate may be substantially horizontal, and the spray apparatus may be above the substrate and oriented at an angle that is not normal to the plane of the substrate. In another example, the spray apparatus may be positioned below the substrate, and may be normal or tilted with respect to the plane of the substrate. In another example, the substrate may be in a non-horizontal orientation, including a vertical orientation. Within this example, the spray apparatus may be normal or may be tilted with respect to the plane of the substrate. The liquid used in the electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus can be any liquid capable of being sprayed and also capable of being charged by an immersed electrode. The liquid may be a single substance, or it may be a mixture of substances, such as a solution, a colloid, or a dispersion. Liquid mixtures typically include a solvent and one or more other substances dissolved or dispersed in the solvent. More than one solvent may be present in addition to the dissolved or dispersed substance. Examples of common solvents include water, methanol, ethanol, acetone, isopropanol, chloroform, toluene, xylene, and tetrahydrofuran. Electrohydrodynamic spraying may be used to form nanostructures of a substance that is dissolved or suspended in the solvent. For example, a liquid containing a solvent and a polymer dissolved or dispersed in the solvent can be sprayed onto a substrate to form a film of the polymer. In another example, a liquid containing a solvent, a dissolved or dispersed polymer, and a particulate substance can be sprayed onto a substrate to form a polymeric film containing a uniform distribution of the particulate substance. Examples of particulate substances include particles of metals, semiconductors, catalysts, and bioactive agents. Electrohydrodynamic spraying also may be used to form nanostructures of reaction products of one or more substances that are dissolved or suspended in the solvent. For example, a liquid containing a solvent and one or more reactants dissolved or dispersed in the liquid can be sprayed onto a substrate and subjected to appropriate reaction conditions. Examples of reactants useful for preparing structures of metallic or inorganic substances include the metal-trifluoroacetates, metal-ethoxides, and silicon tetraethoxide as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,344,676, which is incorporated herein by reference. The electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having both an inner electrode and an outer electrode can be used to produce a substantially uniform spray of liquid nanodrops. When the inner electrode is electrically neutral, liquid introduced into the liquid inlet preferably does not flow through the opening of the nozzle, due to the surface tension of the liquid. Application of sufficient voltage to the inner electrode can inject charge into the liquid, causing the charged liquid to spray out of the nozzle opening. Application of an appropriate voltage to the outer electrode can provide for a uniform spray of nanodrops on the substrate. The voltages applied to the inner and outer electrode can be selected based on considerations such as the configuration of the spray apparatus and substrate, the type of material used for the substrate, the composition of the liquid, and the desired application for the nanostructures and/or the coated substrate. Preferably, the value of the voltage applied to the outer electrode is between the value of the voltage applied to the inner electrode and the value of the voltage applied to the substrate. Examples of combinations of voltages include the following: inner electrode at 20 kV, outer electrode at 10 kV, and substrate at 0 V; inner electrode at 10 kV, outer electrode at 0 V, and substrate at −10 kV; inner electrode at 5 kV, outer electrode at −6 kV, and substrate at −15 V; inner electrode at −5 kV, outer electrode at 6 kV, and substrate at 15 V; inner electrode at −10 kV, outer electrode at 0 V, and substrate at 10 kV; and inner electrode at −20 kV, outer electrode at −10 kV, and substrate at 0 V. For a given voltage applied to the inner electrode, the voltage applied to the outer electrode can be varied until the spray and/or the nanostructure(s) on the substrate have the desired distribution and dimensions. Likewise, the voltage applied to the outer electrode can be held constant, and the voltage applied to the inner electrode can be varied to optimize the process. The applied voltage can have negative or positive polarity. The inner and outer electrodes may have the same polarity of applied voltage, or they may have opposite polarities. Preferably the inner and outer electrodes have the same polarity of the applied voltage. The electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having both an inner electrode and an outer electrode can provide a spray of nanodrops that is more uniform than that produced by an equivalent electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having only an inner electrode. This increased uniformity can allow for large areas to be covered with a more uniform distribution of nanodrops. Single-electrode spray apparatus having only an inner electrode typically have been limited to use with substrates having a surface area less than 10 cm2, since the spray tends to form a ring on the substrate rather than a uniformly coated area. Large area substrates can be covered with a uniform distribution of nanodrops by moving the spray apparatus and substrate with respect to each other. Thus, the spray can be continually applied to an area of the substrate that has not yet been contacted with nanodrops. The spray uniformity may be improved further by rotating and/or oscillating the spray apparatus with respect to the substrate. The relative motion of the spray apparatus and the substrate can be accomplished by moving the spray apparatus, moving the substrate, or by moving both the spray apparatus and the substrate at the same time. The rotation and/or oscillation can serve to average out any slight non-uniformity in the spray, so that the overall distribution is uniform. The spray uniformity may also be improved further by employing multiple spray apparatus, and these multiple spray apparatus can be rotated and/or oscillated with respect to the substrate. Non-conducting substrates and electrically floating substrates may also be covered with a uniform distribution of nanodrops. For example, both positively and negatively charged nanodrops can be applied, either simultaneously or in alternating sequence. In one example, a combination of one or more spray apparatus producing positively charged nanodrops can be combined with one or more spray apparatus producing negatively charged nanodrops. Such a configuration is especially suited for uniformly coating substrates that have azimuthal symmetry. The rotation and/or oscillation of the substrate with respect to the spray apparatus can serve to maintain the charge neutrality in case of non-conducting substrates. Such a rotation and/or oscillation may also serve to average out any slight non-uniformity in the spray. In another example, the voltages applied to a spray apparatus can be alternated between positive and negative polarity. In this configuration, the inner and outer electrodes can have the same or opposite polarities initially, and then these respective polarities can be simultaneously alternated. For example, one or more spray apparatus can be configured such that the inner electrodes and outer electrodes are all positive initially and are then simultaneously cycled between positive and negative polarity. Also, a spray apparatus may initially have a positive inner electrode and a negative outer electrode, and these can be simultaneously reversed such that the inner electrode is negative and the outer electrode is positive. In another example, charge neutrality can be maintained by rotating and/or oscillating one or more spray apparatus of one polarity with respect to one or more spray apparatus of the opposite polarity. In yet another example, one or more spray apparatus of one polarity can be can be positioned on the opposite side of the substrate from one or more spray apparatus of the opposite polarity. As shown in FIG. 11, spray apparatus 300, having one polarity, and spray apparatus 400, having the opposite polarity, are on opposite sides of substrate 306. Preferably the voltages of the electrodes are either 310>320>420>410 or 410>420>320>310. The substrate is downstream of each of the spray apparatus. The substrate can be rotated about axis 350, such that substrate surface 308 is contacted by liquid sprays having charges of opposite polarity in alternating succession. FIGS. 6 and 7 are scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of polymeric thin films on a substrate. These films were produced by spraying a mixture of a polymer blend in a solvent with an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having an inner electrode and an outer electrode. The thin films were deposited over areas of 5 cm ×5 cm. The average thickness of each film was 100 nm, with a thickness variation over the entire film of 15%. The two-electrode apparatus is also much more versatile than a single-electrode apparatus, since the properties of the spray can be adjusted by changing the voltages applied to the inner and/or outer electrodes and/or by changing the difference between these two applied voltages. Thus, a two-electrode apparatus can be used with a variety of different liquids and a variety of substrates, and can be configured to provide nanostructures for a variety of applications. These variations can be accommodated by changing the voltages in the inner and/or outer electrodes. These variations can also be accommodated by changing the configuration of an electrode with respect to the spray nozzle and/or with respect to the other electrode. These variations can also be accommodated by changing the configuration of the spray apparatus with respect to the substrate. A number of parameters of the electrohydrodynamic spray system can be changed in order to optimize the properties of the spray and of the resulting nanostructures. As noted above, the configurations of the electrodes, spray nozzle and substrate can all be adjusted readily, as can the electrical potential of the electrodes and the substrate. Additional parameters that can be adjusted include the composition of the liquid, the temperature, and the chemical composition of the atmosphere surrounding the spray system. The composition of the sprayed liquid can be varied to produce products including thin films, solid nanoparticles, porous nanoparticles, nanowires, and nanofibers. Solid nanoparticles may be obtained by allowing the solvent to evaporate before the spray contacts the substrate. This can be achieved, for example, by spraying in a high temperature environment and/or by increasing the distance between the spray apparatus and the substrate. In addition, solvents having a lower boiling point will evaporate more rapidly in a given environment. Nanoparticles can be porous or non-porous, and this morphology can be changed by modifying the concentration and type of solvent in the liquid. In general, more rapid evaporation of the solvent provides a more porous nanoparticle, so that porous particles are provided by using lower boiling solvents and/or lower concentration of solvent in the liquid. Higher temperatures can also provide for more porous nanoparticles. Dense nanoparticles can be obtained by solvent evaporation that is slower, but that is still complete before the spray contacts the substrate. Solid thin films may be obtained by allowing some level of solvent to be present in the spray when the nanodrops contact the substrate. The presence of solvent can allow the nanodrops to coalesce, forming a continuous layer of material on the substrate. Evaporation of the solvent from the layer provides a solid thin film. More rapid evaporation tends to provide for films that are less dense or even porous. As with the formation of nanoparticles, evaporation is more rapid with lower boiling solvents and higher temperatures. The temperature of the substrate, in addition to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, can be adjusted so as to control the evaporation. Structures such as nanowires or nanofibers can be formed if the spray that contacts the substrate has a high viscosity, inhibiting its spread across the surface. This high viscosity may exist in the liquid as it is fed into the system. This high viscosity may also be provided by an increase in the viscosity of the liquid after it has been sprayed. For example, evaporation of solvent and/or chemical reaction within the nanodrops can cause an increase in the viscosity of the liquid between the spray nozzle and the substrate. In addition to controlling evaporation rates, the temperature of the electrohydrodynamic spray system can change other properties of the spray and the resulting nanostructures. For example, the temperature of the liquid before it is sprayed can affect the properties of the liquid, including surface tension, viscosity, dielectric constant and conductivity. Modification of the liquid temperature can allow the use of liquids that could not be sprayed at ambient conditions. The environmental temperature surrounding the spray can also be controlled so as to allow chemical reactions to occur within the nanodrops. Chemical reactions can occur between components in the liquid, and can optionally include gaseous reactants present in the environment. The nanodrops may also undergo chemical reactions once they are on the substrate, and these reactions can be affected by the temperature of the substrate. Temperature gradients between the spray apparatus and the substrate can also be used to provide control over evaporation, chemical reactions, and the fluid properties of the liquid. The chemical composition of the atmosphere surrounding the spray can affect the spray and the resulting nanostructures. For example, the atmosphere may contain gaseous reactants, such as oxygen, ozone, nitrogen, or HCl. A gaseous reactant can react with substances in the liquid to form the final product forming the nanostructure. In this example, the reaction rate may be controlled by changing the partial pressure of the gaseous reactant. In another example, the atmosphere may contain a vapor of one or more solvents present in the liquid, so as to reduce the rate of evaporation from the nanodrops. In yet another example, a partial vacuum may be used to increase the rate of evaporation from the nanodrops. In yet another example, the atmosphere may be modified to allow higher voltages without electrical breakdown and arcing in the atmosphere. Chemical reactions within liquid nanodrops can also occur due to interaction of the nanodrop with another liquid or with a solid. For example, two or more different liquids may be sprayed toward the same substrate. The ingredients in these liquids can interact due to collisions of the nanodrops, or by mixing of the liquids once the nanodrops are on the subsbtrate. If two different liquids are used, the rate of collision of the nanodrops, and the resultant mixing or reacting of the ingredients, can be increased by imparting opposite polarities on the two sprays. In another example, the ingredients in the liquid may react with the substrate itself and/or with a substance that is present on the substrate. Patterns of nanostructures can be formed using the electrohydrodynamic spray system having an inner electrode and an outer electrode. A mask can be positioned between the spray apparatus and the substrate to prevent the deposition of nanodrops in the areas of the substrate covered by the mask. The resolution of the pattern can be affected by changing the distance between the mask and the substrate and/or by applying a voltage to the mask. The mask and the substrate can be held at the same electrical potential or at different electrical potentials. Thus, the dimensions of a pattern can be changed by using a single mask and varying the spray conditions. In one example, an array of pixels can be formed on a substrate, such as could be useful for a display device. Wire masks made of stainless steel, tungsten, carbon fiber, or any other tough, corrosion resistant material may be useful for forming patterns of nanodrops. The mask may be made of a conducting or a non-conducting material. A wire mask can be made by stretching out an array of wire across a rigid frame, and then maintaining the tension on the wire. Parallel wires can serve as masks for line patterns as thin as 1 micron. Placing two sets of parallel wires at 90° can provide a pattern of rectangles, which can serve as an excellent mask for in-situ deposition of pixel layers in display devices. Examples of patterned films on a substrate are shown in the optical micrograph of FIG. 8 and the SEM micrograph of FIG. 9. These films were produced by spraying a mixture of a polymer blend in a solvent with an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having an inner electrode and an outer electrode. A wire mask having two sets of parallel wires at 90° was placed between the spray apparatus and the substrate. EXAMPLES Example 1 Two-Electrode Spray Apparatus An electrohydrodynamic spraying system was constructed having a spray nozzle, an inner electrode, an outer electrode, and a substrate. The spray nozzle contained a liquid inlet and a tubular polypropylene portion. The substrate was positioned normal to the spray nozzle, and at a distance of 200 mm from the nozzle opening. Referring to FIG. 10, the inner diameter of the polypropylene tube 205 at its opening 206 downstream of the liquid inlet was 0.6 mm. At this downstream opening, a tubular, reducing glass insert 203 was stationed inside the polypropylene tube. The inner diameter of the reducing insert was 0.14 mm, and the length of the insert was 2 mm, with 1 mm of the insert in contact with the inner surface of the main tube. The downstream opening 204 of the reducing insert served as the opening for the nozzle 200. The inner electrode 210 was a tungsten needle, having a diameter of 125 microns and having a point 211 with a diameter of less than 1 micron. The point of the inner electrode was 3 mm upstream of the downstream opening of the reducing insert. The outer electrode 220 was in the shape of a cup having a diameter of 9 mm and a thickness of 1.6 mm. The distance between the downstream rim 222 of the cup and the nozzle opening was a variable parameter. Example 2 Variation of Voltage on Inner and Outer Electrodes An electrohydrodynamic spraying system was used to spray a liquid mixture on a substrate. The liquid mixture contained a polymer mixture and a solvent mixture. The polymer mixture was a 1:20 blend of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and poly(styrenesulfonate), suspended in water at a 2.85 wt % solids content, available as BAYTRON P VP CH8000 (H.C. Starck; Newton, Mass.). The solvent mixture was 20:1 isopropyl alcohol and diethylene glycol, and the polymer was mixed with the solvent mixture for an overall composition of 1:20:1 of polymer mixture, isopropyl alcohol, and diethylene glycol. The liquid was passed through an electrohydrodynamic spray nozzle at a rate of 20 microliters per minute. The electrohydrodynamic spraying system was similar to that described in Example 1, except that the outer electrode was a ring having a diameter of 51 mm. The outer electrode was positioned 7.5 mm downstream of the nozzle opening. The substrate was a grounded metal plate. A number of spray conditions were examined using this spraying system. In each investigation, the applied voltage was held constant on the outer electrode, and the applied voltage was then varied on the inner electrode. For an applied voltage of 10 kV on the outer electrode, a voltage on the inner electrode from 13.5-22 kV provided a stable spray and a uniform distribution of the spray on the substrate. For an applied voltage of 12.5 kV on the outer electrode, a voltage on the inner electrode from 15.5-25 kV provided a stable spray and a uniform distribution of the spray on the substrate. For an applied voltage of 15 kV on the outer electrode, a voltage on the inner electrode from 18-27 kV provided a stable spray and a uniform distribution of the spray on the substrate. For an applied voltage of 17.5 kV on the outer electrode, a voltage on the inner electrode from 20-29 kV provided a stable spray and a uniform distribution of the spray on the substrate. For an applied voltage of 20 kV on the outer electrode, a voltage on the inner electrode from 22.5-30 kV provided a stable spray and a uniform distribution of the spray on the substrate. Example 3 Formation of Thin Film An electrohydrodynamic spraying system was used to spray a liquid mixture on a substrate. The liquid mixture was identical to that used in Example 2. The liquid was passed through an electrohydrodynamic spray nozzle at a rate of 20 microliters per minute. The electrohydrodynamic spraying system was identical to that described in Example 1. The substrate was indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass. A voltage of 20 kV was applied to the inner electrode, and a voltage of 12 kV was applied to the outer electrode. FIG. 6 shows an SEM micrograph of a polymer film on the substrate, observed at an angle of 45 degrees. This film was deposited by spraying the liquid for 75 minutes. The outer electrode was positioned completely upstream of the nozzle opening, such that the distance between the downstream rim of the cup and the nozzle opening was 5.5 mm. FIG. 7 shows an SEM micrograph of a polymer film on the substrate, observed at an angle of 45 degrees. This film was deposited by spraying the liquid for 50 minutes. The outer electrode was positioned completely upstream of the nozzle opening, such that the distance between the downstream rim of the cup and the nozzle opening was 6.5 mm. Example 4 Formation of Patterns An electrohydrodynamic spraying system was used to spray a liquid mixture on a substrate, where a mask was positioned between the spray apparatus and the substrate. The liquid mixture was identical to that used in Example 2, except that no diethylene glycol was present. The liquid was passed through an electrohydrodynamic spray nozzle at a rate of 20 microliters per minute. The electrohydrodynamic spraying system was identical to that described in Example 1. The substrate was indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass. A voltage of 20 kV was applied to the inner electrode, and a voltage of 12 kV was applied to the outer electrode. The mask was a wire mask having two sets of parallel wires at 90°. FIG. 8 shows an optical micrograph of a patterned film of polymer nanoparticles on the substrate, observed normal to the substrate. This film was deposited by spraying the liquid for 75 minutes. The outer electrode was positioned completely upstream of the nozzle opening, such that the distance between the downstream rim of the cup and the nozzle opening was 5.5 mm. FIG. 9 shows an SEM micrograph of the same patterned polymer film, observed normal to the substrate. It is therefore intended that the foregoing detailed description be regarded as illustrative rather than limiting, and that it be understood that it is the following claims, including all equivalents, that are intended to define the spirit and scope of this invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Electrohydrodynamic spraying has been used to process liquids into structures having sizes on the micrometer and nanometer scale. An electrohydrodynamic spraying apparatus applies a charging voltage to a liquid, resulting in an accumulation of repulsive electrostatic force within the liquid. When the repulsive electrostatic force exceeds the surface tension force, the surface of the liquid is disrupted to form small jets of liquid. These small jets then break up into streams of charged liquid clusters, which are referred to as “nanodrops” when the dimensions of the clusters are on the order of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. Typically, nanodrops produced by electrohydrodynamic spraying are directed to the surface of a substrate material, which may be neutral or which may have an electric charge opposite that of the drops. If sufficient numbers of nanodrops accumulate on the substrate, the nanodrops will tend to coalesce and form a thin film. Nanodrops containing reactive material can be subjected to reaction conditions such that the nanodrops are converted into nanoparticles. Nanodrops also may be converted into nanoparticles by directing the nanodrops into a flask containing an appropriate liquid. For example, nanodrops containing a polymer can be converted into nanoparticles if the liquid in the flask is a nonsolvent for the polymer. A specific example of electrohydrodynamic spraying is the Charged Liquid Cluster Beam (CLCB) technique. In CLCB, the electrostatic charge is injected into the liquid by a sharp, high-voltage electrode immersed in the liquid, where the liquid flows past the electrode and through a spray nozzle. The resulting nanodrops can then be directed to a substrate material. The size of the nanodrops is strongly dependent on the voltage applied to the electrode and on the flow rate of the liquid past the electrode. Modification of temperature gradients between the liquid and the spray nozzle and between the spray nozzle and the substrate can provide control over the final nanostructure formed on the substrate. Typical nanostructures include nanodrops, nanoparticles, and thin films. For thin film structures, all of these processing parameters also can be adjusted to control the morphology of the thin film, such as the size and shape of the film, the thickness of the film, and any variations or gradients in the thickness of the film. Electrohydrodynamic spraying techniques, including CLCB, typically have been limited to use with substrates having a surface area less than 10 square centimeters (cm 2 ). The electrostatic repulsion between the liquid jets tends to configure the spray from the nozzle in the shape of a cone. If the target surface area is too large and/or if the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate is too great, the spray cone will tend to spread out and form a ring on the substrate. Electrostatic repulsion between nanodrops formed from an individual liquid jet can further contribute to the non-uniformity of the film, leading to an overall morphology of a ring made up of circular patches of nanodrops. In addition to limiting the sizes of films produced, these disadvantages can also hinder the adjustment of an electrohydrodynamic spraying apparatus to accommodate different materials or applications. For example, the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate cannot be changed without affecting the morphology of the deposited nanodrops and the resulting thin film. It is thus desirable to provide an electrohydrodynamic spraying system that can deposit a uniform thin film onto a substrate over a relatively large area. It is also desirable that such a system would be capable of adjustment so as to provide films having varying morphologies. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>In a first embodiment of the invention, there is provided an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus, comprising a liquid inlet; a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, the spray nozzle comprising an opening downstream of the liquid inlet; an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle; and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle, and within 100 mm of the opening. In a second embodiment of the invention, there is provided an electrohydrodynamic spray system, comprising an electrohydrodynamic spray apparatus having a liquid inlet; a spray nozzle in fluid communication with the liquid inlet, the spray nozzle comprising an opening downstream of the liquid inlet; an inner electrode at least partially inside the spray nozzle; and an outer electrode external to the spray nozzle, and within 100 mm of the opening; and a substrate positioned downstream of the spray nozzle. In a third embodiment of the invention, there is provided a method of making nanostructures, comprising introducing a liquid into a spray nozzle comprising an opening; applying a charging voltage to the liquid; forcing the liquid through the opening of the spray nozzle to form a liquid spray; applying an electric field to the liquid in close proximity to the opening of the spray nozzle; and collecting the liquid spray on a substrate. | 20041122 | 20100706 | 20060525 | 96620.0 | B05C500 | 0 | TADESSE, YEWEBDAR T | ELECTROHYDRODYNAMIC SPRAYING SYSTEM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | B05C | 2,004 |
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10,995,159 | ACCEPTED | Network system extensible by users | In one aspect, a network system includes a user interface which allows a user to interact with the network system. An agent server is coupled to the user interface. The agent server manages the operation of the network system. Furthermore, the agent server in conjunction with the user interface is operable to create or modify an agent in response to interaction by the user. In another aspect, a network system includes an agent server which manages the operation of the network system. An agent is operable to utilize a service within the network system. A service wrapper, associated with the service, cooperates with the agent server to mediate interaction between the service and the agent. | 1-76. (canceled) 77. A system for performing user customized network-based operations, comprising: an agent associated with a user, wherein the agent is configured to perform an operation on behalf of the user; and an agent server coupled to the agent and coupled to the user via a network communications link, wherein the agent server manages the execution of the operation by the agent, wherein the agent is operable to use a service and a service resource associated with the service when performing the operation on behalf of the user. 78. The system of claim 77, further comprising a service wrapper associated with the service, wherein the service wrapper is configured to mediate the interaction between the service and the agent. 79. The system of claim 77 wherein the network communications link is a communications link in a public-switched communications network. 80. The system of claim 77, wherein the agent server comprises: an engine, wherein the engine is configured to control the operation of the agent server; a scheduler coupled to the engine, wherein the scheduler is configured to trigger the execution of the agent upon occurrence of one or more events; and an agent object coupled to the agent, wherein the agent object includes data and executable instructions associated with the agent. 81. The system of claim 80, wherein the agent object comprises: a permission associated with the agent; and an event handler, wherein the event handler includes data and executable instructions for directing the operation of the engine upon the occurrence of the one or more events. 82. The system of claim 81, wherein the permission is a computational permission defining one or more computational resources that the agent is permitted to use. 83. The system of claim 82, wherein the computational permission further defines the extent to which the agent is permitted to use the one or more computational resources. 84. The system of claim 81, wherein the permission is a service permission defining one or more services that the agent is permitted to use. 85. The system of claim 84, wherein the service permission further defines the extent to which the agent is permitted to use the one or more services. 86. A system for performing user customized network-based operations, comprising: means for allowing a user to create a network-based agent associated with the user, wherein the network-based agent is configured to perform an operation on behalf of the user; means for invoking the execution of the network-based agent on the occurrence of an event; means for using a service and a service resource when performing the operation on behalf of the user; and means for communicating the result of the operation to the user over a network communications link. 87. The system of claim 86, wherein the network communications link is a communications link in a public-switched communications network. 88. The system of claim 87, further comprising: means for mediating the interaction between the means for using the service and the service. 89. The system of claim 88, wherein the means for mediating comprises: means for monitoring the amount of the service resource used by the network-based agent. 90. The system of claim 89, wherein the means for mediating further comprises: means for converting between a first messaging protocol used by the network-based agent and a second messaging protocol used by the service. 91. The system of claim 86, further comprising: means for allowing the user to modify the network-based agent associated with the user. 92. A computer program product comprising a computer useable medium having computer program logic recorded thereon for enabling a processor in a computer system to perform user customized network-based operations, comprising: means for enabling the processor to allow a user to create a network-based agent associated with the user, wherein the network-based agent is configured to perform an operation on behalf of the user; means for enabling the processor to invoke the execution of the network-based agent on the occurrence of an event; means for enabling the processor to use a service and a service resource when performing the operation on behalf of the user; and means for enabling the processor to communicate the result of the operation to the user over a network communication link. 93. The system of claim 92, further comprising: means for enabling the processor to allow the user to modify the network-based agent associated with the user. 94. A method for performing user customized network-based operations, comprising: (a) receiving data for creating an agent customized to perform a task for a user upon the occurrence of an event; (b) creating the agent, wherein the agent has a plurality of executable instructions for performing the task; (c) executing the agent instructions upon the occurrence of the event, wherein step (c) includes: (i) providing instructions to a service to define the operations supported by the service required to perform the task, (ii) receiving a response from the service including parameters required by the agent to complete task, and (iii) providing an output associated with the task to the user over a network communications link. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the response received from the service includes data. 96. The method of claim 94, wherein the instructions include a request to access a service resource. 97. The method of claim 94, wherein the network communications link is a communications link in a public-switched communications network. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This Application relates to the subject matter disclosed in the following United States Patent and co-pending United States Applications: U.S. Pat. No. 5,603,031 to White et al., entitled “System and Method For Distributed Computation Based Upon the Movement, Execution, and Interaction of Processes In a Network;” U.S. application Ser. No. 08/609,699, filed Mar. 1, 1996, entitled “Method and Apparatus For Telephonically Accessing and Navigating the Internet;” U.S. application Ser. No. 08/798,675, filed Feb. 10, 1997, entitled “System and Method For Distributed Computation Based Upon the Movement, Execution, and Interaction of Processes In a Network;” and U.S. application Ser. No. 09/071,717, filed May 1, 1998, entitled “Voice User Interface With Personality.” The above patent and co-pending applications are assigned to the present Assignee and are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to the field of computer software systems and, more particularly, to a network system extensible by users. CROSS-REFERENCE TO MICROFICHE APPENDICES A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material that is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent disclosure as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Advances in computer and telephony systems have led to the development of numerous technology-driven services, such as electronic mail (e-mail), voice mail, electronic organizers (for appointments and addresses), on-line databases (e.g., for periodicals and stock quotes), and the like. An increasing popularity for these technological services in recent years has spawned an entire industry devoted to the provision and integration of the same. For example, numerous companies now offer e-mail service over the interconnection of computers widely known as the Internet. Other companies offer systems for voice mail services in both private branch exchange (PBX) and public telephone environments. Entities which offer, supply, or otherwise provide services are referred to as “service providers.” Entities which purchase, consume, or otherwise use services are referred to as “subscribers.” Many technological services are supported by one or more software applications. These software applications are often developed with a broad spectrum of subscribers in mind. As such, the respective technological services may address the generalized needs of many subscribers, but not the specialized needs of any one particular subscriber or group of subscribers. With previous techniques, when a subscriber desires to alter, change, modify, or otherwise customize a service to suit his or her own specialized needs, that subscriber must contact the appropriate service provider. If the service provider deems that there is sufficient demand for such customization, the provider will initiate a modification of the supporting software application for the relevant service. Software programmers or developers must then modify the existing software application to address the specialized needs of the requesting subscriber(s), and afterwards, test the modified software to ensure that it is functioning properly. Many iterations of modification and testing may be performed before the finished, customized service is available to the subscriber. In light of the above, it is clear that previous techniques are problematic for numerous reasons. For example, a service provider is required to maintain or otherwise employ a staff of human software developers for making modifications to supporting software applications. This can be expensive. Furthermore, a substantial amount of time may be required to develop, modify, and test supporting software applications in response to the request of a particular subscriber or group of subscribers. This can lead to subscriber dissatisfaction, and ultimately, defection to another service provider. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The disadvantages and problems associated with previous techniques for providing technological services have been substantially reduced or eliminated using the present invention. The present invention provides a network system extensible (e.g., programmable) by “end-users,” and a method of operation for the same. In general, an end-user (or simply “user”) is any individual, party, or entity which somehow interacts with the network system. A user can thus be an entity known to the network system (i.e., an entity having a log-in ID), such as, for example, a subscriber and or an individual affiliated with the service provider. A user can also be an arbitrary third-party which somehow interacts with the network system. With the present invention, users may extend or customize the network system according to their own particular needs. To accomplish this, a network system is augmented with an agent system. Capabilities of the network system are programmatically exposed by means of one or more services, service resources, and service wrappers. Each service individually, or the network system as a whole, can be extended by adding agents (created by users). Furthermore, the consumption of computational and service resources are monitored within the network system, thus protecting the subscribers and the service provider from harm or misuse, whether intentional or inadvertent. Accordingly, the network system can admit agents programmed by users. In addition, the present invention contemplates that a third party may modify existing agents and create new agents in the case where subscribers lack the desire or sophistication to do so themselves. The third party can then make such customized agents commercially available to subscribers. According to an embodiment of the present invention, a network system includes a service. An agent uses the service on behalf of a principal. An agent server mediates the use of the service by the agent. According to another embodiment of the present invention, a network system includes a user interface which allows a user to interact with the network system. An agent server is coupled to the user interface. The agent server manages agent use of the network system. Furthermore, the agent server in conjunction with the user interface is operable to create or modify an agent in response to interaction by the user. According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method includes the following: admitting a user to a network system wherein at least one agent is operable to utilize a service to perform a task for the user; and allowing the user to create or modify the agent within the network system. According to still another embodiment of the present invention, a network system includes an agent server which manages agent use of the network system. An agent is operable to utilize a service within the network system. A service wrapper, associated with the service, cooperates with the agent server to mediate interaction between the service and the agent. According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method includes the following: allowing an agent to utilize a service; and mediating interaction between the service and the agent. A technical advantage of the present invention includes providing a network system (and a method of operation therefor) which is programmable by users (including subscribers) according to their own particular needs. From the standpoint of subscribers, this facilitates the process of adding or deleting new services or extending existing services and, from the standpoint of a service provider, this is beneficial in that human software developers and testers can be reduced or eliminated altogether with the automated system of the present invention. Other aspects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following descriptions and accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention and for further features and advantages, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a network system extensible by users, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary computer-based system that can be used to implement the network system shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 illustrates details for a graphical user interface, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates details for a voice user interface, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates details for an agent server, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates details for a service wrapper, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates details for specific exemplary service wrappers, services, and service resources; FIG. 8 illustrates details for an exemplary agent object, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for a user session, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing a selection command for selecting an agent or an agent template, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing an agent template command, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing an agent command, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a block diagram detailing the controlled consumption of service and computational resources, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing time slices for an agent population, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing a time slice for an agent, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 16 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing an event handler, according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 17 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method for executing a service instruction, according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The preferred embodiments of the present invention and their advantages are best understood by referring to FIGS. 1 through 17 of the drawings. Like numerals are used for like and corresponding parts of the various drawings. Turning first to the nomenclature of the specification, the detailed description which follows is represented largely in terms of processes and symbolic representations of operations performed by conventional computer components, such as a central processing unit (CPU) or processor associated with a general purpose computer system, memory storage devices for the processor, and connected pixel-oriented display devices. These operations include the manipulation of data bits by the processor and the maintenance of these bits within data structures resident in one or more of the memory storage devices. Such data structures impose a physical organization upon the collection of data bits stored within computer memory and represent specific electrical or magnetic elements. These symbolic representations are the means used by those skilled in the art of computer programming and computer construction to most effectively convey teachings and discoveries to others skilled in the art. For purposes of this discussion, a process, method, routine, or sub-routine is generally considered to be a sequence of computer-executed steps leading to a desired result. These steps generally require manipulations of physical quantities. Usually, although not necessarily, these quantities take the form of electrical, magnetic, or optical signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, or otherwise manipulated. It is conventional for those skilled in the art to refer to these signals as bits, values, elements, symbols, characters, text, terms, numbers, records, files, or the like. It should be kept in mind, however, that these and some other terms should be associated with appropriate physical quantities for computer operations, and that these terms are merely conventional labels applied to physical quantities that exist within and during operation of the computer. It should also be understood that manipulations within the computer are often referred to in terms such as adding, comparing, moving, or the like, which are often associated with manual operations performed by a human operator. It must be understood that no involvement of the human operator may be necessary, or even desirable, in the present invention. The operations described herein are machine operations performed in conjunction with the human operator or user that interacts with the computer or computers. In addition, it should be understood that the programs, processes, methods, and the like, described herein are but an exemplary implementation of the present invention and are not related, or limited, to any particular computer, apparatus, or computer language. Rather, various types of general purpose computing machines or devices may be used with programs constructed in accordance with the teachings described herein. Similarly, it may prove advantageous to construct a specialized apparatus to perform the method steps described herein by way of dedicated computer systems with hard-wired logic or programs stored in non-volatile memory, such as read-only memory (ROM). Network System Overview Referring now to the drawings, FIG. 1 illustrates a network system 2 extensible by users, according to an embodiment of the present invention. To achieve this, network system 2 may incorporate an agent system comprising an agent server and one or more agents, as described below in more detail. An exemplary construction for an agent system is taught by U.S. Pat. No. 5,603,031, issued to the Assignee of the present invention, the text of which is incorporated herein by reference. It is contemplated that network system 2 may be maintained, managed, and/or operated by any provider of technological services, such as electronic mail (e-mail), voice mail, electronic organizer (for appointments and/or addresses), on-line data retrieval (for, e.g., periodicals and stock quotes), and the like. These services are offered and/or provided to one or more users who may be considered to be “subscribers.” Each of the provider and the subscribers can be an individual, a business, a governmental department or agency, an academic institution, an organization, or the like, which provides or receives, respectively, any form of technological service. The following primarily describes how network system 2 and its associated methods of operation can be used to provide information technology services over a telephony system. Furthermore, a model of a network system providing telephony services is discussed in detail in microfiche Appendix A, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. It should be understood, however, that the present invention is not so limited. That is, the teachings of the present invention generally encompass the provision of services by agents to one or more users in an environment which can be extended by the users, for example, by programming additional agents. Network system 2 includes a programmable functionality component 4 and a hard-wired functionality component 6. In general, programmable functionality component 4 and hard-wired functionality component 6 each functions to provide and/or support the provision of technological services. Hard-wired functionality component 6 is implemented substantially with a number of “hard-wired” elements, and thus, its functionality is modified or changed primarily by connecting or re-connecting the same or additional elements. Programmable functionality component 4 is implemented with an agent system and, as such, its functionality can be programmed (for example, by subscribers or third parties), as described below in more detail. Computer code for an exemplary agent system implementing a programmable functionality component 4 is provided in microfiche Appendix B, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Graphical User Interface Network system 2 includes a graphical user interface (GUI) 12. Graphical user interface 12 may be implemented and/or supported by a web browser—i.e., a client application that resides on (or is downloaded to) an electronic user device, such as a desktop computer. Any of a variety of browsers are available, such as NETSCAPE NAVIGATOR, MICROSOFT INTERNET EXPLORER, and others. The web browser can be a forms-capable browser which is able to interpret Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) code which provides forms including fill-in text boxes, option buttons, drop-down list boxes, radio buttons, and the like. Graphical user interface 12 allows a user to interact with network system 2 via a communication line, which may be any type of communication link capable of supporting data transfer. For example, the communication line may include any combination of an Integrated Services Digital Network (“ISDN”) communication line, a hard-wired line or a telephone line. This enables communication via the interconnection of computers popularly known as the “Internet,” using any suitable protocol, such as, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), Internetwork Packet eXchange/Sequence Packet exchange (IPX/SPX), or AppleTalk. Graphical user interface 12—comprising a web browser and a web server—manages the connection between the user device and network system 2, supports the transfer of data therebetween, and interprets and displays the data. For example, graphical user interface 12 enables the downloading of one or more web pages (serving as graphical interfaces into network system 2) to the user device. The user device may include one or more suitable input devices, such as a keyboard, key pad, touch screen, input port, pointing device (e.g. mouse), and/or other device that can accept information, and one or more suitable output devices, such as a computer display, output port, speaker, or other device for conveying information including digital data, visual information, or audio information. Graphical user interface 12 may comprise an agent area 14 which is dedicated to the activities of creating new agents and manipulating existing agents, as described herein. For example, in one embodiment, an “agent” icon is added to a screen menu; the interface screen which is accessed by “clicking” on the agent icon constitutes the agent area. Voice User Interface A voice user interface (VUI) 16 allows a user to interact with network system 2 via a telephone line, which can be an analog telephone line, a digital T1 line, a digital T3 line, or an OC3 telephony feed. In contrast to graphical user interface 12, voice user interface 16 does not require that a user have access to an electronic interface, such as a computer. Rather, voice user interface 16 interprets the vocalized expressions of a user so that the user may issue commands and other input into network system 2. Voice user interface 16 may also issue audible output in the form of speech that is understandable by a user. Such speech can be synthesized or previously recorded, as described below in more detail. Voice user interface 16 may comprise speech recognition and speech synthesis software and/or hardware stored in or implemented as a suitable memory device and run on a suitable processor. Such speech recognition software allows network system 2 to recognize vocalized speech and may include grammar software that creates or selects a speech recognition grammar for determining which speech should be recognized. Commercially available speech recognition systems with recognition grammars are provided by ASR (Automatic Speech Recognition) technology vendors such as the following: Nuance Corporation of Menlo Park, Calif.; Dragon Systems of Newton, Mass.; IBM of Austin, Tex.; Kurzweil Applied Intelligence of Waltham, Mass.; Lernout Hauspie Speech Products of Burlington, Mass.; and PureSpeech, Inc. of Cambridge, Mass. Recognition grammars are written specifying what sentences and phrases are to be recognized by the voice user interface 16. For example, a recognition grammar can be generated by a computer scientist or a computational linguist or a linguist. The speech synthesis software synthesizes human speech and may include speech markup software for determining the speech to be synthesized. In addition to speech synthesis software and/or hardware, voice user interface 16 may include speech play-back capabilities for playing back previously recorded human speech. Exemplary play-back devices include a tape player, a laser disc player, etc. Here, an actual person (preferably an actor) recites various statements which may desirably be issued during an interactive session with a user of network system 2. The person's voice is recorded as the recitations are made. The recordings are separated into discrete messages, each message comprising one or more statements that would desirably be issued in a particular context (e.g., greeting, farewell, requesting instructions, receiving instructions, etc.). Afterwards, when a user interacts with network system 2, the recorded messages are played back to the user when the proper context arises. In one embodiment, such speech play-back capabilities can be used to implement a voice user interface with personality, as taught by U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/071,717, entitled “Voice User Interface With Personality,” the text of which is incorporated herein by reference. Voice user interface 16 may also comprise hardware and/or software supporting the interpretation and issuance of dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) commands so that a user may alternatively interact with network system 2 using a telephone key pad. Voice user interface 16 may comprise an agent area 18 which, like agent area 14 of graphical user interface 12, is dedicated to the activities of creating new agents and manipulating existing agents. In one embodiment, agent area 18 of voice user interface 16 can be implemented by translating the agent area 14 of graphical user interface 12 into voice. Agent Server Programmable functionality component 4 includes an agent server 20. Agent server 20 is in communication with graphical user interface 12 and voice user interface 16, and accordingly, may exchange (receive and transmit) information therewith. In general, agent server 20 controls, coordinates, and otherwise manages the overall operation of programmable functionality component 4. Among other things, agent server 20 may invoke, initiate, or execute various routines, processes, objects, and the like. For example, when a user wishes to interact with network system 2 via graphical user interface 12, agent server 20 may cause web pages to be downloaded to an electronic user device. As another example, agent server 20 may prompt voice user interface 16 to issue various statements at appropriate moments during an interactive session with a user via telephone. Additional functionality of agent server 20 includes, but is not limited to, executing agent objects, identifying computational and service permissions, and controlling the consumption of computational and service resources, as described below in more detail. Agent server 20 is responsive to various commands which it may receive from a user, for example, via graphical user interface 12 or voice user interface 16. These commands can be of three types: agent commands, agent template commands, and selection commands for selecting agents and agent templates. Each of these types of commands is explained below in more detail. Agent server 20 executes these commands during its operation. The functionality of agent server 20 can be performed by any suitable processor such as a main-frame, file server, workstation, or other suitable data processing facility running appropriate software. Agent server 20 may operate under the control of any suitable operating system such as MS-DOS, MacINTOSH OS, WINDOWS NT, WINDOWS 95, OS/2, UNIX, XENIX, GEOS, MAGIC CAP, and the like. Computational Resources A number of computational resources 21 are available to agent server 20. In general, computational resources 21 are resources provided or supported by a computer-based system (FIG. 2) having one or more processors, data-storage devices, interfaces, suitable connections, etc. Computational resources 21 include processing time, memory storage space, and the like. As described herein, computational resources 21 may be “consumed” or “used up” during the operation of network system 2. Agents A number of agents 22 are in communication with agent server 20. Each agent 22 is associated with a particular user (e.g., a subscriber or an individual affiliated with the service provider), which may be deemed to be the “principal” for the respective agent. Generally speaking, agents 22 can be considered to be personal software assistants with authority delegated by the respective principals. That is, each agent 22 may be implemented as a software application, program, or process which autonomously, and possibly continuously, runs on behalf of its principal. As such, an agent 22 may be viewed by its principal as an electronic extension thereof. A particular principal may employ a plurality of agents 22, each of which serves only that principal. The software applications for implementing agents 22 may each comprise a text file or document in, for example, a format prescribed by extensible Markup Language (XML). XML is a subset of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and, like SGML, is a meta-language—i.e., a language for specifying markup languages. One such markup language is Agent Definition Format (ADF) developed by General Magic, Inc. Various specifications for ADF are discussed in detail in microfiche Appendix C, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. A markup language such as ADF uses tags to provide programming language constructs to text. These tags, which may comprise instructions enclosed in angled brackets, are inserted before and after the text affected. Agent server 20 can interpret the tags and text of an ADF document to cause a respective agent 22 to act. Exemplary code for a number of agents 22 is provided in microfiche Appendix D, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Agents 22 are task-based. That is, each agent 22 is responsible for performing a particular task or set of tasks on behalf of the respective principal. These tasks may include, for example, answering telephone calls, taking voice mail messages, placing telephone calls, notifying the user of recently received messages (voice mail and/or e-mail), delivering messages, setting up meetings/appointments, gathering information, negotiating deals, transacting electronic commerce, etc. Agents 22 can be “standard” or “customized.” A standard agent is one which may be written and/or set-up by the service provider. In general, standard agents perform tasks that many users (e.g., subscribers) each would desirably have performed on his or her behalf. Such tasks may include organizing meetings and delivering messages. A separate copy of a standard agent may be engaged or selected by each user who wishes to have the respective tasks performed. Thus, many standard agents, each performing the same sort of tasks but for different users, may exist in network system 2. In contrast, a customized agent is one which is written and/or set up by a particular subscriber or group of subscribers to perform certain tasks which are unique to that subscriber or group. For example, a particular subscriber or group may work in the real estate industry and thus desire to have certain tasks related to real estate transactions performed for him/her or them. In this case, such subscriber or group of subscribers may customize or create one or more agents that address the specialized needs of the subscriber or group. Furthermore, a third party may customize or create agents for subscribers or groups which are unable, unwilling, or lack the sophistication to do so for themselves. Such agents customized by a third party can be made commercially available to subscribers and other users. Accordingly, network system 2 is extensible in the sense that subscribers and/or third parties may program customized agents 22 according to particular needs. The customization of agents 22 can be accomplished using an electronic user device (e.g., desktop computer) communicating with network system 2 via graphical user interface 12. In one embodiment, the service provider may maintain a website which users can access for customizing agents 22. While performing the respective tasks, agents 22 may use or consume various computational resources 21 (e.g., memory storage space, processing time, and the like). Furthermore, agents 22 may also use or consume various service resources (described below in more detail) during the performance of their respective tasks. The consumption of computational and service resources by various agents 22 can be monitored, and the respective principals charged for the same. In one embodiment, each agent 22 is given permission to consume up to a pre-authorized amount of each computational resource and each service resource that the agent may use when performing its respective task(s). For each computational resource, the relevant permission constitutes a “computational permission.” For each service resource, the relevant permission constitutes a “service permission.” With respect to a particular agent 22, the computational and service permissions ensure that other agents 22 (acting on behalf of the same or other principals/users) have adequate computational and service resources, even in the case of a maliciously or incorrectly programmed customized agent. Alternatively, a computational or a service permission may be associated with a particular principal and specifies a predetermined amount of a respective resource which is allowed to be consumed on behalf of that principal. That is, multiple agents 22 having the same principal may each use the same resource. By authorizing a predetermined amount of resource for the principal, the associated agents 22 are given a “pool” of that resource from which to draw. In one embodiment, each agent 22 may direct its own movement (i.e., transportation) through a computer-based system (FIG. 2) by executing an instruction which identifies a destination computer within the computer-based system and directs that the particular agent 22 be transported there. While executing within the destination computer, the agent may have access to information which is not available elsewhere in the computer-based system. The particular agent can access and use that information to determine another destination computer to which the agent should travel. Agents 22 are created from agent templates. An agent template can be a “blueprint” for one or more agents 22. In object-oriented terminology, each agent 22 is an object and each template is an agent class from which agents 22 can be created by instantiating the class/template. In one embodiment, an agent template is essentially an agent object in its initial state. After the agent has been created, it may be executed. During execution, the agent object begins to receive events, handle these events, and so change its state. In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, network system 2 allows users (e.g., subscribers) to create, copy, modify, edit, or delete agents 22 and the associated templates as desired, thereby affording extensibility. Services A number of services 24 may each comprise one or more software applications providing various capabilities that are available to a principal. Each service 24 may be utilized by one or more agents 22 in order to perform their respective tasks. For example, one service 24 may support call processing, including a voice mail system. With this service 24, an agent 22 may place an outgoing telephone call for its principal, answer an incoming telephone call for the principal, and record a voice message from a caller. Another exemplary service 24 may support an electronic mail (e-mail) system. With an e-mail service, an agent 22 may collect, forward, and store e-mail messages addressed to the respective principal, generate e-mail messages for the principal, and notify the principal when new e-mail messages have been received. Yet another exemplary service 24 may support an electronic appointment book. With this service, an agent 22 can plan a schedule, check conflicts therewith, and organize various meetings, interviews, etc. for its respective principal. Still another exemplary service 24 can support an electronic address book which maintains information about one or more contacts with whom a principal may interact. The information maintained for each of these contacts may include the contact's name, title, employer, business address, home address, e-mail address, work phone number, home phone number, and the like. Still yet another service 24 can support on-line data retrieval for various information. With this service, an agent 22 can retrieve electronic copies of periodicals (e.g., newspapers, magazines, etc.) and the latest quotes for stocks, bonds, mutual funds, etc. In order to use a particular service 24, an agent 22 must first be authorized to do so. This authority may be given by the service provider and/or the respective principal. In one embodiment, a plurality of services 24 may be used by a particular agent 22 which acts as a “virtual assistant” for its respective principal. This virtual assistant may, for example, answer an incoming telephone call, identify the caller, schedule a meeting between the caller and the principal, and generate an e-mail message notifying the principal of such meeting. Additional services 24 can be used (by this agent 22) by extending or customizing the agent, as described herein. Service Resources One or more service resources 25 can support each service 24. In one embodiment, at least a portion of service resources 25 can be integral to the respective services 24. In general, a service resource 25 is a resource which enables a service to be performed. For example, for a call processing service, service resources 25 may include a telephone, an answering machine, a telephone line, a local telephone provider service, a long-distance telephone provider service, etc. As another example, for an on-line data retrieval service, service resources 25 may include a telephony connection, a modem for on-line communication, an on-line database provider service, etc. As yet another example, for an e-mail service, service resources 25 may include an Internet connection and disk space for storing e-mail messages. At least some of service resources 25 may comprise discrete units which are “consumed” during utilization of the respective resource by an agent 22. For example, a service resource 25 related to telephony services (e.g., voice mail and call placement) may comprise units of long-distance calling time which are consumed as an agent 22 places one or more calls utilizing such services 24. Likewise, a service resource 25 related to on-line data retrieval may comprise units of data-access time or inquiry which are consumed as an agent retrieves data (e.g., stock quotes, newspaper articles, etc.) utilizing the respective service 24. Service Wrappers A number of service wrappers 26 link services 24 and respective service resources 25 to agent server 20. In the depicted embodiment, a separate service wrapper 26 is provided for each service 24. Each service wrapper 26 can mediate the interaction between a service 24 (and its respective resources 25) and the remainder of programmable functionality component 4. In one embodiment, at least a portion of service wrappers 26 can be integral to the respective services 24 and/or service resources 25. Service wrappers 26, in conjunction with agent server 20, may act as “gatekeepers” to the respective services 24. That is, a service wrapper 26 grants access, to a respective service 24, only to agents 22 which have been authorized to utilize such service. For example, a voice message held by a service 24 supporting voice mail is accessible only by an agent 22 which has authority from the user for whom the message was left. Similarly, for a service 24 supporting call answering, the respective service wrapper 26 only allows agents 22 having authority from a particular user to answer telephone calls placed to a number associated with such a user. Service wrappers 26 enable communication between services 24 and agent server 20, for example, by converting between a computer language (or instruction set) used within agent server 20 and the computer language (or instruction set) of the respective service 24. For this purpose, in one embodiment, each service wrapper 26 may be implemented, at least in part, with an application programming interface (API). An API allows access to the respective service 24, thereby pragmatically exposing the capabilities of the service 24 to one or more agents 22. That is, each service wrapper 26 lets any agent (having the proper authorization) use the respective service 24. A service wrapper 26 may also allow agent server 20 to replace one service 24 with another service 24 of the same type, but located on a different computer, without any interruption to principals. This operation of a service wrapper 26 is hidden or invisible to users, and thus, service wrappers 26 provide a point of abstraction between the respective service 24 and agent server 20. Furthermore, at least some of service wrappers 26 may monitor the amount of service resources 25 expended or otherwise consumed by one or more authorized agents 22 when utilizing the respective service 24. For example, a service wrapper 26 may identify the respective service resource 25 to agent server 20, allow agent server 20 to impose a predetermined limit on each authorized agent's use of such service resource 25 (i.e., allocate a predetermined amount of service resource 25 for each agent), and debit/credit the amount consumed from the predetermined amount previously allocated for the agent 22. Thus, each service wrapper 26, in conjunction with agent server 20, controls an agent's consumption of service resources 25, thereby ensuring that an agent 22 does not use more than a predetermined amount of resource when performing its respective task or tasks. In this way, service wrappers 26 protect against the over-consumption, whether intentional or inadvertent, of the respective service resources 25. A service wrapper 26 thus serves to ensure that sufficient units of a service resource 25 are available for each agent 22 authorized to utilize the respective service 24. In addition, a service wrapper 26 may maintain a record of the amount of service resource 25 consumed by various agents 22 so that the appropriate users/principals can be billed accordingly. Operational Overview In operation, one or more agents 22 may be set up for each user who is a subscriber to the services offered by the operator/provider of network system 2. These agents 22 can be standard (i.e., set up by the service provider) or customized (i.e., set up by the respective user). Each agent for a particular user performs one or more tasks on behalf of that user. These tasks may include answering calls, taking voice mail messages, placing calls, notifying the user of recently received e-mail, setting up appointments, negotiating deals, transacting electronic commerce, etc. To perform these tasks, each agent 22 utilizes one or more services 24, during which it may consume various respective service resources 25. Access to each service 24 is granted by the respective service wrapper 26, which may also monitor the amount of each respective service resource 25 consumed to ensure that no particular agent 22 uses more than an amount authorized for that agent when performing its specific task(s). This protects both the authorizing user/subscriber and the service provider against undue consumption of service resources 25. Via a suitable interface (e.g., graphical user interface 12 or voice user interface 16), a user may direct, command, instruct, or otherwise communicate with each of his or her respective agents 22. At any time, a user can extend the services provided thereto by customizing existing agents 22, or alternatively, employing (and possibly customizing additional) agents 22. In this manner, the present invention enables subscribers of a network service provided by network system 2 to create and employ personal agents 22 utilizing services 24 in a manner that is safe and secure for the subscribers and the service provider. Computer-Based System Implementation FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram of an exemplary computer-based system 30 that can be used to implement network system 2 shown in FIG. 1. Referring to the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, computer-based system 30 can include a communications hub 1000 and a firewall 1002 which support an interface between computer-based system 30 and the Internet. Collectively, communications hub 1000 and firewall 1002 provide communication, protection, and security between the remainder of computer-based system 30 and the Internet. Hub 1000 and firewall 1002 allow users to interact with computer-based system 30 using an electronic user device, which may support a graphical user interface 12 (FIG. 1). A switch 1004 enables communication with computer-based system 30 via a telephone instrument. Switch 1004 allows users to interact with computer-based system 30, for example, via a voice user interface 16 (FIG. 1). A call detail records data base 1005 is coupled to switch 1004. This data base 1005 stores information relating to calls received by or initiated out of computer-based system 30. For each call, such call-related information may specify calling party, called party, telephone number of outside party, date of call, time of call, duration of call, cost of call, and the like. A plurality of fast Ethernet hubs 1006 are coupled to firewall 1002 and switch 1004. Fast Ethernet hubs 1006 support a local area network (LAN) for computer-based system 30 and enable the routing of information signals therein. These Ethernet hubs 1006 may implement the Fast Ethernet technique in which information is transferred at a rate of 100 Mbps. One or more application server clusters 1008 are coupled to fast Ethernet hubs 1006. Each application server cluster 1008 may comprise a plurality of servers which provide processing capability to support various functions, such as, for example, speech recognition, speech synthesis, pronunciation generation, speech playback, etc. As such, application server clusters 1008 may support a voice user interface 16 (FIG. 1). A number of sub-systems 1010, 1012, 1014, 1016, 1018, 1020, 1022 are also coupled to fast Ethernet hubs 1006. Each of these sub-systems may comprise one or more servers, data storage devices, and other hardware components. The servers provide processing capability, and the data storage devices provide data storage capability. At least a portion of the sub-systems in computer-based system 30 may support one or more services 24, and the respective service wrappers 26 and service resources 25 (FIG. 1). For example, as shown in FIG. 2, sub-systems 1010, 1012, 1014, 1016, and 1018 support an e-mail service, a voice mail service, a paging/facsimile service, an address book and calendar service, and a business news and stocks information service, respectively. The remaining sub-systems support other operational aspects of computer-based system 30. In particular, as shown, sub-system 1020 maintains profiles for one or more subscribers to a network system 2. For each subscriber, a profile may include the name of the subscriber, the home address of the subscriber, the billing address of the subscriber, an e-mail address, a telephone number, a listing of all agents operating for the subscriber, the computational and service permissions granted to the subscriber's agents, and the like. Sub-system 1022 maintains various rules for the operation of network system 2. For example, such rules may govern how network system 2 processes incoming e-mail messages for particular subscribers (e.g., a subscriber may be paged upon the delivery of messages satisfying certain criteria). Each of the servers within application server clusters 1008 and sub-systems 1010-1022 can be implemented using any of a number of server hardware configurations running a suitable server operating system, such as SUN SOLARIS, WINDOWS NT, OS/2 WARP, and NETWARE. Each data storage device within application server clusters 1008 and sub-systems 1010-1022 can be a mass storage subsystem of tapes or disk drives, which is electronically coupled to the respective servers. Information or data supporting each of graphical user interface 12, voice user interface 16, agent server 20, agents 22, services 24, service resources 25, and service wrappers 26 (shown in FIG. 1) can be contained in the data storage devices. The servers may retrieve, process, and store this information into the data storage devices. In one embodiment, as shown, application server clusters 1008 and sub-systems 1010-1022 are linked by the same LAN. In another embodiment, at least a portion of application server clusters 1008 and/or sub-systems 1010-1022 can be remote from the remainder and linked as a wide area network (WAN); consequently, computer-based system 30 may provide a distributed network. Any one or a combination of interested parties (e.g., subscribers, third parties, or service providers) can use computer-based system 30 to collect, maintain, generate, or process the information supporting graphical user interface 12, voice user interface 16, agent server 20, computational resources 21, agents 22, services 24, service resources 25, and service wrappers 26. Any of the servers or other computers in application server clusters 1008 and sub-systems 1010-1022, either individually or in combination, can perform the functionality of agent server 20 shown in FIG. 1. Furthermore, because these servers and other computers are linked together, each can directly access (e.g., store and retrieve) any of the information described above, if necessary. In one embodiment, agents 22 may travel throughout the environment of computer-based system 30. That is, each agent 22 may move to the servers and other computers in application server clusters 1008 and sub-systems 1010-1022, and afterward, execute thereon. As an agent 22 moves and executes, it may perform its respective tasks on behalf of its principal. The elements of computer-based system 30, and the functions provided thereby, constitute computational resources 21 which may be expended, consumed, or used during the operation of network system 2 (FIG. 1). In one embodiment, the consumption of these computational resources 21 by different agents 22 is monitored so that no particular agent 22 utilizes more than a proportionate, predetermined, or allotted share thereof, as such agent executes. Graphical User Interface (Details) FIG. 3 illustrates details for a graphical user interface 12, according to an embodiment of the present invention. As depicted, graphical user interface 12 comprises a web browser 64 and a web server 66 which are connected via a line 68 supporting Internet communication. Web browser 64 is a client application that may reside on (or is downloaded to) a client device such as a desktop computer. Such desktop computer preferably has at least a “486” processor or an operational equivalent and runs a suitable desktop operating system, such as, for example, MS-DOS, MacINTOSH OS, WINDOWS NT, WINDOWS 95, OS/2, UNIX, XENIX, GEOS, or MAGIC CAP. Web server 66 is a server application that resides on a service provider device, such as a server. Such server can be any of the servers in application server clusters 1008 or sub-systems 1010-1022 of computer-based system 30 shown in FIG. 2. Web server 66 may support a number of web pages 70 which can be downloaded from web server 66 to web browser 64 as appropriate during operation. At least one of these web pages 70 may constitute an agent area 14 which is dedicated to the activities of creating new agents and manipulating existing agents. Communication line 68 can be any link capable of supporting data transfer between a client device and a service provider device. For example, communication line 68 may include any combination of an Integrated Services Digital Network (“ISDN”) communication line, a hard-wired line, or a telephone line. This enables communication via the Internet, using any suitable protocol, such as, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), Internetwork Packet eXchange/Sequence Packet exchange (IPX/SPX), or AppleTalk. Voice User Interface (Details) FIG. 4 illustrates details for a voice user interface 16, according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, voice user interface 16 comprises a telephone instrument 72 coupled to a telephone server 74 via a telephone line 76. Telephone instrument 72 is a user (e.g., subscriber) device which may comprise a conventional telephone. Telephone instrument 72 may include a key pad for entering dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF) commands. Telephone server 74 is a service provider device. Such device may comprise any of the servers in application server clusters 1008 or sub-systems 1010-1022 of computer-based system 30 shown in FIG. 2. Telephone server 74 may support a number of grammars, prompts, and other speech functionalities 78 for enabling communication with a user. At least one of these speech functionalities 78 may constitute an agent area 18 which is dedicated to the activities of creating new agents and manipulating existing agents 22. Telephone line 76 can be an analog telephone line, a digital T1 line, a digital T3 line, or an OC3 telephony feed. Agent Server (Details) FIG. 5 illustrates details for agent server 20, in accordance with a preferred embodiment. Agent server 20 generally functions to control, coordinate, and otherwise manage the overall operation of programmable functionality component 4. This includes the use of network system 2 by agents 22. As depicted, agent server 20 includes an engine 42, a scheduler 44, and one or more agent objects 46. Scheduler 44 maintains an internal clock, which can keep track of real time or elapsed time. In one embodiment, scheduler 44 may be supported with a piezo-electric crystal or oscillating circuit implemented with transistors. Scheduler 44 generally functions to trigger the further-execution of particular agents 22 by engine 42 upon the occurrence of certain events. Such events may include the lapse of a predetermined amount of time (e.g., 24 hours) or the occurrence of a specified time (e.g., 6:00 a.m.). Scheduler 44 may maintain a record or schedule with a separate entry for each triggering event. Scheduler 44 may also receive information from engine 42. This received information may be used to create new entries within scheduler 44. Agent objects 46 each correspond to a particular agent 22 of network system 2 (FIG. 1). Each agent object 46 can be an internal representation within agent server 20 for the corresponding agent 22. Agent objects 46 comprise software objects, each of which, in general, has (i) an internal state defined by a number of properties, (ii) an internal behavior defined by a number of methods, and (iii) an external behavior defined by a number of features. More simply, each agent object 46 is an organization of data and instructions which are executable within agent server 20. In one embodiment, the data represents a “state” of the agent object and the instructions are grouped into tasks that are to be performed. The data may specify the corresponding agent 22, the services 24 which may be utilized by the agent, and the computational and service permissions which have been granted to the agent 22. The instructions may comprise one or more event handlers which direct the corresponding agent 22 upon the occurrence of predefined events. Each agent object 46 may also comprise a pending event queue which queues events to which the agent 22 should, but has not yet, responded. Engine 42 is in communication with scheduler 44 and agent objects 46. In addition, engine 42 is in bi-directional communication with graphical user interface 12, voice user interface 16, and service wrappers 26. Engine 42 generally controls and/or manages the operation of agent server 20. Engine 42 may be implemented as a computer process, executing within a computer system, which invokes or manages other processes or routines, and executes instructions. For example, engine 42 can execute each agent object 46 which, in turn, may provide instructions to engine 42. Engine 42 may function to identify each of the computational permissions and service permissions specified within an agent object 46 and to control the consumption, by the corresponding agent 22, of the relevant computational resources 21 and service resources 25. Also, engine 42 may invoke routines in each of interfaces 12 and 16 and service wrappers 26. Furthermore, engine 42 may receive and be responsive to information from the same. In one embodiment, scheduler 44 may be considered to “create” pending events to which engine 42 responds by executing an agent's handler for such event. This is described below in more detail. In an exemplary operation for agent server 20, one agent object 46 may correspond to an agent 22 which is responsible for waking up its principal at a certain time each weekday morning. This time constitutes an event for which scheduler 44 may contain an entry. Each weekday, at the appointed time or shortly before, scheduler 44 invokes engine 42. In response engine 42 executes the particular agent object 46. When this agent object 46 is executed, the corresponding agent 22 (using the appropriate services 24) performs the task of waking up the principal, for example, by calling the principal over a telephone or, alternatively, generating an audible alarm on an electronic user device (e.g., a desktop computer). Service Wrapper (Details) FIG. 6 illustrates details for a service wrapper 26, in accordance with a preferred embodiment. A service wrapper 26 generally functions to mediate the interaction between a respective service 24 and the remainder of programmable functionality component 4. In one embodiment, service wrapper 26 is associated with, and supports, only a single service 24. As shown, service wrapper 26 comprises a converter 48 and a monitor 50. Converter 48 generally functions to convert between a computer language (or instruction set) used within agent server 20 and a computer language (or instruction set) used within the respective service 24. In one embodiment, the computer language of agent server 20 can be a high-level language, whereas the computer language of service 24 may be a low-level language. An agent 22 may comprise instructions of the set used in agent server 20; a service 24 may comprise or issue instructions of the set used therein. As depicted, converter 48 comprises an agent-server-to-service converter 52 and a service-to-agent-server converter 54. Agent-server-to-service converter 52 operates unidirectionally to convert from the language (e.g., a high-level language) used by agent server 20 to the language (e.g., a low-level language) used by the corresponding service 24. Service-to-agent-server converter 54 also operates unidirectionally, but in contrast to converter 52, converts from the language (e.g., low-level language) used by service 24 into the language (e.g., high-level language) used by agent server 20. Monitor 50 is coupled by bi-directional lines to each of agent server 20 and the respective service 24. Monitor 50 generally functions to monitor the amount of respective service resources 25 expended, used, or otherwise consumed by one or more agents 22 which have been authorized to access the service 24. Monitor 50 identifies respective service resources 25 to agent server 20, allows agent server 20 to impose a predetermined limit on each authorized agent's use of the respective service resources 25, and informs agent server 20 of the amount consumed against the predetermined limit. The predetermined limit may be derived from a service permission for the respective agent 22. Exemplary Service Wrappers, Services, and Service Resources (Details) FIG. 7 illustrates details for specific exemplary services, and their respective service wrappers and service resources. In particular, these services include a web server service 81, a web browser service 86, and a call processing service 91. Each of exemplary services 81, 86, and 91 constitutes a user interface service; that is, these services 81, 86, and 91 each provides a user interface by which an agent 22 can interact with a subscriber or third party. In FIG. 7, the services and respective service resources have been combined because, with these examples, the services and resources are not logically distinct. Web server service 81 provides a web server from network system 2 (FIG. 1) and can be used, for example, to notify a user about recently received e-mail messages. Web server service 81 (and its respective service resources) resides in network system 2 and includes one or more web pages 84. A web server service wrapper 80 controls access from the remainder of programmable functionality component 4 into web server service 81 and its associated service resources. A web browser 82 is connected to web server service 81 via an Internet line 83. Web browser 82 may reside in a client device. Web pages 84 can be downloaded from web server service 81 to web browser 82. Collectively, web server service 81, web pages 84, web browser 82, and Internet line 83 can implement a graphical user interface with which an agent 22 can interact with its principal or another party. Web browser service 86 provides a web browser from network system 2 and can be used, for example, for on-line data access to stock quotes, news, etc. Web browser service 86 and its respective service resources are resident on network system 2. A web browser service wrapper 85 provides access from the remainder of programmable functionality component 4 into web browser service 86 and its service resources. A web server 87 is connected to web browser service 86 via an Internet line 88. Web server 87 resides in a website server device and may comprise one or more web pages 89 which can be downloaded to web browser service 86. Collectively, web browser service 86, web server 87, web pages 89, and Internet line 88 can implement a graphical user interface with which an agent 22 can interact with an arbitrary website on behalf of its principal. Call processing service 91 provides call processing from network system 2 and can be used, for example, to take voice mail messages for one or more subscribers. Call processing service 91 and its respective service resources reside in network system 2. Call processing service 91 may include grammars, prompts, and other speech functionality 94. A call processing service wrapper 90 controls access from the remainder of programmable functionality component 4 to call processing service 91 and its service resources. A telephone instrument 92, which resides outside of network system 2, is connected to call processing service 91 via a telephone line 93. Collectively, call processing service 91, speech functionality 94, telephone instrument 92, and telephone line 93 can implement a voice user interface with which an agent 22 can interact with its principal or another party, for example, by placing a call to, or answering a call from, the principal or other party. Agent Object (Details) FIG. 8 illustrates details for an agent object 46, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment. An agent object 46 generally represents (within agent server 20) a corresponding agent 22, which can be considered to be a personal software assistant to a particular principal. Agent object 46 can be a software object and may reside within agent server 20. As depicted, agent object 46 comprises a permissions component 56, an event handlers component 58, a datastore component 60 and a pending event queue component 62. In other embodiments, the event handlers component and the pending event queue component may be external to an agent object 46. Permissions component 56 generally comprises data and instructions related to permissions that have been granted to the agent 22 represented by agent object 46. These permissions include computational permissions and service permissions. A computational permission can specify that a respective agent 22 is authorized to consume a particular computational resource 21 (e.g., memory storage space, processing time, elapsed time, and the like which may be provided by the elements and functions of computer-based system 30) when performing its particular task(s). Furthermore, in some instances, a computational permission can specify a pre-authorized amount of computational resource 21 which may be allowably consumed by the respective agent 22. A service permission can specify that the respective agent is authorized to consume a particular service resource 25 (e.g., long-distance time, on-line data access time) when the agent utilizes a respective service 24 (e.g., e-mail, phone mail, electronic appointment book, electronic contact book, etc.) in performing its task(s). In some instances, a service permission can specify a pre-authorized amount of service resource 25 which is allowably consumed by the respective agent 22. Event handlers component 58 includes data and instructions for directing agent server 20 and/or engine 42 upon the occurrence of various events which may arise during the operation of network system 2. In particular, an event handler comprises a routine for handling an event of a specified type. For example, these events can be the lapse of a previously specified amount of time or the delivery of an e-mail message. In one embodiment, an event is identified by a uniform resource locator (URL) which expresses or provides an address for a web page. The URL specifies both the event's type and the agent 22 which is event's intended recipient. The URL may be chosen by agent server 20 and the particular agent 22 in combination. This allows a web server providing a graphical user interface to network system 10 to receive HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) requests for the web page at the URL so that agent server 20 can relay the event to the particular agent 22. A standard web browser can send an event to an agent 22 by fetching the web page identified by the URL for the event. The web page returned to the browser is supplied by the agent's event handler and relayed by agent server 20. One of the instructions in an agent instruction set allows an agent 22 to send an event (for example, to another agent 22 as a means of inter-agent communication). Datastore component 60 may contain various information related to agent object 46. This may include information specifying the corresponding agent 22, the principal or user for whom that agent 22 performs tasks, the tasks which the agent 22 may perform, etc. Datastore component 60 may also include information used by agent object 46 for guiding its interaction with various service wrappers 26. For example, datastore component 60 may contain the parameters of a request the agent intends to make of a particular service wrapper 26 or the wrapper's response to such a request. Pending event queue component 62 comprises information for events to which the corresponding agent 22 should, but has not yet, responded. Pending event queue component 62 queues these events so that the agent 22 may respond, for example, using the event handlers specified in event handlers component 58. User Session FIG. 9 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 100 for a user session, according to an embodiment of the present invention. During method 100, a user is interacting with network system 2. Method 100 begins at step 102 where network system 2 admits a user at a user interface (UI), which can be either graphical user interface 12 or voice user interface 16. Essentially, at this step, a user logs on to network system 2. At step 104, network system 2 admits the user to the agent area of the relevant user interface. For voice user interface 16, this is agent area 18. For graphical user interface 12, this is agent area 14. With graphical user interface 12, a user is admitted to the agent area when the user “clicks” on an agent icon which is displayed on a menu screen. In the agent area, the user can create new agents and manipulate existing agents. Specifically, the user can enter various commands, depending on his or her intentions. Each command can be one of three types: an agent command, a template command, or a selection command. Agent commands are directed to the running of agents. These agents include ones which are currently executing and which the user now would like to manipulate. Template commands are directed to the manipulation of agent templates. An agent template can be a “blueprint” for agents. In object-oriented terminology, each agent is an object and each template is an agent class from which agents can be created by instantiating the class/template. Selection commands select agents or templates. A selection command allows network system 2 to focus on a particular template or a particular agent in order to provide a context for any subsequent template command or agent command. At step 106, network system 2 accepts a command which has been entered by the user via the user interface. The command is forwarded from the user interface to agent server 20. If the command is a selection command, agent server 20 executes such command at step 108. If the command is a template command, agent server 20 executes the command at step 110. Otherwise, if the command is an agent command, agent server 20 executes the command at step 112. The executions of a selection command, a template command, and an agent command are described below in more detail. At step 114, network system 2 prompts a user for more commands. If the user enters additional commands, method 100 returns to step 106 where the next command is accepted. Method 100 repeats steps 106-114 until no additional commands are entered. At step 116, network system 2 excuses the user from the agent area of the user interface. At step 118, the user is excused from the user interface itself. That is, the user logs off network system 2. Afterwards, method 100 ends. Selection Command Execution FIG. 10 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 200 for executing a selection command, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 200 is initiated within and performed by network system 2 when a user (e.g., subscriber) has entered a selection command. A selection command can be one of two types: a select agent command or a select template command. A select agent command is one which selects a particular agent. Specifically, when a user enters the agent area, a list of executing agents may be visible. The user enters a select agent command to select a particular agent from the list in order to manipulate the same; afterwards, the user can enter an agent command to perform the manipulation. Similarly, a select template command is one which selects a particular template. In particular, a list of agent templates may be provided from which a user may select. The user enters a select template command to select a particular template from the list; afterwards, the user can enter a template command to manipulate the template. Method 200 begins at step 202 where agent server 20 determines whether the selection command is a select template command. If the selection command is a select template command, method 200 moves to step 204 where agent server 20 notes the particular template which has been selected. Afterwards, method 200 ends. Otherwise, if at step 202 it is determined that the selection command is not a select template command, then at step 206 agent server 20 determines whether the selection command is a select agent command. If the command is a select agent command, method 200 moves to step 208 where agent server 20 notes the agent which has been selected, after which method 200 ends. Otherwise, if the selection command is not a select agent command, method 200 ends. Template Command Execution FIG. 11 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 300 for executing a template command, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 300 is initiated within and performed by network system 2 when a user has entered a template command. In general, a template command is one which affects a particular template. A template command can be one of four types: a create template command, a copy template command, an edit template command, and a delete template command. Method 300 begins at step 302 where agent server 20 determines whether the template command which has been entered is a create template command. A create template command is one which creates a new template. Each new template can be based on a generic blank template which can be modified as desired by a user. Accordingly, if the template command is a create template command, then at step 304 agent server 20 stores a blank template into memory (a computational resource 21) where the template can be modified. In the context of a graphical user interface, an entry for the new template is added to the list of templates appearing on a screen. At step 306, agent server 20 selects the blank template as the current template, after which method 300 ends. Referring again to step 302, if it is determined that the template command is not a create template command, than method 300 moves to step 308 where agent server 20 determines whether the command is a copy template command. A copy template command is one which copies an existing template. A user may enter this command when it is desirable to create a new template from a previously created template rather than the generic blank template. If it is determined that the command is a copy template command, then at step 310 agent server 20 loads the previously created template. “Loading” a template means that the template is stored into memory, such as random access memory (RAM). At step 312, agent server 20 creates and stores a copy of the template into persistent memory, such as a hard drive. At step 314, agent server 20 selects the copy of the template as the current template, after which method 300 ends. Referring again to step 308, if it is determined that the template command is not a copy template command, then method 300 moves to step 316 where agent server 20 determines whether the command is an edit template command. An edit template command is one which edits an existing template. A user may enter this command when it is desirable to edit either a newly created or previously created template. If it is determined that the command is an edit template command, agent server 20 loads the template at step 318 and allows changes to be made to the template at step 320. At step 322, the edited template is stored back into persistent memory and then is made the current (selected) template, after which method 300 ends. Otherwise, if it is determined at step 316 that the template command is not an edit template command, then method 300 moves to step 324 where agent server 20 determines whether the command is a delete template command. A delete template command is one which deletes an existing template. A user may enter this command to remove from permanent memory any template which is obsolete, incorrect, or otherwise undesirable. If it is determined that the command is a delete template command, agent server 20 deselects the current template at step 326. Deselection is performed because a deleted template cannot be subsequently selected. Next, at step 328, agent server 20 deletes the template from persistent memory. In the context of a graphical user interface, this step would also remove an icon for such template from the screen. Method 300 then ends. Referring again to step 324, if it is determined that the command is not a delete template command, method 300 ends because the command was not any of the types of commands for a template. For each of steps 310, 318, and 326 above, if no template is currently selected, agent. server 20 will generate an error message. Method 300, as described, thus provides user extensibility for network system 2 by allowing a user to create, copy, edit, and delete agent templates as desired. Agent Command Execution FIG. 12 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 400 for executing an agent command, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 400 is initiated within and performed by network system 2 when a user has entered an agent command. Generally speaking, an agent command is one which affects a particular agent 22. Agent commands can be of three types: a create agent command, an edit agent command, and a delete agent command. Method 400 begins at step 402 where agent server 20 determines whether the command is a create agent command. A create agent command is one which creates a new agent from an agent template. After an agent 22 has been created, it is generally allowed to execute, thereby performing tasks for the user who created the agent. If it is determined that the command is a create agent command, then at step 404 agent server 20 loads the respective agent template. If no template is currently selected, agent server 20 will generate an error message. Otherwise, at step 406, agent server 20 stores the newly created agent 22 and at step 408 selects that agent 22 as the current agent. Afterwards, method 400 ends. With reference again to step 402, if it is determined that the command is not a create agent command, then at step 410 agent server 20 determines whether the command is an edit agent command. An edit agent command is one which allows the user to edit an executing or running agent. If no agent 22 is currently selected, however, agent server 20 generates an error message. If it is determined that the command is an edit agent command, then agent server 20 loads the executing agent 22 at step 412. Agent server 20 suspends the execution of such agent 22 at step 414 and allows changes to be made to the agent by a user at step 416. At step 418, agent server 20 resumes the execution of the agent 22 and, at step 420, stores the edited agent. Afterwards, method 400 ends. Referring again to step 410, if it is determined that the agent command is not an edit agent command, then at step 422 agent server 20 determines whether the command is a delete agent command. In general, a delete agent command is one which ends the execution of an agent 22 and removes it from persistent memory. If no agent 22 is currently selected, however, agent server 20 generates an error message. If it is determined at step 422 that the command is a delete agent command, then at step 424 agent server 20 deselects the agent 22, because an agent cannot be selected once it has been deleted. At step 426, agent server 20 deletes the agent 22. Method 400 then ends. Referring again to step 422, if it is determined that the command is not a delete agent command, method 400 ends because the command was not any of the types of commands for an agent. Consumption of Service and Computational Resources FIG. 13 is a block diagram detailing the controlled consumption of service resources 25 and computational resources 21 by an agent 22, according to an embodiment of the present invention. As previously described, an agent 22 may consume various service resources 25 (e.g., long-distance calling time, on-line data access time, etc.) and computational resources 21 (e.g., memory space, processing time, etc.) in the performance of its tasks. The amount of the resources consumed by a particular agent 22 is limited by permissions which are specified in permissions component 56 of an agent object 46 corresponding to the agent 22. More specifically, for a particular agent 22, permissions component 56 includes one set of service permissions 64 for each service 24 utilized by that agent. The service permissions 64 bound the service resources 25 expended on behalf of the agent 22 by that service 24. That is, each service permission 64 specifies whether the agent 22 is authorized to consume a particular service resource 25 and, in some instances, the amount of such service resource 25 that is allowably consumed by that agent 22. Agent server 20 and service wrappers 26 cooperate in order to ensure that an agent 22 does not consume more than its allotted amount of any particular service resource 25 as specified by a respective service permission 64. Permissions component 56 also includes a set of computational permissions 66 for the agent 22. These computational permissions 66 bound the computational resources 21 expended on the agent's behalf by agent server 20. In other words, each computational permission 66 specifies whether the agent 22 is authorized to consume a particular computational resource 21 and, in some instances, the amount of the computational resource 21 which is allowably consumed by that agent. Agent server 20, together with service wrappers 26, monitors and ensures that the agent 22 does not consume more than its allotted amount of any computational resource 21 as specified by a respective computational permission 66. Agent Population Execution FIG. 14 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 500 for executing time slices for an agent population, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 500 is performed by agent server 20 in order to enable each agent 22 to make progress in performing its respective tasks. In general, the processing capability of agent server 20 cannot be dedicated solely to any particular agent 22, but rather must be allocated among all executing agents. Processing time by agent server 20 is thus divided into time slices. The time slices can be of predetermined duration. During each time slice, the processing capability of agent server 20 is directed to a particular agent 22. With reference to FIG. 14, method 500 begins at step 502 where agent server 20 selects an agent 22, which is responsible for performing one or more tasks for a respective user. At step 504, agent server 20 executes a time slice for the selected agent 22. During this time slice, the processing capability of server 20 is directed to or used for the selected agent 22. At step 506, agent server 20 determines whether there are any other agents 22 for which a time slice should be executed. If there are more agents, method 500 returns to step 502 where the next agent is selected. Agent server 20 repeats steps 502-506 until a time slice has been executed for each agent 22. Afterwards, method 500 ends. Agent Execution FIG. 15 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 600 for executing a time slice for an agent 22, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 600 is performed by agent server 20 for a particular agent 22. Method 600 begins at step 602 where an agent object 46 corresponding to the particular agent 22 is loaded into agent server 20. This agent object 46 comprises a permissions component 56, an event handlers component 58, a datastore component 60, and a pending event queue 62. At step 604, agent server 20 determines whether execution of the agent 22 has been suspended (e.g., because the user is editing the agent). If execution has been suspended, it is unnecessary to provide any processing for the agent, and accordingly, method 600 ends. Otherwise, if execution of the agent 22 has not been suspended, method 600 proceeds to step 605 where agent server 20 determines whether an event is currently being handled by agent 22. An event is something that triggers or causes an agent 22 to take action, or something to which agent 22 must respond. If it is determined that there is an event currently being handled, method 600 moves to step 612. Alternatively, if it is determined at step 605 that there is not an event currently being handled, method 600 proceeds to step 606 where agent server 20 determines whether there is an event pending for the agent—i.e., an event for which handling has not yet begun. This can be accomplished by examining pending event queue component 62 of the corresponding agent object 46. If there is no event pending for agent 22, method 600 ends. Otherwise, if it is determined that there is an event pending for agent 22, then at step 608 agent server 20 removes or dequeues the event from the pending event queue of the corresponding agent object 46. At step 610, agent server 20 determines whether agent 22 has a handler for responding to the event. Generally, an event handler comprises a routine for responding to an event of a particular type. An event handler can be divided into a plurality of portions, each of which is separately executable during different time slices. Event handlers are specified in the event handlers component 58 of agent object 46. If it is determined that agent 22 does not have a handler for the relevant event, method 600 moves to step 614. Otherwise, if it is determined that agent 22 does have a handler for responding to the event, method 600 moves to 612. At step 612, agent server 20 executes a portion of the event handler for agent 22. Method 600 then proceeds to step 614. At step 614, agent server 20 stores the agent 22, after which method 600 ends. Event Handler Execution FIG. 16 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 700 for executing an event handler, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 700 is performed by agent server 20 when an event handler is invoked in response to the occurrence of a particular event. The event handler routine may include a number of instructions which are directed to agent server 20 and/or one or more service wrappers 26. Method 700 begins its step 702 where agent server 20 receives an instruction to execute in a patroller time slice. At step 704, agent server 20 determines whether the instruction is a service instruction. A service instruction is an instruction relating to and utilizing a particular service 24. Accordingly, a service instruction can only be executed via a respective service wrapper 26. All other instructions do not require the cooperation of a respective service wrapper 26, but rather, can be executed by agent server 20 itself. If it is determined at step 704 that the instruction is a service instruction, method 700 proceeds to step 708 where agent server 20 asks the respective service wrapper 26 to execute the instruction for agent 22. Method 700 then moves to step 710. Referring again to step 704, if it is determined that the instruction is not a service instruction, then agent server 20 itself executes the instruction at step 706. Method 700 then proceeds to step 710. At step 710, agent server 20 determines whether there are any more instructions in the event handler. If so, method 700 returns to step 702 where agent server 20 fetches the next instruction. Agent server 20 repeats steps 702-710 until all instructions of the event handler to be executed as part of the current time slice have been executed, either by agent server 20 or respective service wrappers 26. Afterwards, method 700 ends. Service Instruction Execution FIG. 17 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method 800 for executing a service instruction, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Method 800 is performed by a service wrapper 26 when agent server 20 asks the service wrapper to execute a service instruction relating to the respective service 24. Method 800 begins at step 802 where service wrapper 26 identifies the service permissions required by the service instruction. In other words, the execution of the service instruction may cause particular service resources 25 (e.g., long-distance calling time, on-line data access time, or memory storage space) to be consumed. Thus, an assessment is made as to the service permissions needed in order to carry out the service instruction. At step 804, service wrapper 26 asks agent server 20 for the permissions held by the agent 22 for which the instruction is being executed. The permissions held by an agent 22 are not necessarily the same as the permissions which are required in order to execute an instruction. For example, agent 22 may have permissions only for long-distance calling time and memory storage space, but execution of the instruction requires permission for on-line data access time. Thus, at step 806, service wrapper 26 determines whether the permissions held by agent 22 include the permissions required in order to execute the instruction. If it is determined that the permissions held do not include the permissions required, service wrapper 26 executes an error routine at step 808, after which method 800 ends. Otherwise, if it is determined at step 806 that the permissions held do include the permissions required, method 800 precedes to step 810 where, for each service permission, service wrapper 26 identifies the amount of a service resource 25 which is allotted to agent 22 and the amount of that service resource 25 which must be consumed in order to execute the instruction. As with the permissions, the amount of a service resource 25 allotted to an agent 22 is not necessarily the same as the amount of that service resource 25 which is required to execute the instruction. For example, an agent 22 may have permission to utilize up to a predefined amount of memory storage space to store a voice mail message, but the actual amount required for a particular message is greater than the predefined amount. At step 812, service wrapper 26 determines whether the amount allotted to agent 22 is at least as great as the amount required to execute the instruction. If it is determined that the amount allotted is not at least as great as the amount required, service wrapper 26 executes an error routine at step 814, after which method 800 ends. Referring again to step 812, if it is determined that the amount of the service resource 25 allotted to agent 22 is at least as great as the amount which is required to execute the instruction, then method 800 moves to step 816 where service wrapper 26 asks the respective service 24 to execute the instruction, thereby enabling agent 22 to perform one or more tasks for its user/principal. At step 818, service wrapper 26 identifies the amount of each service resource 25 actually consumed or used to execute the instruction. At step 820, for each service resource 25, service wrapper 26 asks agent server 20 to decrement the amount allotted to agent 22 by the amount actually used. Method 800 then ends. In method 800 described above, it is assumed that service wrapper 26 can determine in advance what amount of service resource 25 will be consumed in the execution of an instruction. This, however, is not always the case. For example, while a predefined maximum amount of memory space may be set aside to store any given voice mail message, the amount of storage space actually consumed depends on how long the caller speaks. Other service resources 25 can be consumed on an on-going basis even after an instruction has executed. For example, if a long-distance call is made on behalf of a subscriber, connect time for a long-distance service continues until the call has been completed. In both cases, service wrapper 26 actively monitors service resource consumption and halts further consumption whenever the amount held by an agent 22 is exhausted. Accordingly, the present invention provides a system and method which allow subscribers or third parties to create and customize personalized agents 22 which utilize services 24 (e.g., e-mail, voice mail, electronic address book, electronic contact book, etc.) in order to perform respective tasks for the subscribers. Thus, the present invention affords user extensibility of the services 24. Furthermore, the present invention monitors and controls the consumption of service resources 25 and computational resources 21 by agents 22 during execution. Thus, the present invention protects the subscribers and a service provider from misuse or overuse, whether intentional or inadvertent, of such resources. While particular embodiments of the present invention and their advantages have been shown and described, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions, and alterations can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Advances in computer and telephony systems have led to the development of numerous technology-driven services, such as electronic mail (e-mail), voice mail, electronic organizers (for appointments and addresses), on-line databases (e.g., for periodicals and stock quotes), and the like. An increasing popularity for these technological services in recent years has spawned an entire industry devoted to the provision and integration of the same. For example, numerous companies now offer e-mail service over the interconnection of computers widely known as the Internet. Other companies offer systems for voice mail services in both private branch exchange (PBX) and public telephone environments. Entities which offer, supply, or otherwise provide services are referred to as “service providers.” Entities which purchase, consume, or otherwise use services are referred to as “subscribers.” Many technological services are supported by one or more software applications. These software applications are often developed with a broad spectrum of subscribers in mind. As such, the respective technological services may address the generalized needs of many subscribers, but not the specialized needs of any one particular subscriber or group of subscribers. With previous techniques, when a subscriber desires to alter, change, modify, or otherwise customize a service to suit his or her own specialized needs, that subscriber must contact the appropriate service provider. If the service provider deems that there is sufficient demand for such customization, the provider will initiate a modification of the supporting software application for the relevant service. Software programmers or developers must then modify the existing software application to address the specialized needs of the requesting subscriber(s), and afterwards, test the modified software to ensure that it is functioning properly. Many iterations of modification and testing may be performed before the finished, customized service is available to the subscriber. In light of the above, it is clear that previous techniques are problematic for numerous reasons. For example, a service provider is required to maintain or otherwise employ a staff of human software developers for making modifications to supporting software applications. This can be expensive. Furthermore, a substantial amount of time may be required to develop, modify, and test supporting software applications in response to the request of a particular subscriber or group of subscribers. This can lead to subscriber dissatisfaction, and ultimately, defection to another service provider. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The disadvantages and problems associated with previous techniques for providing technological services have been substantially reduced or eliminated using the present invention. The present invention provides a network system extensible (e.g., programmable) by “end-users,” and a method of operation for the same. In general, an end-user (or simply “user”) is any individual, party, or entity which somehow interacts with the network system. A user can thus be an entity known to the network system (i.e., an entity having a log-in ID), such as, for example, a subscriber and or an individual affiliated with the service provider. A user can also be an arbitrary third-party which somehow interacts with the network system. With the present invention, users may extend or customize the network system according to their own particular needs. To accomplish this, a network system is augmented with an agent system. Capabilities of the network system are programmatically exposed by means of one or more services, service resources, and service wrappers. Each service individually, or the network system as a whole, can be extended by adding agents (created by users). Furthermore, the consumption of computational and service resources are monitored within the network system, thus protecting the subscribers and the service provider from harm or misuse, whether intentional or inadvertent. Accordingly, the network system can admit agents programmed by users. In addition, the present invention contemplates that a third party may modify existing agents and create new agents in the case where subscribers lack the desire or sophistication to do so themselves. The third party can then make such customized agents commercially available to subscribers. According to an embodiment of the present invention, a network system includes a service. An agent uses the service on behalf of a principal. An agent server mediates the use of the service by the agent. According to another embodiment of the present invention, a network system includes a user interface which allows a user to interact with the network system. An agent server is coupled to the user interface. The agent server manages agent use of the network system. Furthermore, the agent server in conjunction with the user interface is operable to create or modify an agent in response to interaction by the user. According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method includes the following: admitting a user to a network system wherein at least one agent is operable to utilize a service to perform a task for the user; and allowing the user to create or modify the agent within the network system. According to still another embodiment of the present invention, a network system includes an agent server which manages agent use of the network system. An agent is operable to utilize a service within the network system. A service wrapper, associated with the service, cooperates with the agent server to mediate interaction between the service and the agent. According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, a method includes the following: allowing an agent to utilize a service; and mediating interaction between the service and the agent. A technical advantage of the present invention includes providing a network system (and a method of operation therefor) which is programmable by users (including subscribers) according to their own particular needs. From the standpoint of subscribers, this facilitates the process of adding or deleting new services or extending existing services and, from the standpoint of a service provider, this is beneficial in that human software developers and testers can be reduced or eliminated altogether with the automated system of the present invention. Other aspects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following descriptions and accompanying drawings. | 20041124 | 20110524 | 20050428 | 95691.0 | 3 | BLAIR, DOUGLAS B | NETWORK SYSTEM EXTENSIBLE BY USERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,995,264 | ACCEPTED | Solar-powered wireless crosswalk warning system | A solar-powered crosswalk warning system is disclosed. The crosswalk warning system comprises two or more crosswalk warning beacons, located on opposite sides of the road. Each beacon comprises a solar panel to recharge a battery, a battery back, a control unit to charge the battery pack during daylight hours, a communication unit to communicate to the second crosswalk beacon, a traffic signal lamp ton warn oncoming traffic, and a triggering means by which the pedestrian can activate the beacons. | 1. A crosswalk warning assembly comprising: a battery; a solar panel to charge said battery; a communication system adapted to communicate with a similar companion crosswalk warning assembly; a warning light to signal oncoming traffic; and, a manual triggering means for activating said communication system and said signal lights. 2. The crosswalk assembly of claim 1 wherein said communication system and said signal lights are powered by said battery. 3. The crosswalk assembly of claim 2 further comprising a control unit to manage the charging of said battery from the output of said solar panel; 4. The crosswalk assembly of claim 1 wherein said communication system is adapted to respond to activation of said manual triggering means by communicating with a similar companion crosswalk assembly. 5. The crosswalk assembly of claim 4 wherein said communication system is wireless and comprises radio receiver and transmitter means. 6. The crosswalk assembly of claim 5 wherein said power management control unit, said signal lights and said communication system are powered by said battery. 7. The crosswalk assembly of claim 4 further comprising software for coordinating the operation of signal lights of said crosswalk assembly with the operation of signal lights of a similar companion crosswalk assembly. 8. The crosswalk assembly of claim 6 further comprising software for synchronizing the operation of signal lights of said crosswalk assembly with the operation of signal lights of a similar companion crosswalk assembly. 9. The crosswalk assembly of claim 8 wherein said software for coordinating the operation of signal lights controls a feature of said operation from among the set of features comprising the timing of the flashing of the signal lights, the duration of the operation of the signal lights and delays between uses. 10. The crosswalk assembly of claim 2 further comprising a housing containing said communication system and said battery, said housing also supporting said solar panel. 11. The crosswalk assembly of claim 10 wherein said housing is pivotable about a horizontal axis. 12. The crosswalk assembly of cliam 11 wherein said housing is pivotable about a vertical axis. 13. The crosswalk assembly of claim 10, 11 or 12 wherein said solar panel is protected from the elements by being encased in a layer of clear polymer. 14. The crosswalk assembly of claim 8 wherein activation of said triggering means causes said radio receiver and transmitter means to enter into transmit-only mode for a predetermined time. 15. The crosswalk assembly of claim 8 wherein receipt by said radio receiver and transmitter means of a master timing beacon causes said radio receiver and transmitter means to enter into receive-only mode for a predetermined time. 16. The crosswalk assembly of claim 15 wherein said control unit causes at least one of said lights to illuminate each time a signal is received by said radio receiver and transmitter means indicating that a light on a separate crosswalk assembly has turned on or off. 17. A multiple crosswalk assembly system comprising three crosswalk assemblies as in claim 1, one of said crosswalk assemblies being located in the middle of a crosswalk and mounted on a post or suspended from overhead wires. 18. A crosswalk assembly comprising: a battery; a solar panel to charge said battery; a communication system adapted to communicate with a similar companion crosswalk warning assembly; a warning light to signal oncoming traffic; and, remote manual triggering and transmitted means for communicating to said communication system an activation of said manual triggering means. 19. The crosswalk warning assembly of claim 7 wherein said control unit is adapted to monitor said communication system for receipt of a signal indicating that the crosswalk warning assembly is to be remotely programmed. 20. The crosswalk warning assembly of claim 9 wherein said software is programmed to cause said lights to flash at specified hours for a specified period of time. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority from, co-pending application Ser. No. 10/475,574 filed 22 Oct. 2003, which itself claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent application No. 60/285,941 filed 23 Apr. 2001. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to crosswalk warning systems equipped with warning lights, usually situated on each side of the road (as well as on the meridian if present) which can be activated by the pedestrian. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Crosswalks are a means of allowing pedestrians to cross streets at designated locations with comparative safety. At street intersections, pedestrians are usually assisted in crossing the street by the traffic control signage or signal equipment, which may include “WALK”, “DON'T WALK” lighted signs, or the analogous iconographic lighted signs, linked to the traffic light system. At ‘mid-block’ locations remote from intersections, crosswalks are usually indicated by white lines on the pavement and signage to show the location of the crosswalk. Pedestrians wanting to cross the road must stand on the side of the road at the start of the crosswalk to indicate their intention to cross the road, and drivers are expected to notice the pedestrians, stop and allow them to cross. In darkness, where traffic levels are higher, or on multi-lane roads this minimal kind of crosswalk is not effective because drivers may not see the pedestrians waiting at the crosswalk, or may ignore them. Furthermore, pedestrians may feel empowered to cross the street when in fact they have not been noticed by the motorists. Fatalities at crosswalks are relatively common, and have caused crosswalks to be regarded as a serious safety issue. However, the alternative to crosswalks is to have no regulation of pedestrians crossing busy streets, and this is a worse alternative. In order to improve safety at crosswalks, a number of strategies are in use. Since the danger is most pronounced at night, crosswalks are sometimes lit with overhead lighting. This is an expensive solution due to the costs of bringing electricity to the crosswalk, installing the overhead lighting across the road, and providing maintenance and electricity to the site. Another strategy is to install flashing yellow warning signals at crosswalks so drivers notice the crosswalk and slow down, thereby improving their chance to see pedestrians using the crosswalk. These flashing signals are cheaper and easier to install than full-fledged lighting systems, and have lower on-going costs. However, since neither of these solutions is activated by the pedestrian, drivers learn that most of the time crosswalks are not being used, and they ‘tune out’ the crosswalk, and do not notice if pedestrians are present. Another type of system which improves safety in crosswalks is described in our co-pending application Ser. No. 10/475,574. This system comprises a solar-powered warning light system on a timer, so warning lights activate automatically at specific times. This kind of assembly can be very useful at crosswalks adjacent to schools. Posted signs require that traffic slow down when the warning lights are flashing to a slower speed limit. The combined effect of the flashing lights and the reduced speed limit improves safety at crosswalks, while only slowing traffic during specific times. This strategy is effective only when the pedestrian traffic usage of a crosswalk can be predicted, such as the timing of students going to and from school. Compared with these strategies, active warning systems provide the highest degree of driver awareness and pedestrian safety. Active crosswalk systems are systems that are activated by the pedestrian to warn drivers that the pedestrian wants to cross the road. U.S. Pat. No. 6,268,805 discloses a solar-powered traffic light and LED light sources. In order to be used at a crosswalk, this system would require trenching or wiring to connect the traffic lights on each side of the road for coordinated activation. U.S. Pat. No. 6,384,742 discloses a traffic warning system which alerts approaching vehicle traffic to the presence of a pedestrian in a crosswalk. The system includes a plurality of surface mounted lights partially embedded in and placed across a roadway to delineate the crosswalk. This system requires trenching of the road and power from the electricity grid. U.S. Pat. No. 5,734,339 discloses a crosswalk warning light system which detects a pedestrian entering the crosswalk and activates a light which illuminates the pedestrian so a driver can see and avoid the pedestrian in the crosswalk. This solution requires power from the electrical grid. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a crosswalk warning system that can be installed in any desired location without requiring power from the electrical grid and without requiring trenching of the road or overhead wiring such as would normally be required to coordinate the signal lights on each side of the road. Another object of the present invention is to provide an ‘active’ crosswalk warning system in which a pedestrian can activate warning beacons prior to using the crosswalk. Other objects of the invention will be apparent from the summary and the detailed description that follows, and not all such objects are necessarily simultaneously achieved for the principal embodiment of the invention or for each claim of this patent. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one of its aspects, the present invention comprises a crosswalk warning assembly comprising a battery, a solar panel to charge the battery and a control unit to manage the charging of the battery from the output of the solar panel and to perform other control functions. A wireless communication system is provided to enable the assembly to communicate with a similar companion assembly on another side of a roadway. Manual triggering means are provided for activation of signal lights by a pedestrian. Manual triggering causes the signal lights of the assembly to turn on, typically in flashing mode, and causes the communication system to signal the companion assembly that the warning system has been activated so as to allow synchronized operation of the companion assemblies. The control unit, the communication system and the signal lights are each powered by the battery which is in turn charged using the solar panel. In another of its aspects, the invention comprises such an assembly further comprising power management software associated with the control unit for managing the charging of the battery, the supply of power to the circuitry associated with the assembly, the supply of power to the communication system and the supply of power to the signal lights. In a further aspect, the invention further comprises signal light control software to control the timing of the flashing of the signal lights, their duration and the coordination of the signal lights between at least two companion assemblies. In other of its aspects, the invention also comprises software to provide data-logging and system maintenance monitoring. In another aspect, flash duration and delays between uses can also be configured via the manual triggering means for a predetermined set up time after the battery is first connected in the assembly. In another of its aspects, the invention provides the solar panel, the battery and the power management control unit in a housing mounted on an adjustable mount so as to be adjustably oriented in relation to the assembly. In one alternative embodiment of the invention, there is provided software that interfaces with the wireless communication system so as to accept wireless programming of the signal light control software to control such parameters as frequency of flash, length of operation, brightness, to turn on or off automatic dimming features, and to monitor the performance of the unit and its maintenance status. These together with other objects of the invention, along with the various features which characterize the invention, are pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed to and forming a part of this disclosure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The detailed description of the preferred embodiment will proceed by reference to the drawings thereof, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one of the assemblies of the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2A is a perspective view of the top portion of one of the assemblies of the preferred embodiment with the solar power plant in partially exploded view; FIG. 2B is a perspective view of the top portion of one of the assemblies of the preferred embodiment with the solar power plant in a more fully exploded view than FIG. 2A; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the crosswalk warning system showing two assemblies, one on each side of the road at either end of the crosswalk; FIG. 4A is a plan view of the solar panel assembly; and, FIG. 4B is a side elevation of the solar panel assembly. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION FIGS. 1 and 3 illustrate the crosswalk warning system according to the preferred embodiment. Two similar crosswalk warning assemblies 10 are placed at opposite ends of a crosswalk 12. Each assembly includes a signal light sub-assembly 14 to warn cars 16 approaching the crosswalk from either direction. Each crosswalk warning assembly 10 is deployed on a post 18 which includes a push button 20 for the pedestrian to activate the signal light sub-assembly 14. Upon triggering of button 20, wireless communication systems (including a radio module 22 and antennae 24) in each assembly 10 communicate with each other to synchronize the flashing of the signal lights as required. Typically, the lights on one side of the road will be made to flash alternately to the lights on the other side of the road. Referring to FIG. 1, the principal components of crosswalk assembly 10 are the post 18, a button 20 mounted on the post at pedestrian level, signal light sub-assembly 14 and a power plant sub-assembly 26 mounted on a top cap 28 provided at the top of post 18. Signal light sub-assembly 14 comprises LED signal lights 33, 32 (normally amber flashers) mounted on a pivoting mount 34 in a conventional manner. Referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, the power plant sub-assembly 26 combines the functions of providing power to the assembly, controlling the flashing, diagnostic and maintenance, and effecting communication between companion assemblies. Power plant sub-assembly 26 includes a housing 27, solar panel platform 36, batteries 38, battery brackets 40, 42, control unit 44, wireless communication radio module 22 and antenna 24. Housing 27 is mounted for pivotal movement on a top tee assembly 46 that is in turn secured to the top cap 28 of the post 18 by means of a set screw 48. Housing 27 includes apertures (not shown) in the base thereof for receiving the ends of two U-bolts 50, 52 that are otherwise engaged about the horizontal legs of the top tee assembly 46. The ends of the U-bolts 50, 52 are secured to the underside of the base of the housing by means of nuts 54. As a result, the housing 27 may be rotated about the horizontal axis defined by the horizontal legs of the top tee assembly followed by tightening of the nuts 54 so as to fix the orientation of the solar panels to maximize the capture of sunlight. Housing 27 may also be rotated about a vertical axis by releasing set screw 48, rotating the top tee assembly 46 in relation to the top cap 28, and resetting the set screw. Solar-panel platform 36 comprises a plurality of solar cells 56 arrayed on plates 58. As best illustrated in FIG. 4, the solar cells 56 are sealed from the elements by a ⅛″ thick film of clear polymer material 60 that covers the entire array, as described in our co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/475,574, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Radio module 22 consists of a transceiver and a dedicated microcontroller capable of configuring the transceiver to receive-only or transmit-only modes, to assign an operational channel or frequency hopping pattern and to assign a data transmission speed. Radio module 22 transmits and receives by means of antenna 24 which is mounted on housing 27. Batteries 38 provide operating power to the powered components of the, assembly 10, including the control unit 44, the radio module 22, the signal lights 30, 32, the push button 20, and any other circuitry associated with the assembly 10. Thus the entire assembly 10 is effectively powered by solar power plant 26. Programmable microcontroller control unit 44 contains all of the operational software required to operate the crosswalk assembly, including the following functions: managing the charging and loading of the battery, providing operating power to the other components of the crosswalk assembly, controlling the master/slave relationship between companion crosswalk assemblies, synchronizing the lights in the companion assemblies, controlling the duration and duty cycle of the lights, interfacing with the radio module, and data logging and maintenance functions. The management of the charging and loading of the batteries includes controlling the power used by the signal lights as a function of the charge, and the net discharge rate, of the battery, for example to maintain signal light operation despite low sunlight conditions (either night operation or winter operation). The software in the control unit 44 also controls the activation of the signal lights so as to achieve the desired flashing mode, duty cycle and overall duration. The software can also be set to limit the number of pedestrian activations that can occur, by for example not allowing the crosswalk to be re-activated until several minutes have passed, to allow traffic to clear. The data logging function includes recording the battery voltage each day or for a succession of days, recording the number of activations of the crosswalk assembly, the frequency of activation requests, etc.). A self test routine is also provided in the preferred embodiment of the invention. In operation, pressing the button 20 causes the signal lights 30, 32 of the assembly to turn on, typically in flashing mode, and causes the communication system to signal the companion assembly 10 that the warning system has been activated. More specifically, pressing button 20 causes a signal to be sent to control unit 44 indicating that activation of the crosswalk warning system has been requested. Upon receipt of an activation signal from the push button triggering mechanism 20, controller unit 44 takes the following steps: initiates a timing sequence corresponding to the duration of the flashing and to the desired flashing mode; sends a signal to the dedicated microcontroller associated with the radio module 22 to cause the microcontroller to configure the transceiver of the module 22 to operate in transmit-only mode for the duration of a predetermined warning period (for example 20 seconds); and, causes the radio module 22 to transmit a master timing beacon for reception by the companion crosswalk assembly. The master timing beacon indicates the beginning of the warning period. Upon detection of the master timing beacon by the transceiver of the companion crosswalk assembly, its corresponding control unit 44 configures the transceiver of the companion crosswalk assembly to operate in receive-only mode for the duration of the warning period. The transceivers of the crosswalk assemblies are normally in receive mode, but can be made to transmit at any given time, for example to transmit a master timing beacon when the push button 20 has been triggered. However, when a master timing beacon has been detected from another assembly and the transceiver is set to receive-only mode, triggering the push button at any time during the remainder of the warning period will not cause the transceiver to transmit another master timing beacon, as the transmit mode is suppressed. For the purposes of the following discussion, the crosswalk assembly that has transmitted the master timing beacon will be designated as the master assembly and the companion crosswalk assembly that receives the master timing beacon will be designated as the slave assembly. Once the transceiver of the master assembly has been set to transmit-only mode, the master timing beacon has been transmitted to the slave assembly, and the transceiver of the slave assembly has been set to receive-only mode, the control unit 44 causes the signal lights 30, 32 of the master assembly to be toggled on and off in accordance with the previously determined flashing parameters. At each toggle on or off, the radio module of the master assembly transmits a signal to indicate the state, or change of state, of each of the lights. In response to each toggle signal received by the slave assembly, the appropriate signal light on the slave assembly is toggled on or off so as to produce the alternate flashing sequence for which the set of crosswalk assemblies has been configured. Once the warning period has expired, the control units 44 of the master and slave assemblies cause the flashing of the lights to cease and cause both assemblies to return to normal ready mode, subject to the imposition of a waiting period between successive activations of the crosswalk warning system. Upon first connecting batteries 38 to the control unit 44 during crosswalk installation, software in the control unit causes the control unit to enter into a programming mode whereby the installer can program flash features such as duration and frequency, and delays between activations. The interface used to program the features is the push button 20, which is used according to a predetermined protocol. The software is pre-programmed to allow this manual feature selection mode to remain enabled for a predetermined amount of time, for example 10 minutes. It will be appreciated that the invention can also be applied to a crosswalk warning system in which there are three or more crosswalk assemblies, with the third assembly being located in the middle of the crosswalk at the centre of the road, mounted on a post or suspended from overhead lines, and the other crosswalk assemblies being located at either end of the crosswalk. All three communicating by radio to provide synchronous flashing of warning lights when the crosswalk warning system is triggered by a pedestrian. It will further be appreciated that although in the preferred embodiment the push button 20 and the transmitter portion of the transceiver are incorporated into a single crosswalk assembly, those two components could be provided in a location that is separate from the signal lights, power plant and the receiver portion of the transceiver. In certain crosswalks, it may be desirable to provide a crosswalk assembly that is programmed to flash at specified times without requiring manual activation. This may be the case for example at crosswalks adjacent schools in which case the crosswalk warning may be enabled for specified periods during entrance and end of school each day. The control unit can be programmed accordingly, with the detection of the appropriate time of day being otherwise treated as equivalent to a manual triggering of push button 20. In a further embodiment, a manual override is provided in a simple lock box (not shown) fixed to the post 18. The lock box contains a button or on and off switches to allow a user with access to the lock box to override the control unit and to cause the signal lights to remain in flashing mode until manually reset by such user. It is also contemplated to provide such a crosswalk assembly that accepts wireless programming of the signal light control software to control such parameters as frequency of flash, length of operation, brightness, to turn on or off automatic dimming features, and to monitor the performance of the unit and its system health, for example using a notebook computer. In order to enable such feature, the control unit 44 would monitor transmissions received by the radio module for receipt of a predetermined supervisory signal, such as is transmitted by the notebook computer. Upon receipt of such signal, the control unit verifies that the crosswalk warning is not in operation, and if it is, it allows the warning period to terminate. The control unit then enters into an authentication and programming mode that verifies incoming authentication signals and if authenticated, then enables communication between the notebook and the control unit to accept new programming. The preferred and alternative embodiments of the invention have been described in some detail but the reader is reminded that these are preferred embodiments only. Variations and modifications thereto may be implemented without thereby departing from the scope of the invention, which is more particularly defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Crosswalks are a means of allowing pedestrians to cross streets at designated locations with comparative safety. At street intersections, pedestrians are usually assisted in crossing the street by the traffic control signage or signal equipment, which may include “WALK”, “DON'T WALK” lighted signs, or the analogous iconographic lighted signs, linked to the traffic light system. At ‘mid-block’ locations remote from intersections, crosswalks are usually indicated by white lines on the pavement and signage to show the location of the crosswalk. Pedestrians wanting to cross the road must stand on the side of the road at the start of the crosswalk to indicate their intention to cross the road, and drivers are expected to notice the pedestrians, stop and allow them to cross. In darkness, where traffic levels are higher, or on multi-lane roads this minimal kind of crosswalk is not effective because drivers may not see the pedestrians waiting at the crosswalk, or may ignore them. Furthermore, pedestrians may feel empowered to cross the street when in fact they have not been noticed by the motorists. Fatalities at crosswalks are relatively common, and have caused crosswalks to be regarded as a serious safety issue. However, the alternative to crosswalks is to have no regulation of pedestrians crossing busy streets, and this is a worse alternative. In order to improve safety at crosswalks, a number of strategies are in use. Since the danger is most pronounced at night, crosswalks are sometimes lit with overhead lighting. This is an expensive solution due to the costs of bringing electricity to the crosswalk, installing the overhead lighting across the road, and providing maintenance and electricity to the site. Another strategy is to install flashing yellow warning signals at crosswalks so drivers notice the crosswalk and slow down, thereby improving their chance to see pedestrians using the crosswalk. These flashing signals are cheaper and easier to install than full-fledged lighting systems, and have lower on-going costs. However, since neither of these solutions is activated by the pedestrian, drivers learn that most of the time crosswalks are not being used, and they ‘tune out’ the crosswalk, and do not notice if pedestrians are present. Another type of system which improves safety in crosswalks is described in our co-pending application Ser. No. 10/475,574. This system comprises a solar-powered warning light system on a timer, so warning lights activate automatically at specific times. This kind of assembly can be very useful at crosswalks adjacent to schools. Posted signs require that traffic slow down when the warning lights are flashing to a slower speed limit. The combined effect of the flashing lights and the reduced speed limit improves safety at crosswalks, while only slowing traffic during specific times. This strategy is effective only when the pedestrian traffic usage of a crosswalk can be predicted, such as the timing of students going to and from school. Compared with these strategies, active warning systems provide the highest degree of driver awareness and pedestrian safety. Active crosswalk systems are systems that are activated by the pedestrian to warn drivers that the pedestrian wants to cross the road. U.S. Pat. No. 6,268,805 discloses a solar-powered traffic light and LED light sources. In order to be used at a crosswalk, this system would require trenching or wiring to connect the traffic lights on each side of the road for coordinated activation. U.S. Pat. No. 6,384,742 discloses a traffic warning system which alerts approaching vehicle traffic to the presence of a pedestrian in a crosswalk. The system includes a plurality of surface mounted lights partially embedded in and placed across a roadway to delineate the crosswalk. This system requires trenching of the road and power from the electricity grid. U.S. Pat. No. 5,734,339 discloses a crosswalk warning light system which detects a pedestrian entering the crosswalk and activates a light which illuminates the pedestrian so a driver can see and avoid the pedestrian in the crosswalk. This solution requires power from the electrical grid. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a crosswalk warning system that can be installed in any desired location without requiring power from the electrical grid and without requiring trenching of the road or overhead wiring such as would normally be required to coordinate the signal lights on each side of the road. Another object of the present invention is to provide an ‘active’ crosswalk warning system in which a pedestrian can activate warning beacons prior to using the crosswalk. Other objects of the invention will be apparent from the summary and the detailed description that follows, and not all such objects are necessarily simultaneously achieved for the principal embodiment of the invention or for each claim of this patent. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one of its aspects, the present invention comprises a crosswalk warning assembly comprising a battery, a solar panel to charge the battery and a control unit to manage the charging of the battery from the output of the solar panel and to perform other control functions. A wireless communication system is provided to enable the assembly to communicate with a similar companion assembly on another side of a roadway. Manual triggering means are provided for activation of signal lights by a pedestrian. Manual triggering causes the signal lights of the assembly to turn on, typically in flashing mode, and causes the communication system to signal the companion assembly that the warning system has been activated so as to allow synchronized operation of the companion assemblies. The control unit, the communication system and the signal lights are each powered by the battery which is in turn charged using the solar panel. In another of its aspects, the invention comprises such an assembly further comprising power management software associated with the control unit for managing the charging of the battery, the supply of power to the circuitry associated with the assembly, the supply of power to the communication system and the supply of power to the signal lights. In a further aspect, the invention further comprises signal light control software to control the timing of the flashing of the signal lights, their duration and the coordination of the signal lights between at least two companion assemblies. In other of its aspects, the invention also comprises software to provide data-logging and system maintenance monitoring. In another aspect, flash duration and delays between uses can also be configured via the manual triggering means for a predetermined set up time after the battery is first connected in the assembly. In another of its aspects, the invention provides the solar panel, the battery and the power management control unit in a housing mounted on an adjustable mount so as to be adjustably oriented in relation to the assembly. In one alternative embodiment of the invention, there is provided software that interfaces with the wireless communication system so as to accept wireless programming of the signal light control software to control such parameters as frequency of flash, length of operation, brightness, to turn on or off automatic dimming features, and to monitor the performance of the unit and its maintenance status. These together with other objects of the invention, along with the various features which characterize the invention, are pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed to and forming a part of this disclosure. | 20041124 | 20080108 | 20050616 | 62466.0 | 1 | GOINS, DAVETTA WOODS | SOLAR-POWERED WIRELESS CROSSWALK WARNING SYSTEM | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,995,283 | ACCEPTED | Semiconductor device and method of manufacturing the same | An isolation which is higher in a stepwise manner than an active area of a silicon substrate is formed. On the active area, an FET including a gate oxide film, a gate electrode, a gate protection film, sidewalls and the like is formed. An insulating film is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate, and a resist film for exposing an area stretching over the active area, a part of the isolation and the gate protection film is formed on the insulating film. There is no need to provide an alignment margin for avoiding interference with the isolation and the like to a region where a connection hole is formed. Since the isolation is higher in a stepwise manner than the active area, the isolation is prevented from being removed by over-etch in the formation of a connection hole to come in contact with a portion where an impurity concentration is low in the active area. In this manner, the integration of a semiconductor device can be improved and an area occupied by the semiconductor device can be decreased without causing degradation of junction voltage resistance and increase of a junction leakage current in the semiconductor device. | 1-38. (canceled) 39. A semiconductor device, comprising: an isolation insulating area surrounding an active area of a semiconductor substrate; a gate insulating film formed over the active area; a gate electrode formed over the gate insulating film; first L-shaped sidewalls formed over the side surfaces of the gate electrode; and first silicide layers formed on regions located on the sides of the first L-shaped sidewalls within the active area. 40. The semiconductor device of claim 39, wherein the first L-shaped sidewalls are made of a silicon nitride film. 41. The semiconductor device of claim 39, further comprising first protection oxide films formed between the gate electrode and the first L-shaped sidewalls. 42. The semiconductor device of claim 39, further comprising a second silicide layer formed on the gate electrode. 43. The semiconductor device of claim 39, further comprising source/drain regions formed on both sides of the gate electrode within the active area, wherein the first silicide layers are formed on the source/drain regions. 44. The semiconductor device of claim 39, further comprising an interconnection formed over the isolation insulating area; and second L-shaped sidewalls formed over the side surfaces of the interconnection. 45. The semiconductor device of claim 44, the second L-shaped sidewalls are made of a silicon nitride film. 46. The semiconductor device of claim 44, further comprising second protection oxide films formed between the interconnection and the second L-shaped sidewalls. 47. The semiconductor device of claim 44, further comprising a third silicide layer formed on the interconnection. 48. The semiconductor device of claim 39, wherein the isolation insulating area is a trench isolation. 49. The semiconductor device of claim 48, the trench isolation has an upper surface higher than the surface of the active area. 50. The semiconductor device of claim 48, wherein a lower portion of the interconnection provided on the upper surface of the trench isolation is located higher than the surface of the active area. 51. The semiconductor device of claim 44, wherein the interconnection is composed of the same material as the gate electrode. 52. The semiconductor device of claim 51, wherein the gate electrode and the interconnection has at least a polysilicon film. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a semiconductor device including transistors and connection between the transistors for constituting an LSI with high integration and a decreased area. With the recent development of a semiconductor device with high integration and high performance, there are increasing demands for more refinement of the semiconductor device. The improvement of the conventional techniques cannot follow these demands, and novel techniques are unavoidably introduced in some technical fields. For example, as a method of forming an isolation, the LOCOS isolation method is conventionally adopted in view of its simpleness and low cost. Recently, however, it is considered that a trench buried type isolation (hereinafter referred to as the trench isolation) is more advantageous for manufacturing a refined semiconductor device. Specifically, in the LOCOS isolation method, since selective oxidation is conducted, the so-called bird's beak occurs in the boundary with a mask for preventing the oxidation. As a result, the dimension of a transistor is changed because an insulating film of the isolation invades a transistor region against the actually designed mask dimension. This dimensional change is unallowable in the refinement of a semiconductor device after the 0.5 μm generation. Therefore, even in the mass-production techniques, the isolation forming method has started to be changed to the trench isolation method in which the dimensional change is very small. For example, IBM corporation has introduced the trench isolation structure as a 0.5 μm CMOS process for the mass-production of an MPU (IBM Journal of Research and Development, VOL. 39, No. 1/2, 1995, pp. 33-42). Furthermore, in a semiconductor device mounting elements such as a MOSFET in an active area surrounded with an isolation, an insulating film is deposited on the active area, the isolation and a gate electrode, and a contact hole is formed by partly exposing the insulating film for connection between the active area and an interconnection member on a layer above the insulating film. This structure is known as a very common structure for the semiconductor device. FIG. 17 is a sectional view for showing the structure of a conventional semiconductor device. In FIG. 17, a reference numeral 1 denotes a silicon substrate, a reference numeral 2b denotes an isolation with a trench isolation structure which is made of a silicon oxide film and whose top surface is flattened so as to be at the same level as the top surface of the silicon substrate 1, a reference numeral 3 denotes a gate oxide film made of a silicon oxide film, a reference numeral 4a denotes a polysilicon electrode working as a gate electrode, a reference numeral 4b denotes a polysilicon interconnection formed simultaneously with the polysilicon electrode 4a, a reference numeral 6 denotes a low-concentration source/drain region formed by doping the silicon substrate with an n-type impurity at a low concentration, a reference numeral 7a denotes an electrode sidewall, a reference numeral 7b denotes an interconnection sidewall, a reference numeral 8 denotes a high-concentration source/drain region formed by doping the silicon substrate with an n-type impurity at a high concentration, a reference numeral 12 denotes an insulating film made of a silicon oxide film, and a reference numeral 13 denotes a local interconnection made of a polysilicon film formed on the insulating film 12. The local interconnection 13 is also filled within a connection hole 14 formed in a part of the insulating film 12, so as to be contacted with the source/drain region in the active area through the connection hole 14. In this case, the connection hole 14 is formed apart from the isolation 2b by a predetermined distance. In other words, in the conventional layout rule for such a semiconductor device, there is a rule that the edge of a connection hole is previously located away from the boundary between the active area and the isolation region so as to prevent a part of the connection hole 14 from stretching over the isolation 2b even when a mask alignment shift is caused in photolithography (this distance between the connection hole and the isolation is designated as an alignment margin). However, in the structure of the semiconductor device as shown in FIG. 17, there arise problems in the attempts to further improve the integration for the following reason: A distance La between the polysilicon electrode 4a and the isolation 2b is estimated as an index of the integration. In order to prevent the connection hole 14 from interfering the isolation 2b as described above, the distance La is required to be 1.2 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole 14, that is, 0.5 μm, the width of the electrode sidewall 7a, that is, 0.1 μm, the alignment margin from the polysilicon electrode 4a, that is, 0.3 μm, and the alignment margin from the isolation 2b, that is, 0.3 μm. A connection hole has attained a more and more refined diameter with the development of processing techniques, and also a gate length has been decreased as small as 0.3 μm or less. Still, the alignment margin in consideration of the mask alignment shift in the photolithography is required to be approximately 0.3 μm. Accordingly, as the gate length and the connection hole diameter are more refined, the proportion of the alignment margin is increased. This alignment margin has become an obstacle to the high integration. Therefore, attempts have been made to form the connection hole 14 without considering the alignment margin in view of the alignment shift in the photolithography. Manufacturing procedures adopted in such a case will now be described by exemplifying an n-channel MOSFET referring to FIGS. 18(a) through 18(c). First, as is shown in FIG. 18(a), after forming an isolation 2b having the trench structure in a silicon substrate 1 doped with a p-type impurity (or p-type well), etch back or the like is conducted for flattening so as to place the surfaces of the isolation 2b and the silicon substrate 1 at the same level. In an active area surrounded with the isolation 2b, a gate oxide film 3, a polysilicon electrode 4a serving as a gate electrode, an electrode sidewall 7a, a low-concentration source/drain region 6 and a high-concentration source/drain region 8 are formed. On the isolation 2b are disposed a polysilicon interconnection 4b formed simultaneously with the polysilicon electrode 4a and an interconnection sidewall 7b. At this point, the top surface of the high-concentration source/drain region 8 in the active area is placed at the same level as the top surface of the isolation 2b. Then, an insulating film 12 of a silicon oxide film is formed on the entire top surface of the substrate. Next, as is shown in FIG. 18(b), a resist film 25a used as a mask for forming a connection hole is formed on the insulating film 12, and the connection hole 14 is formed by, for example, dry etching. Then, as is shown in FIG. 18(c), the resist film 25a is removed, and a polysilicon film is deposited on the insulating film 12 and within the connection hole 14. The polysilicon film is then made into a desired pattern, thereby forming a local interconnection 13. At this point, in the case where the alignment margin in view of the mask alignment shift in the formation of the connection hole 14 is not considered in estimating the distance La between the polysilicon electrode 4a and the isolation 2b, a part of the isolation 2b is included in the connection hole 14 when the exposing area of the resist film 25a is shifted toward the isolation 2b due to the mask alignment shift in the photolithography. Through over-etch in conducting the dry etching of the insulating film 12, although the high-concentration source/drain region 8 made of the silicon substrate is not largely etched because of its small etching rate, the part of the isolation 2b included in the connection hole 14 is selectively removed, resulting in forming a recess 40 in part of the connection hole 14. When the recess 40 in the connection hole 14 has a depth exceeding a given proportion to the depth of the high-concentration source/drain region 8, junction voltage resistance can be decreased and a junction leakage current can be increased because the concentration of the impurity in the high-concentration source/drain region 8 is low at that depth. In order to prevent these phenomena, it is necessary to provide a predetermined alignment margin as is shown in the structure of FIG. 17 so as to prevent the connection hole 14 from interfering the isolation 2b even when the alignment shift is caused in the lithography. In this manner, in the conventional layout rule for a semiconductor device, an alignment margin in view of the mask alignment shift in the photolithography is unavoidably provided. Furthermore, a distance between the polysilicon electrode 4a and the connection hole 14 is also required to be provided with an alignment margin. Otherwise, the connection hole 14 can interfere the polysilicon electrode 4a due to the fluctuation caused in the manufacturing procedures, resulting in causing electric short-circuit between an upper layer interconnection buried in the connection hole and the gate electrode. As described above, it is necessary to provide the connection hole 14 with margins for preventing the interference with other elements around the connection hole, which has become a large obstacle to the high integration of an LSI. Also in the case where a semiconductor device having the so-called salicide structure is manufactured, the following problems are caused due to a recess formed in the isolation: FIG. 19 is a sectional view for showing an example of a semiconductor device including the conventional trench isolation and a MOSFET having the salicide structure. As is shown in FIG. 19, a trench isolation 105a is formed in a silicon substrate 101. In an active area surrounded with the isolation 105a, a gate insulating film 103a, a gate electrode 107a, and electrode sidewalls 108a on both side surfaces of the gate electrode 107a are formed. Also in the active area, a low-concentration source/drain region 106a and a high-concentration source/drain region 106b are formed on both sides of the gate electrode 107a. A channel stop region 115 is formed below the isolation 105a. Furthermore, in areas of the silicon substrate 101 excluding the isolation 105a and the active area, a gate interconnection 107b made of the same polysilicon film as that for the gate electrode 107a is formed with a gate insulating film 103b sandwiched, and the gate interconnection 107b is provided with interconnection sidewalls 108b on its both side surfaces. On the gate electrode 107a, the gate interconnection 107b and the high-concentration source/drain region 106b, an upper gate electrode 109a, an upper gate interconnection 109b and a source/drain electrode 109c each made of silicide are respectively formed. Furthermore, this semiconductor device includes an interlayer insulating film 111 made of a silicon oxide film, a metallic interconnection 112 formed on the interlayer insulating film 111, and a contact member 113 (buried conductive layer) filled in a connection hole formed in the interlayer insulating film 111 for connecting the metallic interconnection 112 with the source/drain electrode 109c. Now, the manufacturing procedures for the semiconductor device including the conventional trench isolation and the MOSFET with the salicide structure shown in FIG. 19 will be described referring to FIGS. 20(a) through 20(e). First, as is shown in FIG. 20(a), a silicon oxide film 116 and a silicon nitride film 117 are successively deposited on a silicon substrate 101, and a resist film 120 for exposing an isolation region and masking a transistor region is formed on the silicon nitride film 117. Then, by using the resist film 120 as a mask, etching is conducted, so as to selectively remove the silicon nitride film 116 and the silicon oxide film 117, and further etch the silicon substrate 101, thereby forming a trench 104. Then, impurity ions are injected into the bottom of the trench 104, thereby forming a channel stop region 115. Then, as is shown in FIG. 20(b), a silicon oxide film (not shown) is deposited, and the entire top surface is flattened until the surface of the silicon nitride film 117 is exposed. Through this procedure, a trench isolation 105a made of the silicon oxide film filled in the trench 104 is formed in the isolation region Reiso. Next, as is shown in FIG. 20(c), after the silicon nitride film 117 and the silicon oxide film 116 are removed, a gate oxide film 103 is formed on the silicon substrate 101, and a polysilicon film 107 is deposited thereon. Then, a photoresist film 121 for exposing areas excluding a region for forming a gate is formed on the polysilicon film 107. Then, as is shown in FIG. 20(d), by using the photoresist film 121 as a mask, dry etching is conducted, thereby selectively removing the polysilicon film 107 and the gate oxide film 103. Thus, a gate electrode 107a of the MOSFET in the transistor region Refet and a gate interconnection 107b stretching over the isolation 105a and the silicon substrate 101 are formed. After removing the photoresist film 121, impurity ions are injected into the silicon substrate 101 by using the gate electrode 107a as a mask, thereby forming a low-concentration source/drain region 106a. Then, a silicon oxide film 108 is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate. Next, as is shown in FIG. 20(e), the silicon oxide film 108 is anisotropically dry-etched, thereby forming electrode sidewalls 108a and interconnection sidewalls 108b on both side surfaces of the gate electrode 107a and the gate interconnection 107b, respectively. At this point, the gate oxide film 103 below the silicon oxide film 108 is simultaneously removed, and the gate oxide film 103 below the gate electrode 107a alone remains. Then, impurity ions are diagonally injected by using the gate electrode 107a and the electrode sidewalls 108a as masks, thereby forming a high-concentration source/drain region 106b. Then, after a Ti film is deposited on the entire top surface, high temperature annealing is conducted, thereby causing a reaction between the Ti film and the components made of silicon directly in contact with the Ti film. Thus, an upper gate electrode 109a, an upper gate interconnection 109b and a source/drain electrode 109c made of silicide are formed. The procedures to be conducted thereafter are omitted, but the semiconductor device including the MOSFET having the structure as shown in FIG. 19 can be ultimately manufactured. In FIG. 19, the metallic interconnection 112 is formed on the interlayer insulating film 111, and the metallic interconnection 112 is connected with the source/drain electrode 109c through the contact member 113 including a W plug and the like filled in the contact hole. When the aforementioned trench isolation structure is adopted, the dimensional change of the source/drain region can be suppressed because the bird's beak, that is, the oxide film invasion of an active area, which is caused in the LOCOS method where a thick silicon oxide film is formed by thermal oxidation, can be avoided. Furthermore, in the procedure shown in FIG. 20(c), the surfaces of the isolation 105a and the silicon substrate 101 in the transistor region Refet are placed at the same level. In such a semiconductor device having the trench type isolation, however, there arise the following problems: When the procedures proceed from the state shown in FIG. 20(d) to the state shown in FIG. 20(e), the silicon oxide film 108 is anisotropically etched so as to form the sidewalls 108a and 108b. At this point, over-etch is required. Through this over-etch, the surface of the isolation 105a is removed by some depth. FIGS. 21(a) and 21(b) are enlarged sectional views around the boundary between the high-concentration source/drain region 106b and the isolation 105a after this over-etch. As is shown in FIG. 21(a), between the procedures shown in FIGS. 20(d) and 20(e), the impurity ions are diagonally injected so as to form the high-concentration source/drain region 106b. Through this ion injection, the high-concentration source/drain region 106b is formed also below the edge of the isolation 105a because the isolation 105a is previously etched by some depth. Accordingly, the high-concentration source/drain region 106b is brought closer to the channel stop region 115, resulting in causing the problems of degradation of the junction voltage resistance and increase of the junction leakage current. In addition, as is shown in FIG. 21(b), in the case where the Ti film or the like is deposited on the high-concentration source/drain region 106b so as to obtain the silicide layer through the reaction with the silicon below, the thus formed silicide layer can invade the interface between the silicon substrate 101 and the isolation 105a with ease. As a result, a short-circuit current can be caused between the source/drain electrode 109c made of silicide and the channel stop region 115. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the present invention is improving the structure of an isolation, so as to prevent the problems caused because the edge of the isolation is trenched in etching for the formation of a connection hole or sidewalls. In order to achieve the object, the invention proposes first and second semiconductor devices and first through third methods of manufacturing a semiconductor device as described below. The first semiconductor device of this invention in which a semiconductor element is disposed in each of plural active areas in a semiconductor substrate comprises an isolation for surrounding and isolating each active area, the isolation having a top surface at a higher level than a surface of the active area and having a step portion in a boundary with the active area; an insulating film formed so as to stretch over each active area and the isolation; plural holes each formed by removing a portion of the insulating film disposed at least on the active area; plural buried conductive layers filled in the respective holes; and plural interconnection members formed on the insulating film so as to be connected with the respective active areas through the respective buried conductive layers. Owing to this structure, in the case where a part of or all the holes are formed so as to stretch over the active areas and the isolation due to mask alignment shift in photolithography, a part of the isolation is removed by over-etch for ensuring the formation of the holes. In such a case, even when the top surface of the isolation is trenched to be lower than the surface of the active area, the depth of the holes formed in the isolation is small in the boundary with the active area because of the level difference between the top surface of the isolation and the surface of the active area. Accordingly, degradation of the junction voltage resistance and increase of the junction leakage current can be suppressed. Therefore, there is no need to provide a portion of the active area where each hole is formed with an alignment margin for avoiding the interference with the isolation caused by the mask alignment shift in the lithography. Thus, the area of the active area can be decreased, resulting in improving the integration of the semiconductor device. In the first semiconductor device, at least a part of the plural holes can be formed so as to stretch over the active area and the isolation due to fluctuation in manufacturing procedures. In other words, even when no margin for the mask alignment in the lithography is provided, the problems caused in the formation of the holes can be avoided. Furthermore, the angle between a side surface of the step portion and the surface of the active area is preferably 70 degrees or more. As a result, when the hole interferes the isolation, the part of the isolation included in the hole is definitely prevented from being etched through over-etch in the formation of the holes down to a depth where the impurity concentration is low in the active area. The isolation is preferably a trench isolation made of an insulating material filled in a trench formed by trenching the semiconductor substrate by a predetermined depth. This is because no bird's beak is caused in the trench isolation differently from a LOCOS film as described above, and hence, the trench isolation is suitable particularly for the high integration and refinement of the semiconductor device. In the first semiconductor device, when the semiconductor element is a MISFET including a gate insulating film and a gate electrode formed on the active area; and source/drain regions formed in the active area on both sides of the gate electrode, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted: The semiconductor device can further comprise a gate interconnection made of the same material as that for the gate electrode and formed on the isolation, each of the holes can be formed on an area including the source/drain region, the isolation and the gate interconnection, and the plural interconnection members can be connected with the gate interconnection on the isolation. Owing to this configuration, in the case where the interconnection members work as local interconnections for connecting a gate interconnection on the isolation with the active area, there is no need to separately form holes in the insulating film on the gate interconnection and the insulating film on the active area. In addition, there is no need to provide the separate holes with alignment margins from the boundary between the active area and the isolation. Accordingly, the area of the isolation can also be decreased, resulting in largely improving the integration of the semiconductor device. The semiconductor device can further comprise electrode sidewalls made of an insulating material and formed on both side surfaces of the gate electrode; and a step sidewall made of the same material as the insulating material for the electrode sidewalls and formed on the side surface of the step portion. In this semiconductor device, at least a part of the holes can be formed by also removing a portion of the insulating film disposed on the step sidewall. Owing to this structure, the abrupt level difference between the surfaces of the isolation and the active area can be released by the step sidewall. Therefore, a residue is scarcely generated in patterning the interconnection members, and an upper interconnection is prevented from being disconnected and increasing in its resistance. The semiconductor device can further comprise a gate protection film formed on the gate electrode, and at least a part of the holes can be formed so as to stretch over the source/drain region and at least a part of the gate protection film. Owing to this structure, a part of the gate protection film included in the hole is removed by the over-etch in the formation of the holes. However, the gate electrode is protected by the gate protection film, and hence, electrical short circuit between the gate electrode and the interconnection member can be prevented. Accordingly, there is no need to provide an alignment margin from the gate electrode in the area where each hole is formed, resulting in further improving the integration. The interconnection members can be first layer metallic interconnections, and the insulating film can be an interlayer insulating film disposed between the semiconductor substrate, and the first layer metallic interconnections. In this case, the semiconductor device preferably further comprises, between the interlayer insulating film and the semiconductor substrate an underlying film made of an insulating material having high etching selectivity against the interlayer insulating film. The second semiconductor device of this invention in which a semiconductor element is disposed in each of plural active areas in a semiconductor substrate comprises a trench isolation for isolating and surrounding each active area, the trench isolation having a top surface at a higher level than a surface of the active area and having a step portion in a boundary with the active area; and a step sidewall formed on the side surface of the step portion of the trench isolation. Owing to this structure, in the impurity ion injection for the formation of an impurity diffused layer of the semiconductor device, the step sidewall disposed at the edge of the trench isolation can prevent the impurity ions from being implanted below the edge of the isolation. Furthermore, also in adopting the structure including a source/drain electrode made of silicide, the step sidewall can prevent the silicide layer from being formed at a deep portion. Therefore, a short circuit current can be prevented from occurring between the source/drain electrode and a substrate region such as the channel stop region. In this manner, the function of the trench isolation to isolate each semiconductor element can be prevented from degrading. In the second semiconductor device, the step sidewall is preferably made of an insulating material. Also in the second semiconductor device, the semiconductor element can be a MISFET including a gate insulating film and a gate electrode formed on the active area; and source/drain regions formed in the active area on both sides of the gate electrode. This semiconductor device can be further provided with electrode sidewalls formed on both side surfaces of the gate electrode, and the step sidewall can be formed simultaneously with the electrode sidewalls. Owing to this structure, the semiconductor elements can be a MISFET having the LDD structure suitable for the refinement. Because of this structure together with the trench isolation structure, the semiconductor device can attain a structure particularly suitable for the refinement and the high integration. The first method of manufacturing a semiconductor device in which a semiconductor element is disposed in each of plural active areas in a semiconductor substrate comprises a first step of forming an isolation in a part of the semiconductor substrate, the isolation having a top surface at a higher level than a surface of the semiconductor substrate and having a step portion in a boundary with the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a second step of introducing an impurity at a high concentration into each active area of the semiconductor substrate surrounded by the isolation; a third step of forming an insulating film on the active area and the isolation; a fourth step of forming, on the insulating film, a masking member having an exposing area above an area at least including a portion of the active area where the impurity at the high concentration is introduced; a fifth step of conducting etching by using the masking member so as to selectively remove the insulating film and form holes; and a sixth step of forming a buried conductive layer by filling the holes with a conductive material and forming, on the insulating film, interconnection members to be connected with the buried conductive layer. In this method, in the fourth step, an alignment margin is not provided for preventing the exposing area of the masking member from including a portion above the isolation when mask shift is caused in photolithography. In adopting this method, even when a part of the isolation is removed by over-etch in the fifth step so that the top surface of the isolation is etched to be lower than the surface of the active area, the depth of the holes formed in the isolation is small because of the level difference between the isolation and the active area. Accordingly, the decrease of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be suppressed in the manufactured semiconductor device. In addition, the area of the active area can be decreased because no alignment margin from the isolation is provided, resulting in improving the integration of the manufactured semiconductor device. In the first method of manufacturing a semiconductor device, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted: The fifth step is preferably performed so as to satisfy the following inequality: OE×a×(ER2/ER1)≦b+D×(2/10) wherein “a” indicates a thickness of the insulating film, “b” indicates a level difference between the surface of the active area and the top surface of the isolation, “ER1” indicates an etching rate of the insulating film, “ER2” indicates an etching rate of the isolation, “D” indicates a depth of an impurity diffused layer in the active area, and “OE” indicates an over-etch ratio of the insulating film. In adopting this method, even when a part of the isolation included in the hole is removed by over-etch in the formation of the holes, the bottom of the etched portion does not reach a portion where the impurity concentration is low in the active area. In other words, the top surface of the isolation is never placed at a lower level than the surface of the active area. Accordingly, the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be definitely prevented in the manufactured semiconductor device. When the semiconductor element is a MISFET, the method can further include, before the second step, a step of forming a gate insulating film on the active area, a step of depositing a conductive film on the gate insulating film and a step of forming a gate electrode by patterning the conducive film, and in the second step, the impurity at the high concentration is introduced so as to form a source/drain region. In such a case, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted. The method can further comprise, after the step of depositing the conductive film, a step of depositing a protection insulating film on the conductive film, and in the step of forming the gate electrode, the conductive film as well as the protection insulating film are patterned, so as to form a gate protection film on the gate electrode. The fifth step can be performed so as to satisfy the following inequality: OE×a×(ER3/ER1)<c wherein “a” indicates a thickness of the insulating film, “c” indicates a thickness of the gate protection film, “ER1” indicates an etching rate of the insulating film, “ER3” indicates an etching rate of the gate protection film and “OE” indicates an over-etch ratio of the insulating film. When this method is adopted, while the area of the active area is decreased by not providing an alignment margin for avoiding the interference between the connection hole and the gate electrode, the hole is prevented from reaching the gate electrode below the gate protection film. In the fourth step, the masking member can be formed to be positioned without providing a margin for preventing the exposing area thereof from including a portion above the gate protection film even when the mask shift is caused in the photolithography. Alternatively, in the fourth step, the masking member can be formed to be positioned with the exposing area thereof including at least a part of a portion above the gate protection film when the mask shift is not caused in the photolithography. In the third step, an interlayer insulating film can be formed as the insulating film, and in the sixth step, first layer metallic interconnections can be formed as the interconnection members. In such a case, it is preferred that the interlayer insulating film is formed in the third step after an underlying film made of an insulating material having high etching selectivity against the interlayer insulating film is formed below the interlayer insulating film. The second method of manufacturing a semiconductor device of this invention comprises a first step of forming an underlying insulating film on a semiconductor substrate; a second step of depositing an etching stopper film on the underlying insulating film; a third step of forming a trench by exposing a portion of the etching stopper film and the underlying insulating film where an isolation is to be formed and etching the semiconductor substrate in the exposed portion; a fourth step of depositing an insulating film for isolation on an entire top surface of the substrate, flattening the substrate until at least a surface of the etching stopper film is exposed, and forming a trench isolation in the trench so as to surround a transistor region; a fifth step of removing, by etching, at least the etching stopper film and the underlying insulating film, so as to expose a step portion between the transistor region and the trench isolation; a sixth step of depositing a gate oxide film and a conductive film on the substrate and making the conductive film into a pattern of at least a gate electrode; a seventh step of depositing an insulating film for sidewalls on the entire top surface of the substrate and anisotropically etching the insulating film for the sidewalls, so as to form electrode sidewalls and a step sidewall on side surfaces of the gate electrode and the step portion, respectively; and an eighth step of introducing an impurity into the semiconductor substrate in the transistor region on both sides of the gate electrode, so as to form source/drain regions. When this method is adopted, since the step sidewall is formed between the semiconductor substrate in the transistor region and the trench isolation after completing the fifth step, the impurity ions are prevented from being implanted below the edge of the trench isolation in the impurity ion injection in the eighth step. Furthermore, also when an area in the vicinity of the surface of the source/drain region is subsequently silicified, the step sidewall made of the insulating film can prevent the silicide layer from being formed at a deep portion. Accordingly, not only the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the current leakage but also the occurrence of a short circuit current between the source/drain electrode and the substrate region such as the channel stop region can be prevented. In the second method of manufacturing a semiconductor device, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted: In the second step, the thickness of the etching stopper film is preferably determined in consideration of an amount of over-etch in the seventh step, so that the step portion having a level difference with a predetermined size or more is exposed in the fifth step. The method can further comprise, after completing the eighth step, a step of silicifying at least an area in the vicinity of the surface of the source/drain region. The third method of manufacturing a semiconductor device of this invention comprises a first step of forming a gate insulating film on a semiconductor substrate; a second step of depositing a first conductive film to be formed into a gate electrode on the gate insulating film; a third step of forming a trench by exposing a portion of the first conductive film where a trench isolation is to be formed and etching the semiconductor substrate in the exposed portion; a fourth step of depositing an insulating film for isolation on an entire top surface of the substrate, flattening the substrate at least until a surface of the first conductive film is exposed, and forming the trench isolation in the trench so as to surround a transistor region; a fifth step of depositing a second conductive film to be formed into at least an upper gate electrode on the entire top surface of the flattened substrate; a sixth step of making the first and second conductive films into a pattern at least of the gate electrode and exposing a step portion between the transistor region and the trench isolation; a seventh step of depositing an insulating film for sidewalls on the entire top surface of the substrate and anisotropically etching the insulating film for the sidewalls, so as to form electrode sidewalls and a step sidewall on side surfaces of the gate electrode and the step portion, respectively; and an eighth step of introducing an impurity into the semiconductor substrate in the transistor region on both sides of the gate electrode, so as to form source/drain regions. When this method is adopted, the same effects as those attained by the second method of manufacturing a semiconductor device can be attained. In addition, in the patterning process for the gate electrode, the top surface of the substrate is completely flat, and hence, the patterning accuracy for the gate electrode can be improved. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1(a) through 1(d) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 1 up to the formation of an isolation; FIGS. 2(a) through 2(e) are sectional views for showing the manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 1 after the formation of the isolation; FIGS. 3(a) through 3(f) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 2 after the formation of an isolation; FIGS. 4(a) through 4(c) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 3; FIGS. 5(a) through 5(c) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 4; FIGS. 6(a) through 6(f) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 5; FIGS. 7(a) through 7(c) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 6; FIGS. 8(a) through 8(c) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 7 in which a comparatively thin insulating film of Embodiment 1 is replaced with a layered film and an interlayer insulating film; FIGS. 9(a) through 9(c) are sectional views for showing the manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 7 in which a comparatively thin insulating film of Embodiment 2 is replaced with a layered film and an interlayer insulating film; FIGS. 10(a) through 10(c) are sectional views for showing the manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 7 in which a comparatively thin insulating film of Embodiment 4 is replaced with a layered film and an interlayer insulating film; FIGS. 11(a) through 11(c) are sectional views for showing the manufacturing procedures of Embodiment 7 in which a comparatively thin insulating film of Embodiment 5 is replaced with a layered film and an interlayer insulating film; FIG. 12 is a sectional view for showing the structure of a semiconductor device of Embodiment 8; FIGS. 13(a) through 13(e) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for the semiconductor device of Embodiment 8; FIGS. 14(a) through 14(e) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for a semiconductor device of Embodiment 9; FIGS. 15(a) through 15(f) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for a semiconductor device of Embodiment 10; FIGS. 16(a) through 16(e) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for a semiconductor device of Embodiment 11; FIG. 17 is a sectional view of a conventional semiconductor device in which the surfaces of an active area and a trench isolation are placed at the same level; FIGS. 18(a) through 18(c) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for the conventional semiconductor device of FIG. 17; FIG. 19 is a sectional view of a conventional semiconductor device having a salicide structure and a trench isolation structure; FIGS. 20(a) through 20(e) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for the conventional semiconductor device of FIG. 19; and FIGS. 21(a) and 21(b) are partial sectional views for showing problems, in a conventional semiconductor device having a trench isolation, occurring in an impurity ion injection process and a silicifying process, respectively. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION (Embodiment 1) Embodiment 1 of the invention will now be described referring to FIGS. 1(a) through 1(d) and 2(a) through 2(e). In the manufacturing procedures of this embodiment, a connection hole for connecting an interconnection layer and a silicon substrate is designed to stretch over an active area and an isolation when alignment shift is not caused in photolithography. In this embodiment, the isolation is formed as a trench isolation. Furthermore, interconnection to be formed above is assumed to be local interconnection in which an insulating film can be comparatively thin, but the embodiment is applicable also to general global interconnection formed on a thick interlayer insulating film. First, as is shown in FIG. 1(a), a resist film 50a having a predetermined pattern is formed on a p-type silicon substrate 1(or a p-type well). The silicon substrate 1 is dry-etched by using the resist film 50a as a mask, thereby forming a trench 51 with a depth of 1 μm. Then, as is shown in FIG. 1(b), the resist film 50a is removed, and then a silicon oxide film 2x is deposited on the entire top surface of the silicon substrate 1. Through this procedure, the previously formed trench 51 is filled with the silicon oxide film 2x. Next, as is shown in FIG. 1(c), the silicon oxide film 2x on the silicon substrate 1 is removed by, for example, a CMP (chemical mechanical polishing) method or etch-back through dry etching using a resist film, and at the same time, a trench isolation 2b is formed. At this point, the top surface of the silicon substrate 1 and the top surface of the isolation 2b are flattened with no level difference therebetween. Then, as is shown in FIG. 1(d), dry etching with high etch selectivity is conducted so as to etch the silicon substrate 1 alone by a thickness of 0.2 μm. Thus, a step portion which is higher in a stepwise manner than the top surface of the silicon substrate 1 by 0.2 μm is formed in the isolation 2b. The level difference caused by the step portion is required to be sufficiently large in consideration of an amount of over-etch in etching a subsequently formed insulating film 12, and hence, the level difference is preferably equal to or larger than the thickness of the insulating film 12. It is noted that the method of causing the level difference between the top surface of the isolation 2b and the surface of the active area is not limited to that described above. For example, the level difference can be caused as follows: After an etching stopper film having a thickness corresponding to the level difference is previously deposited on the silicon substrate, a trench is formed and an insulating film for the trench isolation is deposited. Then, the entire top surface of the substrate is flattened by the CMP method or the like, and the etching stopper film is subsequently removed. Next, As is shown in FIG. 2(a), after forming a gate oxide film 3 on the silicon substrate 1, a polysilicon film 4x is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate. Then, as is shown in FIG. 2(b), after forming a resist film (not shown) having a predetermined pattern on the polysilicon film 4x, dry etching is conducted so as to form a polysilicon electrode 4a on the active area and a polysilicon interconnection 4b on the isolation 2b. Then, by using the gate electrode 4a as a mask, n-type impurity ions are injected at a high concentration, thereby forming high-concentration source/drain regions 8 in the silicon substrate 1 on both sides of the polysilicon electrode 4a. After this, as is shown in FIG. 2(c), the insulating film 12 having a thickness of, for example, 0.15 μm is deposited, so that an interconnection subsequently formed above the insulating film (i.e., the local interconnection in this embodiment) can be electrically insulated from the polysilicon electrode, the polysilicon interconnection and the active area. Next, as is shown in FIG. 2(d), a resist film 25a having a pattern for forming a connection hole is formed on the insulating film 12. At this point, the exposing area of the resist film 25a is positioned without an alignment margin for preventing interference with the isolation 2b. In this embodiment, after the resist film 25a is formed so that the exposing area stretches over the source/drain region 8, that is, the active area of a transistor, and the isolation 2b, dry etching is conducted by using the resist film 25a as a mask, thereby forming a connection hole 14 by removing the insulating film 12 in the exposing area of the resist film 25a. At this point, when the insulating film 12 is, for example, 40% over-etched than its thickness of 0.15 μm in order to ensure the formation of the connection hole 14, the isolation 2b in the exposing area of the resist film 25a is etched by a thickness of approximately 0.06 μm. However, in this embodiment, the step portion has a height of 0.2 μm, which is sufficiently larger than this etched amount, and hence, a recess where the top surface of the isolation 2b is lower than the top surface of the silicon substrate 1 is never formed in any part of the connection hole 14. Next, as is shown in FIG. 2(e), a polysilicon film is deposited on the entire top surface and is patterned, thereby forming the local interconnection 13. At this point, the local interconnection 13 is also formed within the connection hole 14, so as to be electrically connected with the source/drain region 8 serving as the active area. In a semiconductor device formed in the aforementioned procedures, the top surface of the isolation 2b is higher in a stepwise manner than the surface of the active area. Therefore, even when the isolation 2b is removed by some amount by the over-etch in dry etching the insulating film 12, the isolation 2b is prevented from being etched by a thickness exceeding the level difference caused by the step portion. Accordingly, when mask alignment is shifted in the photolithography, a recess with a depth reaching a certain depth of the source/drain region 8 is prevented from being formed in the connection hole 14. As a result, the conventional problems, that is, the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current caused because of the low impurity concentration at a lower part of the active area of the silicon substrate corresponding to the sidewall of the recess, can be effectively prevented. However, the level difference between the top surface of the isolation 2b and the surface of the active area is not necessarily required to be larger than the thickness of the insulating film 12. The dimensions and materials of the respective components can be determined so as to satisfy the following inequality (1), wherein “a” denotes the thickness of the insulating film 12; “b” denotes the level difference between the top surface of the isolation 2b and the surface of the active area; “ER1” denotes the etching rate of the insulating film 12; “ER2” denotes the etching rate of the isolation 2b; “D” denotes the depth of an impurity diffused layer in the active area; and “OE” denotes the over-etch ratio of the insulating film 12 in the formation of the connection hole 14. OE×a×(ER2/ER1)≧b+D×(2/10) (1) As far as the inequality (1) is satisfied, even when a part of the isolation 2b is removed to be at a lower level than the surface of the silicon substrate in the active area through the formation of the connection hole 14, so that the recess 40 as is shown in FIG. 18(c) is formed in a part of the connection hole 14, the bottom of the recess 40 is prevented from reaching the depth where the impurity concentration is low. Since the alignment margin in view of the mask shift in the photolithography can be omitted, the following effects can be attained: When a distance Lb between the polysilicon electrode 4a serving as the gate electrode and the isolation 2b is estimated as an index of the integration, the distance Lb is 0.8 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole, 0.5 μm, and the alignment margin from the gate electrode, 0.3 μm. Thus, the distance Lb can be decreased by 0.4 μm as compared with the conventional distance La of 1.2 μm (shown in FIG. 17). (Embodiment 2) Embodiment 2 will now be described referring to FIGS. 3(a) through 3(f). In this embodiment, a connection hole for connecting an interconnection layer and a silicon substrate is formed so as to stretch over an active area and an isolation in the same manner as in Embodiment 1, and a step portion between the isolation and the active area is provided with a sidewall. First, as is shown in FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b), an isolation 2b whose top surface is higher in a stepwise manner than the surface of an active area by a predetermined level difference and a gate oxide film 3 are formed on a silicon substrate 1 in the same manner as described in Embodiment 1. Then, a polysilicon film 4x is deposited on the entire top surface. Next, the polysilicon film 4x is patterned, thereby forming a polysilicon electrode 4a and a polysilicon interconnection 4b. The procedures conducted so far are identical to those adopted in Embodiment 1. Then, a silicon oxide film is deposited on the entire top surface and is subjected to anisotropic etching, thereby forming electrode sidewalls 7a on both side surfaces of the polysilicon electrode 4a and interconnection sidewalls 7b on both side surfaces of the polysilicon interconnection 4b. At the same time, a step sidewall 7c is formed on the side surface of the step portion between the isolation 2b and the active area. Each of the sidewalls has a width of, for example, approximately 0.1 μm. After forming the polysilicon electrode 4a, an n-type impurity with a low concentration is ion-injected into the active area, so as to form a low-concentration source/drain region 6. After forming the electrode sidewalls 7a, an n-type impurity with a high concentration is ion-injected into the active area, so as to form a high-concentration source/drain region 8. This is a generally adopted method of manufacturing a MOSFET having the so-called LDD structure. Then, as is shown in FIGS. 3(d) through 3(f), the procedures as described in Embodiment 1 referring to FIGS. 2(c) through 2(e) are conducted, thereby forming an insulating film 12 and a local interconnection 13 thereon. This embodiment can achieve the effect to improve the integration similarly to Embodiment 1. In addition, owing to the step sidewall 7c, the abrupt level difference between the isolation 2b and the active area can be released. As a result, the amount of residue generated in the formation of the local interconnection 13 by patterning the polysilicon film can be advantageously decreased, and disconnection of the local interconnection 13 and resistance increase thereof can also be prevented. At this point, a distance Lc between the polysilicon electrode 4a serving as a gate electrode and the isolation 2b is estimated as an index of the integration. The distance Lc is 1.0 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole, 0.5 μm, the width of the electrode sidewall 7a, 0.1 μm, the alignment margin from the polysilicon electrode 4a, 0.3 μm, and the width of the step sidewall 7c, 0.1 μm. Thus, the distance Lc can be decreased by 0.2 μm as compared with the conventional distance La of 1.2 μm (shown in FIG. 17). (Embodiment 3) Embodiment 3 will now be described referring to FIGS. 4(a) through 4(c). In manufacturing procedures described in this embodiment, a connection hole is formed so as to stretch over an active area and an isolation only when mask alignment shift is caused in the photolithography. FIG. 4(a) shows a state where the procedures described in Embodiment 2 referring to FIGS. 3(a) through 3(d) have been completed. Specifically, as is shown in FIG. 4(a), after an isolation 2b with a top surface higher in a stepwise manner than the surface of an active area, a step sidewall 7c on the side surface of the step portion of the isolation 2b, a gate oxide film 3, a polysilicon electrode 4a serving as a gate electrode, electrode sidewalls 7a on both side surfaces of the polysilicon electrode 4a, a low-concentration source/drain region 6, a high-concentration source/drain region 8, a polysilicon interconnection 4b on the isolation 2b, and interconnection sidewalls 7b on both side surfaces of the polysilicon interconnection 4b are formed, an insulating film 12 with a thickness of approximately 0.15 μm is formed on the entire top surface. Next, as is shown in FIG. 4(b), a resist film 25b for forming a connection hole is formed. At this point, in this embodiment, the resist film 25b is formed so that the connection hole stretches over the active area (i.e., the high-concentration source/drain region 8) and the step sidewall 7c when the mask alignment shift is not caused in the lithography. Then, the insulating film 12 is etched, thereby forming the connection hole 14 stretching over the active area and the step sidewall 7c. Then, as is shown in FIG. 4(c), a local interconnection 13 to be connected with the high-concentration source/drain region 8 is formed on the insulating film 12. In the state shown in FIG. 4(b), the edge of the connection hole 14 can be shifted toward the isolation 2b by a maximum of 0.3 μm due to the mask alignment shift in the lithography. In such a case, the resultant structure becomes that described in Embodiment 2 (shown in FIG. 3(e)). However, no recess is formed in the isolation 2b within the connection hole 14 as described in Embodiments 1 and 2 even in such a case. Alternatively, even if a recess is formed, the problems of the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be avoided as far as the dimensions and the like of the respective components are determined so as to satisfy the inequality (1). Also in this embodiment, a distance Lc between the polysilicon electrode 4a and the isolation 2b is estimated as an index of the integration. Similarly to Embodiment 2, the distance Lc is 1.0 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole, 0.5 μm, the width of the electrode sidewall 7a, 0.1 μm, the alignment margin from the polysilicon electrode 4a, 0.3 μm, and the width of the step sidewall 7c, 0.1 μm. Thus, the distance Lc can be decreased by 0.2 μm as compared with the conventional distance La of 1.2 μm. (Embodiment 4) Embodiment 4 will now be described referring to FIGS. 5(a) through 5(c). In manufacturing procedures described in this embodiment, a connection hole for connecting an interconnection layer and a silicon substrate is formed so as to stretch over an active area and a polysilicon interconnection on an isolation. FIG. 5(a) shows the state where the procedures described in Embodiment 2 referring to FIGS. 3(a) through 3(d) have been completed. Specifically, as is shown in FIG. 5(a), after an isolation 2b with a top surface higher in a stepwise manner than the surface of the active area, a step sidewall 7c on the side surface of the step portion of the isolation 2b, a gate oxide film 3, a polysilicon electrode 4a serving as a gate electrode, electrode sidewalls 7a on both side surfaces of the polysilicon electrode 4a, a low-concentration source/drain region 6, a high-concentration source/drain region 8, a polysilicon interconnection 4b on the isolation 2b, and interconnection sidewalls 7b on both side surfaces of the polysilicon interconnection 4b are formed, an insulating film 12 with a thickness of approximately 0.15 μm is formed on the entire top surface. Next, as is shown in FIG. 5(b), a resist film 25c for forming a connection hole is formed. In this embodiment, the resist film 25c is formed with its exposing area stretching over the active area (i.e., the high-concentration source/drain region 8) and the polysilicon interconnection 4b on the isolation 2b when the mask alignment shift is not caused in the lithography. Then, the insulating film 12 is etched, thereby forming the connection hole 14 stretching over the high-concentration source/drain region 8, the isolation 2b and the polysilicon interconnection 4b. Then, as is shown in FIG. 5(c), a local interconnection 13 to be connected with the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the polysilicon interconnection 4b is formed on the insulating film 12. When the high-concentration source/drain region 8 is to be electrically connected with the polysilicon interconnection 4b serving as a gate interconnection formed on the isolation 2b in the conventional manufacturing procedures, a connection hole formed on the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and another connection hole formed on the polysilicon interconnection 4b are required to be positioned in consideration of alignment margins from the boundaries with the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the isolation 2b, respectively. In contrast, in this embodiment, the interconnection member can be connected with the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the polysilicon electrode 4b through one connection hole 14 without consideration of the alignment margins. In addition, as described in Embodiments 1 through 3, the problems of the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be prevented from being caused through the over-etch in etching the insulating film 12. In this embodiment, the interconnection on the isolation 2b is made of a polysilicon film, but another conductive material or an interconnection on a layer different from the polysilicon electrode can be used instead. (Embodiment 5) Embodiment 5 will now be described referring to FIGS. 6(a) through 6(f). In manufacturing procedures described in this embodiment, a connection hole for connecting an interconnection layer and a silicon substrate is formed so as to stretch over an active area, a gate electrode and an isolation. First, as is shown in FIG. 6(a), an isolation 2b with a top surface higher in a stepwise manner than the surface of a p-type silicon substrate 1 is formed. Next, as is shown in FIG. 6(b), a polysilicon film 4x with a thickness of 0.2 μm is deposited on the entire top surface, and a silicon oxide film 15x for gate protection with a thickness of approximately 0.15 μm is deposited on the polysilicon film 4x. At this point, the thickness of the silicon oxide film 15x for gate protection is required to be sufficiently large in consideration of an amount of over-etch to be removed in etching a subsequently formed insulating film 12. In this embodiment, the thickness of the silicon oxide film 15x is substantially the same as that of the insulating film 12. Then, as is shown in FIGS. 6(c) and 6(d), the procedures as described in Embodiment 2 referring to FIGS. 3(c) and 3(d) are conducted. Thus, after a polysilicon electrode 4a and a gate protection film 15a together serving as a gate electrode, electrode sidewalls 7a on both side surfaces of the polysilicon electrode 4a and the gate protection film 15a, a low-concentration source/drain region 6, a high-concentration source/drain region 8, a polysilicon interconnection 4b and an interconnection protection film 15b on the isolation 2b, interconnection sidewalls 7b on both side surfaces of the polysilicon interconnection 4b and the interconnection protection film 15b and a step sidewall 7c are formed, the insulating film 12 with a thickness of approximately 0.15 μm is formed on the entire top surface. Next, as is shown in FIG. 6(e), a resist film 25d for forming a connection hole is formed. At this point, in this embodiment, the resist film 25d is formed so that the connection hole stretches over the polysilicon electrode 4a, the high-concentration source/drain region 8 serving,as the active area and the isolation 2b when the mask alignment shift is not caused in the lithography. Accordingly, when the alignment shift is not caused, the exposing area of the resist film 25d stretches also over a part of the polysilicon electrode 4a. Then, the insulating film 12 is patterned by dry etching. At this point, a part of the isolation 2b and the gate protection film 15a in the exposing area of the resist film 25d are also removed by some amount by the over-etch in the dry etching of the insulating film 12. However, the connection hole 14 never reaches the polysilicon electrode 4a. Then, as is shown in FIG. 6(f), a polysilicon film is deposited on the entire top surface and then patterned, thereby forming a local interconnection 13 to be connected with the high-concentration source/drain region 8. In this embodiment, the problems of the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be avoided as in the aforementioned embodiments even when the insulating film 12 is 40% over-etched than its thickness of 0.15 μm in order to form the connection hole 14. In particular in this embodiment, the connection hole 14 stretches also over the polysilicon electrode 4a when the alignment shift is not caused in the lithography. Therefore, when the insulating film 12 is, for example, 40% over-etched than its thickness of 0.15 μm in the dry etching thereof, although a part of the gate protection film 15a is etched by a thickness of approximately 0.06 μm. However, the conventional problem of the electric short circuit with an interconnection on an upper layer through the connection hole can be avoided since the thickness of the gate protection film 15a is 0.15 μm, which is sufficiently larger than 0.06 μm. It is noted that the thickness of the gate protection film 15acan be determined as follows: The dimensions and materials of the respective components are determined so as to satisfy the following inequality (2), wherein “a” denotes the thickness of the insulating film 12; “c” denotes the thickness of the gate protection film 4a, “ER1” denotes the etching rate of the insulating film 12; “ER3” denotes the etching rate of the gate protection film 4a; and “OE” denotes the over-etch ratio of the insulating film 12 in the formation of the connection hole 14: OE×a×(ER3/ER1)<c (2) At this point, a distance Ld between the polysilicon electrode 4a serving as the gate electrode and the isolation 2b is estimated as an index of the integration. The distance Ld is 0.7 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole, 0.5 μm, the width of the electrode sidewall 7a, 0.1 μm, and the width of the step sidewall 7c, 0.1 μm. Thus, the distance Ld can be decreased by 0.5 μm as compared with the conventional distance of 1.2 μm. (Embodiment 6) Embodiment 6 will now be described referring to FIGS. 7(a) through 7(c). In manufacturing procedures described in this embodiment, a connection hole for connecting an interconnection layer and a silicon substrate is formed so as to stretch over an active area, an electrode sidewall and an isolation when the alignment shift is not caused, and is formed so as to stretch also over a polysilicon electrode only when the alignment shift is caused. FIG. 7(a) shows the state where the procedures described in Embodiment 5 referring to FIGS. 6(a) through 6(d) have been completed. Specifically in FIG. 7(a), after an isolation 2b having a top surface higher in a stepwise manner than the surface of the active area, a step sidewall 7c on the side surface of the step portion of the isolation 2b, a gate oxide film 3, a polysilicon electrode 4a serving as a gate electrode, a gate protection film 15a on the polysilicon electrode 4a, electrode sidewalls 7a on both side surfaces of the polysilicon electrode 4a and the gate protection film 15a, a low-concentration source/drain region 6, a high-concentration source/drain region 8, a polysilicon interconnection 4b on the isolation 2b, an interconnection protection film 15b on the polysilicon interconnection 4b, and interconnection sidewalls 7b on both side surfaces of the polysilicon interconnection 4b and the interconnection protection film 15b are formed, an insulating film 12 having a thickness of approximately 0.15 μm is formed on the entire top surface. Next, as is shown in FIG. 7(b), a resist film 25e having a pattern for forming a connection hole is formed. At this point, in this embodiment, the resist film 25e is formed so that its exposing area can expose at least the step sidewall 7c and the high-concentration source/drain region 8 serving as the active area and stretches also over the electrode sidewall 7a. Then, a polysilicon film is deposited on the entire top surface and patterned, thereby forming a local interconnection 13 to be connected with the high-concentration source/drain region 8. In the procedure shown in FIG. 7(b) of this embodiment, when the exposing area of the resist film 25e is shifted by, for example, a maximum of 0.3 μm due to the alignment shift in the lithography, the connection hole 14 is formed so as to stretch also over a part of the polysilicon electrode 4a. When the exposing area of the resist film 25e is shifted in the reverse direction, the connection hole 14 is formed so as to stretch also over a part of the isolation 2b. However, in either case, the junction voltage at the edge of the isolation 2b is prevented from degrading and the junction leakage current is prevented from increasing as far as the dimensions and the like of the respective components are determined so as to satisfy the inequalities (1) and (2). In addition, an electrical short circuit between an interconnection member such as the local interconnection and the polysilicon electrode 4a can be avoided. At this point, a distance Le between the polysilicon electrode 4a serving as the gate electrode and the isolation 2b is estimated as an index of the integration. Similarly to Embodiment 5, the distance Le is 0.7 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole, 0.5 μm, the width of the electrode sidewall 7a, 0.1 μm, and the width of the step sidewall 7c, 0.1 μm. Thus, the distance Le can be decreased by 0.5 μm as compared with the conventional distance of 1.2 μm. In each of the aforementioned embodiments, the local interconnection is adopted as the interconnection member so as to make the insulating film 12 comparatively thin. However, each embodiment can be applied to an interconnection member using a general global interconnection formed with an interlayer insulating film sandwiched. When the global interconnection is adopted, the interlayer insulating film is comparatively thick. Therefore, the effects of the embodiments can be similarly attained by decreasing the over-etch ratio of the interlayer insulating film in the formation of the connection hole or by increasing the level difference between the top surface of the isolation and the surface of the active area. This will be described in more detail in Embodiment 7below. Furthermore, when the isolation 2b and the gate protection film 15a used in Embodiment 5 or 6 are made of a material having a smaller etching rate than the material for the insulating film 12 against the etching for forming the connection hole, the semiconductor device can be manufactured with more ease. In addition, when the insulating film 12 in each of the aforementioned embodiments has a multilayered structure including at least one lower layer made of a material having a smaller etching rate against the etching for forming the connection hole, the semiconductor device can be manufactured with more ease. (Embodiment 7) Embodiment 7 will now be described in which an interconnection layer formed on a thick interlayer insulating film is connected with an active area of a semiconductor substrate through a contact hole formed on the interlayer insulating film. FIGS. 8(a) through 8(c) are sectional views for showing procedures for forming a layered film 10 and an interlayer insulating film 11 instead of the comparatively thin insulating film 12 of Embodiment 1. As is shown in FIG. 8(a), after conducting the procedures shown in FIGS. 1(a) through 1(d) and 2(a) through 2(c), a layered film 10 including a silicon oxide film 10a with a thickness of approximately 70 nm and a silicon nitride film 10b with a thickness of approximately 80 nm is formed on the entire top surface of the substrate. Then, an interlayer insulating film 11 of a silicon oxide film with a thickness of approximately 600 nm is deposited thereon. Next, a resist film 25a having a pattern for forming a contact hole is formed on the interlayer insulating film 11. At this point, the exposing area of the resist film 25a is positioned without an alignment margin for avoiding interference with an isolation 2b. In FIG. 8(a), the resist film 25a is formed so that the exposing area stretches over a source/drain region 8 serving as the active area of a transistor and the isolation 2b. Next, as is shown in FIG. 8(b), etching is conducted by using the resist film 25a as a mask, thereby selectively removing the interlayer insulating 25a and the layered film 10. Thus, a contact hole 20 stretching over the isolation 2b and the active area is formed. Then, as is shown in FIG. 8(c), a plug underlying film 21 made of a TiN/Ti film and a W plug 22 are deposited within the contact hole 20 by selective CVD. Furthermore, an aluminum alloy film is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate and the aluminum alloy film is patterned, thereby forming a first layer metallic interconnection 23. At this point, the first layer metallic interconnection 23 is electrically connected with the source/drain region 8 serving as the active area through the W plug 22 and the plug underlying film 23 filled in the contact hole 20. FIGS. 9(a) through 9(c) are sectional views for showing procedures for forming a layered film 10 and an interlayer insulating film 11 instead of the comparatively thin insulating film 12 of Embodiment 2. In these manufacturing procedures, a procedure for forming sidewalls 7a through 7c is added to the manufacturing procedures shown in FIGS. 8(a) through 8(c), so as to manufacture a transistor having the LDD structure. FIGS. 10(a) through 10(c) are sectional views for showing procedures for forming a layered film 10 and an interlayer insulating film 11 instead of the comparatively thin insulating film 12 of Embodiment 4. In the procedure shown in FIG. 10(a), a resist film 25c having its exposing area stretching over the active area and the gate interconnection 4b is formed on the interlayer insulating film 11. Thereafter, the same procedures as those shown in FIGS. 8(b) and 8(c) are conducted. FIGS. 11(a) through 11(c) are sectional views for showing procedures for forming a layered film 10 and an interlayer insulating film 11 instead of the comparatively thin insulating film 12 of Embodiment 5. In the procedure shown in FIG. 11(a), a gate protection silicon oxide film 15a is formed on a gate electrode 4a, and the layered film 10 and the interlayer insulating film 11 are formed thereon. Then, a resist film 25d having its exposing area stretching over the isolation, the active area and the gate electrode 4a is formed on the interlayer insulating film 11. Thereafter, the same procedures as those shown in FIGS. 8(b) and 8(c) are conducted. In each of the procedures shown in FIGS. 8(b), 9(b), 10(b) and 11(b), the silicon nitride film 10b having high etching selectivity against the silicon oxide film is formed below the interlayer insulating film 11. Therefore, the silicon nitride film 10b is prevented from being completely removed by the over-etch in etching the interlayer insulating film 11. When the silicon nitride film 10b is to be removed from the layered film 10, the silicon oxide film 10a is prevented from being completely removed since the etching selectivity between the silicon nitride film 10b and the silicon oxide film 10a below is high. Furthermore, since the silicon oxide film 10a has a thickness of approximately 70 nm, which is smaller than the level difference of 0.2 μm between the isolation and the active area, the isolation 2b is prevented from being etched to be lower than the surface of the active area by the over-etch in etching the silicon oxide film 10a. In other words, a recess where the top surface of the isolation 2b is lower than the surface of the silicon substrate is never formed in any part of the contact hole 20. Accordingly, in the formation of the contact hole for electrically connecting the interconnection layer formed on the interlayer insulating film and the active area of the semiconductor substrate, the same effects as those described in the aforementioned embodiments can be attained. However, the underlying film below the interlayer insulating film can be omitted in this embodiment. Even when it is omitted, since the step portion is formed between the top surface of the isolation and the surface of the active area, the isolation cannot be etched to be lower than the surface of the active area in the formation of the contact hole. Thus, the degradation of the junction voltage resistance the increase of the junction leakage current can be prevented as much as possible. (Embodiment 8) Embodiment 8 will now be described referring to FIGS. 12 and 13(a) through 13(e). FIG. 12 is a sectional view showing the structure of a semiconductor device of this embodiment, and FIGS. 13(a) through 13(e) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for the semiconductor device having the structure shown in FIG. 12. As is shown in FIG. 12, in a silicon substrate (or well) 1 of one conductivity type, a trench isolation 2b is formed in an isolation region Reiso for partitioning an area in the vicinity of the surface of the silicon substrate 1 into a plurality of transistor regions Refet. The top surface of the isolation 2b is sufficiently higher than the surface of the silicon substrate 1 in each transistor region Refet, and a step portion with a predetermined level difference is formed between the isolation 2b and the transistor region Refet. This isolation 2b is formed by filling a trench formed in the silicon substrate 1 with an insulating material as described below. Furthermore, a channel stop region 60 of the same conductivity type as that of the silicon substrate 1 is formed at least below the isolation 2b. In each transistor region Refet partitioned by the isolation 2b is formed a MOS transistor including a gate electrode 4a, a gate oxide film 3, electrode sidewalls 7a, a low-concentration source/drain region 6 and a high-concentration source/drain region 8. Also, on the silicon substrate 1 excluding the transistor regions Refet and on the isolation 2b, a gate interconnection 4b formed simultaneously with the gate electrode 4a and interconnection sidewalls 7b are formed. Furthermore, an upper gate electrode 9a, an upper gate interconnection 9b and a source/drain electrode 9c each made of titanium silicide (TiSi2) are formed on the gate electrode 4a, the gate interconnection 4b and the high-concentration source/drain region 8, respectively. This embodiment is characterized by a step sidewall 7c formed on the side surface of the step portion of the isolation 2b simultaneously with the electrode sidewalls 7a and the interconnection sidewalls 7b. A part of the step sidewall 7c is communicated with the electrode sidewalls 7a and the interconnection sidewalls 7b. Furthermore, on the entire top surface of the substrate bearing the isolation 2b, the gate electrode 4a and the like, an interlayer insulating film 11 and a first layer metallic interconnection 23 are formed. The first layer metallic interconnection 23 is connected with the upper gate electrode 9a and the source/drain electrode 9c in the transistor region through a W plug 22. Now, the manufacturing procedures for realizing the structure shown in FIG. 12 will be described referring to FIGS. 13(a) through 13(e). First, as is shown in FIG. 13(a), a silicon oxide film 52 and a silicon nitride film 53 are deposited on a silicon substrate 1. Then, a resist film 50a for exposing the isolation regions Reiso and masking the transistor regions Refet is formed on the silicon nitride film 53. After this, etching is conducted by using the resist film 50a as a mask, so as to selectively remove the silicon nitride film 53 and the silicon oxide film 52 and further etch the silicon substrate 1, thereby forming a trench 51. At this point, differently from the conventional method of forming a trench, the silicon nitride film 53 has a thickness as large as approximately 150 through 200 nm. However, the silicon oxide film 52 has a thickness of 10 through 20 nm as in the conventional method. The depth of the trench 51 can be approximately 500 nm also as in the conventional method. Then, impurity ions of a conductivity type different from that of an impurity to be injected into a subsequently formed source/drain region are injected, thereby forming a channel stop region 60. Next, as is shown in FIG. 13(b), after removing the resist film 50a, a silicon oxide film (not shown) is deposited so as to have a sufficient thickness larger than the sum of the depth of the trench 51 and the thickness of the remaining silicon nitride film 53, namely, the height from the bottom of the trench 51 to the top surface of the silicon nitride film 53. Then, the silicon oxide film is removed by the CMP method so as to expose the surface of the silicon nitride film 53, thereby flattening the entire top surface of the substrate. Through this procedure, a trench isolation 2b made of the silicon oxide film is formed in the isolation region Reiso. The flattening method to be adopted is not limited to that described above but the surface can be flattened by etch-back using a resist film having a reverse pattern to the pattern of the transistor region Refet. Then, the silicon nitride film 53 is removed by using a phosphoric acid boiling solution or the like and the silicon oxide film 52 is removed by using a hydrofluoric acid type wet etching solution or the like, so as to expose the surface of the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet, which procedures are not shown in the drawing. At this point, a step portion having a sufficient level difference between the surface of the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet and the top surface of the isolation 2b is exposed characteristically in this embodiment. The level difference is set at approximately 50 through 100 nm in consideration of the amount of over-etch in a procedure for forming sidewalls described below. However, in order to effectively achieve the effects of this embodiment, the thickness of an insulating film for the sidewall and the amount of over-etch are required to be appropriately determined in the subsequent procedure for forming the sidewalls. Then, as is shown in FIG. 13(c), a polysilicon film 4 is deposited on the silicon substrate 1 and the isolation 2b, and the resist film 50b for exposing an area excluding the areas for a gate electrode and a gate interconnection is formed thereon. Then, the dry etching is conducted by using the resist film 50b as a mask, thereby forming the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b, which procedure is not shown in the drawing. Next, as is shown in FIG. 13(d), by using the gate electrode 4a as a mask, impurity ions at a low concentration are injected, thereby forming a low-concentration source/drain region 6. Then, an insulating film 7 (a silicon oxide film) is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate. Then, as is shown in FIG. 13(e), the insulating film 7 is anisotropically etched, thereby forming the electrode sidewalls 7a on the both side surfaces of the gate electrode 4a and interconnection sidewalls 7b on the both side surfaces of the gate interconnection 4b. At the same time, a step sidewall 7c is formed on the side surface of the step portion between the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b. After forming these sidewalls, impurity ions are injected, thereby forming the high-concentration source/drain region 8. Also at this point, the step portion between the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b has the sufficient level difference. Although the procedures thereafter are not shown in the drawing, an upper gate electrode 9a, an upper gate interconnection 9b and a source/drain electrode 9c are formed by a silicifying procedure, an interlayer insulating film 11 is deposited and a contact hole is formed, and then the contact hole is filled with a metal, and a first layer metallic interconnection 12 is formed. In this manner, the MOS transistor having the trench isolation structure as shown in FIG. 12 is manufactured. In the aforementioned procedures, the electrode sidewalls 7a and the like are formed in order to manufacture a transistor with the LDD structure. However, the electrode sidewalls 7a and the like can be formed in a transistor having the so-called pocket injection structure, in which a punch-through stopper is formed by injecting an impurity of a different conductivity type into an area between the source/drain region and the channel region. Therefore, this embodiment is applicable to such a transistor having the pocket injection structure. In manufacturing a MOS transistor having a gate length of 1 μm or less as in this embodiment, it is necessary to form the electrode sidewalls 7a on the side surfaces of the gate electrode 4a in order to provide the transistor with the LDD structure or the pocket injection structure in which the short channel effect can be suppressed and the reliability of the transistor can be ensured. The thickness of the electrode sidewall 7a depends upon the characteristics of a device to be manufactured. Since the sidewall is formed by dry etching with high anisotropy, its thickness can be controlled substantially only by controlling the thickness of the film to be deposited. However, 10% through 30% over-etch is generally conducted in consideration of the fluctuation in the etching rate in the wafer and the fluctuation in the thickness of the deposited film. For example, when the electrode sidewall 7a is formed out of an insulating film with a thickness of 100 nm, the etching is conducted for a time period corresponding to time required for removing an insulating film with a thickness of 110 through 130 nm. At this point, the isolation 2b made of an oxide film is etched at higher selectivity than the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet, and hence, the isolation 2b is removed by a thickness of, for example, 10 through 30 nm. Therefore, in the conventional structure, the surface of the isolation 105a becomes lower than the surface of the silicon substrate 101 as is shown in FIGS. 21(a) and 21(b), resulting in causing the aforementioned problems. In contrast, in the state of this embodiment shown in FIG. 13(d), the isolation 2b has the step portion whose surface is higher than the surface of the silicon substrate in the transistor region Refet, resulting in effectively preventing the problems. In other words, even when the impurity ions are diagonally injected for the formation of the high-concentration source/drain region 8, the impurity ions are prevented from being implanted below the edge of the isolation 2b because the step portion of the isolation 2b has a sufficient level difference. Accordingly, a distance between the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the channel stop region 60 can be made substantially constant, thereby preventing the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage. Furthermore, in the formation of the source/drain electrode 9c of silicide on the high-concentration source/drain region 8, the step sidewall 7c effectively prevents the silicide layer from being formed in the boundary between the silicon substrate 1 and the isolation 2b. Therefore, it is possible to effectively prevent a short circuit current from occurring between the source/drain electrode 9c and the channel stop region 60. In order to effectively achieve the aforementioned effects in this embodiment, however, the level difference caused by the step portion is preferably larger than the amount of over-etch in the formation of the sidewalls, that is, 10 through 30 nm. Furthermore, in practical use, after the formation of the isolation 2b, other procedures are conducted in which the thickness of the silicon oxide film used as the isolation 2b is decreased, such as a procedure for removing the silicon oxide film 52. Therefore, it is preferred that the step portion is previously formed so as to have a sufficiently large level difference also in consideration of the afterward decreased amount. Accordingly, the lower limit of the thickness of the silicon nitride film 53 deposited in the procedure shown in FIG. 13(a) is determined on the basis of the amount of over-etch and the etched amount in the procedure for removing the silicon oxide film 52. In this embodiment, the silicon nitride film 53 is used as an etching mask for forming the trench 51. This film can be made of any material which has large etching selectivity against the silicon oxide film, and can be, for example, a polysilicon film or the like. This embodiment exemplifies the so-called salicide structure in which the upper gate electrode 9a and the source/drain electrode 9c are simultaneously silicified in a self-aligned manner for attaining low resistance. It goes without saying that the embodiment is applicable to a structure in which a gate electrode is previously formed as a polycide electrode and a source/drain electrode alone is silicified afterward. (Embodiment 9) Embodiment 9 will now be described referring to FIGS. 14(a) through 14(e). This embodiment is different from Embodiment 8 in that a gate oxide film and a polysilicon film serving as a gate electrode are deposited before forming a trench isolation. First, as is shown in FIG. 14(a), a gate oxide film 3 and a polysilicon film 4 serving as a gate electrode of a MOS transistor are successively deposited on a silicon substrate 1. A resist film 50a for exposing an isolation region Reiso and masking a transistor region Refet is patterned. By using the resist film 50a as a mask, the polysilicon film 4 and the gate oxide film 3 are selectively removed, and further the silicon substrate 1 is etched, thereby forming a trench 51 serving as the isolation region. At this point, differently from the conventional method of forming a trench, the thickness of the polysilicon film 4 is set at 150 through 200 nm, that is, substantially the same thickness as that of the silicon nitride film used in Embodiment 8. The gate oxide film 3 has a thickness of 10 through 20 nm. The depth of the trench 51 is approximately 500 nm. Then, impurity ions of a different conductivity type from that of an impurity to be injected into a source/drain region formed afterward are injected, thereby forming a channel stop region 60. Then, after removing the resist film 50a, a silicon oxide film 2 (not shown) is deposited so as to have a sufficient thickness larger than the sum of the depth of the trench 51 and the thickness of the remaining polysilicon film 4, namely, the height from the bottom of the trench 51 to the top surface of the polysilicon film 4. The silicon oxide film 2 is removed by the CMP method until the surface of the polysilicon film 4 is exposed, thereby flattening the top surface of the substrate. Through this procedure, a trench isolation 2b made of the silicon oxide film is formed in the isolation region Reiso. The flattening method to be adopted is not limited to that described above but the surface can be flattened by etch-back using a resist film having a reverse pattern to the pattern of the transistor region Refet. Next, as is shown in FIG. 14(b), a conductive film 18 serving as a gate interconnection layer (which can be made of a conductive polysilicon film; a silicide film of WSi, TiSi or the like; or a metal with a high melting point such as W with a sandwiched barrier metal such as TiN for achieving low resistance) and a protection film 19 made of an insulating film are deposited on the flattened substrate. Then, a resist film 50b for exposing an area excluding the areas for a gate electrode and a gate interconnection is formed. By using the resist film 50b as a mask, dry etching is conducted, thereby forming a gate electrode 4a, an upper gate electrode 18a and a protection film 19a, a gate interconnection 4b, an upper gate interconnection 18b and a protection film 19b, which procedures are not shown in the drawing. At this point, a step portion having a sufficient level difference between the surfaces of the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b is exposed characteristically in this embodiment. The level difference is approximately 50 through 100 nm in consideration of the amount of over-etch in the subsequent procedure for forming sidewalls and the like. However, in order to effectively achieve the effects of this embodiment, the thickness of an insulating film for the sidewall and the amount of over-etch are required to be appropriately determined in the subsequent procedure for forming the sidewalls. Then, as is shown in FIG. 14(c), similarly to Embodiment 8, after forming a low-concentration source/drain region 6 on either side of the gate electrode 4a in the active area, an insulating film 7 (silicon oxide film) is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate. Next, as is shown in FIG. 14(d), the insulating film 7 is anisotropically etched, thereby forming electrode sidewalls 7a on both side surfaces of the gate electrode 4a and the like and interconnection sidewalls 7b on both side surfaces of the gate interconnection 4b and the like. At the same time, a step sidewall 7c is formed on the side surface of the step portion between the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b. After forming these sidewalls, impurity ions are injected, thereby forming a high-concentration source/drain region 8. Also at this point, the step portion between the silicon substrate 1 in the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b has a sufficient level difference. Next, as is shown in FIG. 14(e), a source/drain electrode 9c is formed out of silicide only on the high-concentration source/drain region 8. Although the procedures thereafter are not shown in the drawing, an interlayer insulating film 11 is deposited, a contact hole is formed, and the contact hole is filled with a metal (such as tungsten), and a first layer metallic interconnection 12 is formed. Thus, a MOS transistor having a trench isolation similar to that shown in FIG. 12 is manufactured. In this embodiment, however, on the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b are formed the upper gate electrode 18a and the upper gate interconnection 18b made of conductive polysilicon, silicide or the like as well as the protection films 19a and 19b made of the insulating film, respectively. The source/drain electrode 9c of silicide is formed in the procedure different from that for forming the upper gate electrode 18a and the upper gate interconnection 18b. In this manner, the step portion which is higher at the side closer to the isolation 2b is formed between the silicon substratel in the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b, and the step portion is provided with the step sidewall 7c on its side surface in this embodiment. Therefore, the same effects as those of Embodiment 8 can be exhibited with a reduced number of manufacturing procedures. In addition, the procedure for forming the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b after the procedure shown in FIG. 14(b) can be conducted on the completely flat top surface of the substrate without being affected by the step portion at the edge of the isolation 2b in this embodiment. Therefore, a refined pattern can be advantageously stably formed. (Embodiment 10) Embodiment 10 will now be described referring to FIGS. 15(a) through 15(f), which are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for a semiconductor device of this embodiment. Before achieving the state shown in FIG. 15(a), a trench isolation 2b, a channel stop region 60, a low-concentration source/drain region 6, a gate insulating film 3, a gate electrode 4a, a gate interconnection 4b and the like are formed through the same procedures as those described in Embodiment 8. Then, a protection oxide film 31, a silicon nitride film 32 for sidewalls and a polysilicon film 33 for a mask are deposited on the substrate by the CVD method. At this point, the thickness of a polysilicon film to be used as the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b is 330 nm, and the minimum line width is 0.35 μm. The protection oxide film 31 has a thickness of approximately 20 nm, the silicon nitride film 32 has a thickness of approximately 30 nm, and the polysilicon film 33 has a thickness of approximately 100 nm. Then, as is shown in FIG. 15(b), the polysilicon film 33 is etched back by RIE (reactive ion etching), thereby forming electrode polysilicon masks 33a, interconnection polysilicon masks 33b and a step polysilicon mask 33c on side surfaces of the gate electrode 4a, the gate interconnection 4b and a step portion of the isolation 2b, respectively. At this point, the etching selectivity between the polysilicon film 33 and the silicon nitride film 32 is large. Next, as is shown in FIG. 15(c), by using the remaining polysilicon masks 33a, 33b and 33c as masks, wet etching using heated phosphoric acid (H3PO4) at 150° C. is conducted, so as to have portions of the silicon nitride film 32 covered with the polysilicon masks 33a, 33b and 33c remained and remove the other portions thereof. At this point, the etching selectivity between the silicon nitride film 32 and the polysilicon masks 33a, 33b and 33c can be approximately 30:1. Through this procedure, electrode sidewalls 32a, interconnection sidewalls 32b and a step sidewall 32c each having an L-shape remain on the sides of the gate electrode 4a, the gate interconnection 4b and the step portion, respectively. Then, as is shown in FIG. 15(d), by using the gate electrode 4a, the protection oxide film 31, the electrode polysilicon mask 33a, the electrode sidewall 32a, the step polysilicon mask 33c and the step sidewall 32c as masks, impurity ions are injected at a high concentration into the active area of the silicon substrate 1, thereby forming a high-concentration source/drain region 8. Then, as is shown in FIG. 15(e), the polysilicon masks 33a, 33b and 33c are removed by dry or wet etching. Next, as is shown in FIG. 15(f), exposed portions of the protection oxide film 31 on the substrate are removed by using a HF type etching solution. Then, a titanium film is deposited and a first RTA treatment is conducted, thereby forming a silicide layer of a TiSi2 film through the reaction between titanium and silicon. The titanium film is then removed, and a second RTA treatment is conducted, so that an upper electrode 9a, an upper interconnection 9b and a source/drain electrode 9c each of a silicide layer with a low resistance are formed on the gate electrode 4a, the gate interconnection 4b and the source/drain region 8, respectively. Thereafter, an interlayer insulating film is deposited, the top surface of the substrate is flattened, a contact hole is formed, a metallic interconnection film is deposited, and a metallic interconnection is formed. Thus, an LSI is manufactured. Since the protection oxide film 31 and the L-shaped step sidewall 32c are formed on the side surface of the step portion in the procedure shown in FIG. 15(f) in this embodiment, the silicide layer is effectively prevented from being formed in the boundary between the active area of the silicon substrate 1 and the isolation 2b. Furthermore, since the protection oxide film 31 is formed on the isolation 2b and the active area of the silicon substrate 1 in the procedures shown in FIGS. 15(c) and 15(d), the thickness of the isolation 2b is never decreased through the formation of the L-shaped sidewalls 32a, 32b and 32c. Accordingly, it is possible to decrease the level difference between the isolation 2b and the silicon substrate 1, resulting in improving the patterning accuracy for the gate. In the formation of the gate electrode, first and second conductive films can be used similarly to Embodiment 2. Also in this case, the same effects as those of this embodiment can be exhibited. (Embodiment 11) In each of the aforementioned embodiments, each sidewall is made of an insulating material such as a silicon oxide film and a silicon nitride film. The sidewall can be made of a conductive material such as a polysilicon film. FIG. 16(a) through 16(e) are sectional views for showing manufacturing procedures for a semiconductor device including conductive sidewalls. Before attaining the state shown in FIG. 16(a), a trench isolation 2b, a channel stop region 60, a low-concentration source/drain region 6, a gate insulating film 3, a gate electrode 4a, a gate interconnection 4b and the like are formed through the same procedures as those described in Embodiment 8. Then, a protection oxide film 31 and a polysilicon film 34 for sidewalls are deposited on the top surface by the CVD method. In this embodiment, on the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b are formed protection silicon oxide films 15a and 15b, respectively. At this point, a polysilicon film to be used as the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b has a thickness of 330 nm, and the minimum line width is 0.35 μm. The protection oxide film 31 has a thickness of approximately 20 nm and the polysilicon film 34 has a thickness of approximately 100 nm. Next, as is shown in FIG. 16(b), the polysilicon film 34 is etched back by the RIE, thereby forming electrode sidewalls 34a, interconnection sidewalls 34b and a step sidewall 34c each made of the polysilicon film on sides of the gate electrode 4a, the gate interconnection 4b and a step portion of the isolation 2b, respectively. Next, as is shown in FIG. 16(c), by using the gate electrode 4a, the protection oxide film 31, the electrode sidewalls 34a and the step sidewall 34c as masks, impurity ions are injected at a high concentration into an active area of the silicon substrate 1, thereby forming a high-concentration source/drain region 8. Then, as is shown in FIG. 16(d), exposed portions of the protection oxide film 31 on the substrate are removed by using the HF type etching solution. Then, as is shown in FIG. 16(e), a titanium film is deposited and a first RTA treatment is conducted, thereby forming a silicide layer made of a TiSi2 film through the reaction between titanium and silicon. The titanium film is then removed and a second RTA treatment is conducted, thereby forming a source/drain electrode 9d made of a silicide layer stretching over the electrode sidewall 34a, the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the step sidewall 34c. Since the silicide layer is formed also on the interconnection sidewall 34b, this silicide layer can be connected with the source/drain electrode. Therefore, in this embodiment, etching is conducted on the isolation 2b by using a resist film or the like, so as to selectively remove the interconnection sidewalls 34b on the sides of the gate interconnection 4b as well as the silicide layer thereon. Thus, the source/drain electrodes 9d in the respective active areas are prevented from being mutually connected. It is possible to selectively remove merely the interconnection sidewalls 34b on the sides of the gate interconnection 4b immediately after forming the sidewalls 34a, 34b and 34c of the polysilicon film. Thereafter, an interlayer insulating film is deposited, the top surface of the substrate is flattened, a contact hole is formed, a metallic interconnection film is deposited, and a metallic interconnection is formed. Thus, an LSI is manufactured. In this embodiment, the source/drain electrode 9d is ultimately formed so as to stretch over a large area including the electrode sidewall 34a, the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the step sidewall 34c. Accordingly, the level difference between the transistor region Refet and the isolation 2b can effectively prevent the high-concentration source/drain region 8 from being brought close to the channel stop region 60 in the impurity ion injection. Furthermore, in the formation of the source/drain electrode 9d of silicide on the high-concentration source/drain region 8, also the step sidewall 34c is silicified by a certain thickness. However, since the silicide layer is prevented from being formed in a further thickness, a short circuit current between the source/drain electrode 9d and the channel stop region 60 is effectively prevented from being caused by the formation of the silicide layer in the interface between the isolation and the silicon substrate. Moreover, since the large area stretching over the electrode sidewall 34a, the high-concentration source/drain region 8 and the step sidewall 34c is silicified in this embodiment, it is very easy to form a contact member to be connected with an upper first layer interconnection. As a result, the area of the transistor region Refet can be decreased, namely, the integration of the semiconductor device can be advantageously improved. Although the electrode sidewalls 34a and the interconnection sidewalls 34b are made of a conductive polysilicon film, there is no possibility of a short circuit between the sidewall and the gate because the respective sidewalls 34a and 34b are insulated from the gate electrode 4a and the gate interconnection 4b by the protection oxide film 31. In the formation of the gate electrode, first and second conductive films can be used similarly to Embodiment 9, and also in this case, the same effects as those of this embodiment can be attained. The sidewalls are made of a polysilicon film in this embodiment, and the polysilicon film can be replaced with an amorphous silicon film. Furthermore, the sidewalls can be made not only of a silicon film but also of another conductive material such as a metal, and it is not necessarily required to silicify the sidewalls. In each of the aforementioned embodiments, the description is made on the case where the semiconductor element formed in the active area is a field effect transistor. However, the invention is not limited to these embodiments, and is applicable when the semiconductor element is a bipolar transistor and the active area is an emitter diffused layer, a collector diffused layer or a base diffused layer of the bipolar transistor. In each embodiment, setting of an angle of the side surface of the step portion to be equal to or more than 70° ensures a large level difference between the active area and the side surface of the step portion around the boundary of the active area, thereby preventing formation of a deep recess on the isolation. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a semiconductor device including transistors and connection between the transistors for constituting an LSI with high integration and a decreased area. With the recent development of a semiconductor device with high integration and high performance, there are increasing demands for more refinement of the semiconductor device. The improvement of the conventional techniques cannot follow these demands, and novel techniques are unavoidably introduced in some technical fields. For example, as a method of forming an isolation, the LOCOS isolation method is conventionally adopted in view of its simpleness and low cost. Recently, however, it is considered that a trench buried type isolation (hereinafter referred to as the trench isolation) is more advantageous for manufacturing a refined semiconductor device. Specifically, in the LOCOS isolation method, since selective oxidation is conducted, the so-called bird's beak occurs in the boundary with a mask for preventing the oxidation. As a result, the dimension of a transistor is changed because an insulating film of the isolation invades a transistor region against the actually designed mask dimension. This dimensional change is unallowable in the refinement of a semiconductor device after the 0.5 μm generation. Therefore, even in the mass-production techniques, the isolation forming method has started to be changed to the trench isolation method in which the dimensional change is very small. For example, IBM corporation has introduced the trench isolation structure as a 0.5 μm CMOS process for the mass-production of an MPU (IBM Journal of Research and Development, VOL. 39, No. 1/2, 1995, pp. 33-42). Furthermore, in a semiconductor device mounting elements such as a MOSFET in an active area surrounded with an isolation, an insulating film is deposited on the active area, the isolation and a gate electrode, and a contact hole is formed by partly exposing the insulating film for connection between the active area and an interconnection member on a layer above the insulating film. This structure is known as a very common structure for the semiconductor device. FIG. 17 is a sectional view for showing the structure of a conventional semiconductor device. In FIG. 17 , a reference numeral 1 denotes a silicon substrate, a reference numeral 2 b denotes an isolation with a trench isolation structure which is made of a silicon oxide film and whose top surface is flattened so as to be at the same level as the top surface of the silicon substrate 1 , a reference numeral 3 denotes a gate oxide film made of a silicon oxide film, a reference numeral 4 a denotes a polysilicon electrode working as a gate electrode, a reference numeral 4 b denotes a polysilicon interconnection formed simultaneously with the polysilicon electrode 4 a , a reference numeral 6 denotes a low-concentration source/drain region formed by doping the silicon substrate with an n-type impurity at a low concentration, a reference numeral 7 a denotes an electrode sidewall, a reference numeral 7 b denotes an interconnection sidewall, a reference numeral 8 denotes a high-concentration source/drain region formed by doping the silicon substrate with an n-type impurity at a high concentration, a reference numeral 12 denotes an insulating film made of a silicon oxide film, and a reference numeral 13 denotes a local interconnection made of a polysilicon film formed on the insulating film 12 . The local interconnection 13 is also filled within a connection hole 14 formed in a part of the insulating film 12 , so as to be contacted with the source/drain region in the active area through the connection hole 14 . In this case, the connection hole 14 is formed apart from the isolation 2 b by a predetermined distance. In other words, in the conventional layout rule for such a semiconductor device, there is a rule that the edge of a connection hole is previously located away from the boundary between the active area and the isolation region so as to prevent a part of the connection hole 14 from stretching over the isolation 2 b even when a mask alignment shift is caused in photolithography (this distance between the connection hole and the isolation is designated as an alignment margin). However, in the structure of the semiconductor device as shown in FIG. 17 , there arise problems in the attempts to further improve the integration for the following reason: A distance La between the polysilicon electrode 4 a and the isolation 2 b is estimated as an index of the integration. In order to prevent the connection hole 14 from interfering the isolation 2 b as described above, the distance La is required to be 1.2 μm, namely, the sum of the diameter of the connection hole 14 , that is, 0.5 μm, the width of the electrode sidewall 7 a , that is, 0.1 μm, the alignment margin from the polysilicon electrode 4 a , that is, 0.3 μm, and the alignment margin from the isolation 2 b , that is, 0.3 μm. A connection hole has attained a more and more refined diameter with the development of processing techniques, and also a gate length has been decreased as small as 0.3 μm or less. Still, the alignment margin in consideration of the mask alignment shift in the photolithography is required to be approximately 0.3 μm. Accordingly, as the gate length and the connection hole diameter are more refined, the proportion of the alignment margin is increased. This alignment margin has become an obstacle to the high integration. Therefore, attempts have been made to form the connection hole 14 without considering the alignment margin in view of the alignment shift in the photolithography. Manufacturing procedures adopted in such a case will now be described by exemplifying an n-channel MOSFET referring to FIGS. 18 ( a ) through 18 ( c ). First, as is shown in FIG. 18 ( a ), after forming an isolation 2 b having the trench structure in a silicon substrate 1 doped with a p-type impurity (or p-type well), etch back or the like is conducted for flattening so as to place the surfaces of the isolation 2 b and the silicon substrate 1 at the same level. In an active area surrounded with the isolation 2 b , a gate oxide film 3 , a polysilicon electrode 4 a serving as a gate electrode, an electrode sidewall 7 a , a low-concentration source/drain region 6 and a high-concentration source/drain region 8 are formed. On the isolation 2 b are disposed a polysilicon interconnection 4 b formed simultaneously with the polysilicon electrode 4 a and an interconnection sidewall 7 b . At this point, the top surface of the high-concentration source/drain region 8 in the active area is placed at the same level as the top surface of the isolation 2 b . Then, an insulating film 12 of a silicon oxide film is formed on the entire top surface of the substrate. Next, as is shown in FIG. 18 ( b ), a resist film 25 a used as a mask for forming a connection hole is formed on the insulating film 12 , and the connection hole 14 is formed by, for example, dry etching. Then, as is shown in FIG. 18 ( c ), the resist film 25 a is removed, and a polysilicon film is deposited on the insulating film 12 and within the connection hole 14 . The polysilicon film is then made into a desired pattern, thereby forming a local interconnection 13 . At this point, in the case where the alignment margin in view of the mask alignment shift in the formation of the connection hole 14 is not considered in estimating the distance La between the polysilicon electrode 4 a and the isolation 2 b , a part of the isolation 2 b is included in the connection hole 14 when the exposing area of the resist film 25 a is shifted toward the isolation 2 b due to the mask alignment shift in the photolithography. Through over-etch in conducting the dry etching of the insulating film 12 , although the high-concentration source/drain region 8 made of the silicon substrate is not largely etched because of its small etching rate, the part of the isolation 2 b included in the connection hole 14 is selectively removed, resulting in forming a recess 40 in part of the connection hole 14 . When the recess 40 in the connection hole 14 has a depth exceeding a given proportion to the depth of the high-concentration source/drain region 8 , junction voltage resistance can be decreased and a junction leakage current can be increased because the concentration of the impurity in the high-concentration source/drain region 8 is low at that depth. In order to prevent these phenomena, it is necessary to provide a predetermined alignment margin as is shown in the structure of FIG. 17 so as to prevent the connection hole 14 from interfering the isolation 2 b even when the alignment shift is caused in the lithography. In this manner, in the conventional layout rule for a semiconductor device, an alignment margin in view of the mask alignment shift in the photolithography is unavoidably provided. Furthermore, a distance between the polysilicon electrode 4 a and the connection hole 14 is also required to be provided with an alignment margin. Otherwise, the connection hole 14 can interfere the polysilicon electrode 4 a due to the fluctuation caused in the manufacturing procedures, resulting in causing electric short-circuit between an upper layer interconnection buried in the connection hole and the gate electrode. As described above, it is necessary to provide the connection hole 14 with margins for preventing the interference with other elements around the connection hole, which has become a large obstacle to the high integration of an LSI. Also in the case where a semiconductor device having the so-called salicide structure is manufactured, the following problems are caused due to a recess formed in the isolation: FIG. 19 is a sectional view for showing an example of a semiconductor device including the conventional trench isolation and a MOSFET having the salicide structure. As is shown in FIG. 19 , a trench isolation 105 a is formed in a silicon substrate 101 . In an active area surrounded with the isolation 105 a , a gate insulating film 103 a , a gate electrode 107 a , and electrode sidewalls 108 a on both side surfaces of the gate electrode 107 a are formed. Also in the active area, a low-concentration source/drain region 106 a and a high-concentration source/drain region 106 b are formed on both sides of the gate electrode 107 a . A channel stop region 115 is formed below the isolation 105 a . Furthermore, in areas of the silicon substrate 101 excluding the isolation 105 a and the active area, a gate interconnection 107 b made of the same polysilicon film as that for the gate electrode 107 a is formed with a gate insulating film 103 b sandwiched, and the gate interconnection 107 b is provided with interconnection sidewalls 108 b on its both side surfaces. On the gate electrode 107 a , the gate interconnection 107 b and the high-concentration source/drain region 106 b , an upper gate electrode 109 a , an upper gate interconnection 109 b and a source/drain electrode 109 c each made of silicide are respectively formed. Furthermore, this semiconductor device includes an interlayer insulating film 111 made of a silicon oxide film, a metallic interconnection 112 formed on the interlayer insulating film 111 , and a contact member 113 (buried conductive layer) filled in a connection hole formed in the interlayer insulating film 111 for connecting the metallic interconnection 112 with the source/drain electrode 109 c. Now, the manufacturing procedures for the semiconductor device including the conventional trench isolation and the MOSFET with the salicide structure shown in FIG. 19 will be described referring to FIGS. 20 ( a ) through 20 ( e ). First, as is shown in FIG. 20 ( a ), a silicon oxide film 116 and a silicon nitride film 117 are successively deposited on a silicon substrate 101 , and a resist film 120 for exposing an isolation region and masking a transistor region is formed on the silicon nitride film 117 . Then, by using the resist film 120 as a mask, etching is conducted, so as to selectively remove the silicon nitride film 116 and the silicon oxide film 117 , and further etch the silicon substrate 101 , thereby forming a trench 104 . Then, impurity ions are injected into the bottom of the trench 104 , thereby forming a channel stop region 115 . Then, as is shown in FIG. 20 ( b ), a silicon oxide film (not shown) is deposited, and the entire top surface is flattened until the surface of the silicon nitride film 117 is exposed. Through this procedure, a trench isolation 105 a made of the silicon oxide film filled in the trench 104 is formed in the isolation region Reiso. Next, as is shown in FIG. 20 ( c ), after the silicon nitride film 117 and the silicon oxide film 116 are removed, a gate oxide film 103 is formed on the silicon substrate 101 , and a polysilicon film 107 is deposited thereon. Then, a photoresist film 121 for exposing areas excluding a region for forming a gate is formed on the polysilicon film 107 . Then, as is shown in FIG. 20 ( d ), by using the photoresist film 121 as a mask, dry etching is conducted, thereby selectively removing the polysilicon film 107 and the gate oxide film 103 . Thus, a gate electrode 107 a of the MOSFET in the transistor region Refet and a gate interconnection 107 b stretching over the isolation 105 a and the silicon substrate 101 are formed. After removing the photoresist film 121 , impurity ions are injected into the silicon substrate 101 by using the gate electrode 107 a as a mask, thereby forming a low-concentration source/drain region 106 a . Then, a silicon oxide film 108 is deposited on the entire top surface of the substrate. Next, as is shown in FIG. 20 ( e ), the silicon oxide film 108 is anisotropically dry-etched, thereby forming electrode sidewalls 108 a and interconnection sidewalls 108 b on both side surfaces of the gate electrode 107 a and the gate interconnection 107 b , respectively. At this point, the gate oxide film 103 below the silicon oxide film 108 is simultaneously removed, and the gate oxide film 103 below the gate electrode 107 a alone remains. Then, impurity ions are diagonally injected by using the gate electrode 107 a and the electrode sidewalls 108 a as masks, thereby forming a high-concentration source/drain region 106 b . Then, after a Ti film is deposited on the entire top surface, high temperature annealing is conducted, thereby causing a reaction between the Ti film and the components made of silicon directly in contact with the Ti film. Thus, an upper gate electrode 109 a , an upper gate interconnection 109 b and a source/drain electrode 109 c made of silicide are formed. The procedures to be conducted thereafter are omitted, but the semiconductor device including the MOSFET having the structure as shown in FIG. 19 can be ultimately manufactured. In FIG. 19 , the metallic interconnection 112 is formed on the interlayer insulating film 111 , and the metallic interconnection 112 is connected with the source/drain electrode 109 c through the contact member 113 including a W plug and the like filled in the contact hole. When the aforementioned trench isolation structure is adopted, the dimensional change of the source/drain region can be suppressed because the bird's beak, that is, the oxide film invasion of an active area, which is caused in the LOCOS method where a thick silicon oxide film is formed by thermal oxidation, can be avoided. Furthermore, in the procedure shown in FIG. 20 ( c ), the surfaces of the isolation 105 a and the silicon substrate 101 in the transistor region Refet are placed at the same level. In such a semiconductor device having the trench type isolation, however, there arise the following problems: When the procedures proceed from the state shown in FIG. 20 ( d ) to the state shown in FIG. 20 ( e ), the silicon oxide film 108 is anisotropically etched so as to form the sidewalls 108 a and 108 b . At this point, over-etch is required. Through this over-etch, the surface of the isolation 105 a is removed by some depth. FIGS. 21 ( a ) and 21 ( b ) are enlarged sectional views around the boundary between the high-concentration source/drain region 106 b and the isolation 105 a after this over-etch. As is shown in FIG. 21 ( a ), between the procedures shown in FIGS. 20 ( d ) and 20 ( e ), the impurity ions are diagonally injected so as to form the high-concentration source/drain region 106 b . Through this ion injection, the high-concentration source/drain region 106 b is formed also below the edge of the isolation 105 a because the isolation 105 a is previously etched by some depth. Accordingly, the high-concentration source/drain region 106 b is brought closer to the channel stop region 115 , resulting in causing the problems of degradation of the junction voltage resistance and increase of the junction leakage current. In addition, as is shown in FIG. 21 ( b ), in the case where the Ti film or the like is deposited on the high-concentration source/drain region 106 b so as to obtain the silicide layer through the reaction with the silicon below, the thus formed silicide layer can invade the interface between the silicon substrate 101 and the isolation 105 a with ease. As a result, a short-circuit current can be caused between the source/drain electrode 109 c made of silicide and the channel stop region 115 . | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The object of the present invention is improving the structure of an isolation, so as to prevent the problems caused because the edge of the isolation is trenched in etching for the formation of a connection hole or sidewalls. In order to achieve the object, the invention proposes first and second semiconductor devices and first through third methods of manufacturing a semiconductor device as described below. The first semiconductor device of this invention in which a semiconductor element is disposed in each of plural active areas in a semiconductor substrate comprises an isolation for surrounding and isolating each active area, the isolation having a top surface at a higher level than a surface of the active area and having a step portion in a boundary with the active area; an insulating film formed so as to stretch over each active area and the isolation; plural holes each formed by removing a portion of the insulating film disposed at least on the active area; plural buried conductive layers filled in the respective holes; and plural interconnection members formed on the insulating film so as to be connected with the respective active areas through the respective buried conductive layers. Owing to this structure, in the case where a part of or all the holes are formed so as to stretch over the active areas and the isolation due to mask alignment shift in photolithography, a part of the isolation is removed by over-etch for ensuring the formation of the holes. In such a case, even when the top surface of the isolation is trenched to be lower than the surface of the active area, the depth of the holes formed in the isolation is small in the boundary with the active area because of the level difference between the top surface of the isolation and the surface of the active area. Accordingly, degradation of the junction voltage resistance and increase of the junction leakage current can be suppressed. Therefore, there is no need to provide a portion of the active area where each hole is formed with an alignment margin for avoiding the interference with the isolation caused by the mask alignment shift in the lithography. Thus, the area of the active area can be decreased, resulting in improving the integration of the semiconductor device. In the first semiconductor device, at least a part of the plural holes can be formed so as to stretch over the active area and the isolation due to fluctuation in manufacturing procedures. In other words, even when no margin for the mask alignment in the lithography is provided, the problems caused in the formation of the holes can be avoided. Furthermore, the angle between a side surface of the step portion and the surface of the active area is preferably 70 degrees or more. As a result, when the hole interferes the isolation, the part of the isolation included in the hole is definitely prevented from being etched through over-etch in the formation of the holes down to a depth where the impurity concentration is low in the active area. The isolation is preferably a trench isolation made of an insulating material filled in a trench formed by trenching the semiconductor substrate by a predetermined depth. This is because no bird's beak is caused in the trench isolation differently from a LOCOS film as described above, and hence, the trench isolation is suitable particularly for the high integration and refinement of the semiconductor device. In the first semiconductor device, when the semiconductor element is a MISFET including a gate insulating film and a gate electrode formed on the active area; and source/drain regions formed in the active area on both sides of the gate electrode, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted: The semiconductor device can further comprise a gate interconnection made of the same material as that for the gate electrode and formed on the isolation, each of the holes can be formed on an area including the source/drain region, the isolation and the gate interconnection, and the plural interconnection members can be connected with the gate interconnection on the isolation. Owing to this configuration, in the case where the interconnection members work as local interconnections for connecting a gate interconnection on the isolation with the active area, there is no need to separately form holes in the insulating film on the gate interconnection and the insulating film on the active area. In addition, there is no need to provide the separate holes with alignment margins from the boundary between the active area and the isolation. Accordingly, the area of the isolation can also be decreased, resulting in largely improving the integration of the semiconductor device. The semiconductor device can further comprise electrode sidewalls made of an insulating material and formed on both side surfaces of the gate electrode; and a step sidewall made of the same material as the insulating material for the electrode sidewalls and formed on the side surface of the step portion. In this semiconductor device, at least a part of the holes can be formed by also removing a portion of the insulating film disposed on the step sidewall. Owing to this structure, the abrupt level difference between the surfaces of the isolation and the active area can be released by the step sidewall. Therefore, a residue is scarcely generated in patterning the interconnection members, and an upper interconnection is prevented from being disconnected and increasing in its resistance. The semiconductor device can further comprise a gate protection film formed on the gate electrode, and at least a part of the holes can be formed so as to stretch over the source/drain region and at least a part of the gate protection film. Owing to this structure, a part of the gate protection film included in the hole is removed by the over-etch in the formation of the holes. However, the gate electrode is protected by the gate protection film, and hence, electrical short circuit between the gate electrode and the interconnection member can be prevented. Accordingly, there is no need to provide an alignment margin from the gate electrode in the area where each hole is formed, resulting in further improving the integration. The interconnection members can be first layer metallic interconnections, and the insulating film can be an interlayer insulating film disposed between the semiconductor substrate, and the first layer metallic interconnections. In this case, the semiconductor device preferably further comprises, between the interlayer insulating film and the semiconductor substrate an underlying film made of an insulating material having high etching selectivity against the interlayer insulating film. The second semiconductor device of this invention in which a semiconductor element is disposed in each of plural active areas in a semiconductor substrate comprises a trench isolation for isolating and surrounding each active area, the trench isolation having a top surface at a higher level than a surface of the active area and having a step portion in a boundary with the active area; and a step sidewall formed on the side surface of the step portion of the trench isolation. Owing to this structure, in the impurity ion injection for the formation of an impurity diffused layer of the semiconductor device, the step sidewall disposed at the edge of the trench isolation can prevent the impurity ions from being implanted below the edge of the isolation. Furthermore, also in adopting the structure including a source/drain electrode made of silicide, the step sidewall can prevent the silicide layer from being formed at a deep portion. Therefore, a short circuit current can be prevented from occurring between the source/drain electrode and a substrate region such as the channel stop region. In this manner, the function of the trench isolation to isolate each semiconductor element can be prevented from degrading. In the second semiconductor device, the step sidewall is preferably made of an insulating material. Also in the second semiconductor device, the semiconductor element can be a MISFET including a gate insulating film and a gate electrode formed on the active area; and source/drain regions formed in the active area on both sides of the gate electrode. This semiconductor device can be further provided with electrode sidewalls formed on both side surfaces of the gate electrode, and the step sidewall can be formed simultaneously with the electrode sidewalls. Owing to this structure, the semiconductor elements can be a MISFET having the LDD structure suitable for the refinement. Because of this structure together with the trench isolation structure, the semiconductor device can attain a structure particularly suitable for the refinement and the high integration. The first method of manufacturing a semiconductor device in which a semiconductor element is disposed in each of plural active areas in a semiconductor substrate comprises a first step of forming an isolation in a part of the semiconductor substrate, the isolation having a top surface at a higher level than a surface of the semiconductor substrate and having a step portion in a boundary with the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a second step of introducing an impurity at a high concentration into each active area of the semiconductor substrate surrounded by the isolation; a third step of forming an insulating film on the active area and the isolation; a fourth step of forming, on the insulating film, a masking member having an exposing area above an area at least including a portion of the active area where the impurity at the high concentration is introduced; a fifth step of conducting etching by using the masking member so as to selectively remove the insulating film and form holes; and a sixth step of forming a buried conductive layer by filling the holes with a conductive material and forming, on the insulating film, interconnection members to be connected with the buried conductive layer. In this method, in the fourth step, an alignment margin is not provided for preventing the exposing area of the masking member from including a portion above the isolation when mask shift is caused in photolithography. In adopting this method, even when a part of the isolation is removed by over-etch in the fifth step so that the top surface of the isolation is etched to be lower than the surface of the active area, the depth of the holes formed in the isolation is small because of the level difference between the isolation and the active area. Accordingly, the decrease of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be suppressed in the manufactured semiconductor device. In addition, the area of the active area can be decreased because no alignment margin from the isolation is provided, resulting in improving the integration of the manufactured semiconductor device. In the first method of manufacturing a semiconductor device, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted: The fifth step is preferably performed so as to satisfy the following inequality: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? OE×a ×( ER 2 / ER 1 )≦ b+D ×(2/10) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein “a” indicates a thickness of the insulating film, “b” indicates a level difference between the surface of the active area and the top surface of the isolation, “ER 1 ” indicates an etching rate of the insulating film, “ER 2 ” indicates an etching rate of the isolation, “D” indicates a depth of an impurity diffused layer in the active area, and “OE” indicates an over-etch ratio of the insulating film. In adopting this method, even when a part of the isolation included in the hole is removed by over-etch in the formation of the holes, the bottom of the etched portion does not reach a portion where the impurity concentration is low in the active area. In other words, the top surface of the isolation is never placed at a lower level than the surface of the active area. Accordingly, the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the increase of the junction leakage current can be definitely prevented in the manufactured semiconductor device. When the semiconductor element is a MISFET, the method can further include, before the second step, a step of forming a gate insulating film on the active area, a step of depositing a conductive film on the gate insulating film and a step of forming a gate electrode by patterning the conducive film, and in the second step, the impurity at the high concentration is introduced so as to form a source/drain region. In such a case, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted. The method can further comprise, after the step of depositing the conductive film, a step of depositing a protection insulating film on the conductive film, and in the step of forming the gate electrode, the conductive film as well as the protection insulating film are patterned, so as to form a gate protection film on the gate electrode. The fifth step can be performed so as to satisfy the following inequality: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? OE×a×(ER 3 /ER 1 )<c in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? wherein “a” indicates a thickness of the insulating film, “c” indicates a thickness of the gate protection film, “ER 1 ” indicates an etching rate of the insulating film, “ER 3 ” indicates an etching rate of the gate protection film and “OE” indicates an over-etch ratio of the insulating film. When this method is adopted, while the area of the active area is decreased by not providing an alignment margin for avoiding the interference between the connection hole and the gate electrode, the hole is prevented from reaching the gate electrode below the gate protection film. In the fourth step, the masking member can be formed to be positioned without providing a margin for preventing the exposing area thereof from including a portion above the gate protection film even when the mask shift is caused in the photolithography. Alternatively, in the fourth step, the masking member can be formed to be positioned with the exposing area thereof including at least a part of a portion above the gate protection film when the mask shift is not caused in the photolithography. In the third step, an interlayer insulating film can be formed as the insulating film, and in the sixth step, first layer metallic interconnections can be formed as the interconnection members. In such a case, it is preferred that the interlayer insulating film is formed in the third step after an underlying film made of an insulating material having high etching selectivity against the interlayer insulating film is formed below the interlayer insulating film. The second method of manufacturing a semiconductor device of this invention comprises a first step of forming an underlying insulating film on a semiconductor substrate; a second step of depositing an etching stopper film on the underlying insulating film; a third step of forming a trench by exposing a portion of the etching stopper film and the underlying insulating film where an isolation is to be formed and etching the semiconductor substrate in the exposed portion; a fourth step of depositing an insulating film for isolation on an entire top surface of the substrate, flattening the substrate until at least a surface of the etching stopper film is exposed, and forming a trench isolation in the trench so as to surround a transistor region; a fifth step of removing, by etching, at least the etching stopper film and the underlying insulating film, so as to expose a step portion between the transistor region and the trench isolation; a sixth step of depositing a gate oxide film and a conductive film on the substrate and making the conductive film into a pattern of at least a gate electrode; a seventh step of depositing an insulating film for sidewalls on the entire top surface of the substrate and anisotropically etching the insulating film for the sidewalls, so as to form electrode sidewalls and a step sidewall on side surfaces of the gate electrode and the step portion, respectively; and an eighth step of introducing an impurity into the semiconductor substrate in the transistor region on both sides of the gate electrode, so as to form source/drain regions. When this method is adopted, since the step sidewall is formed between the semiconductor substrate in the transistor region and the trench isolation after completing the fifth step, the impurity ions are prevented from being implanted below the edge of the trench isolation in the impurity ion injection in the eighth step. Furthermore, also when an area in the vicinity of the surface of the source/drain region is subsequently silicified, the step sidewall made of the insulating film can prevent the silicide layer from being formed at a deep portion. Accordingly, not only the degradation of the junction voltage resistance and the current leakage but also the occurrence of a short circuit current between the source/drain electrode and the substrate region such as the channel stop region can be prevented. In the second method of manufacturing a semiconductor device, the following preferred embodiments can be adopted: In the second step, the thickness of the etching stopper film is preferably determined in consideration of an amount of over-etch in the seventh step, so that the step portion having a level difference with a predetermined size or more is exposed in the fifth step. The method can further comprise, after completing the eighth step, a step of silicifying at least an area in the vicinity of the surface of the source/drain region. The third method of manufacturing a semiconductor device of this invention comprises a first step of forming a gate insulating film on a semiconductor substrate; a second step of depositing a first conductive film to be formed into a gate electrode on the gate insulating film; a third step of forming a trench by exposing a portion of the first conductive film where a trench isolation is to be formed and etching the semiconductor substrate in the exposed portion; a fourth step of depositing an insulating film for isolation on an entire top surface of the substrate, flattening the substrate at least until a surface of the first conductive film is exposed, and forming the trench isolation in the trench so as to surround a transistor region; a fifth step of depositing a second conductive film to be formed into at least an upper gate electrode on the entire top surface of the flattened substrate; a sixth step of making the first and second conductive films into a pattern at least of the gate electrode and exposing a step portion between the transistor region and the trench isolation; a seventh step of depositing an insulating film for sidewalls on the entire top surface of the substrate and anisotropically etching the insulating film for the sidewalls, so as to form electrode sidewalls and a step sidewall on side surfaces of the gate electrode and the step portion, respectively; and an eighth step of introducing an impurity into the semiconductor substrate in the transistor region on both sides of the gate electrode, so as to form source/drain regions. When this method is adopted, the same effects as those attained by the second method of manufacturing a semiconductor device can be attained. In addition, in the patterning process for the gate electrode, the top surface of the substrate is completely flat, and hence, the patterning accuracy for the gate electrode can be improved. | 20041124 | 20061024 | 20050505 | 63176.0 | 3 | POTTER, ROY KARL | SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,995,303 | ACCEPTED | Composite materials | A composite material having a plasma frequency comprising a random mixture of conductive and non-conductive particles. A material having smaller conductive than non-conductive particles and a concentration of conductive particles approximately at, close to or above the percolation threshold for mixtures of the conducting and non-conducting particles may show a plasma frequency well below plasma frequencies for conventional bulk materials. | 1. A composite material having a plasma frequency, comprising an electrically conductive material and a non-electrically conductive material, wherein the electrically conductive material is randomly distributed in the composite material. 2. A composite material according to claim 1, wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order. 3. The composite material of claim 2 wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a region having a dimension of the order of the effective wavelength of electromagnetic radiation in the material. 4. The composite material of claim 3 wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a region having a dimension of the order of 3 mm to 3 m, and preferably 3 cm. 5. The composite material of claim 1 wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a region having a dimension of the order of the wavelength corresponding to the plasma frequency in the material. 6. The composite material of claim 1, wherein the amount of the electrically conductive material is sufficient to form an electrically conductive network. 7. The composite material of claim 6, wherein the electrically conductive network extends over a distance of or greater than the order of the effective wavelength in the material. 8. The composite material of claim 7, wherein the conductive network extends from a first side of the composite material to an opposing second side. 9. The composite material of claim 8, wherein a plurality of electrically conductive networks are formed. 10. The composite material of claim 9, wherein the plurality of networks together extend from a first side of the composite material to an opposing second side. 11. The composite material of claim 1, wherein the plasma frequency is in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. 12. The composite material of claim 1, wherein the plasma frequency is in the range 103 to 1015 Hz. 13. The composite material of claim 12, wherein the plasma frequency is in the range 108 to 1015 Hz. 14. The composite material of claim 12 wherein the plasma frequency is in the range 108 to 1012 Hz. 15. The composite material of claim 1 where both the electrically conductive material and the non-electrically conductive material are comprised of particles. 16. The composite material of claim 15, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than 1. 17. The composite material of claim 16, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than or substantially equal to 10. 18. The composite material of claim 16, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than or substantially equal to 100. 19. The composite material of claim 16, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than or substantially equal to 1000. 20. The composite material of claim 18, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material is greater than or equal to 1. 21. The composite material of claim 1, wherein the electrically conductive material comprises one of a metal, metal alloy, conductive metal oxide, intrinsically conductive polymer, ionic conductive material, conductive ceramic material or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 22. The composite material of claim 21 wherein the electrically conductive material has a conductivity greater than 1 S/m. 23. The composite material of claim 21 wherein the electrically conductive material comprises an oxidation resistant metal, a metallic alloy, a conducting ceramic or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 24. The composite material of claim 1, wherein the non-electrically conductive material comprises one of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, air, an insulating ceramic material, glass or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 25. The composite material of claim 1 wherein the effective conductivity of the composite exceeds approximately 30 S/m. 26. The composite material of claim 16, wherein the electrically conductive material is an electrically conductive coating on non-electrically conductive particles. 27. The composite material of claim 16 wherein the electrically conductive material comprises an oxidation resistant metal, a metallic alloy, and/or a conducting ceramic, and the average particle size of the electrically conducting material is in the range 1 μm to 1 nm. 28. The composite material of claim 27 wherein the electrically conductive material comprises gold or silver particles having an average particle size of 1 μm to 1 nm. 29. The composite material of claim 28 wherein the non-electrically conducting material comprises particles or PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, air, an insulating ceramic material, glass or mixture including any one or more of any of these. 30. The composite material of claim 28 wherein the non-electrically conductive material is polytetrafluoroethylene, the average particle size of the polytetrafluoroethylene is approximately 100 μm, and the average particle size of the gold or silver is approximately 100 nm. 31. The composite material of claim 1 wherein the concentration of electrically conductive material is such that the composite material is approximately at, close to or above its percolation threshold. 32. A composite material comprising particles of an electrically conductive material and particles of a non-electrically conductive material, wherein the average size of particles of the non-electrically conductive material is greater than the average size of the particles of the electrically conductive material and the concentration of electrically conductive material is such that the material is approximately at, close to or above its percolation threshold. 33. A composite material according to claim 32 having a plasma frequency. 34. A composite material according to claim 32 wherein the electrically conductive material is randomly distributed in the composite material. 35 A composite material according to claim 32, wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order. 36. The composite material of claim 32, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than or substantially equal to 10. 37. The composite material of claim 32, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than or substantially equal to 100. 38. The composite material of claim 32, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive material to the average particle size of the electrically conductive material is greater than or substantially equal to 1000. 39. The composite material of claim 32 wherein the electrically conductive material comprises one of a metal, metal alloy, conductive metal oxide, intrinsically conductive polymer, ionic conductive material, conductive ceramic material or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 40. The composite material of claim 39, wherein the electrically conductive material has a conductivity greater than 1 S/m. 41. The composite material of claim 39, wherein the electrically conductive material comprises an oxidation resistant metal, a metallic alloy, a conducting ceramic or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 42. The composite material of claim 32, wherein the non-electrically conductive material comprises one of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, air, an insulating ceramic material, glass or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 43. The composite material of claim 32, wherein the electrically conductive material is an electrically conductive coating on non-electrically conductive particles. 44. The composite material of claim 32 wherein the electrically conductive material comprises an oxidation resistant metal, a metallic alloy, and/or a conducting ceramic, and the average particle size of the electrically conducting material is in the range 1 μm to 1 nm. 45. The composite material of claim 44 wherein the electrically conductive material comprises gold or silver particles having an average particle size of 1 μm to 1 nm. 46. The composite material of claim 32 wherein the non-electrically conducting material comprises particles of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, air, an insulating ceramic material, glass or mixture including any one or more of any of these. 47. The composite material of claim 32 wherein the non-electrically conductive material is polytetrafluoroethylene, the average particle size of the polytetrafluoroethylene is approximately 100:m, the electrically conductive material is gold and silver and the average particle size of the gold or silver is approximately 100 nm. 48. The composite material of claim 31 wherein the effective conductivity of the composite exceeds 30 S/m. 49. The composite material of claim 1, wherein the non-electrically conductive material comprises a sheet of insulating material and the electrically conductive material is on a surface of the sheet of insulating material. 50. The composite material of claim 49, wherein the insulating material is one of paper, polymer film or sheet, card or cloth. 51. The composite material of claim 49, wherein the electrically conductive material comprises one of a metal, metal alloy, conductive metal oxide, intrinsically conductive polymer, ionic conductive material, conductive ceramic material or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 52. Use of the material of claim 1 to modify the propagation characteristics of electromagnetic radiation. 53. Use according to claim 52 to modify the propagation characteristics of electromagnetic radiation having a frequency greater than the plasma frequency of the material. 54. Use according to claim 52 wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a region having a dimension of the order of the wavelength of radiation evident in the material. 55. Use according to claim 52 wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a region having a dimension of the order of 1 to 10 cm, to modify the propagation characteristics of incident radiation having a frequency in the range 1 to 100 GHz. 56. Use according to claim 55, wherein the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a region having a dimension of the order of 3 cm, to modify the propagation characteristics of incident radiation having a frequency of approximately 10 GHz. 57. Use according to claim 52 to absorb incident radiation. 58. Use of the material of claim 1 as a transmission medium for electromagnetic radiation. 59. Use of the material of claim 53 as a medium switchable between a first state in which electromagnetic radiation can substantially propagate through the material, and a second state in which electromagnetic radiation substantially cannot propagate through the material. 60. Use of the material of claim 1 to manufacture a product, device or apparatus for the modification of the propagation characteristics of electromagnetic radiation. 61. Use according to claim 60, to modify the propagation characteristics of radiation having a frequency between 108 and 1015 Hz. 62. Use according to claim 61, to modify the propagation characteristics of radiation having a frequency between 108 and 1012 Hz. 63. Use of the material of claim 1 to manufacture a product, device or apparatus switchable between a first state in which electromagnetic radiation can substantially propagate through the product, device, apparatus or element thereof and a second state in which electromagnetic radiation substantially cannot propagate through the product, device, apparatus, or element thereof. 64. Use of the material of claim 1 to absorb radiation in the frequency range 103 to 1015 Hz of the electromagnetic spectrum. 65. Use of the material of claim 1 to absorb radiation in the frequency range 108 to 1015 Hz of the electromagnetic spectrum. 66. Use of the material of claim 1 to absorb radiation in the frequency range 108 to 1012 Hz of the electromagnetic spectrum. 67. Product, Device or Apparatus for modifying the propagation characteristics of electromagnetic radiation and including the material of claim 1. 68. Product, device or apparatus switchable between a first state in which electromagnetic radiation can substantially propagate through the product, device apparatus, or element thereof and a second state in which electromagnetic radiation substantially cannot propagate through the product, device, apparatus, or element thereof. 69. A product device or apparatus according to claim 67 wherein the product, device or apparatus is a directional coupler lens, filter, transparent electrode, absorbing electrode, capacitor, inductor, waveguide, sensor, remote interrogation sensor package, active electromagnetic shutter, radome, switch or shield, fuse or anechoic chamber. 70. Use of a composite material comprising particles of an electrically conductive material and particles of a non-electrically conductive material, wherein the average size of the particles of the electrically conductive material is lea than the average size of the particles of the non-electrically conductive material the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order, to manufacture an element or device switchable between a first state in which radiation in the radio and/or microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum can substantially propagate through the element or device and a second state in which the radiation substantially cannot propagate through the element or device. 71. A method of making a material having a plasma frequency, the method comprising: providing particles of a non-electrically conductive material; and randomly distributing sufficient particles of an electrically conductive material in the non-electrically conductive material to create an electrically conductive network in the material. 72. A method according to claim 71, comprising the steps of: i) mixing particles of an electrically conductive material and particles of a non-electrically conductive material to form a mix; ii) forming the mix to produce a perform; and iii) recovering the composite material. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the particles of the electrically conductive material and the particles of the non-electrically conductive material are mixed in the presence of an inert solvent. 74. The method of claim 72, additionally comprising the step of heating the mix to drive off the solvent. 75. The method of claim 72, wherein the perform is formed using one of injection moulding, extrusion, spraying or casting. 76. The method of claim 71, comprising the steps of: iv) melting a carrier material; v) mixing an electrically conductive material into the carrier material; vi) cooling the carrier material; and vii) recovering the composite material. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the carrier material is paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material or glass. 78. A method of producing a composite material comprising electrically conductive material and non-electrcially conducting material and wherein the composite material is approximately at, close to or above the percolation threshold for a mixture of the conducting and non-conductive materials, the method including the steps of: a. selecting an user determined pattern including a connected network; and b. placing or transferring a pre-determined pattern of either the conductive or non-conductive material onto a support or substrate of, respectively, the non-conductive or conductive material to create an electrically conductive network. 79. A method according to claim 78 wherein a pre-determined pattern of conductive material is placed or transferred onto or into a non-conductive support or substrate. 80. A method according to claim 78 wherein a pre-determined pattern of non-conductive material is placed or transferred onto or into a conductive support or substrate. 81. A method according to claim 79 including the additional step of placing a layer of non-conductive material over the user determined pattern of conductive material, and then placing or transferring a pre-determined pattern of conductive material onto or into the layer of non-conductive material. 82. A method according to claim 80 including the additional step of placing a layer of conductive material over the user determined pattern of non-conductive material, and then placing or transferring a pre-determined pattern of non-conductive material onto or into the layer of conductive material. 83. A method according to claim 81 further including the step of repeating the additional step of claim 80 or 81 at least once more. 84. A method according to claim 78 wherein the material is printed onto the support or substrate. 85. A method according to claim 84 wherein the material is printed using inkjet printing. 86. A method according to claim 84 wherein the material is printed using screen printing. 87. A method according to claim 78 wherein the material is placed or transferred onto the support or substrate by block foil patterning. 88. A method according to claim 78 wherein the conductive material is selected from the group of materials comprising metals, conducting metal oxides, graphitic material, fullerenes, organic conductors and ionic conductors. 89. The method according to claim 78 wherein a non-conductive support or substrate selected from the group of materials comprising natural papers, synthetic papers, cloth, fabric and thin polymer films. 90. Apparatus for making a composite material comprising electrically conductive and non-electrically conductive material wherein the composite material is approximately at, close to or above the percolation threshold for a mixture of the conducting and non-conductive materials, the apparatus comprising a) a memory storing at least one pattern corresponding to the desired connected electrical network; b) means for selecting a or the stored pattern corresponding to the connected electrical network; and c) means for making an element comprising a selected material in the selected pattern. 91. Apparatus according to claim 90 for making a composite material including means for placing or transferring the selected material onto a second material to create the selected pattern. 92. Apparatus according to claim 91 including a printer for placing or transferring the selected material onto a second material. 93. A composite material comprising regions of electrically conductive particles and regions of non-electrically conductive particles, and having a degree of electrical connectivity between the regions of electrically conductive particles that controls the electrical behaviour of the material, and wherein the degree of electrical connectivity is determined by the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive particles to the average particle size of the electrically conductive particles. 94. The composite material of claim 93, wherein the ratio of the average particle size of the non-electrically conductive particles to the average electrically conductive particles is greater than or equal to 1. 95. The composite material of claim 94, wherein the particle size ratio is greater than 10. 96. The composite material of claim 94, wherein the average particle size ratio is greater than 100. 97. The composite material of claim 94, wherein the average particle size ratio is greater than 1000. 98. The composite material of claim 93 wherein the electrically conductive particles comprise one of a metal, metal alloy, conductive metal oxide, intrinsically conductive polymer, ionic conductive material, conductive ceramic material or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 99. The composite material of claim 93, wherein the electrically conductive particles comprise one of an oxidation resistant metal, a metallic alloy, a conducting ceramic or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 100. The composite material of claim 93, wherein the non-electrically conductive material comprises one of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, air, an insulating ceramic material, glass or a mixture including one or more of any of these. 101. The composite material of claim 93, wherein the electrically conductive material is an electrically conductive coating on non-electrically conductive particles. 102. The composite material of claim 93 wherein the composite material exhibits a conductivity greater than 30 S/m. 103. The composite material of claim 102, wherein the composite material exhibits a conductivity of greater than 100 S/m. 104. The composite material of claim 93, wherein the degree of connectivity of between the electrically conductive regions is increased when an external stimulus is applied to the composite material. 105. The composite material of claim 104, wherein the external stimulus is pressure, temperature, chemical absorption, electric field or electric current. 106. A series of composite materials as claimed in claim 93, wherein each member of the series has a different connectivity, and wherein the rate at which an insulator to metal transition occurs with increasing connectivity, when plotted on a logarithmic scale, is less than 100. 107. The series of composite materials as claimed in claim 106, wherein the non-electrically conductive material is PTFE having an average particle size of 1 μm, and the gradient is less than 30. 108. The series of composite materials as claimed in claim 106, wherein the non-electrically conductive material is PFTE having an average particle size of 100 μm, and the gradient is less than 7. 109. A method of predicting the electrical behaviour of a composite material, comprising: determining the conductivity of a series of composite materials, each composite material comprising regions of electrically conductive particles and regions of non-electrically conductive particles, having a degree of connectivity between the regions of electrically conductive particles and having a given particle size ratio of non-electrically conductive average particle size to electrically conductive average particle size; for the series of composite materials, plotting the conductivity of the composite materials against increasing electrically conductive particle content to form a selection plot indicating a metal-to-insulator transition for composite materials having the given particle size ratio; and predicting the electrical behaviour of a composite material having the same ratio of non-electrically conductive particle size to electrically conductive particle size from the selection plot. 110. A method of making a composite material having a desired or selected electrical behaviour, comprising: determining the conductivity of a series of composite materials, each composite material comprising regions of electrically conductive particles and regions of non-electrically conductive particles, having a degree of connectivity between the regions of electrically conductive particles and having a given particle size ratio of non-electrically conductive average particle size to electrically conductive average particle size; for the series of composite materials, plotting the conductivity of the composite materials against increasing electrically conductive particle content to form a selection plot indicating a metal-to-insulator transition for composite materials having the given particle size ratio; and selecting from the plot the content or concentration of electrically conductive particles necessary for a given particle size ratio to achieve the desired or selected behaviour. | The present invention is concerned with composite materials. In particular, preferred embodiments are concerned with metal/insulator composites having plasma frequencies below the plasma frequencies of conventional bulk metals. Many applications, devices and/or methods rely on the control of electromagnetic radiation. For example, enclosures (radomes) are necessary to provide environmental protection for antenna systems. In mobile communications and other similar applications, there is a need to separate electromagnetic signals of different frequency. There is also a need to dissipate electromagnetic energy at the walls of anechoic chambers used in radio and microwave measurements, and to confine, within specific bounds, unintentionally emitted electromagnetic energy to meet electromagnetic compliance regulations and prevent electromagnetic interference between electrical and electronic equipment. Materials are used to provide the means of control, either in bulk form, as coatings or as components in devices. For example, radomes tend to be fabricated from bulk materials such as plastics and fibre-reinforced polymer composites; frequency separation can be achieved at a component level in guided wave communications or by using coatings (for example on radomes) for free-field propagation; dissipation tends to be achieved by coating an existing structure (e.g. the walls and floor of an anechoic chamber); and electromagnetic shielding can be achieved either through coating an equipment enclosure or by fabricating the enclosure from an appropriate material. At the simplest level, the role of the material can be to modify the propagation characteristics of incident radiation. Modification could include transmitting, filtering, absorbing or reflecting incident electromagnetic radiation as in radomes, frequency separation, coatings for anechoic chambers and equipment enclosures for electromagnetic compatibility. Advances have also led to materials and devices that amplify or change the frequency or polarisation of incident electromagnetic radiation (consider, for example, lasers, second harmonic generation using non-linear optical materials, or the use of Faraday rotation in ferromagnetic ceramics). Materials and devices also exist whose influence on incident electromagnetic radiation can be changed as a function of an extrinsic (or external) stimulus. These are known as smart, dynamic or adaptive electromagnetic materials and include ferroelectrics, whose permittivity is a function of applied electric field strength, and chromogenic materials (photo-, thermo-, or electro-chromic) whose optical colour and often electrical conductivity varies with light intensity, temperature or electrical current. The thesis, “Electrical Percolation and the Design of Functional Electromagnetic Materials” by Ian J, Youngs, published in December 2001, and available from the library of the University of London includes a comprehensive discussion of the background to and physics surrounding this invention. The influence exerted by a material on an electromagnetic wave is determined by two intrinsic material properties. These are the permittivity (ε) and magnetic permeability (μ). The permittivity (ε) characterises the response of a material to an applied electric field, and is a measure of the extent to which a material can resist the flow of charge in an electric field. The magnetic permeability (μ) characterises the response of a material to a magnetic field, and is equal to the ratio of the magnetic flux density to the magnetic field strength measured in the material. It is usual to relate (or normalise) the absolute properties of permittivity and magnetic permeability to those of a vacuum (εo=8.854×10−12 Fm−1; μo=1.257×10−6 Hm−1) so that one then discusses the relative permittivity (εr=ε/ε0) and relative permeability (μr=μ/μ0) of a material. For example, the relative permittivity and relative permeability of a vacuum equal unity. The present invention is primarily concerned with responses to an applied electric field (i.e. permittivity) and the manner in which they govern the propagation of an electromagnetic wave through the bulk of a material. For the purposes of a general introduction, only the behaviour of non-magnetic materials is considered below. This is a reasonable assumption to make, since materials exhibiting diamagnetic or paramagnetic behaviour have a relative magnetic susceptibility (χm, a ratio of the magnetic moment per unit volume of material to the magnetic field strength) of |χm|>10−5 and so are treated as having a value of μr of 1. In the case of ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials, where |χm| is significantly greater then 0, the analogous case to that outlined below will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Materials can either support (or allow) the propagation of an electromagnetic wave through their bulk or they cannot. All materials contain electronic charges and so respond, to varying degrees, to the application of an electric field. Metals contain significant numbers of electronic charges that are free to move through the bulk of the material (the conduction band electrons). An electric field applied to a metal therefore induces a macroscopic transport current in the material. The frequency response of the permittivity of metals is determined by the weakly-bound (“free”) electrons in the conduction band. At low frequencies, the electrons oscillate in phase with an applied electric field. However, at a certain characteristic frequency, oscillation in phase with the applied field can no longer be supported, and resonance occurs. The weakly bound electrons within the metal can be considered to act as a plasma—a gas consisting either wholly or partly of charged particles. A simple example is to consider such an electron gas as being in two dimensions and held between two opposing electrodes, one at the top of the plasma and one at the bottom. When an electric field is applied to this plasma, the electrons will receive enough momentum to move in the opposite direction to that in which the field is applied, and will continue to move after the field is turned off. After time t, N electrons of charge e will have moved a distance, x, producing a sheet of unbalanced charge −Nex at the top of the plasma. Consequently, a region of opposite charge, Nex is left at the bottom of the plasma. This results in an electric field, E in the upward direction, of magnitude E=(Ne/ε0)x acting within the plasma. This produces a restoring force on the electrons, creating an equation of motion ⅆ 2 x ⅆ t 2 + N ⅇ 2 m e ɛ 0 = 0 ( 1 ) where me is the mass of our electron. The electrons therefore vibrate at the plasma frequency, wp, where ωp2=(e2/meε0)N (2) For metals, this characteristic frequency is in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. For frequencies above ωp, metals can be considered to act like dielectrics, i.e. they have a positive permittivity and support a propagating electromagnetic wave. The oscillation of a plasma may be quantified: a plasmon is the unit of quantification. Plasmons have a profound impact on the properties of the metal, especially on the effect of incident electromagnetic waves. The action of the plasmons produces a complex dielectric function (or permittivity) of the form ɛ ( ω ) = 1 - ω p 2 ω ( ω + ⅈ γ ) ( 3 ) The imaginary component arises through the damping term γ, which represents the amount of plasmon energy dissipated into the system, generally as heat. The real permittivity is essentially negative below the plasma frequency, ωp, at least down to frequencies of the order of γ. For frequencies below ωp, metals therefore exhibit a negative permittivity. In this case, an electromagnetic wave cannot propagate through the material, and decays exponentially within a characteristic distance determined by the attenuation coefficient, α=2ωni/c. In a sense, the metal acts as a high-pass filter for the frequency range spanning the plasma frequency. For metals, where the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation is below the ultraviolet end of the spectrum most of the radiation is reflected and the remainder is attenuated by the metal. Dielectrics are classed as non-magnetic materials, and contain charges which are mostly bound and whose motion is therefore localised to distances much smaller than the wavelength of the incident electromagnetic radiation. The relative permittivity of a dielectric material will be positive and greater than that of a vacuum. Bound electric charges can exist on many scales within a material, from electrons orbiting atomic nuclei to charges residing at interfaces between phases of dissimilar chemical composition within a material. At low frequencies, all charges will oscillate in phase with an applied electric field. This contributes to the maximum value of the permittivity exhibited by the material. This is shown in a dynamic permittivity resulting from an applied AC field, rather than the dielectric constant which is representative of an applied DC (or static) field. Under these conditions and in the absence of free electric charges, the material exhibits no significant loss. Again, at certain characteristic frequencies, the individual types of charge carriers no longer oscillate in phase with the applied field. Maxima in the loss (or absorption) spectrum occur at these frequencies. When an E-field is applied to a dielectric material, polarisation of the charges within the material occurs. The force exerted on an electron by the electric field, E(t) of a harmonic wave of frequency ω, gives an equation of motion for an electron of m e ⅆ 2 x ⅆ t 2 + m e γ ⅆ x ⅆ t + m e ω 0 2 x - eE 0 cos ω t = 0 ( 4 ) where me, is the electron mass, E0 is the magnitude of the applied electric field, ω02 is the characteristic (or resonance) frequency, ω is the frequency of the applied electric field, e is the electronic charge and x is the distance moved by an electron under the influence of the applied electric field. meγdx/dt is a damping term representing the delay between the application of the external field and the time after which an equilibrium in the polarisation is established. The polarisation of the material in this field is caused by N contributing electrons and is given by P=exN, which is related to the permittivity of the material, ε by ε=ε0+P(t)/E(t) (5) Hence the permittivity of the material is given by ɛ = ɛ 0 + e 2 N m e 1 ( ω 0 2 - ω 2 - ⅈ γω ) ( 6 ) Furthermore, there is a relationship between the real (ε′) and imaginary (ε″) parts of the permittivity of a material, given by the Kramers-Kronig relations: ɛ ′ ( ω ) = ɛ 0 + 2 π ∫ 0 ∞ ω ′ ɛ ″ ( ω ′ ) ⅆ ω ′ ( ω ′2 - ω 2 ) ( 7 a ) ɛ ″ ( ω ) = - 2 ω π ∫ 0 ∞ [ ɛ ′ ( ω ′ ) - ɛ 0 ] ⅆ ω ′ ω ′2 - ω 2 ( 7 b ) These characteristic frequencies (ω0) are found experimentally by a maximum in the imaginary permittivity component and represent a region of absorption over which incident electromagnetic energy is converted to heat through electron-phonon interactions within the material. A phonon is an elastic wave caused by harmonic vibrations within the crystal lattice. Over the frequency range containing the absorption band, the real permittivity component will also be frequency dependent—through the Kramers-Kronig relationships. The nature of this frequency dependence is related to the level of damping. At high frequencies, generally well above the microwave region, the damping effects are greatly reduced and the polarisation mechanisms are related to the creation of dipoles at electronic and atomic scales. In this case the real polarisability component is of a resonant nature centred on the characteristic frequency as shown in FIG. 1. At lower frequencies, including the microwave region, the damping effects are larger and the polarisation mechanisms are related to molecular through to macroscopic scales. The response about the characteristic frequencies tends to that of a critically damped system and the real polarisability component decays monotonically with increasing frequency, as shown in FIG. 2. This is known as dielectric relaxation. These effects can be used to absorb the energy of incident electromagnetic radiation in a frequency range centred on the characteristic frequency, rather than transmitting it or reflecting it back to its source. The ratio of the imaginary to real components represents the phase lag of the electric component of an incident electromagnetic wave inside the material, compared to the electric field component of the incident electromagnetic wave outside the material. At an interface, such as that shown in FIG. 3, it is the relative permittivity that determines the proportion of incident radiation that is reflected, shown as r, and the proportion which is transmitted, shown as t. This is given by the Fresnel equations, (where ⊥ and ∥ indicate components when the incident electric field is perpendicular and parallel to the plane of incidence respectively) r⊥=[Z2 cos(θi)−Z1 cos(θt)]/[(Z2 cos(θi)+Z1 cos(θt)] (8a) r∥=[Z1 cos(θi)−Z2 cos(θt)]/[(Z1 cos(θi)+Z2 cos(θt)] (8b) t⊥=2Z2 cos(θi)/[Z2 cos(θi)+Z1 cos(θt)] (8c) t∥2Z2 cos(θi)/[Z2 cos(θi)+Z1 cos(θt)] (8d) where Z2=μr/εr and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the materials either side of the interface, with material 1 containing the incident electromagnetic wave. Material 1 is often air in which case Z1=μr1=εr1=1. If material 2 is non-magnetic then μr2=1, also. For example, for metals in air, most of the incident radiation in the microwave and visible regions of the spectrum (frequencies in the region of approximately 108 to 1015 Hz) is reflected. For example, the reflectivity of freshly deposited aluminium, in air, is around 94% to 99% for wavelengths between 10 and 30 μm. The angles of incidence (θi) and refraction (θt) in these equations are given by Snell's law, n1 sin θi=n2 sin θt (9) where n2=εrμr and the subscripts 1 and 2 are as defined for Z in the Fresnel equations. It is clear then that identifying materials with different permittivities can enable the design of components and devices with different electromagnetic functionality (for example, different levels of reflection, transmission and absorption) operating over specific regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, the range of naturally occurring permittivities has become restrictive to the design engineer. For example, either because the desired real permittivity value is not available or absorption mechanisms do not exist at a required frequency, or in a material that has the required processibility, mechanical, environmental or visual properties. For these reasons, engineers have sought to form composite media with tailored complex permittivity. For example, and for many years, high permittivity materials and metals have been added, in powdered forms, to polymers and other low permittivity host materials (matrices) (e.g. ceramics and glasses) to raise the base permittivity of the host or to engineer absorption (e.g. through electrical resistance or the Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars effect). The permittivity of these composite media is now considered an ‘effective’ permittivity. For this to be valid, and the composite medium to be treated as a homogeneous material for design purposes, the size of the inclusions must be smaller (and ideally) much smaller than the wavelength of interest. Work has also been done on trying to design solid materials that have a plasma frequency at lower frequencies than naturally occur in metals. It has been known for some time [Bracewell R, Wireless Engineer, p. 320, 19541, that periodic arrays of metal elements can be used to form composite media with low plasma frequencies. More recently (Pendry J et al, Physical Review Letters, vol. 76, p. 4773, 1996] it was demonstrated that a periodic lattice of thin metallic wires could exhibit a plasma frequency given by; ωp=2πc2/(d2 ln(d/r)) (10) in the microwave region when the wire radius (r) is much smaller than the wire spacing (d), and c is the speed of light in vacuum. For example, when the wire radius is 20 μm and the wire spacing is 5 mm, the plasma frequency is approximately 10 GHz. There have been no other experimental observations of plasma resonances at microwave frequencies in naturally occurring materials or artificial composites other than in the fine wire system discussed above. However, there is evidence of low frequency plasmons in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. For example, low frequency plasmons have been observed in intrinsically conducting polymers (Kohlman R et al, Chapter 3, Handbook of Conducting Polymers, Second Ed., Ed. Skotheim, Elsenbaumer and Reynolds, Marcel Dekker, New York 1998 ISBN 0-8247-0050-3), in coupled metallic island structures (Govorov et al, Physics of the Solid State, vol. 40, p 499, 1998) and in metallic photonic bandgap crystals (Zakhidov et al. Synthetic Metals, vol. 116, p 419, 2001). It is also known how to create artificial dielectric structures, for example, for use as radar antennas (see Skolnik, Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw-Hill, London, 1981, Martindale, J. Brit. IRE, vol. 13, p 243, 1953, Stuetzer, Proc. IRE, 38, p 1053, 1950, and Harvey, Proc. IRE, vol. 106 Part B, p 141, 1959). An artificial dielectric comprises discrete metallic particles of a macroscopic size. For example, these particles may be spheres, disks, strips or rods embedded within a material of low dielectric constant, such as polystyrene foam. These particles are arranged in a three dimensional lattice configuration, with the dimensions of the particles in the direction parallel to the applied electric field, as well as the spacing between the particles, being of an order comparable with the incident wavelength. For a small concentration of metallic spheres of radius r and spacing d, and assuming there is no interaction between the spheres, the dielectric constant of an artificial dielectric is approximately κ=l+4πr3/d3 (11) (The symbol κ has been used here to represent the dielectric constant to avoid confusion with the use of the symbol ε to represent permittivity.) An artificial dielectric may also be constructed using a solid dielectric material that comprises a controlled arrangement of spherical or cylindrical voids. Leaving behind the assumption of non-magnetic materials taken above, and following on from wire arrays, it is also possible to produce alternative periodic arrangements of metallic elements which exhibit negative magnetic permeability also at microwave frequencies (Pendry J et al., IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 47, p 2075, 1999). A combination of these two techniques has also led to real materials exhibiting “left-handed” electromagnetic behaviour or a negative angle of refraction (Smith D R et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 84(18), p 4184, 2000.). Very recently a theoretical model has led to speculation [Holloway et al, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol 51, No. 10, October 2003] that it may be possible to produce double negative media (i.e. having effective permeability and permittivity simultaneously negative) by producing a composite material consisting of insulating magnetodielectric spherical particles embedded in an insulating background matrix. The advantages of producing a material with a negative magnetic permeability are similar to those found on producing a negative permittivity. So far, we have only considered the electric component of an applied electromagnetic field, but any material which produces a loss when exposed to an applied electromagnetic field can do so via the electric or the magnetic component of that field, or both. The best materials which exhibit losses via the magnetic field component are ferrites. These materials show ferrimagnetism, where saturation magnetisation does not correspond to parallel alignment of the magnetic moments within the material. Such materials also tend to have a spinel crystal structure, comprising 8 occupied tetrahedral sites and 16 occupied octahedral sites within a unit cell. For example, magnetite, Fe3O4 or FeO.Fe2O3 comprises both ferric (Fe3+) and ferrous (Fe2+) ions. At saturation, the moments of all of the Fe3+ ions on the tetrahedral sites and of the Fe3+ ions filling 8 of the octahedral sites are aligned antiparallel, thus cancelling each other out. The residual magnetic moment is therefore only contributed to by the Fe2+ ions on the remaining octahedral sites. Such a material has a complex permeability, μ=μ′+iμ″ (12) where μ′ is the real component and μ″ the imaginary component. Consequently, it is also desirable to find materials with a negative permeability, since in these the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave will die away exponentially within the material. Although a single period of a fine wire array of the type proposed by Pendry J. et al in Physical review letters, 76, 9773, 1996 is smaller than the incident wavelength (0.03 m at 10 GHz, with λ/d≈6) it is not much smaller (an order of magnitude) than the wavelengths. In practice, more than one period of such a structure may be required in the direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave for the effective permittivity of such a composite medium to be a valid representation of the electromagnetic response of that medium. Consequently, this could not be considered to be “thin” in comparison with the wavelength at the plasma frequency. This may be a limiting factor to the use of such media in practical applications. Media of the type proposed by Pendry J. et al would also be difficult and expensive to produce. A further benefit to the design engineer would be realised if it were possible to produce composite media with a tailored plasma frequency. Particularly, if in a solid material, the plasma frequency could be tailored to exist at lower frequencies than naturally occur in metals. For example, work has recently been reported in the scientific literature where this has been achieved in the microwave or even radio frequency regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. There is, therefore, a need to develop alternative composite media which exhibit metallic-like permittivity spectra with a plasma frequency well below that of conventional bulk metals, which do not depend on the use of components and spacings of the components with dimensions related to the wavelength of interest, whose effective permittivity is realisable on a scale much smaller than the wavelength of interest, and which may be more easily manufactured than the wire structures discussed above. The present invention, in its various aspects, provides a composite material, use of a composite material product, device or apparatus, or a method as defined in one or more of the attached independent claims to which reference should now be made. Further preferred features of the invention are set out in the dependent claims to which reference should also be made. The invention in a first aspect provides a composite material according to claim 1. It is known to make composites comprising mixtures of electrically conductive and non-electrically conductive particles (see, for example, EP 779,629 or U.S. Pat. No. 4,997,708). However, such known composites would not exhibit a plasma frequency. The known composites of this nature are mostly reflective to incident radiation below optical wavelengths. Composites embodying the present invention could be reflective, absorbing or exhibit filtering characteristics similar to electromagnetic bandgap structures. In the claims and description, the term random is intended to mean without order. The electrically conductive material need not be uniformly dispersed and there could be portions of the material in which there is localized order of the electrically conductive material. In a preferred embodiment, the electrically conductive material has no long range order within the composite material. By long range order, it is intended that there is no regularity of structure (crystal or otherwise) for the electrically conductive material. Consequently there is no regularity of crystal structure, or periodic lattice structure present of the conductive material within the composite material. As discussed in more detail below an alternative definition of what is meant by no long range order is no order at or above the dimensions corresponding to the effective wavelength of electromagnetic radiation propagating in the material. The invention in another aspect provides a composite material comprising an electrically conductive material and a non-electrically conducting material, wherein the concentration of electrically conductive material is approximately at, close to or above its percolation threshold. A discussion of how to achieve percolation threshold is set out in a paper by the inventor (Ian J. Youngs) “A geometric percolation model for non-spherical excluded volumes”—Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 36(2003) p. 738-747. The inventor has appreciated that the existing theoretical models of the behaviour of composite material comprising mixtures of conductive and non-conductive or insulating materials are wrong. The inventor is the first to establish that such materials may have a plasma frequency below that of conventional bulk materials. Preferably the composite material comprises particles of electrically conductive and non-electrically conductive materials. Such materials are easy to make. Preferably, the particles are randomly distributed. The inventor is the first to appreciate that composite materials need not have a regular structure of the type previously thought necessary (see, for example, Physical Review Letters, vol. 76, p. 4773, 1996) Pendry et al,) to control or alter the plasma frequency. Preferably, the particles are small, with the conductive particles being smaller than the non-electrically conductive particles. The reasons for the behaviour of the composites of the investigation are as yet not fully understood and investigations are ongoing. However, it appears that composites in which spaces of insulating material (e.g. a non-conductive particle or area) are surrounded by conductive particles: (e.g. a coating of conductive particles on an insulating or non-conductive particle) are particularly advantageous. Preferably the conductive particles are resistant to oxidation and passivation. Small particles are more reactive than larger particles and it is therefore advantageous to have particles whose surface will not react so as to try and ensure that the conductive particles' behaviour (e.g. conductivity) is not altered or affected by surface effects such as oxidation. Preferably the oxidation resistant particles are noble metals, conducting ceramics or metallic alloys. Preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described, by way of example only, with reference to the attached figures. The figures are only for the purposes of illustrating one or more preferred embodiments of the invention and are not to be construed as unifying the invention or limiting the invention or limiting the appendent claims. The skilled man will readily and easily envisage alternative embodiments of the invention in its various aspects. In the figures: FIG. 1 illustrates the high-frequency permittivity of a typical dielectric material centred on a resonance frequency; FIG. 2 illustrates the low-frequency permittivity component of a typical dielectric material centred on a relaxation frequency; FIG. 3 shows an interface between two media for illustrating the Fresnel equations; FIG. 4 shows the theoretical electromagnetic properties of a composite material with a filler conductivity of 1×107 S/m in a matrix with a permittivity of 2.1-j0.001 at 1 GHz predicted using Maxwell-Garnett mixture law; FIG. 5 shows the theoretical electromagnetic properties for the composite material of FIG. 4, but with a filler volume fraction or concentration of 99.9 vol % predicted using Maxwell-Garnett mixture law; FIG. 6 shows the theoretical variation of composite permittivity and conductivity with filler volume fraction or concentration predicted using the Bruggeman model; FIG. 7 illustrates the theoretical variation in permittivity and conductivity under Percolation theory using the Bruggeman model; FIG. 8 shows the theoretical variation in permittivity and conductivity for a composite with a filler volume fraction or concentration of 33.3 vol %, using the Bruggeman model; FIGS. 9a to 9f illustrate, respectively, the theoretical variations in the real permittivity, imaginary permittivity, conductivity, dielectric loss tangent, real electric modulus and imaginary electric modulus for composites with filler concentrations above and below the percolation threshold predicted using the Bruggeman model; FIGS. 10a-10d illustrate, respectively, the experimentally determined variation in the real permittivity, conductivity, dielectric loss tangent and imaginary electric modulus respectively of nano-aluminium in PTFV composites; FIGS. 11a-11d illustrate, respectively, the experimentally determined variation in the real permittivity, conductivity, dielectric loss tangent and imaginary electric modulus respectively of nano-silver in 100 μm PTFE composites FIGS. 12a-12d illustrate, respectively, the experimentally determined variation in the real permittivity, conductivity, dielectric loss tangent and imaginary electric modulus respectively of nano-silver in 100 μm PTFE composites FIGS. 13a to 13d illustrate the experimentally determined variation of the real permittivities in the microwave region for different nano-silver in 100 μm PTFE composites; FIGS. 13e, 13f and 13g illustrate the experimentally determined variation in conductivity, real permeability and imaginary permeability, respectively, for different nano-silver in 100 μm PTFE; FIGS. 14a to 14d illustrate the experimentally determined variation of permittivity in the microwave region for different nano-silver in 1 μm PTFE composites; FIGS. 14e, 14f and 14g illustrate the experimentally determined variation in conductivity, real permeability and imaginary permeability, respectively, for different nano-silver in 1 μm PTFE composites; FIG. 14h is a comparison of the filler concentration dependence of conductivity for different silver-filled composites, highlighting variations in the gradient of the percolation (insulator-conductor) transition (solid data points and data points with a background represent samples exhibiting a plasma-like response). FIGS. 15a and 15b illustrate the experimental complex permittivity spectrum of a titanium diboride PTFE composite; FIGS. 16a to 16d illustrate the experimentally determined dielectric response of nano-copper PTFE composites; FIGS. 17a to 17d illustrate the experimentally determined dielectric response of nano-cobalt PTFE composites; FIGS. 18a to 18d illustrate the experimentally determined microwave magnetic permeability spectra of cobalt PTFE and cobalt wax composites; FIGS. 19a to 19d illustrate the fit between experimental data and modelled or theoretical data using the fitting parameters given in Table 3; FIGS. 20a to 20d illustrate the fit between experimental data and modelled or theoretical data using the fitting parameters given in Table 4; FIGS. 21a to h show SEM (scanning electron microscope) images of PTFE and nano-silver particles composites; FIGS. 22a to 22d show a further fit between experimental data and modelling or theoretical data using the fitting parameters given in Table 5; FIG. 23a shows low frequency conductivity measurements for nano-silver compositions; and FIG. 23b shows low frequency real permittivity measurements for the nano-silver samples of FIG. 23a. FIG. 24 is a schematic graph of the insulator-to-metal transition for compositions with matrix particle sizes of 1 μm and 100 μm; FIG. 25 is a graph comparing the concentration dependence of the conductivity of four silver-based compositions at 0.5 GHz; FIG. 26 is a graph showing scaling of the real permittivity of a sample of 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite; FIG. 27 is a graph showing scaling of the conductivity of a sample of 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite; FIG. 28 FIG. 5 is a graph showing scaling of the real permittivity of a sample of 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite; FIG. 29 FIG. 6 is a graph showing scaling of the conductivity of a sample of 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite; FIG. 30 is a graph of frequency dependent conductivity of a 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite over the range 1 Hz to 1 MHz and power law analysis; FIG. 31 is a graph of frequency dependent real permittivity of a 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite over the range 1 Hz to 1 MHz and power law analysis; FIG. 32 is a graph of frequency dependent conductivity of a 8 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite over the range 1 Hz to 1 MHz and power law analysis FIG. 33 is a graph of frequency dependent real permittivity of a 8 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite over the range 1 Hz to 1 MHz and power law analysis; FIG. 34 illustrates dielectric response; FIG. 35 is a summary of experimental results in terms of measured conductivity at 0.5 GHz; FIG. 36 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 1 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite (2 samples); FIG. 37 is is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite (3 samples); FIG. 38 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 3 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite (3 samples); FIG. 39 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 5 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite (2 samples); FIG. 40 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite (1 sample); FIG. 41 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 8 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite (2 sample); FIG. 42 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the conductivity of samples of 10 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composite (2 samples); FIG. 43 shows graphs of ln(conductivity)v l/T and ln(conductivity) v ln(temperature) for the samples of FIG. 37; FIG. 44 shows graphs of ln(conductivity)v l/T and ln(conductivity) v ln(temperature) for the samples of FIG. 38; and FIG. 45 shows graphs of ln(conductivity)v l/T and ln(conductivity) v ln(temperature) for the samples of FIG. 42. FIG. 46 illustrates the percolation threshold for a composite material, FIGS. 47a to 47c illustrate three different conductive patterns made up of circular conductive elements for placing on a dielectric substrate. FIG. 48 illustrates an alternative conductive pattern made up of crossed dipoles or crosses; and FIGS. 49 and 50 illustrate two possible methods of making a two-dimensional composite material using conductive patterns of the type shown in FIGS. 47 and 48. The inventor of the subject invention is the first to appreciate, after extensive research and investigation, that it is possible to produce a material having a plasma frequency below the plasma frequencies of conventional bulk materials. The inventor is the first to establish that materials comprising electrically conductive particles within an insulating host medium can have a plasma frequency below that of conventional bulk materials. Although it is known (See Kiesow et al, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 94, number 10-15 November 2003) that plasma polymer films with embedded silver nanoparticles can exhibit a reversible electronic switching effect, the inventor of the subject application is the first to realise that it is possible to create materials having a plasma frequency below that for conventional bulk materials using composite materials comprising a mixture of electrically conductive and electrically non-conductive particles in the manner set out in the claims of the subject application. Some embodiments of the present invention are developed from a non-periodic and generally random distribution of conducting particles within an insulating host medium. The conducting particles may be a metal, metal alloy, conductive metal oxide, intrinsically conductive polymer, ionic conductive material, conductive ceramic material or a mixture of any of these. In preferred embodiments the conducting particles are stable against oxidation and passivation and are, for example, noble metals such as silver or gold, metallic alloys or conducting ceramics (Titanium diboride. The insulating material may be particles of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, an insulating ceramic material, glass or a mixture of insulating materials. The insulating material could also be air, or contain trapped air. Investigations into the performance of different composites are ongoing. Presently, the inventor has determined that composite materials comprising a mixture at approximately its percolation threshold of conductive particles in the size range 1 nm to 1 μm (i.e. 100 μm) and larger non-conductive particles (preferably at least 10 times as large as conductive particles) have particularly desirable properties. For example and as discussed in more detail below, silver particles having an average size of 100 nm (as determined using specific surface area measurements (BET)) randomly distributed in a PTFE host made up of PTFE particles having an average size of 100 μm. (Aldrich 468811-8). The nano silver in PTFE composite may be made by mixing particles of the two constituent elements to form a mix, forming the mix to produce a preform and recovering the composite material. The composite may be made by the methods described below in connection with the experiments carried out by the inventors (see experiments 1 to 3). In these methods powders are mixed and then die-pressed at a pressure in the range 130-260 MPa for a period in the range 60-300 second. Although in the experiments the powder mixtures were die-pressed at room temperature, the temperature used to press the medium may be varied according to the polymer used, and should be sufficient to allow preferable conductive particle coating of non-conductive matrix by inducing mechanically or thermally induced flow. Pressure and time may also be varied accordingly. Other methods of consolidating a powder feedstock include extrusion and flame-spraying. Alternatively, the conducting powder could be dispersed by stirring into a carrier material such as a thermoplastic at a temperature above its melting point, or after the thermoplastic has been dissolved in a suitable solvent, or paraffin wax. The conducting particles could be mixed with a thermosetting polymer prior to curing (by chemical or other means). The conducting particles could be formed in situ within a polymer phase by chemically or electrochemically reducing an appropriate precursor. The conducting powder could be mixed with insulating ceramic or glass powder, compacted and then sintered to form a consolidated ceramic or glass component. It is possible that any of these systems could be formed into a foam (blown or syntactic or a hybrid of both), in which case the conducting particles would reside in the cell walls. The foam may be blown using air or an inert gas (for example, Argon). In ceramic systems ir could be possible to form the conducting phase during the sintering reactions and for the conducting phase to reside at grain boundaries within the resulting ceramic. A further possibility is to form a metallic foam in which case the insulating phase could be air. Again this could be achieved by blowing or syntactically by the addition of hollow particles above the melting point of the metal or a hybrid combination of the two methods. In addition, it may be beneficial to influence the connectivity of the conducting phase through the application of an external stimulus such as an electric or magnetic field during the consolidation or solidification process. By connectivity, it is intended to mean any form of connection between particles or other constituents which forms an electrical connection. It is not necessary therefore that the particles or constituents should be in physical contact, but an electrical connection could be made even if there was a distance of the order of a few nanometers between the particles or constituents. This would increase the probability of electron tunnelling or hopping between particles or constituents, resulting in charge transfer. In particular, any electrical conductivity between particles in the form of a network, must extend over a distance greater than the order of the wavelength corresponding to the plasma frequency in the material. Although the preparation of the samples is described in the experiments on a laboratory scale, it would be possible to use various known methods of materials processing on an industrial scale, including, but not limited to, injection moulding, extrusion, spraying or casting. The results of experiments 1 to 3 (see below) show that it is possible to produce composite materials exhibiting a plasma-like response by dispersing silver nano-particles with micron-sized or larger PTFE particles, or micron sized titanium diboride particles with larger PTFE particles. The effect appears to be more reproducible when the conducting particle size is significantly smaller than the insulating particle size. This may be because it is easier and more reproducible to form conductive networks around and between larger non-conductive particles if the conductive particles forming this network are small in comparison. A further benefit of using conducting particles that are much smaller than the insulating particles would appear to be a significant reduction in the critical conducting particle concentration—the percolation threshold—and more reproducible control of insulator/conductor morphology. However, particle size per se does not appear to be a first order cause of the observed effects, but it is the nature of the inter-particle contacts and formation of a percolated microstructure which are critical, as illustrated by the particle size difference effects discussed above and in connection with the experiments discussed below. However, the ratio of sizes of conductive to non-conductive particles may be less than, equal to or greater than unity. Further materials systems that may be of use are excluded volume systems (which utilise small filler concentrations), conductor coated particles and impregnated ceramic materials. Foams and other well known insulating matrices may also be of use. Other ceramic materials, including those where a second phase (for example a conducting phase) is included at grain boundaries may also be suitable for use with the invention, for example, Zinc Oxide (ZnO) thin films. Metal-matrix composites may also be of use. In addition, it is proposed that the combination of the current invention with a component that exhibits negative magnetic permeability over a frequency range where the permittivity is also negative (i.e. below the plasma frequency) would result in a material with a negative refractive index over the same frequency range. A suitable magnetic material would be a ferromagnetic substance: For example the replacement of the purely conductive filler particles discussed above with ferromagnetic metal particles such as cobalt, iron or nickel or their alloys. Such a material would exhibit a negative permeability if inherent damping mechanisms were sufficiently suppressed or excluded. The ferromagnetic material could be added to the insulator phase prior to the formation of the negative permittivity composite as shown by way of example in Experiments 1 and 2. Alternatively, if the ferromagnetic component has sufficient electrical conductivity then it could be used in place of the silver or titanium diboride to form a composite with simultaneous negative permittivity and permeability. The effective properties of composites comprising a random distribution of conductively particles in an insulating host medium may be predicted using mixture laws (also referred to as effective medium theories), of which there are many (Priou A Dielectric Properties of Heterogeneous Materials, Elsevier, New York, 1992; Neelakanta P Handbook of Electromagnetic Materials, CRC Press, New York, 1995; Youngs I Electrical Percolation and the Design of Functional Electromagnetic Materials, PhD Thesis, University of London, 2001). In the majority of cases, selection of an appropriate mixture law is achieved empirically. It is possible to relate different mixture laws to specific combinations of particle shape, orientation and microstructural arrangement. However, it can be difficult to pre-determine the microstructural arrangement that will result from a particular combination of components because the particle arrangement will be influenced by surface chemistry and processing conditions. Bearing in mind the above limitations, it is possible to select a small number of mixture laws that enable the engineer to explore the qualitative nature of the filler concentration and frequency dependence of complex permittivity that can be expected for these composites, even if the laws may be quantitatively incorrect. It will become clear in the following analysis that one of the existing mixture laws suggest that materials of the type claimed would result in plasma frequencies lower than that of conventional bulk materials. The inventor is the first to appreciate the advantageous properties of the claimed materials. The following discussion of the existing mixture laws clearly demonstrates how no-one would have considered creating or using materials as claimed in this application. The earliest mixture laws were developed on the assumption of dilute filler concentrations, with the separation between filler particles being large compared to their radius, A good example is that due to Maxwell-Garnett (Maxwell-Garnett J. ‘Colours in metal glasses and in metal films’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, CCIII, pp. 385, 1904.) The Maxwell-Garnett model or mixture law defines how the overall permittivity ε of the composite material is related to the permittivity of the filler εf, the permittivity of the matrix εm, and the filler volume fraction V: ɛ = ɛ m + 3 ɛ m V Δɛ ɛ f + 2 ɛ m 1 - V Δɛ ɛ f + 2 ɛ m ( 13 ) with Δε=εf−εem. If the filler is a metal then its permittivity may be approximated using the low frequency form of the Drude model ɛ f = 1 - i σ f 2 π f ɛ o ( 14 ) Where σf is the filler conductivity. The filler volume fraction dependence of the relevant effective electromagnetic properties (real and imaginary components of permittivity, and conductivity) for a representative theoretical composite with a filler conductivity (σf) of 1×107 S/m and a matrix permittivity of 2.1-j0.001 is illustrated in FIG. 4 (using the Maxwell-Garnett model) for a frequency of 1 GHz. It is observed that both components of permittivity and conductivity increase with increasing filler volume fraction from those of the matrix to those of filler. In particular, it is observed that the composite has properties close to those of the filler phase when the filler volume fraction or concentration is very close to 100%. Intuitively, this is incorrect for a composite containing mono-disperse filler particles, especially in terms of the composite conductivity, because it is to be expected that the composite conductivity would approach that of the filler component as soon as the particles touch—i.e. at close-packing, which occurs for filler concentrations in the range 52 to 74 vol. % for spherical particles. Nevertheless, it is recalled that the Maxwell-Garnett model was developed under the assumption of dilute filler concentrations. The frequency dependence of the effective electromagnetic properties for the same composite at a filler concentration of 99.9 vol. %, derived using Maxwell-Garnet theory, is illustrated in FIG. 5. A relaxation-type dielectric response similar to that shown in FIG. 2 is observed. The relaxation frequency is at approximately 10 THz (10×1012—i.e. above the microwave range, which is approximately 108 to 1012 Hz). An important advance was made by Bruggeman (Bruggeman D. “Annalen der Physik Leipzig”, vol 24, p 636, 1935e). Bruggeman sought to overcome the dilute approximation by treating the filler particles as being dispersed within a background medium that had the permittivity of the mixture rather than the permittivity of the insulating phase. This led to the following equation, known as the Bruggeman symmetric mixture law or effective medium theory. ( 1 - V ) ɛ - ɛ m 2 ɛ + ɛ m + V ɛ - ɛ f 2 ɛ + ɛ f = 0 ( 15 ) FIG. 6 illustrates the theoretical filler volume fraction concentration dependence of the real (ε′, σf′) and imaginary (ε′, σf″) components of permittivity and conductivity for the same representative composite (i.e. with a filler conductivity σf of 1×107 S/m, a matrix permittivity εm of 2.1-j0.001 and for a frequency of 1 GHz). This figure may be compared directly to FIG. 4. The Bruggeman model predicts that the properties of the mixture increase dramatically at a critical filler concentration that is much smaller than the concentration for close packing. This critical concentration is generally referred to as the percolation threshold (Vc). The Bruggeman model predicts (see FIG. 6) for spherical particles randomly filling a cubic lattice, percolation is predicted to occur at a filler volume fraction of approximately 35%. In fact, real composites materials comprising spherical particles randomly filling a cubic lattice, percolation is reached at the much lower volume fraction of approximately 16%. The Bruggeman theory is therefore quantitatively wrong insofar as prediction of the critical threshold volume filler fraction Vc is concerned. It is however qualitatively correct in that the percolation threshold of the material is important, since it represents the filler volume fraction at which the composite system will undergo an insulator-to-conductor transition. It is expected that the composite material would exhibit insulator-like properties for filler concentrations below the percolation threshold and potentially metal-like properties for filler concentrations above it. Percolation theory is a way of describing the processes, properties and phenomena in a random or disordered system. The amount of disorder is defined by the degree of connectivity between particles. If p is a parameter that defines the degree of connectivity between various particles in a material, then if p=0, none of the particles are connected, and if p=1, all the particles are connected to the maximum number of neighbouring particles. There is a point, pc (the percolation threshold), where each of the particles is connected to the minimum number of neighbouring particles, such that there is a sufficiently long unbroken path of that type of particle for current to flow in the material. In a metal matrix composite, where, e.g. aluminium particles are dispersed in a ceramic matrix, the percolation threshold for applied D.C. (Direct Current) is reached when there is at least one continuous path of aluminium from one side of the matrix to the other. In a similar metal matrix composite the percolation threshold for applied A.C. (Alternating Current) is reached when there are sufficiently long paths around particles at the ends of the matrix, for electrons to move as far as is possible in each direction of cycle of applied current before the direction of applied current is reversed. In other words, the paths are sufficiently long for electrons to move as far as the phase of the applied alternating current allows them. At this point, the material may begin to exhibit metallic characteristics; for example, an electric current may flow. The behaviour of random materials, for example those showing no form of ordering or periodic structure, such as powder systems, near their percolation threshold has been widely studied, both experimentally and theoretically. It is apparent that, for perfectly random systems, there are a number of features associated with their behaviour over a narrow concentration range about the percolation threshold. Many of these features are related to the power-law response observed in systems exhibiting percolative behaviour and the fact that the exponents in these power-laws appear independent of the precise nature of the material, except for the dimensionality of the connectivity between particles. A macroscopic example of this is the filler volume fraction or concentration dependence of the real permittivity and conductivity for a conductor-insulator composite near the percolation threshold. Percolation theory suggests the following power-laws: ɛ ′ ∝ ( V - Vc ) - δ , σ ∝ ( V - Vc ) t and ɛ ″ = σ ω , ɛ o ( 16 ) Where ε′ is real permittivity, V is the volume fraction of the filler, Vc is the critical filler volume fraction corresponding to the percolation threshold and σ is conductivity. FIG. 7 illustrates this point using the data presented in FIG. 6 and calculated using the Bruggeman mixture law. The logarithm of each property is plotted against the logarithm of a normalised filler volume fraction (V−Vc)/Vc. The data for real permittivity ε′ is for filler volume fractions leading up to the percolation threshold. The data for the imaginary permittivity ε″, and conductivity σ are for filler volume fractions above the percolation threshold filler volume fraction Vc. The gradients in FIG. 7 provide the values for the exponents set out in equation (16) above. It is deduced that the Bruggeman mixture law predicts that both s and t equal unity. It is at this point that the Bruggeman model deviates from percolation theory on a quantitative level. Percolation theory predicts that for particles connected on a three-dimensional network, the exponents should have the following values: s=0.73 and t=1.9. FIG. 8 illustrates the frequency dependence of the effective electromagnetic properties for the game composite at a filler volume fraction V of 33.3 vol. %, calculated using the Bruggeman mixture law. In terms of the normalised filler concentration (V−Vc)/Vc defined previously, this concentration is equivalent to that presented in FIG. 5 for the Maxwell-Garnett mixture law. It is observed that the Bruggeman mixture law predicts a much broader and non-Debye relaxation peak for this filler concentration which is close to but below the percolation threshold. This peak may be characterised by two characteristic frequencies ωξ and ωMWS that mark the clear changes in gradient visible in all three parameters shown in FIG. 8. In addition, since the data is already plotted on log-log scales, it is observed that the data covering the central frequency range, defined by these two characteristic frequencies, also obeys a distinct power-law response. In this case, the gradients all equal one half. Percolation theory predicts such a power-law response, with the relationships: ε′(ωsV=Vc))∝ω−y and σ(ωtV=Vc))∝ωx (17) furthermore, that these exponents x, y are related to the exponents s, t (see above) for the concentration dependence by: x + y = 1 , x = t s + t ≈ 0.72 , y = s s + t ≈ 0.28 ( 18 ) Again, it is noted that the Bruggeman model is quantitatively incorrect, yet self-consistent. The loss angle δ (where tan(δ)=ε″/ε′, and ε″is the imaginary part of the permittivity, and ε′ is the real part) attains a constant value given by yn/2 for the frequency range between the two characteristic frequencies, which may be specified as ( V - Vc ) s + t σ f ɛ o ɛ m ≅ ω ξ ≤ ω ≤ ω MWS ≅ σ f ɛ o ɛ m ( 19 ) The term (V−Ve)s+t is a weighting to indicate how close a composition is the percolation threshold. The frequencies occurring between ωξ and ωMWS indicate the parallel nature of the behaviour of the real and imaginary permittivity components, as shown, for example, in FIG. 8. Thus, as the percolation threshold is approached, the lower characteristic frequency ωξ tends to zero. This discussion highlights the importance of an accurate quantitative description of the electromagnetic response of materials near the percolation threshold to the design of composite materials for electromagnetic applications. The inventor has appreciated that the existing theoretical models are wrong. The Maxwell-Garnet metal (see FIGS. 4 and 5) is both quantitatively and qualitatively wrong in that it entirely fails to predict percolation threshold effects. The Bruggeman model (see FIGS. 6 to 9) is quantitatively wrong as although it predicts percolation effects it predicts values for the percolation threshold which differ widely from actual measured values. FIGS. 9a to 9f present the generic regimes according to the Bruggeman model for the frequency dependence of the electromagnetic properties of composites for filler volume fractions below, at and above the percolation threshold. The concentrations used are (Vc−0.70), (Vc−0.01), Vc, (Vc+0.01) and (Vc+0.70), (all volume concentrations) where Vc is the critical filter volume fraction corresponding to the percolation threshold. FIG. 9a shows the real permittivity, FIG. 9b the imaginary permittivity, FIG. 9c the conductivity, FIG. 9d the dielectric loss tangent, FIG. 9e the real electric modulus and FIG. 9f the imaginary electric modulus. It is observed that a metallic or plasma-like dielectric response is not predicted even for filler concentrations well above the percolation threshold. As discussed above, the inventor has however appreciated that the existing theoretical models are flawed. The inventor is the first to appreciate that mixtures of conductive and non-conductive parties can exhibit a dielectric response at conductive filler concentrations from near to and above the percolation threshold. In the light of the inventor's realisation, a series of experiments to determine the feasibility of producing composite materials which exhibit a plasma frequency and a negative permittivity to incident radiation of selected frequencies or ranges or frequencies were carried out. Initially, experiments were carried out to determine the percolation threshold of each type of conductor-insulator composite (defined by a unique choice of conducting filler and insulating host medium) and to determine the level of conductivity achieved in composites with filler concentrations above the percolation threshold. Such experiments would also determine whether the percolation threshold and the dielectric properties of the materials were influenced by any particle size effects (for example the ratio of the conducting particle size to the insulating particle size). For these experiments, composites comprising mixtures of small (relative to the effective wavelength of electromagnetic waves in the composite) particles of conductive materials such as metals or conductive ceramics and small particles of insulating materials such as insulating polymers are made up by mixing controlled quantities of the conductive and insulating particles to form a loose powder mixture. The materials may be mixed using a shaker mixer and the particles may be of any suitable average size or size distribution, although particle sizes that are small (less than one tenth) of the wavelength of interest are preferred. In particular, where the selected frequencies are in the range 0.1 to 100 GHz (i.e. wavelength in the range 3 m to 3 mm), suitable particle size distributions are from 1 nm to 250 nm for the conductive particles (for example, nano-silver, having an average particle size of 10 nm) and 1 μm to 100 μm for the non-conductive particles. The powder mixture was then die pressed at room temperature to provide a consolidated composite medium, for example using a pressure in the range of 130-260 MPa applied for a period in the range 60-300 seconds. The plasma frequencies determined in the following experiments give rise to a range of effective wavelengths within the actual material. The value of these effective wavelengths are determined using the equations: C = f λ ; C = ( ɛ 1 r μ r ) • ( ɛ 1 o μ o ) ( 20 ) where εr and μr are the relative permittivity and relative permeability respectively, εo and μo are the permittivity and permeability in a vacuum and c is the speed of light. Initially, experiments were carried out to study the dielectric properties of composite materials comprising various fillers and conductive components. In each of these experiments, the conductive components are in the form of particles. The non-conductive components may also be composed of particles. Size measurements for very small particles are dependent on the form of measurement used to analyse the particles. This is because of both morphology effects being important and the fact that the particles will be polydisperse (not all of the same size). In the following experiments (and elsewhere in this patent application), sizes are average sizes determined by specific surface area measurements (BET). Experiment 1 (See FIGS. 10a to 10d) Initially, four nano-aluminium PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) mixtures were prepared, with two different PTFE average particle sizes used to investigate particle size effects, as shown in Table 1 below. The nano-aluminium had an average size of 100 nm as measured using specific surface area measurements (BET). The two other experiments and the preferred embodiments of the invention described above PTFE particle sizes used in this, were 1 micron powder (Aldrich 43093-5) and 100 micron powder (Aldrich 46811-8). TABLE 1 nano-aluminium and PTFE particle sizes in initial experiment nano-aluminium PTFE particle size concentration (vol. %) (μm) 1.7 100 8.1 100 8.1 1 15.6 1 For each composition, appropriate quantities of the different materials were measured into a container. The container was then placed in a dry argon atmosphere (less than 50 ppm air) for at least 12 hours to remove any residual moisture so as to reduce particle agglomeration during mixing. The container was then sealed under the argon atmosphere before placing on a shaker mixer that was then operated for approximately 60 minutes to thoroughly mix the particles. The argon atmosphere minimises any further oxidation of the particles during mixing. The resulting powder was then die-pressed at room temperature at a pressure of 260 MPa for 300 seconds to produce test samples. For the measurements of complex permittivity over the frequency range 10 mHz to 1 GHz the sample geometry was a disc with a diameter of 10 mm and a uniform thickness in the range 0.5 to 5.0 mm. The top and bottom faces of the sample were coated with a conducting paint to improve electrode contact. For measurements of complex permittivity and permeability over the frequency range 0.5 to 18 GHz the sample geometry was a toroid with an outer diameter of 6,995 mm and an inner diameter of 3.045 mm (designed to fit standard 7 mm coaxial microwave transmission line). The samples again had a uniform thickness in the range 0.5 to 5.0 mm. The resulting composite was then subjected to a number of experiments to determine its frequency dependent dielectric properties and its structure. Electrical properties of the composites of experiment 1 are shown in FIGS. 10a to 10d. FIG. 10a illustrates the real permittivity, FIG. 10b the conductivity, FIG. 10c the dielectric loss tangent and FIG. 10d the imaginary electric modulus for nano-aluminium dispersed in PTFE. These measurements were undertaken at room temperature using a Novocontrol broadband dielectric spectrometer, comprising a Novocontrol Alpha dielectric analyser for the frequency range up to 1 MHz and an Agilent 4291 RF Impedance analyser for the frequency range 1 MHZ to 1 GHz. A comparison of FIG. 10 to FIG. 9, suggests that the highest aluminium concentration for each PTFE particle size are above the percolation threshold, as the trends in FIG. 10 in real permittivity, conductivity, dielectric loss and electric modulus are similar to those for compositions in FIG. 9 which are above Vc. In addition, it is feasible that the percolation threshold for the larger PTFE particle size is lower. Therefore, it is surprising that the increase in conductivity at 10 mHz from the lowest to highest aluminium concentration for a given PTFE particle size is less than three orders of magnitude. Normally, for composites containing metal filler particles, it is expected that the percolation transition would result in at least ten orders of magnitude increase in composite conductivity at such a frequency. Moreover, for filler concentrations above the percolation threshold, the composite conductivity would exceed 1 S/m. In addition, the upper limiting frequency, ωMWS, for maximum dielectric loss appears several orders of magnitude below the microwave frequency range, (for comparison, conventional metal particles yield values several orders of magnitude above 1 GHz). This reduction in ωMWS suggests that there has been a significant reduction in the conductivity of the conducting phase, below that of bulk aluminium. This may be due to appreciable surface oxidation of the aluminium nano-particles. This oxidation may be due in part to the particles being supplied under air, rather than under hexane, which is known to prevent or at least reduce surface oxidation effects. Because the resulting composite conductivity was so low and the upper characteristic frequency for critical behaviour associated with percolation theory was deduced to be below the microwave region, microwave measurements of the complex permittivity and permeability were not undertaken. Experiment 2 (See FIGS. 11a to 14g) Eight different silver/PTFE composites were prepared. Silver particles with a mean size of approximately 100 nm were dry-mixed with PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) particles as shown in Table 2: TABLE 2 nano-silver and PTFE particle sizes in initial experiment PTFE average size PTFE average size 100 μm 1 μm nano-silver 0.5 1 concentration 1 2 (vol. %) 5 10 15 20 Composites were prepared as described for Experiment 1. The resulting composite was then subjected to a number of experiments to determine its frequency dependent dielectric properties and its structure. The electrical properties of the composites resulting from different concentrations on fractions if silver is 100 μm PTFE are shown in FIGS. 11a to 11d. FIG. 11a illustrates the real permittivity, FIG. 11b the conductivity, FIG. 11c the dielectric loss tangent and FIG. 11d the imaginary electric modulus for nano-silver dispersed in 100 μm PTFE. The electrical properties of the composites resulting from different fractions of silver in 1 μm PTFE are shown in FIG. 12a to 12d. FIG. 12a illustrates the real permittivity, FIG. 12b the conductivity, FIG. 12c the dielectric loss tangent and FIG. 12d the imaginary electric modulus for nano-silver dispersed in 1 μm PTFE. The measurements shown in FIGS. 11a-11d were undertaken at room temperature using a Novocontrol broadband dielectric spectrometer, comprising a Novocontrol Alpha dielectric analyser for the frequency range up to 1 MHz and an Agilent 4291 RF Impedance analyser for the frequency range 1 MHZ to 1 GHz. The nano-silver composites exhibited a more obvious percolative response than the nano-aluminium composite, with the higher silver concentrations resulting in composites with significant conductivity for both PTFE particle sizes. There is also greater qualitative evidence that the percolation threshold is lower for a larger PTFE particle size, with the percolation threshold lying between 1.0 and 5.0 vol % for 100 μm PTFE, and between 2.0 and 10.0 vol. % for 1 μm PTFE. Given that the results for 1.0 and 2.0 vol. % for 1 μm PTFE are quantitatively very similar, it would appear that the percolation threshold will be significantly above 2.0 vol. %. FIGS. 13 and 14a to g show the microwave response for the samples prepared in Experiment 2. These measurements were made using an Agilent 8510 Vector Network Analyser with an S-parameter Test Set and 7 mm Coaxial Transmission Line according to the method of Nicolson, Ross (IEEE Trans Instrum. And Meas., vol 19, p 377, 1970) and Weir (Proc. IEEE, vol 62, p 33, 1974). It is observed that for silver concentrations above the percolation threshold, some samples have a real permittivity whose frequency dependence is unlike that expected from the Bruggeman model (through comparison to FIG. 9a, see samples XC02379 and XC02380 at concentrations of 5% and 15% in FIGS. 13c and 13d). The measured frequency dependence closely resembles that expected for a plasma. Some test samples exhibit a plasma frequency in the measured frequency range. Other test samples have a plasma frequency above the measured frequency range. For the 1 μm PTFE samples, some samples only have a real positive permittivity, which is a typical response for conductive composite materials. The plasma-like response is most consistently observed for the 100 μm PTFE samples. The conductivity highlights the percolation transition, as shown in FIGS. 13e and 14e. These microwave response results indicate that the material would be reflective to incident electromagnetic radiation at frequencies below the plasma frequency, but strongly absorbing above it. These measurements also indicate a diamagnetic effect for silver concentrations above the percolation threshold, with a maximum magnetic loss associated with this effect. This is consistent with the Kramers-Kronig relations. Visual inspection of the composite material highlighted a significant optical reflectivity and a silvery appearance. FIG. 14h compares the filler concentration dependence of the conductivity for different silver particle filled composites at an arbitrary frequency of 0.5 GHz. Composites formed from nano-silver particles dispersed with 100 μm and 1 μm PTFE particles are compared to previously obtained silver coated microspheres dispersed in paraffin wax [see Youngs I. Dielectric measurements and analysis for the design of conductor/insulator artificial dielectrics. IEE Proc., Sci. Meas. & Tech., 147(4), p 202, July 2000; Youngs I. Electrical percolation and the design of functional electromagnetic materials. PhD Thesis, University College, London. 2001]. It is observed that the gradients of the percolation transition for the nano-silver/1 μm PTFE composites is similar to that for the microsphere/wax composites although the latter has a higher percolation threshold. In contrast, the gradient of the percolation transition for the nano-silver/100 μm PTFE composites is much reduced. This difference is consistent with the relative positions of the composites on the particle size ratio scale. The microsphere/wax system exhibits a perfectly random microstructure and because the particle size ratio of the nano-silver/1 μm PTFE system is relatively close to unity its microstructure should be similarly random. Where as the nano-silver/100 μm PTFE system exhibits a clear excluded-volume microstructure. This striking difference serves to explain the increased repeatability observed in the properties of nominally identical samples or nano-silver/100 μm PTFE prepared at filler concentrations spanning the transition region. As can be seen in FIG. 14h (which shows samples exhibiting a plasma-like response as solid data points and/or data points with a background) the plasma like response is exhibited for samples above the percolation threshold and on or approaching the upper plateau of the conductivity against concentration plot. The experiments suggest that the composite must have a conductivity of greater than 10 S/m and preferably about 30 S/m for a plasma-like response to be exhibited. Experiment 3 (See FIGS. 15a and 15b) Titanium diboride powder, of a maximum particle size of 45 μm was dry-mixed with PTFE particles having an average size at 1 μm at a titanium diboride fraction of 50 vol. %, and processed as described above for Experiment 1. The Titanium diboride powder was 45 micron powder purchased from Goodfellow Cambridge Limited. FIGS. 15a and 15b, respectively, show the experimental complex permittivity and permeability spectrum of the resulting composite, over a frequency range of 0.5 to 18 GHz (measured using the same method used in Experiment 2. Titanium diboride was selected because it is an oxidation resistant ceramic conductor. The plasma resonance ωp is clearly visible at approximately 3 GHz. There are additional zero-points in the real permittivity (at approximately 5 and 10 GHz), unlike the silver samples discussed above. The highest (3rd) zero crossing (shown as ωp1) is a plasma frequency that may be associated with a group of charge carriers that are more localised (which cannot cross the sample and so are probably part of finite clusters unconnected with the percolating cluster). Reference can be made to the Handbook of Conducting Polymers (Kohlman R et al ISBN 0-8247-0050-3). The ratio of ωp to ωp1 is associated with the ratio of free electrons to the full conduction electron density. There were difficulties in replicating the results of Experiment 3. The inventor believes that these difficulties may result from the fact that the conductive titatnium dibonde particles are larger than the non-conductive PTFE particles. Experiments 4 and 5 (See FIGS. 16 to 18) Following the results of experiments 1 to 3, the inventor has appreciated that it is also possible to produce composite materials utilising copper and cobalt nano-particles. Three composite materials were made. A nano copper in PTFE composite comprising copper particles having an average size of 90 nm and PTFE particles having an average size of 100 mm; a nano cobalt in PTFE composite with cobalt particles having an average size of 20 nm and PTFE particles having an average size of 100 μm; and a nano cobalt in wax composite with cobalt particles having an average size of 20 nm. The materials were produced as including PTFE and all the experiments carried out as described above for Experiment 1. The cobalt-wax composites were prepared by first dissolving the required quantity of paraffin wax (paraffin wax flakes—Aldrich 41166-3) using hexane and then stirring-in the required quantity of nano-cobalt powder. Stirring was continued until the solvent evaporated and a solid mixture remains. Test samples were prepared by die-pressing as described for Experiment 1. FIGS. 16 and 17 show the measured electrical for the copper and cobalt composites, respectively, the experiments 4 and 5. Although the dielectric responses of copper and cobalt are similar to that of aluminium, as shown in FIGS. 16 and 17, of these three fillers, cobalt composites produce the highest conductivity, subject to the accuracy of filler concentration. FIGS. 16a and 17a show real permittivity, FIGS. 16b and 17b show imaginary permittivity, FIGS. 16c and 17c show conductivity, FIGS. 16d and 17d show dielectric lose tangent, FIGS. 16e and 17e show real electric modulus and FIGS. 16f and 17f show imaginary electric modulus. FIG. 18 shows that negative real permeability has not been observed in either cobalt-PTFE or cobalt-wax composites, but that a ferromagnetic contribution (the reduction in real permeability with increasing frequency) inherent to the cobalt particles is observed. Cobalt is a transition metal with unpaired electrons in the outer d-orbitals. These unpaired electrons give rise to domains of aligned magnetic dipoles and a net magnetisation which may be represented by a vector precessing about a preferred crystallographic axis. The precession frequency is determined by specific material parameters which relate to the magnetic anisotropy field inherent to the material. An incident electromagnetic wave can couple to this precession and at a critical frequency at which the incident frequency approaches the natural precession frequency resonant absorption will occur. For the transition metals and many ferrites (transition metal oxides) this occurs at microwave frequencies. The features observed in the experimental data are evidence of this process and moreover, demonstrate that damping processes are present resulting in features that are closer to the relaxation form (discussed for dielectric response) rather than a sharp resonance. This ferromagnetic contribution increases with filler fraction, although the dependence of the magnetic properties on the filler fraction is not dependent on the percolation threshold. Consequently, it is possible to maximise the magnetic properties by simply increasing the filler fraction or concentration. In composites embodying the present invention (including those discussed in relation to the experiments FIGS. 10-18 above); the electrically conductive material exhibits no long range order over a distance of the order of the wavelength of radiation propagating in the material, and for frequencies close to the plasma frequencies (where the permittivity would be close to zero and there is a singularity), the effective wavelength of electromagnetic radiation in the material diverges, Waves travelling through a material have an effective wavelength which is governed by the permittivity of the material. As the material's permittivity drops, the effective wavelength increases. However, there is a singularity because at the plasma frequency the permittivity is zero which would give an effective wavelength of infinity. This should not be taken to mean that amongst the conductive component there is no regular ordering of individual particles, but merely that clusters and networks are formed. In the composites, the conductive material is randomly dispersed although not necessarily uniformly dispersed. There is no form of periodicity in the dispersion of the conductive component. The amount of electrically conductive material is preferably sufficient to form a conductive network, extending over a distance of the order of the effective wavelength of radiation travelling through the material. There is therefore also no long range order of particles forming the network or within the network. A single conductive network may be formed, which extends from one face of the material to another, preferably an opposite face, or a plurality of linked networks (i.e. linked by clusters) may be formed. The network may be in one, two or three dimensions. This merely reflects the dimensionality of the connectivity between the individual elements forming the network. However, this does not place any form of limitation on the structure or design of the material in which the network exists. For example, it may be possible to have a three-dimensional material, which contains a two-dimensional network, other forms of material, such as sheets or hollow bodies manufactured from sheets or other materials may also contain one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-dimensional networks. Although only materials which are designed to exhibit a negative permittivity with a plasma frequency in the microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum have been described here, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the same techniques of materials design and production can be applied to produce a composite material which exhibits a small positive permittivity, resulting in a material with a small (less than unity) positive refractive index. Such materials are of interest as if their refractive index is less than that of air, total internal reflection could be achieved easily for radiation incident from air onto such a material. The physics underlying the effects described above is complicated and not yet fully understood. As is clear from the experiments carried out by the inventor the existing models fail to accurately predict the behaviour of composite materials having conductive material in an insulating host. The inventor was the first to appreciate how such materials would behave and how they have a plasma frequency which may be affected by the nature of the electrically conductive and non-conductive materials making up a composite material. The inventor's analysis suggests that there are a number of theoretical models which when modified, the inventor believes have the potential to fit the experimental evidence and explain the dependence of the plasma frequency on material parameters such as particle shape, size, conductivity, microstructure and concentration to aid composite design. The candidate models identified by the inventor as having the potential, when modified, to fit the measured microwave plasma-like response include: 1) The model for the infra-red dielectric response of intrinsically conducting polymers discussed in Kohlman R, Epstein A. Insulator-metal transition and inhomogeneous metallic state in conducting polymers. Chapter 3 (pages 100-110 in particular) in Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1998; 2) The model for metallic patches joined by narrow connections discussed in Govorov A, Studenikin S, Frank W. Low frequency plasmons in coupled electronic microstructures. Physics of the Solid State, 40(3), p 499, 1998; and 3) The effective medium model discussed in Sarychev & Shalaev. EM properties of metal-dielectric composites beyond the Quasi-static approximation. Physics Reports, 335, p 275 371 2000. A comparison of the inventor's experimental results described herein, appears to indicate that a modified version of the Sarychev and Shalaev model provides a qualitative match to the experimental data. This is an effective medium model that goes beyond the quasi-static approximation by including a skin-depth component (to determine the extent to which applied fields die away within the material) ( 1 - V ) ɛ - ɛ m 2 ɛ + ɛ m + V ɛ - ɛ ~ f 2 ɛ + ɛ ~ f = 0 ( 21 a ) with ɛ ~ f = ɛ f 2 F ( k f a ) 1 - F ( k f a ) ( 21 b ) F ( x ) = 1 x 2 - cot ( x ) x ( 21 c ) and k f = 2 π f c ɛ f μ f ( 21 d ) By inspection, it is deduced that this model is an extension of the symmetric Bruggeman model given earlier. McLachlan (McLachlan D, Heiss W. Chiteme C and Wu J. Physical Review B, 58(20), p 13558, 1998.) has previously modified the Bruggeman model to introduce the features of percolation theory in a more quantitative fashion. Specifically, McLachlan introduces the percolation threshold and the power law exponents ( 1 - V ) ɛ ? - ɛ ? ( 1 - V c V c ) ɛ ? + ɛ ? + V ɛ ? - ɛ ? ( 1 - V c V c ) ɛ ? + ɛ ? = 0 ? indicates text missing or illegible when filed ( 22 ) The similarity of these models leads to the application, by the inventor, of McLachlan's phenomenological modifications to the Sarychev-Shalaev model, ( 1 - V ) ɛ ? - ɛ ? ( 1 - V c V c ) ɛ ? + ɛ ? + V ɛ ? - ɛ ~ ? ( 1 - V c V c ) ɛ ? + ɛ ~ ? = 0 ? indicates text missing or illegible when filed ( 23 ) Analogous equations can be set out for the magnetic permeability. The real benefit of the new model is that it can be used to simultaneously predict or fit both the complex permittivity and permeability of a conductor-insulator composite. The parameters in the model are: matrix and filler permeability and permittivity, Complex if required; filler concentration or fraction; percolation threshold; percolation exponents; filler particle size; and frequency of the applied electromagnetic field. FIG. 19 illustrates an attempt to fit representative experimental data, in the form of the complex permittivity and permeability for 5 vol. % silver nano-particles (the average size 100 nm) mixed with 100 μm PTFE particles, over the frequency range 0.5 to 18 GHz using the Sarychev-Shalaev-McLachlan model. In this case, the percolation exponents were set at unity, representing the situation for the Sarychev-Shalaev model. All other parameters were set to values representative of the measured composite as shown in Table 3: TABLE 3 Parameters for FIG. 19 Parameter Value Matrix permittivity 2.1-j0.001 Matrix permeability 1 Filler conductivity (S/m) 1E7 Filler permeability 1 Percolation threshold 0.04469, 0.04470 Filler volume fraction 0.05 Percolation exponent, s 1.0 Percolation exponent, t 1.0 Filler particle radius (nm) 50 It is observed that the diamagnetic effect in the magnetic permeability is not predicted, the conductivity of the composite is over estimated and no minima is predicted, but most significantly a plasma frequency is not predicted even with control of the percolation threshold to a tolerance of 0.001 vol. %. If the values of the percolation exponents are set to the universal values for a three-dimensionally connected network, then it becomes possible to predict a plasma-like response. This is illustrated in FIG. 20. However, the gradient of the real permittivity at the plasma frequency remains poorly predicted, as does the composite conductivity and the magnetic permeability. The parameters used in this calculation are shown in Table 4: TABLE 4 Parameters for FIG. 20 Parameter Value Matrix permittivity 2.1-j0.001 Matrix permeability 1 Filler conductivity (S/m) 1E7 Filler permeability 1 Percolation threshold 0.04 Filler volume fraction 0.05 Percolation exponent, s 0.73 Percolation exponent, t 1.9 Filler particle radius (nm) 50 A much better qualitative fit to all four parameters is obtained by re-considering the structure of the composite. In the case of the nano-silver particles mixed with 100 μm PTFE particles, concentrations above the percolation threshold resembled a close-packed arrangement of approximately 100 μm diameter pseudo-conducting particles. The pseudo-conducting particles are taken to have a PTFE core with semi-continuous or continuous silver coating created by the silver nano-particles. This is shown in the SEM (scanning electron microscope) images of FIG. 21. FIGS. 21a, 21b, 21c and 21d show backscattered images of compositions comprising 0.5 vol %, 1.0 vol %, 5.0 vol % and 15 vol % nano-silver particles and 100 μm PTFE particles respectively. In FIGS. 21a and 21b, it is clear that individual silver particles form some clusters on the surface of the PTFE particles, but not enough to form a conductive network. Consequently these particular samples do not conduct, or exhibit a plasma frequency. FIGS. 21c and 21d show compositions with a higher nano-silver concentration. In FIG. 21c, the nano-silver concentration is high enough that some clusters have begun to form networks, one of which is shown stretching from the left-hand side of the image to the right-hand side. In FIG. 21d, the silver concentration is high enough to form a coating of approximately three silver particles deep over each PTFE particle. Both of the samples shown in FIGS. 21c and 21d conduct, and exhibit a plasma frequency. FIGS. 21e and 21f show materials with identical nano-silver concentrations (5.0 vol %) with PTFE particles of 100 μm and 1 μm size, respectively. The nano-silver distribution in FIG. 21f is fairly regular across the entire sample, whereas that in FIG. 21e clearly forms a network. FIGS. 21g and 21h show backscattered images of two nominally identical compositions with 10 vol % nano-silver particles and 1 μm PTFE particles. The sample in FIG. 21g exhibited a plasma frequency, whereas that in FIG. 21h, did not, but exhibited a “conventional” positive permittivity. It is necessary to determine how the model parameters relate to the materials tested, which is determined by the behaviour of the insulator phase, the PTFE particles. Taking a case where the PTFE particles have a nominal radius of 50 μm, the silver particles have a tendency to coat the surface of the PTFE particles. Ultimately, this leads to the creation of pseudo-conducting particles once there is a percolating network of silver particles over the PTFE particle surface. This has occurred in the samples tested because the results demonstrate a significant DC conductivity. These conductor-coated particles are also close-packed. Close-packing occurs for concentrations of the order of 60 vol %. A second explanation is that the properties are driven by two-dimensional percolation over the sample surface because the theoretical percolation threshold for two-dimensional systems is 50 vol %. These points are emphasised by the backscatter scanning electron micrographs presented in FIGS. 21a to 21d. It is also of interest to compare the microstructures of the composites formed using 100 μm and 1 μm PTFE, and to consider why the properties of the latter have a much lower sample to sample repeatability, as shown in FIGS. 21e and 21f. The excluded volume microstructure is much less evident for the smaller PTFE particle size. In fact, in this case, the distribution of silver particles appears much closer to a distribution that might be formed if the silver particles are allowed to occupy space in the composite on a perfectly random basis. The issue of repeatability can be explained as follows. When the conducting filler particles are able to fill space on a perfectly random basis, then a composite sample will only become conductive when there is a connected network of conducting particles across the bulk of the sample. However, when the insulating matrix particles are much larger than the filler particles, the bulk sample will conduct when there is a percolated layer of particles surrounding individual matrix particles. Simplistically, the scale of control is reduced to an individual particle surface rather than the bulk dimensions of the object. At present, the gradient of the transition from the excluded-volume dominated behaviour to the random filling behaviour, as a function of particle size ratio, is not known. The steeper this transition, the smaller the matrix particles can be without reducing repeatability. This would lead to the prospect of thinner coatings or smaller components. Since the conducting filler distribution is critical to the phenomenon, it is also interesting to compare the microstructures for two nominally identical samples, but which give quite different dielectric response. For example, FIGS. 21g and 21h compare two samples, which are nominally 10 vol % concentrations of silver nano-particles dispersed with 1 μm PTFE particles. The sample shown in FIG. 21g exhibited a microwave plasma frequency, where as that shown in FIG. 21h had a conventional positive dielectric response. The micrographs reveal a subtle difference in silver particle distribution. There is an indication that the silver particles are more uniformly dispersed in the sample shown in FIG. 21g. In the context of the model, a uniform dispersion of sufficient filler particles to form a percolation path around a matrix particle should more readily enable percolation over the bulk and a higher composite conductivity. This is consistent with the experimental conductivity data. The conductivity for high silver concentrations in the 100 μm PTFE composites is much more repeatable and at the higher end of the spread in the equivalent data for the 1 μm PTFE composites. It is the lam PTFE samples with highest conductivity that exhibit the plasma response. This observation further supports the hypothesis that there is a critical conductivity that must also be surpassed to achieve the plasma response. This critical conductivity could be associated with a conducting material being classed as ‘truly metallic’. Indeed, the critical conductivity deduced from the available data is close to Mott's limiting value for metals (approximately 104 S/m). To further put this into context, the conductivity of bulk copper is approximately 108 S/m. Consequently, it may be relevant to re-assign different values to the conducting filler concentration, the percolation threshold and the filler particle size. The resulting fit is illustrated in FIG. 22. The parameters used in this calculation are given in Table 5 below: TABLE 5 Parameters for FIG. 22 Parameter Value Matrix permittivity 2.1-j0.001 Matrix permeability 1 Filler conductivity (S/m) 1E7 Filler permeability 1 Percolation threshold 0.6 Filler volume fraction 0.6025 Percolation exponent, s 0.73 Percolation exponent, t 1.9 Filler particle radius (nm) 50,000 As can be seen from the modelling results (in FIGS. 19, 20 and 22), although a good qualitative fit is obtained, there are some discrepancies where differing sizes of PTFE filler are used. The experiments show that there is little difference in the magnitude of the diamagnetic effect for samples with 100 μm PTFE particles or 1 μm PTFE particles. In the model, diamagnetic effect is partly compensated for by adjusting particle size. Consequently, the predicted properties for small particle composites differ somewhat from those observed in experiments. However, it may be possible to overcome this by modelling the diamagnetic effect by including a macroscopic toroidal field component, or alternatively using Mie theory, although other factors such as sample geometry must be taken into account. FIG. 22 demonstrates that a good qualitative fit can be obtained using the modified Sarychev-Shalaev-McLachlan model for the 5 vol. % silver nano-particles mixed with 100 um PTFE particles, albeit after some re-assignment of certain parameters including the filler particle size, filler fraction and percolation threshold. For such modifications to be truly permissible, then they should hold for related cases. An important example, is the 10 vol % silver nano-particles mixed with 1 um PTFE particles. Here, the adjusted filler particle radius would need to be 500 nm. This would have the effect of significantly reducing the diamagnetic effect in the microwave range. However, comparison of FIGS. 13 f and g to FIGS. 14 f and g indicate that the diamagnetic effect is largely unaffected by the change in PTFE particle size. Thus, greater understanding is required before the modified Sarychev-Shalaev-McLachlan model can be used to quantitatively design materials of this type. The inventors have also observed plasma-like frequencies at much lower frequencies, as shown in FIGS. 23a and 23b. Materials with a nano-silver concentration of 5 vol %, and a PTFE particle size of 100 μm demonstrate a conductivity change at 104 Hz (FIG. 23a), and a negative real permittivity at around 103 Hz (FIG. 23b). These materials were prepared in the manner discussed above for Experiment 1. In each case, the samples were cooled to −60° C. and −10° C. or heated to 30° C. This gave fairly consistent results, with one sample exhibiting repeatability. The issues of particle size, particle packing and contact areas of the particles in the composite material have been explored further by the inventors in order to understand the mechanism by which the conductivity gradient changes, and to enable the production of materials of uniform and repeatable compositions having tailored dielectric and conductive properties. The materials comprises regions of electrically conductive and non-electrically conductive materials, where the conductivity of each material is determined by the degree of connectivity between the electrically conductive regions. FIG. 25 compares the concentration dependence of the conductivity of four compositions at 0.5 GHz: Ag (100 nm particle size) and PTFE (1 μm particle size); Ag (100 nm particle size) and PTFE (1 μm particle size); Ag (100 nm particle size) and paraffin wax; and Ag (15 μm diameter spheres) and paraffin wax. For each composition, appropriate quantities of the different materials were measured into a container. The container was then placed in a dry argon atmosphere (less than 50 ppm air) for at least 12 hours to remove any residual moisture to reduce particle agglomeration during mixing. The container was then sealed under the argon atmosphere before placing on a shaker mixer that was then operated for approximately 60 minutes to thoroughly mix the particles. The argon atmosphere minimises any further oxidation of the particles during mixing. The resulting powder was then die-pressed at room temperature at a pressure of 260 MPa for 300 seconds to produce test samples. The behaviour of these materials in the region of the percolation threshold may be determined by either 3D percolation only at close packing concentrations, or by 2D percolation over the surface of the insulating particle. A distinction between these two types of behaviour can be identified using the percolative power law exponents. Although the gradients of the percolation transition for the 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composites is similar to that of microsphere/wax composites, the percolation threshold of the microsphere/wax composites is higher. The gradient of the percolation transition of the 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE compositions is reduced, which is consistent with the relative positions of the materials on a particle size ratio scale. The gradient (on a log-log scale) for the 1 μm PTFE material is approximately 30, whereas that for the 100 μm PTFE material is approximately 7. The microsphere/wax system exhibits a perfectly random microstructure, and the particle size ratio of the 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE is relatively close to unity (1:10), the microstructure is also similarly random. However, the 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE system has a particle size ratio of 1:1000, and exhibits the properties of an excluded volume microstructure, whose physical properties arise from the use of a small filler concentration within a composite material. In an excluded volume microstructure, the regions of electrically conductive material will be excluded from certain areas (the non-electrically conductive matrix), which means that in order for the material to exhibit an electrical conductivity, the conductive regions need to be connected somehow across the non-electrically conductive regions. By increasing the number of and/or volume of the excluded regions of the microstructure, the rate at which connections are formed for increasing concentrations of conductive material will drop, as it requires more material to connect over the excluded regions than if there were few or smaller excluded regions present. This then produces the flattened gradient observed in the experiments. It is also possible to use an electrically conductive matrix, such as a foam to produce a network around gas-filled pockets. This would also act as an excluded volume microstructure. The power law exponents for the percolation transition can be determined by scaling analysis of the real permittivity and conductivity of the composites discussed above for filler concentrations in the region of the percolation threshold. FIGS. 26 and 27 show the scaling of real permittivity and conductivity respectively for 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE compositions, and FIGS. 28 and 29 the scaling of real permittivity and conductivity respectively for 100 nm Ag.1 μm PTFE compositions. According to percolation theory, these exponents should adopt universal values that only depend on the dimensionality of the percolation process. As the percolation threshold is approached from below, the real permittivity should vary according to equation 24: ε∝|ν−νc|−s (24) with the exponent s taking the value of ≈0.73 for 3D systems and 1.33 for 2D systems. Similarly, as the percolation threshold is approached from above, the conductivity should vary in accordance with equation 25: σ∝|ν−νc|t (25) with the exponent t taking the value ≈1.9 for 3D systems and 1.33 for 2D systems. Table 6 below summarises the percolation threshold and exponent values obtained from this analysis, and includes the values determined for microsphere/wax composites, using the same technique, for comparison. TABLE 6 Composite type vc s t Microsphere/wax 0.18 0.70 1.97 100 nm Ag/1 μm 0.075 0.72q 1.85 PTFE 100 nm 0.0141 0.73 2.38 Ag/100 μm PTFE The values of the exponents most closely resemble the universal values for 3D systems, although the value of t for the 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE system is much larger than that of the 3D system. This is indicative of a broader percolation transition. According to percolation theory, power-law behaviour in the frequency dependence of the permittivity and conductivity is also expected for filler concentrations near/in the transition region. The appropriate power laws are given by equations 26 and 27: ε′∝ω−y (26) σ∝ωx (27) In the strictest sense, these power laws only apply at the percolation threshold, but are often applied for filler concentrations near the threshold. The values of these exponents are related to the exponents s and t within the context of a polarisation-based model. The actual relationships are given in equations 28 and 29: x = t s + t ( 28 ) y = s s + l ( 29 ) The relationship for both real and imaginary components is the same. For 3D systems it is expected that x=0.72, y=0.28, and for 2D systems, that x=y=0.5. FIG. 30 presents the frequency dependent conductivity for a 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composite material over the frequency range 1 Hz to 1 MHz. For composites well below the percolation threshold, the conductivity will be dominated by the capacitance between the conducting filler particles and is therefore inversely proportional to frequency (having a gradient of −1). For composites well above the percolation threshold and at low frequencies, the conductivity becomes dominated by conduction through connected conducting particles. The conductivity therefore becomes frequency independent (having a gradient of zero). The data in FIG. 30 clearly shows an intermediate behaviour that is represented by a power law over the frequency range 1 kHz to 1 MHz (as shown by the trend line). The power-law exponent is shown to be 0.71, which is in good agreement with the expected value for a 3D system. However, this is not perfectly consistent with the non-universal value of t derived from the concentration dependence. FIG. 31 presents the corresponding data and power-law analysis for the real and imaginary components of permittivity. The power-law exponent for the imaginary permittivity is consistent. However, the power-law component for the real permittivity is not, which may indicate that the material tested had not quite reached the percolation threshold. If the percolation threshold has been reached, the dielectric loss tangent (the ratio of the real and imaginary permittivity components) is frequency independent, as predicted by percolation theory, FIGS. 32 and 33 present an equivalent power law analysis of the frequency dependence of the conductivity and permittivity of an 8 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE material. This is a sample that has a filler concentration similarly related to the relevant percolation threshold, compared with the 2 vol % loony Ag/100 μm PTFE sample discussed above. The data of FIG. 32 indicates that two distinct power-laws can be used to describe the trend within the measured frequency range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz. Over the frequency range 1 Hz to 1 kHz, the power-law exponent is in reasonable agreement with the expected value for a 3D system, as before. Again, the real component of the permittivity is not consistent with the predicted and expected values, The percolation behaviour therefore appears to be that of a 3D system, regardless of the particle size ratio of the conducting and non-conducting components. The frequency dependent dielectric properties of the composite material examined may also be interpreted using the “Universal Dielectric Response Theory” of Jonscher (Jonscher A, “The universal dielectric response and its physical significance”, IEEE Trans. Electrical Insulation, 27(3), p 407, 1992, Jonscher A., “Dielectric relaxation in solids”, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 32, p R57, 1999). In materials in which the polarisation is dominated by slowly mobile charge carriers, such as those whose mobility is dominated by hopping, the loss peaks due to relaxation of such a polarisation process are replaced by a fractional power-law or constant phase angle response given by equation 30 and illustrated in FIG. 34: ε″(ω)/ε′(ω)=cot (nπ/2) (30) The extreme low frequency dispersion (LFD) is due to the fact that the charges are relatively unbound and can move over large distances compared to more conventional dipoles that give rise to a dielectric response due to polarisation effects. Moreover, whilst these charges are relatively free to move, a dc conductivity, indicated by a frequency independent real permittivity is not observed. The general response shown in FIG. 34 can be compared to the experimental data in FIGS. 31 and 33. There is a clear correspondence between FIGS. 31 and 34, including the crossover of the real and imaginary traces. This comparison may provide an explanation for the inconsistency between the power-law exponents derived form the data in FIGS. 31 and 33. In both figures, there is no constant ratio between the real and imaginary components. This is indicative of the crossover region. The crossover range therefore occurs at frequencies outside of those measured. The repeatability of the observed properties of the above composite materials was also investigated by the inventors. In particular, the repeatability of a plasma-like response (where the material acts as if it is a metal, exhibiting a plasma frequency) when the particle size ratio increases, was investigated. FIG. 35 summarises the experimental results in terms of the measured conductivity at 0.5 GHz, with the error bars representing the spread of results from 3 nominally identical samples. Although there is no clear indication that the reproducibility varies with size ratio, there is an indication that the size ratio affects the gradient of the percolation transition. This is important for ensuring the reliability of compositions prepared within or sufficiently near the transition region. Inter-particle contact resistance and therefore contact area are important factors in determining the overall conductivity of the composites. Dielectric measurements were taken to examine the conduction mechanism. These measurements were undertaken using a Novocontrol Alpha Dielectric Spectrometer and Novocontrol Quatro Cryosystem. Dielectric spectra over the frequency range 1-107 Hz were collected for temperatures over the range −150 to 50° C. at 10° C. intervals. Some further measurements were repeated over the temperature range −100° C. to 100° C. at 5° C. intervals. The following samples were tested: FIG. 36: 1 vol % 100 nm Ag in 100 μM PTFE (samples B, C): FIG. 37: 2 vol % 100 nm Ag in 100 μm PTFE (samples A-C); FIG. 38: 3 vol % 100 nm Ag in 100 μm PTFE (samples A-C); FIG. 39: 5 vol % 100 nm Ag in 100 μm PTFE (samples A, D); FIG. 40: 2 vol % 100 nm Ag in 1 μm PTFE (sample A); FIG. 41: 8 vol % 100 nm Ag in 1 μm PTFE (sample A); and FIG. 42; 10 vol % 100 nm Ag in 1 μm PTFE (samples B, C). The experimental data is presented as a function of temperature for three representative frequencies of approximately 10 Hz, 1 kHz and 0.1 MHz, spanning the tested range. The data from 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composites (FIGS. 37 to 39) demonstrate that the temperature dependence of the conductivity varies markedly as the concentration of the 100 nm Ag component is increased through the percolation transition. This is the same, in general, for repeat tests. In some cases, at the lowest frequencies, the real permittivity can become very noisy. This is usually for composites that are developing into conductive materials, such that the dielectric loss tangent diverges with decreasing frequency, and exceeds the operational range of the measurement equipment. A high conductivity that is inversely proportional to temperature, for temperatures above the Debye temperature (215K for Ag), may be representative of the temperature dependence expected for a metal. For 1 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE (FIG. 37), the conductivity and permittivity is observed to be frequency dependent and to increase with temperature above a particular temperature. This trend is most obvious at lower frequencies, and potentially marks the onset of the percolation transition. The temperature dependence above this transition temperature may be due to “hopping” conduction mechanisms, discussed below. For 3 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE (FIG. 38), the conductivity is observed to be frequency independent, characteristic of being above the percolation threshold. The conductivity initially decreases slowly with increasing temperature, but then undergoes a further increase in negative gradient before rapidly increasing. As the data is presented on a logarithmic scale, these trends cover a small magnitude range. For 5 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE (FIG. 39), the temperature dependence of the conductivity is similarly complex. Both samples tested show two turning points. It was expected that samples near the percolation threshold could undergo a rapid thermally induced insulator-metal transition during the measurement, although this was not observed in the 1, 3 or 5 vol % samples. Therefore samples with 2 vol % 100 nm Ag in 100 μm PTFE were tested (FIG. 37). It was observed that, in contrast to the other compositions tested, the properties of individual samples for 2 vol % 100 nm Ag varied dramatically, and were not at all consistent. For example, sample A was somewhat anomalous in that the conductivity was frequency independent, as if above the percolation threshold. Furthermore, the conductivity exhibited a maximum before rapidly decreasing at higher temperatures. This may be due to the percolation network being broken as the temperature increases in the higher temperature range due to the expansion of the matrix PTFE particles. The conductivity of sample B exhibited comparable frequency and temperature dependence to that of the 1 vol % 100 nm Ag samples, and so also potentially provides evidence for hopping conductivity. However, a maximum conductivity is also found at an elevated temperature. The conductivity of sample C exhibited several discontinuities, indicative of the sample undergoing repeated insulator/metal transitions during the measurements, although these inconsistencies were not observed on the repeat tests. A possible explanation for the changes in the direction of the conductivity gradient is that the percolating networks of silver particles are disrupted or reinforced as the PTFE matrix particles expand. Negative gradients would be consistent with disruption of the network, and positive gradients with reinforcement of the network. Conventionally, for particles dispersed in a continuum matrix, with a particle size ratio, rfiller/rmatrix→∞, it would be expected that the network would be disrupted as the matrix phase expands. However, in the opposite limit, rfiller/rmatrix→0, for excluded volume systems, it may be possible for both behaviours to exist. For filler particles dispersed over the surface of a matrix particle, the filler particles may tend to be separated as the particle expands and the surface area increases. However, this action might also tend to force filler particles distributed over the surface of one matrix particle to come into greater contact with another matrix particle on the surface of an adjoining matrix particle. This may reform the network or change the contact resistance. For the more highly loaded composites, in which the matrix particles are densely covered, the latter effect may dominate. Such a reinforcing mechanism would be completely absent in the silver coated microsphere paraffin wax composites, and should be less apparent in the 1 μm PTFE composites. 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composites were also tested to enable a comparison that would reveal any differences that could potentially be associated with the difference in silver particle contact between the two systems. Representative experimental data is shown in FIGS. 17-19. The experimental data for the 1 μm PTFE composites is broadly consistent with that for the 100 μm PTFE composites. The data for the 2 vol % 100 nM Ag/1 μm PTFE (FIG. 40) is indicative of being further below the percolation threshold than that for 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE (FIG. 14) due to the absence of a temperature above which the conductivity and permittivity are seen to increase. The data for 8 vol % 100 nm AG/1 μm PTFE composites (FIG. 41) is perhaps more closely comparable to that for the 1 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composites (FIG. 36) as a temperature above which the conductivity and permittivity increases is obvious. The conductivity is also close to a maximum at the highest temperature tested, a feature that was observed in the 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE samples (FIG. 37). It is of some concern that the turning points observed in the temperature dependence closely match the phase transition temperatures for water (freezing and boiling points), but no step discontinuities are observed. The samples were dry blended under an inert atmosphere before moulding and testing. The data form 10 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm PTFE composites (FIG. 19) is similar to the 5 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 μm PTFE composites (FIG. 16). Interestingly a broad peak is observed in the conductivity for sample C for this composition. The various 100 nm Ag-based composites tested therefore show a difference in conductivity to the Ag-coated 15 μm spheres and paraffin wax composition tested in FIG. 2. The temperature dependence of the conductivity for the composites identified above as being driven by a hopping mechanism were analysed un the context of the Austin-Mott Activated Polaron Hopping (APH) and Variable-Range-Hopping (VRH) models. The temperature dependence fore each model is given by equations 9 and 10: σ ? ( ω , T ) ∝ ω s ⅇ ( - W ( 1 - s ) k b T ) ( APH ) ( 31 ) σ ? ( ω , T ) ∝ ω s T ? ? indicates text missing or illegible when filed ( 32 ) The data from a selected portion of the temperature range, from FIGS. 36, 37 and 41 is re-plotted in FIGS. 43-45, respectively, as ln(conductivity) against the reciprocal of temperature, and ln(temperature) to determine the activation energy W and the temperature exponent n as defined in equations 31 and 32 (Menon R, Yoon C, Moses D and Heeger A, Chapter 12 “Metal-insulator transition in doped conducting polymers” in Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 2nd Edition, Ed. Skotheim T et al, Marcel Dekker, New York 1998). The values obtained at 10 Hz are summarised in Table 7. TABLE 7 Composite −W(1 − s)/kB n 1 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 −2200 6.9 μm PTFE 2 vol % 100 nm Ag/100 −1283 4.4 μm PTFE 8 vol % 100 nm Ag/1 μm −3395 10.9 PTFE The activation energy and temperature exponent appear to decrease with increasing filler concentration, which is consistent with a decreasing inter-particle separation and hence a reduced barrier to hopping. Depending on the value of s (defined in equation 24 above), the values obtained are in reasonable agreement with values reported for intrinsically conducting polymers. the activation energy and temperature exponent are large for composites comprising 1 μm PTFE particles, suggesting that the large particle size ratio in the 100 μm PFTE composites promotes tunnelling, allowing the hopping conduction mechanism to occur more easily. Low frequency dispersion is also observed, which causes difficulties with the extraction of dc data to determined the dimensionality of the hopping mechanism. The gradient of the percolation transition can therefore be altered by choosing filler and matrix particles with a large size ratio. By altering the gradient, it is possible to reliably produce composite materials that have a particular conductivity range. As the gradient of the transition is relatively flat, the conductivity will not be influenced, or influenced to a small extent, by compositional variations resulting from the production process used to make the materials, for examples, weighing errors. The reliable temperature dependence of the measured conductivity of the samples is also useful in situations where non-ambient temperatures need to be measured. Such tailored composite materials are therefore of use in a wide variety of applications, such as sensors for measuring temperature, pressure or concentration of absorbed chemicals. The external stimulus could also be electric field or current (which may cause heating). For example, as the degree of connectivity of between the electrically conductive regions is increased when an external stimulus is applied to the composite material. Such materials could then be used as sensors, actuators or switches, if the stimulus is applied dynamically. Alternatively in a passive form, the material could realise a conductivity that enables antistatic, electrostatic discharge, electromagnetic shielding products. Although the materials discussed above have comprised silver or silver-based conductive components, other suitable materials, could be used. For example, the electrically conductive material could be one of metal, metal alloy, conductive metal oxide, intrinsically conductive polymer, ionic conductive material, conductive ceramic material or a mixture including one or more of any of these. Alternatively, an oxidation resistant metal, a metallic alloy, a conducting ceramic or a mixture including one or more of any of these could be used. The non-electrically conductive material could be PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), paraffin wax, a thermosetting material, a thermoplastic material, a polymer, air, an insulating ceramic material, glass or a mixture including one or more of any of these. The theories developed by Maxwell-Garnett and Bruggeman and discussed above with reference to FIGS. 5 to 8 can generally be considered as concerning the forming of three-dimensionally connected networks. The composite production described above can also result in three dimensional materials. However it is only necessary for an incident electromagnetic wave to have an electric field component in a direction of connectivity for the effect to be observed. Hence, anisotropic composites with connectivity in two dimensions or even one dimension could suffice. Composites with two-dimensional or one-dimensional connectivity in the plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence would be particularly useful. In this context, printing, etching and lithographic techniques, such as photolithography could be employed to produce two-dimensional connectivity rather than the three dimensional connectivity which the methods described would produce. Printed layers could then be laminated to form a bulk composite. FIG. 46 is a schematic graph of conductivity in relation to conductive filler concentration for a composite material comprising conductive particles in an insulating or non-conductive filler. The graph illustrates that the conductivity of the samples falls into 3 distinct regions, marked A, B and C. In region A, the filler concentration level is low, and the material does not conduct any electrical current. There are no connected pathways of conducting elements in the composite. In region B, an insulator-conductor transition occurs. This transition is prompted by the formation of the first network of conducting elements within the material. For dc use, this network must span the entire material. For ac use, the network need only span a region of the material. The steepness of the gradient in region B is determined by the difference in conductivity between the constituent materials, the concentration of the conducting elements at which the first network forms and the concentration of the conductivity elements at which the overall conductivity becomes limited by the contact resistance between adjacent conductive elements. The gradient of the insulator/conductor transition (region B) can be influenced by the degree of randomness in the distribution of the conducting elements and the nature of electrical charge transport across the contact interface. For example, the gradient can be influenced if the electrical charge transport is dominated by charge hopping or tunnelling rather than essentially free-electron movement. In the transition region B, the conductivity continues to increase rapidly as additional parallel paths of conducting elements are created in the principal network thought the successive addition of conducting elements. This is the percolation region. Eventually, the gradient reduces to a plateau or saturation region C in which the further addition of conducting elements does not significantly increase the conductivity of the composite. In region C, the filler concentration is high enough for the composite to conduct electricity at a level similar to that at the conductivity elements. Typically, in this region the composite is useful as an electrical conductor. A composite material is produced by printing or placing a pattern of conductive elements onto an insulating film substrate. The conducting elements could be formed from any conductive material, including metals, conducting metal oxides, graphitic material, fullerenes, organic conductors or ionic conductors. The insulating film substrate could be formed from any insulating material including natural or synthetic papers, cloth, fabrics or thin polymer films. The pattern of conductive elements or particles may be printed or placed using any pattern transfer mechanism or method whereby a thin layer of the conducting material can be placed in a controlled manner on a surface to form a user defined pattern. The possible methods involve inkjet printing, screen printing, block-foil patterning or autocatalytic deposition such as described in WO 02/099162 and WO 02/099163, or physical or chemical disposition methods. In the case of printing methods, conducting particles would be dispersed in a low viscosity binder to enable deposition on the substrate. Alternatively, conducting material could be removed from an initially complete conducting film to produce a similar pattern of conducting material. The possible removing methods include etching or hole punching. The size of the conducting elements making up the pattern is of secondary importance and would be chosen to be smaller than the area of the substrate or area over which the composite is to be used, whichever is the smaller. Typically, the element size would be less than one tenth of this size limit, and preferably less than one hundredth. A pre-determined pattern representing a selected concentration of conductive material is stored as part of a library of pre-determined patterns each representing selected concentrations of conductive materials. These pre-determined patterns may be determined either empirically or theoretically. A combination of both theory and experience in which a basic pattern is generated theoretically before being empirically checked is a possible way of generating pre-determined patterns. The pre-determined patterns are chosen or selected so as have particular properties in particular circumstances. For example, the library of patterns may include patterns which when used to print or place an ink comprising elements of a particular conductor (e.g. copper) of a particular size and shape (e.g. discs of diameter 1.6 mm—see FIG. 2a) on a particular substrate (e.g. synthetic paper) have a conductivity falling within a particular small range ΔS (see FIG. 1). There are likely even with the method of the present invention to be statistical variations from one sample to the next but they will be significantly smaller than the variations in the properties of the materials made by the known mixing methods. In other words the standard deviation of the conductivity of sample composite materials of a particular conductor concentration produced by the method of this application will be significantly smaller than the standard deviation of the same apparent composite material produced by the known methods. This means that the behaviour of different samples will be closer and therefore materials can be made with more confidence that properties will be repeatable. FIGS. 47a to 47c illustrate a number of pre-determined patterns made up of a 100×100 array including discs 1 of circular material, corresponding to, respectively, 20%, 50% and 70% loadings of conductive elements. FIG. 48 illustrates a pre-determined pattern made up of crossed dipoles 2 and corresponding to a loading concentration of 50%. The aspect ratio of the crosses could be used, for example, to control the percolation threshold of a composite. FIGS. 49 and 50 illustrate the three stage autocatalytic deposition methods described in WO 02/099162 and WO 02/099163 to which reference should be made. The contents of these two publications are herein incorporated by way of reference and as illustrations of how the preferred embodiments of invention might be implemented or created. Turning to FIG. 49, an ink jet printing system 3 coats a substrate 4 with an ink formulation containing a deposition promoting material in a user determined pattern 5. The treated substrate 4, 5 is then immersed in an autocatalytic deposition solution 6 to produce a user determined metalised pattern 7. Ink jet printers operate using a range of solvents normally in the viscosity range 1 to 50 centipoise. Turning to FIG. 50, a screen printing system 8 coats a substrate 4, with an ink formulation containing a deposition promoting material in a user determined pattern 5 (like numerals being used to denote like features between FIGS. 4 and 5). The treated substrate 4,5 is once again immersed in an autocatalytic deposition solution 6 to produce a user determined metalised pattern 7. A range of ink formulations are possible. Criteria suitable for printing may include the following: 1) They contain materials that are able to pass through the chosen printing mechanism (for example, either an Epson 850 inkjet system or a Dek screen printer); 2) They contain liquids with the correct properties for the printing process, for example suitable viscosity, boiling point, vapour pressure and surface wetting; 3) Where suitable they contain binders and fillers affecting either the viscosity or physical printing properties of the printed ink. The patterns of conductive material may also be transferred onto a non-conductive substrate using a straightforward printing technique such as that described by Messrs Schwartz and Ludwena in “An experimental method for studying two-dimensional percolation”. [Am. J. Phys 72(3), March 2004 © 2004 American Association of Physics Teachers] Messrs Schwartz and Ludwena describe an experimental technique for analysing a range of two-dimensional problems. The method is based on the printing of computer generated patterns using conducting ink. The metal-insulator transition is measured from the print out of the conductive patterns, and the conductivity critical component and the percolation threshold are calculated from these measurements. Three-dimensional composite materials may be made by placing a second layer of insulating material over the material of FIG. 4c or 5c and then repeating the printing process. The process may be repeated as many times as are necessary to achieve the desired material thickness or properties. Such a material will, essentially, be three dimensional in terms of its physical shape but as the insulating layers are continuous it will only be two-dimensional in so far as its electrical properties are concerned. Materials being three-dimensional insofar as their electrical properties are concerned may be created by connecting the metallised pattern of adjacent coated substrate layers 4, 5. The connection could be done using conductive vias through the insulating material separating adjacent metallised or conductive patterns. The present invention allows for increased confidence in the manufacturing of composites having particular properties. This has a number of clear advantages including the reduction of scrap. Embodiments of the invention can, as discussed above, be used to engineer composites having, inter alia, desirable electrical, magnetic, thermal and/or physical properties. Possible applications of composites including active materials (e.g. photo sensitive, piezoelectric, chemical sensitive, thermally sensitive) include sensors, actuators or switches. Composites embodying the invention could also be used as reference materials (for e.g. absorbing) in metrology in support of national and/or international traceability claims. The ability to produce something having a known and pre-determined property or behaviour could also be used in support of security and anti-counterfeiting measures. For example, WO02/099163 and WO02/009162 (both assigned to QinetiQ Limited) disclose methods of autocatalytic coating and patterning respectively. This is a form of electroless plating in which metals, for example, cobalt, nickel, gold, silver or copper are deposited onto a substrate via a chemical reduction process. Non-metallic surfaces may be coated following suitable sensitisation of the substrate. Pre-determined areas of the substrate may be prepared for coating, allowing various patterns to be formed. Such patterns are printed onto the substrate using pattern transfer mechanisms such as printing using autocatalytic inks. This would enable a number of random or non-periodic patterns to be printed on single sheets, formed into a composite material by laminating, and which would then exhibit a plasma frequency, similar to those described below for 3-dimensional composite materials. Suitable substrate materials include insulating sheet materials, such as paper, card, polymer film or cloth. The composite materials of the embodiments of the invention may be used in various applications. One important use would be to combine the composite material with another material which has a magnetic permeability of less than 0, to produce a material with a refractive index of less than 0. Using the composite material to produce a material with a refractive index between 0 and 1 (less than air) would also be of use, since this would allow the formation of components exhibiting total internal reflection. The composite material is also suitable for filtering applications, including those which require a tuneable filter. Such filter behaviour may be coupled with various DC frequency applications. This may be used to produce transparent or absorbing electrodes, capacitors or inductors. Transparent electrodes would be of particular use in microwave chemistry applications. The fact that composite materials of the type embodying the invention can demonstrate D.C. conductivity comparable with conventional metals whilst remaining microwave transparent (behaving like a normal dielectric) is of potential usefulness. These potential useful properties can be engineered into materials using the processing described. The advantageous behaviour arises from the percolating networks of conducting particle being arranged in a suitable geometry. Consequently if this geometry can be altered by physical, thermal or electrical deformation then these properties can be tuned or switched on and off depending on the desired application. Possible applications of the composite materials therefore include tunable high pass filters, commercial microwaveable food packaging, mechanically, thermally or electrically switchable microwave filters for use in radomes or other applications requiring microwave spectrum selectively (e.g. telecommunications). Details of how to make products or devices for acting on or processing electro-magnetic waves are well known to those skilled in the art and easily found in relevant textbooks such as “The Electrical Engineering Handbook”, (Editor-in-Chief, Richard C. Dorf; Publisher CRC Press Inc of Boca Raton, Fla.). Examples of possible products which might use the composite material include: a) a written directional coupler lens—a negative permittivity in concert with a negative permeability would lead to a negative refractive index material, Such a ‘left handed’ material would possess unique refraction properties allowing, for example, a flat lens that would allow perfect image projection with no aberrations due to geometrical shape as in a conventional lens. Such effects are, of course, highly dispersive limiting the device to monochromatic operation. b) filter—simple variation of the conductor/insulator morphology within the composite can raise or lower the plasma frequency of the material by several orders of magnitude. Therefore the cut-off frequency where radiation can propagate through the medium (where the permittivity crosses from negative to positive across the plasma frequency) can be varied thus allowing easy fabrication of a tuneable high pass filter device. c) transparent electrode—in electrically addressable devices such as frequency agile sensors, the ability to apply an electric field across such a device without any wavelength feature related artefacts or attenuation occurring is very desirable. Thus, the high conductivity conventional dielectric behaviour (positive permittivity) above the plasma frequency allows the application of ˜kHz driving electric field across a metal-like conductor whilst allowing transmission of ˜GHz microwave radiation through a conventional dielectric. d) absorbing electrode—as above, optimisation of the plasma frequency allows fine control over the sign and magnitude of the complex permittivity of the composite device to provide easily customizable dielectric properties. e) capicitor or inductor—as above, straightforward permittivity/impedance/admittance manipulation can realise such devices. f) waveguide—the low permittivity behaviour frequency regime behaviour of these composite materials above the plasma frequency allows microwave propagation through a slab of such material with total internal reflection occurring off the composite/air interface exploiting the positive, sub-unity value of permittivity close to but just above the plasma frequency. Such behaviour is highly dispersive but this is not a problem in monochromatic telecommunications frequency applications. g) sensor—the transition from insulating to conducting behaviour via the percolating region of interest in this patent can be tuned to be very sharp or a much gentler process. By careful choice of insulator conductor concentration and processing conditions, a composite can be achieved where the width of the percolating region is very sensitive to electrical, mechanical or thermal perturbation. Thus, relatively small changes in driving field, force or temperature can induce relatively large changes in plasma frequency and related dielectric properties. Hence, a high Q-factor sensor can be fabricated. h) remote interrogation sensor package—as above, a switchable filter device could be incorporated into a potential quantum cryptography application. i) radome—typically, a radome needs to have durable physical properties to house the microwave device within. In addition to this, radar absorbing material (RAM) is included—often as a backing applique. If the electrical properties (complex permittivity and admittance) of the composite used in the structural part of the radome could also be used in the RAM, then substantial weight and complexity savings could be achieved. j) switch or shield—as above, tuning of the width of the insulator to conductor transition could be exploited to make the device sensitive to electrical, mechanical or thermal perturbations thus realising a switchable device. k) fuse—as above, manipulation of the insulator/conductor transition would enable a thermal or electrical (or mechanical) solid state switch. l) anechoic chamber—as above, precise tuning of the electrical properties (permittivity, admittance) of a material allows stringent absorption and reflection design criteria to be met cheaply and easily. The composite material may also be used as a sensor, possibly as a remote interrogation sensor, where the plasma frequency is monitored by interrogation by microwaves, in order to determine the state of the sensor. As mentioned above, uses include materials for use in the food industry, for example, to aid heating or to provide packaging for microwaveable foods. Various other modifications are possible and will occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention which is defined by the appended claims. | 20041124 | 20100914 | 20060105 | 73366.0 | B32B702 | 0 | KOPEC, MARK T | COMPOSITE MATERIALS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B32B | 2,004 |
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10,995,389 | ACCEPTED | Method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment | A method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment includes: an environment input step, a detection point calculation step, a measuring step and an assumed non-detected position point step to find measured position points and to measure a four-directional signal strength of the measured position point. By assuming signal strengths of non-detected position points, an entire positioning system can be established. A measuring process includes a portable device signal measuring step, a position point calculation step, and a signal feed back step to send the corresponding position information to the portable device to provide information to a user. | 1. A method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment comprising: an environment input step for dividing an environment into a plurality of position points and setting a position point as an obstacle according to environment information; a detection point calculation step for obtaining a plurality of suggested detection points according to a detection algorithm; a measuring step for measuring the suggested detection points and at least one positioning signal strength from the suggested detection points to establish a relational list between the at least one positioning signal strength and the suggested detection points; an assumed non-detected position points step for assuming and adding to the relational list at least one positioning signal strength from a plurality of non-detected position points according to an assumption calculation; a portable device signal measuring step for measuring at least one positioning signal strength from a portable device at a current location; a position point calculation step for comparing the at least one positioning signal strength from the portable device with the positioning signal strengths in the relational list and obtaining corresponding position information according to a positioning algorithm; and a signal feed back step for sending the corresponding position information to the portable device to inform a user. 2. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 1, wherein the detection algorithm comprises: a detection point ratio input step for inputting a detection point ratio into the location-based system; a detection point selection step for setting a plurality of selected detection points; a detection point suggestion step for obstacles for selecting a plurality of position points around a plurality of obstacles and setting the plurality of position points as a plurality of suggested detection points; a detection point suggestion step for a first area for selecting a plurality of non-obstacles and non-detection point position points and setting the position points as a plurality selected detection points when a first area around every position point has no obstacles, selected detection points or suggested detection points; a detection point suggestion step for a second area for selecting a plurality of non-obstacles and non-detection point position points and setting the position points as a plurality selected detection points when a second area around every position point has no obstacles, selected detection points or suggested detection points; and a random detection point suggestion step for selecting a plurality of non-obstacles and non-detection point position points and setting the position points as a plurality of selected detection points so that a ratio between a total number of the suggested detection points and the selected detection points and a number of the position points in the location-based system is larger than the input detection point ratio. 3. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 1, wherein the assumption calculation is performed according to the formula P ( d ) = P ( d 0 ) - 10 n log ( ⅆ ⅆ 0 ) - nW × WAF to obtain the at least one positioning signal strength P(d), wherein, d is a distance between the positioning points and a acess point, d0 is a distance between a signal obtained point and the acess point, WAF is an obstacle fading factor, n is a signal fading factor, nW is the number of the obstacles between the positioning points and the acess points, and P(d0) is a signal strength of the signal obtained points. 4. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 3, wherein when nW exceeds a predetermined obstacle number threshold value C, the at least one positioning signal strength is determined by P ( d ) = P ( d 0 ) - 10 n log ( ⅆ ⅆ 0 ) - C × WAF . 5. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 3, wherein the signal obtained point is located along a link between the positioning point and the acess point. 6. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 3, wherein the signal obtained point is the acess point, and d0=1. 7. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 1, wherein a positioning modification step is further performed after the detection point calculation step, and is used for modifying the corresponding positioning information via a modification model. 8. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 1, wherein a service integration step is further performed after the detection point calculation step, and is used for activating a back-end application service according to the corresponding positioning information. 9. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 1, wherein the positioning algorithm is a Viterbi algorithm. 10. The method of building a locating service in a location-based system for a wireless network environment as claimed in claim 1, wherein the at least one positioning signal strength in the measuring step is a positioning signal strength from front, back, left and right directions. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a locating service method and, more particularly, to a method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment. 2. Description of the Related Art LBS (Location-Based System) is mainly used for providing current geographic location or absolute position information services to a user of a wireless device. In so doing, the service provider can provide even more services and information to their users. The LBS can be used in both indoor environments and outdoor environments; for different environments, different application technologies are utilized. For outdoor environments, GPS (global positioning system) technology is very popular, working via a link between a portable wireless device and a satellite, the satellite utilizing different positioning technologies to obtain a location and sending this location information back to the portable wireless device. For indoor environments, due to shielding effects from buildings, the GPS technology cannot be used; however, since wireless networks are increasingly popular, a locating technology that works using the wireless network has been developed. The wireless network location-based system is built around the IEEE 802.11 environment, utilizing: a signal strength positioning method, a receiving angle positioning method, a receiving time positioning method, and a mixed time difference and receiving angle positioning method. However, indoor environments can sometimes be very complicated, and have various routes. Consequently, the receiving angle and time might have large errors, and so the signal strength positioning method offers greater accuracy. In the technology of wireless positioning, many signal strength positioning estimation methods are available that utilize a acess point. However, different environmental conditions, and other varying factors, can affect electromagnetic radiation. To improve data accuracy, the positioning system manufacturer needs to actually measure each position point to build up a signal strength database, which requires a great deal of time and effort. Therefore, it is desirable to provide a method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment to mitigate and/or obviate the aforementioned problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An objective of the present invention is to provide a method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment to solve the above-mentioned problems. In order to achieve the above-mentioned objective, the method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment comprises: an environment input step, a detection point calculation step, a measuring step and an assumed non-detected position point step to find measured position points and measure four-directional signal strengths. Furthermore, by assuming the signal strengths of non-detected position points, an entire positioning system can be established. Additionally, a measuring process includes: a portable device signal measuring step, a position point calculation step, and a signal feed back step to send the corresponding position information to the portable device to inform a user. The environment input step divides an environment into a plurality of position points, setting some position points as obstacles according to environmental information. The detection point calculation step obtains a plurality of suggested detection points via a detection algorithm. The measuring step measures the suggested detection points and at least one positioning signal strength from the suggested detection points to establish a relational list between the at least one positioning signal strength and the suggested detection points. The assumed non-detected position points step assumes at least one positioning signal strength from a plurality of non-detected position points via an assumption calculation, adding the assumption information to the relational list. Since every position point in the relational list has positioning signal strengths for different directions, the system can provide a directional positioning service. The portable device signal measuring step measures at least one positioning signal strength value from a portable device at a current location. The position point calculation step compares the at least one positioning signal strength value from the portable device with the positioning signal strengths in the relational list and obtains corresponding position information according a positioning algorithm. The position modification step modifies the corresponding positioning information via a modification model. The service integration step actives a back-end application service according the corresponding positioning information. The signal feed back step sends the corresponding position information to the portable device to inform a user. Other objects, advantages, and novel features of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flowchart of a preferred embodiment according to the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a step for calculating detection points in the preferred embodiment according to the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates an assumed non-detected position point step in the preferred embodiment according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flowchart of a detection algorithm in the preferred embodiment according to the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates a Viterbi algorithm for the preferred embodiment according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Please refer to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 is a flowchart of a preferred embodiment according to the present invention. As shown in drawing, the present invention utilizes the following steps: an environment input step (S101), a detection point calculation step (S102), a measuring step (S103), an assumed non-detected position point step (S104), a portable device signal measuring step (S105), a position point calculation step (S106), a positioning modification step (S107), a service integration step (S108), and a signal feed back step (S109). Please refer to FIG. 2. FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of a step for calculating detection points for the preferred embodiment of the present invention. In the environment input step (S101), a location-based system divides an entire network into a plurality of position points, for example 36 position points, setting a acess point as position points 201, 202, 203, 204, and an obstacle position points 21. In the detection point calculation step (S102), the system utilizes a detection algorithm to obtain a position point that needs to be measured. Please refer to FIG. 4. FIG. 4 is a flowchart of the detection algorithm in the preferred embodiment according to the present invention. As shown in drawing, the detection algorithm comprises: an detection point ratio input step (S401), a detection point selection step (S402), a detection point suggestion step for obstacles (S403), a detection point suggestion step for a first area (S404), a detection point suggestion step for a second area (S405), and a random detection point suggestion step (S406). In the detection point ratio input step (S401), a detection point ratio is input to provide a position point number that indicates how many position points need to be measured for their respective signal strengths; for example, if the ratio is 1:2, then for 36 position points, at least 18 position points need to be actually measured. In the detection point selection step (S402), a few selected detection points 22 are set, which are usually points that are difficult to measure, such as a position point 221 among obstacles. In the detection point suggestion step for obstacles (S403), all position points 231 around the obstacle position points 21 are set as suggested detection points 23. In the detection point suggestion step for a first area (S404), all position points which are not obstacles 21, or other detection points (including the selected detection points 22 and the suggested detection points 23) are sequentially selected; if a 3×3 surrounding area has within it no obstacle and other detection point (including the selected detection points 22 and the suggested detection points 23), this position point is set as a suggested point 232, as shown in FIG. 2. In a detection points suggestion step for a second area (S405), all position points which are not obstacles 21 or other detection points (including the selected detection points 22 and the suggested detection points 23) are sequentially selected, if within their 3×3 surrounding area there are no obstacle 21 and other detection points (including the selected detection points 22 and the suggested detection points 23), then this position point is set as a suggestion point 23. In the random detection point suggestion step (S406), a ratio of the number of all detection points (including the selected detection points 22 and the suggested detection points 23), and the number of all position points, is compared with the input detection point ratio; for example, in FIG. 2, there is 1 selected detection point 22, and 12 suggested detection points 23, which does not match the predetermined detection point ratio of 1:2, and so the other requested five selected detection points 22 are randomly selected from other points that are not obstacles 21 and detection points 22, 23 by the system and set as selected detection points 222. Please refer again to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. In the measuring step (S103), a portable device can be utilized to measure the signal strengths separately from four acess points 201, 202, 203, 204 at all selected detection points 22, and the suggested detection points 23, when facing front, back, left and right, and a relational list between the positioning signal strengths and the position points is built up. In FIG. 3, the assumed non-detected position point step utilizes the formula P ( d ) = P ( d 0 ) - 10 n log ( ⅆ ⅆ 0 ) - nW × WAF to obtain positioning signal strengths P(d) from four directions, and adds the positioning signal strengths into the relational list; wherein, d is a distance between the positioning point and a acess point, d0 is a distance between a signal obtained point and the acess point, WAF is an obstacle fading factor, n is a signal fading factor, nW is the number of obstacles between the positioning point and the acess point, and P(d0) is the signal strength of the signal obtained point. Afterwards, all four directions of the positioning signal strengths of every position point in the system are added into the relational list to provide a complete positioning structure. The above-mentioned factor nW is the number of obstacles between the positioning points and the acess points. However, if nW exceeds a predetermined obstacle number threshold valueC, the formula changes to: P ( d ) = P ( d 0 ) - 10 n log ( ⅆ ⅆ 0 ) - C × WAF , to better ensure the accuracy of the assumed positioning signal strengths. The above-mentioned signal obtained signal points are any selected reference position points located on a link between the positioning point and the acess point. The factor P(d0) is the positioning signal strength, and the reference points are usually based upon the acess point, so that d0=1. Please refer again to FIG. 1 and FIG. 3. In the portable device signal measuring step (S105), the portable device that needs position information measures from four directions the position signal strengths of four acess points 201, 202, 203, 204 at its current position and sends these signal strengths back to the system. In the position point calculation step, the system compares the position signal strengths with the position signal strengths in the relational list and obtains several matching position points and a most possible position point according a Viterbi algorithm. Regarding the Viterbi algorithm, please refer to FIG. 5. A position point 501 is a previous position point, a position point 502 is an even more previous position point; these two points are connected via a directional line, and an orthogonal straight line 511 perpendicular to the directional line is added at the position point 501. Similarly, an N times previous position point 503 and the position point 501 can be connected by another directional line and another corresponding orthogonal line 512 can also be obtained. The line 511 and the line 512 use the position point 501 as a center to generate four areas: area 521, area 522, area 523 and area 524. A human behavior model is utilized, which assumes that the chance of moving forward is larger than the chance of turning, and even larger than the chance of moving backwards; therefore, assuming the chance of moving from the position point 502 to the position point 501 is A (A>0.5), and the chance of moving from the position point 503 to the position point 501 is B (B>0.5), the most possible position point will be located in area 521, with a probability of A×B. The probabilities of the area 522 and the area 523 are (1−A)×B and A×(1−B), while the area 524 has the lowest probability of (1−A)×(1−B). Furthermore, in the positioning modification step, a modification model (such as human movement inertia, movement speed and previous characteristics, etc.) is utilized to modify the obtained possible position point. The service integration step (S108), activates a back-end application service (such as message service or other interactive service provided by another program) according to the corresponding positioning information. In the signal feed back step (S109), the corresponding position information and the back-end application service are sent to the portable device to provide the information to the user via a network. Although the present invention has been explained in relation to its preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that many other possible modifications and variations can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as hereinafter claimed. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a locating service method and, more particularly, to a method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment. 2. Description of the Related Art LBS (Location-Based System) is mainly used for providing current geographic location or absolute position information services to a user of a wireless device. In so doing, the service provider can provide even more services and information to their users. The LBS can be used in both indoor environments and outdoor environments; for different environments, different application technologies are utilized. For outdoor environments, GPS (global positioning system) technology is very popular, working via a link between a portable wireless device and a satellite, the satellite utilizing different positioning technologies to obtain a location and sending this location information back to the portable wireless device. For indoor environments, due to shielding effects from buildings, the GPS technology cannot be used; however, since wireless networks are increasingly popular, a locating technology that works using the wireless network has been developed. The wireless network location-based system is built around the IEEE 802.11 environment, utilizing: a signal strength positioning method, a receiving angle positioning method, a receiving time positioning method, and a mixed time difference and receiving angle positioning method. However, indoor environments can sometimes be very complicated, and have various routes. Consequently, the receiving angle and time might have large errors, and so the signal strength positioning method offers greater accuracy. In the technology of wireless positioning, many signal strength positioning estimation methods are available that utilize a acess point. However, different environmental conditions, and other varying factors, can affect electromagnetic radiation. To improve data accuracy, the positioning system manufacturer needs to actually measure each position point to build up a signal strength database, which requires a great deal of time and effort. Therefore, it is desirable to provide a method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment to mitigate and/or obviate the aforementioned problems. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An objective of the present invention is to provide a method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment to solve the above-mentioned problems. In order to achieve the above-mentioned objective, the method of building a locating service for a wireless network environment comprises: an environment input step, a detection point calculation step, a measuring step and an assumed non-detected position point step to find measured position points and measure four-directional signal strengths. Furthermore, by assuming the signal strengths of non-detected position points, an entire positioning system can be established. Additionally, a measuring process includes: a portable device signal measuring step, a position point calculation step, and a signal feed back step to send the corresponding position information to the portable device to inform a user. The environment input step divides an environment into a plurality of position points, setting some position points as obstacles according to environmental information. The detection point calculation step obtains a plurality of suggested detection points via a detection algorithm. The measuring step measures the suggested detection points and at least one positioning signal strength from the suggested detection points to establish a relational list between the at least one positioning signal strength and the suggested detection points. The assumed non-detected position points step assumes at least one positioning signal strength from a plurality of non-detected position points via an assumption calculation, adding the assumption information to the relational list. Since every position point in the relational list has positioning signal strengths for different directions, the system can provide a directional positioning service. The portable device signal measuring step measures at least one positioning signal strength value from a portable device at a current location. The position point calculation step compares the at least one positioning signal strength value from the portable device with the positioning signal strengths in the relational list and obtains corresponding position information according a positioning algorithm. The position modification step modifies the corresponding positioning information via a modification model. The service integration step actives a back-end application service according the corresponding positioning information. The signal feed back step sends the corresponding position information to the portable device to inform a user. Other objects, advantages, and novel features of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20041124 | 20070410 | 20060323 | 58694.0 | H04Q720 | 0 | EWART, JAMES D | METHOD OF BUILDING A LOCATING SERVICE FOR A WIRELESS NETWORK ENVIRONMENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04Q | 2,004 |
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10,995,692 | ACCEPTED | Autonomous non-destructive inspection | Autonomous non-destructive inspection equipment provides automatic and/or continuous inspection and evaluation of a material under inspection. The inspection equipment comprises at least one detection sensor and at least one detection sensor interface for a computer. The signals are communicated from the sensor to the computer. The signals are then conditioned and evaluated according to knowledge already inputted into the computer. The computer iterations are processed until an acceptable conclusion is made regarding the type of imperfection that is detected. | 1. An inspection system to detect imperfections in materials comprising: at least one imperfection detection sensor with an output, said output comprising, at least in part, imperfection signals in a time-varying electrical form; at least one computer having at least one imperfection detection interface, wherein said output is in communication with the computer, and wherein the computer converts the imperfection signals to a digital format; at least one set of constrains, wherein said constrains are inputted into the computer, and wherein said constrains guide evaluations by the computer for recognizing the types of imperfections detected by the imperfection detection sensor; at least one memory storage for the computer, wherein said constrains and said output can be stored; and a program, said program being configured to operate on said converted digital signals, wherein said operation is guided by inputted knowledge and/or rules. 2. The inspection system of claim 1, further comprising the induction of an excitation into a material and detecting the response to the excitation through said imperfection detection sensor. 3. The inspection system of claim 2, wherein said excitation is controlled, at least in part, by said computer. 4. The inspection system of claim 1, wherein said rules and said knowledge are developed and inputted into said computer prior to an inspection of materials. 5. The inspection system of claim 1, wherein said imperfection detection sensor further comprises memory storage, and wherein processing coefficients, and/or processing rules can be stored and accessed by said computer. 6. The inspection system of claim 5, wherein said constrains are, at least partially stored on the memory of said imperfection detection sensor. 7. The Inspection system of claim 1, wherein said program further comprises at least one mathematical array of coefficients, and wherein said coefficients comprise converted and/or decomposed signals from said at least one imperfection detection sensor, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data. 8. The inspection system of claim 1, wherein constrains further comprise rules, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data, and wherein said rules, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data are inputted into said computer to manage and evaluate the imperfection signals. 9. The inspection system of claim 8, wherein said historical data is compiled from a prior non analogous inspection technique, and where said historical data is inputted into said computer, to manage and evaluate the imperfection signals. 10. An inspection system to detect imperfections in tubulars used in the exploration, drilling, production and transportation of hydrocarbons: at least one detection sensor, said sensor emitting, at least in part, signals in a time-varying electrical form, wherein the emitted signals are resultant from imperfections present in the materials being inspected; at least one computer having at least one imperfection detection interface, wherein the emitted sensor signal is in communication with the computer, and wherein the computer converts the emitted sensor signals to a digital format; at least one set of constrains, wherein said constrains are inputted into the computer, and wherein said constrains guide evaluations by the computer for recognizing the types of imperfections detected by the imperfection detection sensor; at least one memory storage for the computer, wherein said constrains and the signals emitted by the sensor can be stored; and a program, said program being configured to operate on said converted digital signals, wherein said operation is guided by inputted knowledge and/or rules. 11. The inspection system of claim 10, wherein the detection sensor further comprises memory storage, and wherein processing coefficients, and/or processing data can be stored and accessed by said computer. 12. The inspection system of claim 11, wherein said constrains are, at least partially stored on the memory of the detection sensor. 13. The inspection system of claim 10, further comprising the step of inducing an excitation into a material and detecting its response through said imperfection detection sensor. 14. The inspection system of claim 13, wherein said excitation is controlled, at least in part, by said computer. 15. The Inspection system of claim 10, wherein said program further comprises at least one mathematical array of coefficients, and wherein said coefficients comprise converted and/or decomposed signals from the detection sensor, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data. 16. The inspection system of claim 10, wherein constrains further comprise inspection criteria, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data, and wherein said inspection criteria, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data are inputted into said computer to manage and evaluate said emitted signals. 17. The inspection system of claim 16, wherein said historical data is compiled from a prior non analogous inspection technique, and where said historical data is inputted into said computer, to manage and evaluate said emitted signals. 18. A method for inspection comprising: inducing an excitation into a material and detecting its response with at least one imperfection detection sensor; wherein the inducing of the excitation is controlled by at least one computer; producing an output from said at least one imperfection detection sensor, said output comprising at least one imperfection signal in a time-varying electrical form; communicating said output to said at least one computer, the computer having at least one imperfection detection interface; band limiting said imperfection signal, wherein said band limiting comprises passing said imperfection signal through at least one filter; converting said imperfection signal to a digital format, said computer being capable of said converting; imputing at least one set of constrains into the computer, wherein said constrains are evaluated by the computer for recognizing the types of imperfections detected by the imperfection detection sensor; and storing said constrains and/or said output into at least one memory storage. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein said at least one memory storage is said at least one computer. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein said at least one memory storage comprises more than one memory storage, and wherein the imperfection detection sensor comprises a memory storage. 21. The method of claim 18, wherein said recognizing the types of imperfections further comprises at least one mathematical array of coefficients, wherein said coefficients comprise converted and/or decomposed signals from said at least one imperfection detection sensor, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data. 22. The method of claim 21, further comprising the step of developing said coefficients, wherein said developing comprises inputting, into a database, parameters associated with a material being inspected. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein said parameters comprise physical characteristics of said material being inspected. 24. The method of claim 18, wherein the converted digital signals are processed by said computer using a mathematical array of coefficients and constants, wherein said coefficients comprise, at least in part, converted signals from said at least one imperfection detection sensor, and wherein said constants are derived, at least in part from baseline data, and/or historical data. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the processing, of the converted digital signals, by said computer further comprises: scaling the detected imperfection signals, wherein said scaling accounts for variations in testing parameters; decomposing the detected imperfection signals, whereby said decomposing separates the imperfection signals into components indicative of various imperfections; and generating identifiers by fusing the decomposed signals with parameters and/or database data and/or historical data associated with the material being inspected. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein said identifiers provide a prediction of the type of imperfection. 27. The method of claim 26, further comprises searching a database of prior information and/or identifiers, relating to the material being inspected, to implement an imperfection identification. 28. The method of claim 26, wherein said computer analyzes said database and said imperfection identification to assign a preliminary determination of the imperfection. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the preliminary determination is compared to baseline data and/or historical data to resolve conflicting determination of the imperfection. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the resolving of conflicting determination of the imperfection comprises assigning a determination based on the substantial criticality of the imperfection to the material being tested. 31. The method of claim 30, further comprising a re-evaluation and resolution of uncertainties. 32. The method of claim 31, comprises of coding and storing new data in the decomposed signals database. 33. A method to recognize imperfections in materials comprising: operating an imperfection detection sensor, wherein the detection sensor emits an electronic signal regarding an element to be inspected; band limiting said electronic signal, wherein said band limiting comprises passing said electronic signal through at least one filter; scaling said electronic signal, wherein said scaling accounts for variations in testing parameters; converting said electronic signal into a digital signal; inputting said digital signal into at least one computer; de-noising said digital signal, wherein said de-noising comprises separation and/or removal of a component of said digital signal; decomposing said digital signal into components indicative of various imperfections; calculating at least one first identifier from said component indicative of various imperfections, wherein said calculating is performed by said computer; comparing said first identifier to a pre-established identifier, wherein said pre-established identifier is stored in a first pre-established database; and recognizing an imperfection from said comparison, wherein said recognition is performed by said computer, and wherein said recognition is stored in a database and/or outputted from said computer. 34. The method of claim 33, further comprising the step of resolving a recognition conflict. 35. The method of claim 33, further comprising the step of resolving instability. 36. The method of claim 33, further comprising the step inducing an excitation into a material and detecting its response through said imperfection detection sensor; wherein the inducing of the excitation is controlled by the computer. 37. A method to inspect materials for imperfections comprising: operating an imperfection detection sensor, wherein the detection sensor emits an electronic signal regarding an element to be inspected; band limiting said electronic signal, wherein said band limiting comprises passing said electronic signal through at least one filter; scaling said electronic signal, wherein said scaling accounts for variations in testing parameters; converting said electronic signal into a digital signal; inputting said digital signal into at least one computer; de-noising said digital signal, wherein said de-noising comprises separation and/or removal of a component of said digital signal; decomposing said digital signal into component indicative of various imperfections; calculating at least one first identifier from said component indicative of various imperfections, wherein said calculating is performed by said computer through a mathematical array; comparing said first identifier to a pre-established identifier, wherein said pre-established identifier is stored in a first pre-established database; and recognizing an imperfection from said comparison, wherein said recognition is performed by said computer, and wherein said recognition is stored in a database and/or outputted from said computer. 38. The method of claim 37, further comprising the step of resolving a recognition conflict. 39. The method of claim 37, further comprising the step of resolving instability. 40. The method of claim 37, further comprising the step inducing an excitation into a material and detecting its response through said imperfection detection sensor; wherein the inducing of the excitation is controlled by the computer. 41. An inspection system to locate characteristics of materials comprising: at least one detection sensor with an output, said output comprising, at least in part, electronic signals in a time-varying electrical form; at least one computer having at least one detection interface, wherein said output is in communication with the computer, and wherein the computer scales, and/or bandlimits, and/or converts the electronic signals to a digital format; at least one set of constrains, wherein said constrains are inputted into the computer, and wherein said constrains guide evaluations by the computer for recognizing the material characteristics detected by the detection sensor; at least one memory storage for the computer, wherein said constrains and said output can be stored; and a program, said program being configured to operate on said converted digital signals, wherein said operation is guided by inputted knowledge and/or rules. 42. The inspection system of claim 41, further comprising the induction of an excitation into a material and detecting its response through said imperfection detection sensor. 43. The inspection system of claim 42, wherein said excitation is controlled, at least in part, by said computer. 44. The inspection system of claim 41, wherein said digital signal is decomposed into component indicative of various characteristics. 45. The inspection system of claim 41, wherein said rules and said knowledge are developed and inputted into said computer prior to an inspection of materials. 46. The inspection system of claim 41, wherein said imperfection detection sensor further comprises memory storage, and wherein processing coefficients, and/or processing rules can be stored and accessed by said computer. 47. The inspection system of claim 46, wherein said constrains are, at least partially stored on the memory of said detection sensor. 48. The inspection system of claim 41, wherein said program further comprises at least one mathematical array of coefficients, and wherein said coefficients comprise converted and/or decomposed signals from said at least one detection sensor, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data. 49. The inspection system of claim 41, wherein constrains further comprise rules, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data, and wherein said rules, and/or baseline data, and/or historical data are inputted into said computer to manage and evaluate the electronic signals. 50. A method to inspect materials for locating desired characteristics comprising: operating a detection sensor, wherein the detection sensor emits an electronic signal regarding an element to be inspected; band limiting said electronic signal, wherein said band limiting comprises passing said electronic signal through at least one filter; scaling said electronic signal, wherein said scaling accounts for variations in testing parameters; converting said electronic signal into a digital signal; inputting said digital signal into at least one computer; de-noising said digital signal, wherein said de-noising comprises separation and/or removal of a component of said digital signal; decomposing said digital signal into component indicative of various characteristics; calculating at least one first identifier from said component indicative of various characteristics, wherein said calculating is performed by said computer through a mathematical array; comparing said first identifier to a pre-established identifier, wherein said pre-established identifier is stored in a first pre-established database; and recognizing a characteristic from said comparison, wherein said recognition is performed by said computer, and wherein said recognition is stored in a database and/or outputted from said computer. 51. The method of claim 50, further comprising the step of resolving a recognition conflict. 52. The method of claim 50, further comprising the step of resolving instability. 53. The method of claim 50, further comprising the step inducing an excitation into a material and detecting its response through said detection sensor; wherein the inducing of the excitation is controlled by at least one computer. | TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates, generally, to non-destructive inspection and inspection equipment, and more specifically, to provide automatic and/or continuous non-destructive inspection and evaluation to material under inspection, including evaluators and predictors of detected imperfections and useful material life. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION As is known in the art, materials are selected for use based on criteria including minimum strength requirements, useable life, and anticipated normal wear. Safety factors are typically factored into design considerations to supplement material selection in order to aid in reducing the risk of failures including catastrophic failure. Such failures may occur when the required application strengths exceed the actual material strength. During its life, the material is weakened by external events such as mechanical and/or chemical actions arising from the type of application, repeated usage, hurricanes, earthquakes, storage, transportation, and the like; thus, raising safety, operational, functionality, and serviceability issues throughout the materials life. Non-Destructive Inspection (herein after referred to as “NDI”) is carried out, at least in part, in order to verify that the material exceeds the minimum strength requirements for the application. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of an autonomous non-destructive inspection system according to the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of the signal processing of an autonomous non-destructive inspection system according to the present invention; and FIG. 3 illustrates a partially pictorial view using an autonomous non-destructive inspection system to locate well equipment according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION To understand the terms associated with the present invention, the following descriptions are set out hereinbelow. It should be appreciated that mere changes in terminology cannot render such terms as being outside the scope of the present invention. Imperfection Or Flaw: a discontinuity, irregularity, anomaly, inhomogenity, or a rupture in the material under inspection. Classification: assigning an imperfection to a particular class based on its features. Defect: an imperfection that exceeds a specified threshold and may warrant rejection of the material under inspection. Autonomous: able to function without external control or intervention. Knowledge: a collection of facts and rules capturing the knowledge of one or more specialist. Rules: how something should be done to implement the facts. FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of an inspection system further illustrating the inspection computer 10, the imperfection detection interface 20, and the preferable information exchange among the components of the inspection equipment. It should be understood that the inspection computer 10 may consist of more than just one computer such as a cluster of interconnected computers. The computer 10 preferably comprises a keyboard 12, display 11, storage capacity 13, for storing and accessing data, a microphone 17, a speaker 18 and a camera 19. It should be understood that the display 11, the keyboard 12, the microphone 17 and the speaker 18 may be local to the computer 10, may be remote, may be portable, or any combination thereof. It should be further understood that camera 19 may comprise more than one camera. Further camera 19 may utilize visible light, infrared light, any other spectrum component, or any combination thereof. The camera 19 may be used to relay an image or a measurement such as a temperature measurement, a dimensional measurement, a comparative measurement, or any combination thereof. It should be appreciated that the stored data may comprise hard disks, floppy disks, compact discs, magnetic tapes, DVDs, memory, and other storage devices. The computer 10 may transmit and receive data through at least one communication link 16 and may send data to a printer or chart recorder 14 for further visual confirmation of the inspection data 15 and other related information. The computer 10 preferably provides for data exchange with the imperfection detection interface 20. Since its inception in the early 1900s, the NDI industry has utilized a variety of techniques and devices with the majority based on the well known and well documented techniques of magnetic flux leakage, magnetic particle, eddy-current, ultrasonic, radiation, such as x-ray and gamma ray, dye penetrant, and dimensional as well as visual and audible techniques. These techniques have been utilized alone or in combination with each other to address the specifics of the Material-Under-Inspection (herein after referred to as “MUI”9). A list of typical MUI 9 includes, but is not limited to, engine components, rails, rolling stoke, oil country tubular goods (herein after referred to as “OCTG”), chemical plant components, pipelines, bridges, structures, frames, cranes, aircraft, sea going vessels, drilling rigs, workover rigs, vessels, structures, other components of the above, combinations of the above, and similar items. NDI dictates termination of the material utilization altogether in order to accommodate the inspection process, which, is typically carried out by shipping the material to an inspection facility. The cost of inspection is therefore increased by the transportation cost and the material downtime. In addition, shipping and handling the material, especially after the inspection, may induce damage to the material that could result in an unanticipated early catastrophic failure. Because of its implementation and the intrusion NDI imposes, typical inspections have been expensive and were thus performed at rare intervals or not performed at all. For example, NDI costs of OCTG can be as high as 30% of the material replacement cost. The novel autonomous inspection system, control, and method that is presented hereinbelow can be used as an “advisor” to an inspector or as a stand alone low-cost inspection system. It should be appreciated that as an “advisor” the system can be used in conjunction with typical or conventional inspection systems at the typical intervals such conventional systems are used. As a stand alone system, the autonomous inspection system can bring the cost of inspection down due to its non-intrusive implementation and on-going inspection. The non-intrusiveness allows for the inspection to be carried out, in many applications, while the MUI 9 is in operation and without requiring the operation to stop (such as when running OCTG into or out of a well). Further, because of the nature of the constant inspection, major defects are more likely to be found and minor defects can be better monitored over time to predict the useable life of the MUI 9. It is well known that the presence of any imperfection alters the expected (designed) life-cycle of the MUI 9 and thus impacts its remaining useful life. Thus, it should be appreciated that the autonomous inspection system and method would increase safety and reliability as useful life predictors would be more accurate and lead to MUI 9 repair/replacement prior to catastrophic failures of the MUI 9 as well as premature replacement due to concerns when the conventional inspection periods are spaced far apart. The Autonomous Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) detects and classifies imperfections without altering the MUI using mostly indirect techniques. Pipe for example, is manufactured based on metallurgy, geometry, strength, and other parameters. The pipe's response to magnetic or ultrasonic excitation is not one of the design criteria. Magnetic flux leakage based NDI, attempts to detect imperfections using magnetism. However, the response of an imperfection to a magnetic field is not directly related to its effect on the strength of the MUI, preferably the ultimate inspection goal. Secondly, its response to a magnetic field is partially controlled by its previous magnetic state. Thus, with most conventional inspection systems magnetic flux leakage based NDI has been used as a flag for a verification crew. The inspector monitors the magnetic flux leakage traces and instructs the verification crew to investigate a particular indication (possible defect). Thus, with most conventional inspection systems, the MUI owners or operators typically specify that the verification crew investigate at least ±six inches on either side of an indication. It is also not uncommon for the inspector to recognize certain imperfections from the chart, given enough experience. A common way to reduce verification time (which translates to cost) is to assume that all the imperfections are of a certain type and are all located on a specific surface of the material. Then, the signal amplitude and/or width can be used as a pass/fail indicator. Typically, such a process has very limited application specific success. Regardless of the specific inspection technique utilized, the autonomous NDI device will preferably scan the material after each use, fuse the inspection data with relevant material use parameters, and automatically determine the MUI 9 status. Thus, a function of the imperfection detection interface 20 is to generate and induce excitation 21 into the MUI 9 and detect the response, of the MUI 9, to the excitation 21. Preferably, at least one inspection head 8 is mounted on or inserted in the MUI 9 and the head 8 may be stationary or travel along the MUI 9. It should be appreciated that the inspection head 8 can be applied to the inside as well as the outside of the MUI 9. It should be understood that the inspection head 8, illustrated herein, may comprise at least one excitation inducer 6 and one or more inspection sensors 7 mounted such that the inspection needs of MUI 9 are substantially covered. The inspection computer 10 preferably both programs and controls the excitation 21 and the inspection head 8 as well as receives data from the inspection head sensors 7 through the inspection sensor interface 22. The inspection head 8, excitation 21, and the inspection sensor interface 22 may be combined within the same physical housing. In an alternative embodiment, the inspection sensors 7 may comprise computer capability and memory storage and thus the sensors 7 can be programmed to perform many of the tasks of the computer 10 or perform functions in tandem with the computer 10. It should be also understood that the application of the excitation 21 and the inspection of the MUI 9 may be delayed such as NDI utilizing the residual magnetic field whereby the MUI 9 is magnetized and it is inspected at a later time. Computer 10 also controls and monitors a plurality of power supplies, sensors and controls 23 that facilitate the inspection process including but not limited to safety features. Further, computer 10 monitors/controls the data acquisition system 25 which preferably assimilates data from at least one sensor 24. The sensor 24 preferably provides data such as, but not limited to, MUI 9 location (feet of MUI 9 passing through the inspection head 8), penetration rate (speed of MUI 9 moving through the inspection head 8), rate of rotation (rpm), and coupling torque. It should be appreciated that the data to be acquired will vary with the specific type of MUI 9 and thus the same parameters are not always measured/detected. Furthermore and in addition to the aforementioned inspection techniques, computer 10 may also monitor, through the data acquisition system 25, parameters that are related to the inspection or utilization of the MUI 9. Such parameters may include, but not be limited to, the MUI 9 internal pressure, external pressure, such as the wellhead pressure, temperature, flow rate, tension, weight, load distribution, and the like. Further, such parameters may be displayed in a manner illustrated by element 3 in FIG. 1. Preferably, these parameters are measured or acquired through sensors and/or transducers mounted throughout the inspection area, such as a rig. For ease of understanding, these various sensors and transducers are designated with the numeral 26. The STYLWAN Rig Data Integration System (RDIS-10) is an example of such an inspection system. Preferably, the inspection head 8 relates time-varying continuous (analog) signals, such as, but not limited to, echo, reluctance, resistance, impedance, absorption, attenuation, or physical parameters that may or may not represent an imperfection of the MUI 9. It should be appreciated, by those in the art, that sensor 7 signals generally include, but are not limited to, noise and useable data that may indicate some imperfection and/or defect. Further, imperfections generally comprise all received signals and may include MUI 9 design features such as tapers, major and minor defects or other MUI 9 conditions such as surface roughness, hardness changes, composition changes, scale, dirt, and the like. Still further, defects may be viewed as an imperfection of a specific magnitude or beyond a certain threshold. Typically, those in the art have always relied on both an inspector and a manual verification crew for the interpretation of the inspection signals and any subsequent disposition of the MUI 9. However, based on extensive strength-of-materials knowledge, it is well known that the severity of an MUI 9 imperfection is a function of its geometry, its location, and the applied loads. It is also well known, in the art, that this information cannot be readily obtained by a verification crew when the imperfections in question are located underneath coating, in the near subsurface, in the mid wall, or in the internal surface of the MUI 9. Any destructive action, such as removing any coating or cutting up the MUI 9 is beyond the scope of non-destructive inspection. Detailed signal analysis can extract the pertinent information from the NDI signals. Preferably, such detailed signal analysis would utilize signals that are continuously related in form, kind, space, and time. The signals are preferably band limited and are converted to time-varying discrete digital signals which are further processed, by the computer 10, utilizing an extraction matrix to decompose the signals and extract relevant features in a manner illustrated by element 1 in FIG. 1. The extraction matrix is compiled through a software program, that was published in 1994 and it is beyond the scope of this patent, and decomposes the converted digital signals into relevant features. The extraction matrix may be adjusted to decompose the signals into as few as two (2) features, such as, but not limited to, the classical NDI presentation of wall and flaw in a manner illustrated by element 2 in FIG. 1. It should be understood that no theoretical decomposition upper limit exists, however, fifty (50) to two hundred (200) features are practical. The selection of the identifier equations, further described herein below, typically sets the number of features. In the exemplary RDIS-10, the decomposed signals are known as the flaw spectrum 1 (see element 1, FIG. 1). Humans are highly adept in recognizing patterns, such as facial features or the flaw spectrum 1 and readily correlating any pertinent information. Therefore, it is easy for the inspector to draw conclusions about the MUI 9 by examining the flaw spectrum 1. During the inspection, the inspector further incorporates his/her knowledge about the MUI 9 present status, his/her observations, as well as the results of previous inspections. The success of this inspection strategy of course, solely depends on how well the inspector understands the flaw spectrum 1 data and the nuances it may encompass. Computers can run numerical calculations rapidly but have no inherent pattern recognition or correlation abilities. Thus, a program has been developed that preferably derives at least one mathematical procedure to enable the computer 10 to automatically recognize the patterns and nuances encompassed in decomposed inspection data streams such as presented in the flaw spectrum 1. The detailed mathematical procedures are described hereinbelow and enable one skilled in the art to implement the autonomous NDI described herein without undue experimentation. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an inspection data processing sequence that allows the creation of a software flowchart and the translation of the practice to a computer program. For stand-alone operation, the autonomous NDI must be optimal in regard to the inspection criteria and application limitations, commonly defined by approximations and probabilities which are referred to herein as constrains. It should be understood therefore, that the autonomous NDI state variables must be tuned for optimal performance under different constrains depending on the MUI 9 and its application. The fundamental operation of the autonomous NDI is performed by the identifier equations which preferably capture the optimal mutual features in accordance to the constrains. It should be understood that a number of identifier equations may be paralleled and/or cascaded, each one utilizing a different set of optimal mutual features. Furthermore, it should be understood that the processing of the identifier equations may be carried out by a single computer 10 or by different computers in a cluster without effecting the overall result. The first stage identifier equations, with elements denoted as ajk 32, 33, use for input N features 31 mostly derived from the flaw spectrum 1. Additional features may be provided by fixed values referred to herein as bias 34, 44, 54. Bias may be a single constant or a sequence of constants that may be controlled, but not limited, by time or by the MUI 9 length. Backwards chaining 39 limits irrelevant processing and enhances stability while forward chaining 59 propagates features to later stages or it may inform computer 10 that an MUI 9 condition has been determined and no further analysis is required. It should be further understood that both forward and backward chaining may be direct, through memory, through a bucket-brigade, or any combination of the above. It should be further understood that all or any subsystem of the autonomous NDI may be implemented as a casual system or as a non-casual system. In a casual implementation only past and present features 31 are utilized. In a non-casual implementation, features 31 are utilized through memory, through a bucket-brigade, or any combination of the above thus allowing for the use of future values of the features 31. Future values of the features 31 may be used directly or indirectly as signal masks and may be propagated through the forward chaining 59. Utilization of future values of features 31 increases the autoNDI stability and reduces the probability of a conflict In Equations 1-3, shown below, such features are denoted as Xa. Based on the constrains, the identifier equations reduce the features 31 and bias 34 to identifiers 35, 36 denoted as Ya of the form: Ya ij = M ∑ k = 1 N a ik Xa kj ( Equation 1 ) The identifiers Ya 35, 36 can be fed back through the backwards chaining 39, can be used directly through the forward chaining 59, can be used as variables to equations or as features 41, 51 in following stages or in their most practical form, as indexes to tables (arrays) which is shown in Equation 2 for clarity. Ya ij = T ( M ∑ k = 1 N a ik Xa kj ) ( Equation 2 ) where T is a Look-up Table or Array. Another useful identifier form is shown in Equation 3. Ya ij = M [ 1 + ⅇ - ∑ k = 1 N a ik Xa kj ] - 1 ( Equation 3 ) where M is a scaling constant or function. It should be understood that each stage may comprise multiple identifier equations utilizing equations 1, 2, or 3. There is no theoretical upper limit for the number of identifiers calculated, however, five (5) to ten (10) identifiers are practical. Some of the identifiers Ya 35, 36 may be sufficient to define the disposition of the MUI 9 alone and thus propagate to the output stage 59 while others may become features for the second stage 40 of identifier equations along with features 41 pertinent to the Ya identifiers, all denoted as Xb. It should be appreciated that in the exemplary STYLWAN RDIS-10, depending on the constrains, those features can be obtained from the operator interface, from the computer 10 memory, from the camera 19, or by connecting directly to the STYLWAN RDIS-10 Data Acquisition System transmitters that measure various parameters illustrated FIG. 1 (3). Examples of such transmitters include the OCI-5000 series manufactured by OLYMPIC CONTROLS, Inc, Stafford, Tex., USA, such as transmitters that measure pressure (OCI-5200 series), temperature (OCI-5300 series), speed and position (OCI-5400 series), weight (OCI-5200H series), fluid level (OCI-5200L series), flow (OCI-5600 series), dimensions (OCI-5400D series), AC parameters (OCI-5400 series), DC parameters (OCI-5800 series), as well as other desired parameters. The second stage 40 identifier equations, with elements denoted as blm, produces identifiers 45,46 denoted as Yb of similar form as the Ya identifiers 35, 36. Again, some of the identifiers Yb may be sufficient to define the disposition of the MUI 9 alone and thus propagate to the output stage 59 while others may become features for the third stage 50 identifier equations along with features pertinent to the Yb identifiers, all denoted as Xc. For the RDIS-10, depending on the constrains, those features can be obtained from data or functions entered by the operator 58, stored in historical data 57, or other predetermined sources (not illustrated). It should be understood that this process may repeat until an acceptable solution to the constrains is obtained, however, three stages are typically adequate for the exemplary STYLWAN RDIS-10. For the determination of the aik coefficients, the tuning of the identifier equations, a set of flaw spectrums 1 of known similar imperfections that are pertinent to a current inspection application are required. These data sets, of flaw spectrums 1, are referred to herein as baseline spectrums. Preferably, all the aik coefficients are initially set equal. It should be understood that because this is an iterative process the initial values of the aik coefficients could also be set by a random number generator, by an educated guess, or by other means for value setting. Since the baseline spectrums are well known, typically comprising data taken for similar imperfections, the performance measure and the constrains are clearly evident and the coefficients solution is therefore objective, although the selection of the imperfections may be subjective. By altering the coefficient values through an iterative process while monitoring the output error an acceptable solution would be obtained. There are multiple well-known techniques to minimize the error and most of these techniques are well adept for computer use. It should be appreciated that for the autonomous NDI limited number of features a trial-and-error brute force solution is feasible with the available computer power. It should be further expected that different solutions would be obtained for every starting set of coefficients. Each solution is then evaluated across a variety of validation spectrum as each solution has its own unique characteristics. It is imperative, therefore, that an extensive library of both baseline spectrums and validation spectrums must be available for this evaluation. It should be further understood that the baseline spectrums cannot be used as validation spectrums and visa versa. Furthermore, it should be understood that more than one solution may be retained and used for redundancy, conflict resolution, and system stability. Still further in applications of the autonomous NDI, the terms “acceptable” or “good enough” are terms of art to indicate that, in a computational manner, the computer has completed an adequate number of iterations to compile an answer/solution with a high probability of accuracy. Once a set or sets of coefficients are obtained, the number of non-zero coefficients is preferably minimized in order to improve computational efficiency. This is important because each identifier equation is just a subsystem and even minor inefficiencies at the subsystem level could significantly affect the overall system real time performance. Multiple techniques can be used to minimize the number of non-zero coefficients. A hard threshold would set all coefficients below a predetermined set point to zero (0). Computers typically have a calculation quota, so a quota threshold would set to zero a sufficient number of lower value coefficients to meet the calculation quota. A soft threshold would subtract a non-zero constant from all coefficients and replace the negative values with zero (0). Since an error measure exists, the new set of coefficients can be evaluated, the identifier equations can be tuned again and the process could repeat until the admissible identifier equation is determined. It is preferred that multiple admissible identifier equations are determined for further use. It should be appreciated that although the preference for multiple admissible identifiers may appear to complicate potential resolutions, the use of computer power makes a large number of iterations feasible. For the inspection of materials, an acceptable solution would always contain statistics based on false-positive and false-negative ratios. A false-positive classification rejects good material while a false-negative classification accepts defective material. Using more than one identifier equation lowers the false ratios more than the fine-tuning of a single identifier equation. It should be understood that this process theoretically provides an infinite number of solutions, as an exact formulation of the inspection problem is elusive and always based on constrains. Furthermore, for a solution that can be obtained with a set of coefficients, yet another solution that meets the performance measure may also be obtained by slightly adjusting some of the coefficients. However, within the first three to five proper iterations the useful solutions become obvious and gains from additional iterations are mostly insignificant and hard to justify. Once all of the Stage-I 30 admissible identifier equations have been determined, their identifiers become features in Stage-II 40 along with the additional features 41, bias 44, and forward and backwards chaining 49. The starting set of baseline spectrums is then processed through the admissible identifier equations and the results are used to tune the Stage-II 40 identifier equations in a substantially identical process as the one described above for the Stage-I 30. The process repeats for the Stage-III 50 identifier equations and any other stages (not illustrated) that may be desired or necessary until all the admissible subsystems are determined and the overall system design is completed. It should be appreciated that in practice, preferably only two to five stages will be necessary to obtain required results. When the final coefficients for all of the equations are established, the overall system performance may be improved by further simplifying the equations using standard mathematical techniques. A previous inspection with the same equipment provides the best historical data 57. The previous inspection system output, denoted as Ys(-i), is ideally suited for use as a feature 51 in the current inspection as it was derived from substantially the same constrains. Furthermore, more than one previous inspection 57 may be utilized. Features 51 may be backwards chained 49, 39. Multiple historical values may allow for predictions of the future state of the material and/or the establishment of a service and maintenance plan. In conventional inspection systems, previous state data, that was derived through a different means under different constrains, could not necessarily be used directly or used at all. If utilized, the data would more likely have to be translated to fit the constrains of the current application. It should be appreciated that such a task may be very tedious and provide comparatively little payoff. For example, there is no known process to translate an X-Ray film into Magnetic-Flux-Leakage (MFL) pertinent data. However, the system described herein allows for the use of such data in a simple and direct form. In the X-Ray example, the opinion of an X-Ray specialist may be solicited regarding the previous state of the material. The specialist may grade the previous state of the material in the range of one (1) to ten (10), with one (1) meaning undamaged new material. The X-Ray specialist opinion is an example of bias 34, 44, 54. Bias 34, 44, 54 may not necessarily be derived in its entirety from the same source nor be fixed throughout the length of the material. For example, information from X-Rays may be used to establish the previous material status for the first 2,000 feet of an 11,000 foot coiled tubing string. Running-feet may be used to establish the previous material status for the remainder of the string except the 6,000 foot to 8,000 foot range where OD corrosion has been observed by the inspector 58. From the available information, the previous material status for this string (bias per 1,000 feet′) may look like [2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 7, 7, 4, 4, 4] based on length. Other constrains though may impose a hard threshold to reduce the bias into a single value, namely [7], for the entire string. An example of a bias array would be a marine drilling riser string where each riser joint is assigned a bias based on its age, historical use, Kips, vortex induced vibration, operation in loop currents, visual inspection, and the like. The bias for a single riser joint may then look like [1, 1, 3, 0, 2, 2]. Identifier equations may also be used to reduce the bias array into a bias value or a threshold may reduce the bias into a single value. The overall system must be feasible not only from the classification standpoint but also from the realization standpoint. In addition to the classification and minimum error, the system constrains also include, but are not limited to, cost, packaging, portability, reliability, and ease of use; all of which should be addressed in each step of the design. The system design preferably must assign initial resources to each level and should attempt to minimize or even eliminate resources whose overall contribution is negligible. This can be accomplished by converting certain features to bias and evaluating the resulting error. Computer 10 preferably recognizes the imperfection by comparing the final array of identifiers 55, 56, 59 with a stored imperfection template database. Once an imperfection is recognized, computer 10 may verify the correctness of the recognition by further evaluating intermediate identifiers. Occasionally, the imperfection recognition becomes unstable with the final array of identifiers toggling between two solutions on each iteration. For example, during the inspection of used production tubing, the recognition may bounce back and forth between a large crack or a small pit. Resolution of such instability may be achieved by utilizing intermediate identifiers, by utilizing the previous recognition value, or by always accepting the worst conclusion (typically referred to as pessimistic classification). However, autonomous NDI instability may also be the outcome of improper backwards chaining or even faulty constrains. Slight increase in the coefficients of the backwards chained features may produce an output oscillation thus rapidly locating the problem feature and/or coefficients. A conflict arises when the final array of identifiers points into two or more different MUI 9 conditions with equal probability. Again, resolution of such conflict may be achieved by utilizing intermediate identifiers, by utilizing the previous recognition value or by always accepting the worst conclusion. However, a definite solution may be obtained by eliminating features that the conclusions have invalidated and by reprocessing the signals under the new rules. The autonomous NDI is preferably designed to reason under certainty. However, it should also be capable of reasoning under uncertainty. For example, during the inspection of used production tubing of a gas well, rodwear is detected. Since there are no sucker rods in the gas well, the conclusion is that this is either used tubing that was previously utilized in a well with sucker rod or there is a failure in the autonomous NDI. The autonomous NDI could query 58 about the history of the tubing and specifically if it was new or used when initially installed in the well. The answer may be difficult to obtain, therefore a 50-50 chance should be accepted. A bias value may then be altered and the signal may be reprocessed under the new rules. Alternate coefficients may be stored for use when certain failures are detected. For example, the wellhead pressure transmitter may fail. Upon detection of the failure, the alternate set of coefficients should be loaded for further use. It should be understood that even a simple bias may substitute for the failed transmitter. As illustrated in FIG. 3 an autonomous NDI system can also be used to locate well equipment such as, but not limited to a tool joint. In offshore drilling there may be a need for an emergency disconnect between a drilling rig and the sea-floor wellhead. For example, due to inclement weather, a dynamically positioned rig may no longer be able to maintain its position above the sea-floor wellhead. Typically, such a disconnect is referred to as an Emergency Disconnect Sequence or EDS. A properly executed EDS allows the rig to move off location without damaging the subsea equipment and still maintaining control of the well. A typical EDS mandates that the drill string is picked up and hung off in the subsea blow-out preventor (“BOP”) pipe rams. The sequence typically starts by pulling some of the drill pipe out of the wellbore and then closing the BOP pipe rams on what it is estimated to be the center of a drill pipe joint. The drill string is then slacked off slowly until the tool joint lands on the shoulder of the closed BOP pipe rams. This is typically indicated by a drop in the weight indicator. Thus, it becomes necessary to estimate the location of the tool joint in the subsea stack with a high degree of confidence otherwise the rubber goods of the BOP pipe rams may become damaged and significantly reduce their effectiveness to hold pressure. Knowing the exact location of the drill pipe tool joint in the subsea stack is critical information as it reduces the likelihood for damage to the BOP pipe rams and further assures that the shear rams will not close on a tool joint. Due to the high operating pressures endured by the subsea stack, the drill pipe is typically surrounded by materials with a wall thickness in excess of one inch. Placing sensors inside the stack would appear to be the solution, however, this would expose the sensors to the action of the drilling fluids and the drill pipe, thus mandating armor around the sensors. Calculations would reveal that the armor would be of significant thickness itself and would require the redesign of subsea assemblies in order to accommodate the armored sensors and still maintain a desired ID clearance within the bore of the subsea stack. External sensors can be fitted on existing stack components with minimal or no alteration. However, the exciter (6 in FIG. 1) for the external sensors (7 in FIG. 1) would have to have sufficient power for the excitation to penetrate through the significant wall thickness in order to detect the drill pipe tool joint, thus, the detection system would require high power. Both space and power are extremely limited and of high value on the sea floor and on the subsea stack. Thus, the use of active tool joint detection techniques, such as, but not limited to, electromagnetic, ultrasonic, and radiation would be cost prohibitive. The present invention overcomes these problems by utilizing a very low power passive tool joint detection technique that can be easily installed on new equipment as well as retrofitted on existing equipment. The locator requires an autonomous NDI 40 unit on the surface in communication with a subsea Autonomous NDI 20. When the drill pipe is tripped into the well, the surface autonomous NDI 40 prepares the drill pipe for both tool joint location and the subsequent inspection. When the drill pipe is tripped out of the well, the surface autonomous NDI 40 inspects the drill pipe and the subsea Autonomous NDI 20 locates the tool joints in the subsea stack. It should be understood that more than one subsea autonomous NDI 20 may be deployed in order to increase the overall system reliability and availability. The drill pipe or tubular is magnetized at the rig floor while it is tripped into the well. At least one passive sensor 10, such as a coil, is preferably mounted externally on a convenient subsea stack component 30, thus the distance between the pipe rams and the tool joint sensor is fixed and known to the driller. It should be appreciated that a passive sensor may also be mounted internally to a subsea stack component. Active sensors, such as, but not limited to, hall probes, may also be used, placing a higher power requirement on the system. It should be further appreciated that the sensor 10 can also be any other autonomous NDI sensor. It should be further understood that more than one sensor configuration, each of which are known in the art, may be employed to increase the probability of the tool joint identification. The subsea autonomous NDI 20 is preferably connected to the surface with two wires 21 for both power and communication. The surface autonomous NDI 40, is preferably located on the rig floor 32 of the drilling rig, drill ship or other drilling platform and would inform the driller when a tool joint is inside the sensor. The preference for a subsea autonomous NDI 20 is because of the distance between the sensor and the surface autonomous NDI 40. The typical applications for the tool joint locator are in water depths of more than three hundred feet (300′). The tool joint identification signature is a function of the drill pipe dimensions and the location of the tool joint sensor since different rigs use different drill pipe sizes and different subsea components. Thus, a training sequence would be required to tune the different identifier equations. The coefficients would preferably be stored onboard the subsea autonomous NDI 20 and be selected through the communication link 21. Since the entire function of the subsea autonomous NDI 20 is to detect a tool joint, preferably it would utilize a sufficient number of identifier equations to increase the probability of detection. It may be seen from the preceding description that a novel autonomous inspection system and control has been provided. Although specific examples may have been described and disclosed, the invention of the instant application is considered to comprise and is intended to comprise any equivalent structure and may be constructed in many different ways to function and operate in the general manner as explained hereinbefore. Accordingly, it is noted that the embodiments described herein in detail for exemplary purposes are of course subject to many different variations in structure, design, application and methodology. Because many varying and different embodiments may be made within the scope of the inventive concept(s) herein taught, and because many modifications may be made in the embodiment herein detailed in accordance with the descriptive requirements of the law, it is to be understood that the details herein are to be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>As is known in the art, materials are selected for use based on criteria including minimum strength requirements, useable life, and anticipated normal wear. Safety factors are typically factored into design considerations to supplement material selection in order to aid in reducing the risk of failures including catastrophic failure. Such failures may occur when the required application strengths exceed the actual material strength. During its life, the material is weakened by external events such as mechanical and/or chemical actions arising from the type of application, repeated usage, hurricanes, earthquakes, storage, transportation, and the like; thus, raising safety, operational, functionality, and serviceability issues throughout the materials life. Non-Destructive Inspection (herein after referred to as “NDI”) is carried out, at least in part, in order to verify that the material exceeds the minimum strength requirements for the application. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of an autonomous non-destructive inspection system according to the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of the signal processing of an autonomous non-destructive inspection system according to the present invention; and FIG. 3 illustrates a partially pictorial view using an autonomous non-destructive inspection system to locate well equipment according to the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041122 | 20061226 | 20060525 | 97661.0 | G01B530 | 0 | WACHSMAN, HAL D | AUTONOMOUS NON-DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | G01B | 2,004 |
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10,995,724 | ACCEPTED | Cookie baking sheet with cookie slide-off ramp | A cookie baking sheet is formed of substantially flat heat-resistant material including a baking surface in a first plane and defining a rolled peripheral edge and a baking area within the peripheral edge. A generally upright wall is integrally formed with the sheet material and extends along only a first portion of the periphery. This wall defines an upper edge contained within a second plane that is inclined relative to and meeting the first plane substantially along a second portion of the periphery. The upright wall is provided with a variable vertical height from a maximum predetermined height to a minimum predetermined height relative to said first plane. This variable height wall substantially encloses the baking area along the first portion of the peripheral edge. In the disclosed embodiment the baking sheet is rectangular and the upright wall extends along three of the sides while the fourth side is not founded by a wall. Baked cookies can only be slid off or pushed off into a receptacle without lifting the cookies along this second peripheral portion or fourth side, which serves as a slide-off chute or ramp. | 1-6. (canceled) 7. A cookie baking sheet comprising: a baking sheet (10) fabricated from a substantially flat heat-resistance material to provide a baking surface (12) disposed in a horizontal first plane (P 1) for baking cookies thereon; a generally upright wall (16) that extends vertically upwards from said baking surface (12) to a peripheral edge (14) along an upper portion of said baking sheet (10) to provide a baking area within said baking sheet (10); said peripheral edge (14) being disposed in an inclined second plane (P2) that is inclined relative to said first plane (PI) to provide a specific angle of inclination therebetween so that said upright wall (16) has a variable vertical height between said first and second planes (P1, P2) from a maximum predetermined height (H1) to a minimum predetermined height (H2); and chute means proximate to at least a portion of said upright wall (16) in the region of said minimum predetermined height (H2) that forms a generally smooth and gradual transition between said baking surface and said peripheral edge (14) for allowing cookies baked on said baking surface (12) to be slid off or pushed off said baking surface (12) over said peripheral edge without lifting or damaging the baked cookies. 8. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 7, wherein said baking sheet (10) has a substantially rectangular shape so that said upright wall (16) provides three sides (12a, 12b, 12c) of the said baking sheet (10). 9. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 8, wherein a fourth side (12d) of said baking sheet (10) is disposed opposite one side (12c) of the said three sides so that said fourt side (12d) is adjacent to said upright wall (16) having said minimum predetermined height (H2) to provide ramp means for baked cookies to be slid off or pushed off from said baking surface (12) into a receptacle without lifting the cookies, said ramp means being a slide-off chute or ramp (22). 10. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 7, wherein said baking surface 12 is provided with non-stick coating means (30) that co-acts with said specific angle of inclination to assist the user thereof when the baked cookies are being slid off or pushed off from the baking surface (12) without damaging the baked cookies. 11. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 7, wherein said peripheral edge (4) is a rolled free edge (14′). 12. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 7, wherein said chute means comprises a generally smooth surface that is substantially inclined in the general direction of said baking surface. 13. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 12, wherein said chute means surface has a slight curvature. 14. A cookie baking sheet according to claim 12, wherein said chute means surfaces deviates from said first plane of said baking surface. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO PRIOR APPLICATION This continuation application is based on parent application Ser. No. 10/389,565 filed Mar. 17, 2003, and scheduled to issue as U.S. Pat. No. 6,820,541 on Nov. 23, 2004. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention generally relates to the field of baking accessories, and more particularly to a cookie baking sheet with a cookie slide-off ramp. 2. Description of the Prior Art The most popular type of non-stick pans have a uniform or continuous substantially vertical wall that extends about the entire peripheries of the pans. These are available as a deep loaf, a shallow jellyroll pan (when a shallow sheet has four sides it is called a jellyroll pan) and intermediate round pans. Non-stick is popular because it is low-cost and easy to use and clean. The coating is either silicone-based or PTFE-based, and is applied to carbon steel or aluminized steel. All of these shapes have a rolled edge. A rolled edge can only be applied to metal that lies in the same plane, therefore a plane could be placed along the top of all of the pieces above and it would touch the entire rolled edge. Non-stick bakeware needs less greasing than uncoated bakeware, a selling point to the consumer. The disadvantages of non-stick are that unless it is of the PTFE type, it will degrade in the dishwasher, and all types of non-stick will scar when they are exposed to sharp objects such as a cutting knife. The rolled edge gives several advantages: 1. A non-stick coating is less likely to chip away because the sides are rounded. 2. The rolled edge is easier to hold and clean. 3. The rolled edge provides a point at which the pan can be hung during the time the non-stick is sprayed on manufacturing. Other bakeware is known. Professional bakers prefer to cook on raw aluminum pans. The aluminum transfers heat well and is very durable. However, aluminum pans must always be greased well. It is not necessary to roll the edge because these pans are not coated and professionals are not concerned about the raw edge. Fancy stainless steel bakeware has been sold mainly on the basis of its lustrous appearance. This bakeware will uphold a better finish than raw aluminum, but it does not transfer heat as well (which is important so that one can cook evenly) and it also needs to be well greased. Tinned steel bakeware is usually the least expensive type of bakeware available, but it is also the least durable. All of these types of bakeware without non-stick coatings need lengthy cleanups after use. The standard four-sided, non-stick type of jellyroll pan on the market has four sides. Therefore, to remove the cookies one must lift them off the sheet rather than slide them over the edge. This can break or otherwise damage the cookies while they are still hot and soft. Also known is a non-stick insulated cookie sheet. The advantage of an insulated sheet is that it heats more gently, and thus the cookies cook before they brown on the bottom. When insulated cookie sheets were first introduced, they tended to be made of aluminum or of tinned steel and so had longer cooking times. Now with dark-colored non-stick insulated sheets, the darker color makes the cooking time closer to normal. Insulated sheets are typically not dishwasher safe due to the possibility that water may seep in and collect between the sheets. One example of an insulated cookie sheet includes two formed sheets of metal that have been crimped together. Because the edges have a continuous crimp around the perimeter, there can be a folded side only on one or two edges. This is because a fold in sheet metal manufacture can only occur in a straight line. In some instances an insulated sheet is provided with two folded sides. In this case, there is still a possibility that cookies might slide off the wrong edge. Another insulated cookie sheet, with a fold on two sides, plus a third side with a raw edge has the advantage that here the cookies can be slid off one side only. The drawback, however, is that the third side has sharp edges and may be difficult to clean at the comers. This may be a reason why manufacturers do not use a non-stick coating on this item. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In order to overcome the disadvantages inherent in prior art cookie baking sheets, the present invention comprises a sheet of substantially flat, heat-resistant material forming a baking surface in a first plane and defining a rolled peripheral edge and a baking area within said peripheral edge. A generally upright wall is integrally formed with said sheet material and extends along only a first portion of said periphery and defines an upper edge contained within a second plane that is inclined relative to said first plane to provide said upright wall with a variable vertical height relative to said first plane from a maximum predetermined height to a minimum predetermined height relative to said first plane. In this manner, said variable height wall substantially encloses said baking area along said first portion of said peripheral edge, and baked cookies can only be slid off or pushed off into a receptacle without lifting the cookies along said second peripheral portion, which serves as a slide off chute or ramp. This baking sheet allows the baking contents to be slid or pushed from the cooking surface, over the edge of the sheet. The edge, being a rolled edge or otherwise that is continuous around the entire sheet, utilizes an integrated, formed exit ramp. This sheet, of one-piece construction, can uniquely have three sides and a fourth side that serves as the exit ramp. Additionally, because the sheet has a rolled edge, it can be coated with a non-stick coating. The coating assists the sliding or pushing of the contents (if the same coating was applied to a sheet without a rolled edge, it may chip or crack at the edges). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects of the invention may be more readily seen when viewed in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a cookie baking sheet with a cookie slide off ramp in accordance with the invention. FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the baking sheet shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view of the baking sheet shown in FIG. 2, taken along line 3-3. FIG. 4 is a side elevational view of the baking sheet shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view of the baking sheet shown in FIG. 2, taken along line 5-5. FIG. 6 is a partial enlarged cross sectional view of detail A in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a partial enlarged cross sectional view of detail B in FIG. 5. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Turning now to the Figures, in which identical or similar parts are designated by the same reference numerals throughout, and first referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, a cookie baking sheet in accordance with the present invention is generally designated by the reference number 10. The baking sheet 10 is formed of a substantially flat heat-resistant material including a baking surface 12 arranged in a first plane PI (FIGS. 4-6). A generally upright wall 16 is integrally formed with the flat sheet material forming the baking surface 12, and extends along only a first portion of the periphery and defines an upper edge 16′ (FIG. 6), contained within a second plane P2 (FIGS. 5-7) that is inclined relative to and the first plane P1. The inclination of the planes is represented by the angle α in FIG. 4. The specific angle of inclination between the planes P1, P2 is not critical and may be relatively small for generally flat items like cookies. In the example illustrated, the angle α is equal to 2.3°. It will be clear from the Figs. that the planes P1, P2 will meet or intersect each other at a point beyond the baking sheet, primarily because of the rolled edge 14′. However, in accordance with the invention, the baking surface 12 is deflected upwardly, slightly away from the plane P1, in order to accommodate the rolled edge 14′, forming a ramp or chute 22 that gradually lifts the cookies, baked on the baking surface 12, and allows the cookies to slide up the ramp or chute 22 and off of the edge at 20. The distance d in which the baking surface is deflected upwardly is not critical. However, clearly, the greater the distance d, the more gradual the inclination of the chute or ramp 22, the easier it is to slide the cookies up and off the ramp or chute without damaging them. Referring in particular to FIG. 1, it will be noted that the upright wall 16 has a variable vertical height relative to the baking surface 12 and first plane P1, from a maximum predetermined height H1 (FIG. 6) to a minimum height H2 relative to the first plane P1. This provides a variable height wall that substantially encloses the baking area or surface 12, and baked cookies can only be slid off or pushed off into a receptacle without lifting the cookies along off the ramp or chute 22. In the illustrated embodiment, the baking sheet 10 is substantially rectangular and is formed of two opposing longer sides 12a, 12b, and two opposing shorter sides 12c, 12d. A first portion of the periphery includes sides 12a-12c, along which edges there is provided the vertical upright wall 16 of varying height. The second peripheral portion, which is represented by the side 12d, does not have an upright vertical wall but, instead, has a very slight grade ramp or chute 22 that can only be used for sliding off the cookies. An important feature of the invention is that the edge 14 is a rolled edge that extends continuously around the entire periphery of the sheet. By using an integrated, formed exit ramp 22, this sheet, of one piece construction, can exhibit three sides and a rolled edge. Because the sheet has a rolled edge, the sheet can be coated with a non-stick coating 30, a small section of which is represented in FIG. 7. The coating assists in the sliding or pushing of the contents, without chipping or cracking the edges of any baked pieces. It will be evidently from the above that the cookie baking sheet in accordance with the present invention, having three sides and one exit ramp, where cookies can be slid off, facilitates the removal of baked cookies because of the provision of the rolled edge and easy, non-stick coating. The non-stick coating assists in sliding and baking. In this connection, any non-stick coating that is suitable for the purpose may be used. In the presently preferred embodiment, the coating is of the PTFE variety. In conclusion, the present invention has the following advantages over the competition: 1. It has three sides and one exit ramp for sliding off the cookies; 2. It has a rolled edge for comfort and for easier non-stick application; and 3. Its non-stick coating assists in sliding and baking, and is of the PTFE type at the top of the line. While this invention has been described in detail with particular reference to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood that variations and modifications will be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention as described herein and as defined in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention generally relates to the field of baking accessories, and more particularly to a cookie baking sheet with a cookie slide-off ramp. 2. Description of the Prior Art The most popular type of non-stick pans have a uniform or continuous substantially vertical wall that extends about the entire peripheries of the pans. These are available as a deep loaf, a shallow jellyroll pan (when a shallow sheet has four sides it is called a jellyroll pan) and intermediate round pans. Non-stick is popular because it is low-cost and easy to use and clean. The coating is either silicone-based or PTFE-based, and is applied to carbon steel or aluminized steel. All of these shapes have a rolled edge. A rolled edge can only be applied to metal that lies in the same plane, therefore a plane could be placed along the top of all of the pieces above and it would touch the entire rolled edge. Non-stick bakeware needs less greasing than uncoated bakeware, a selling point to the consumer. The disadvantages of non-stick are that unless it is of the PTFE type, it will degrade in the dishwasher, and all types of non-stick will scar when they are exposed to sharp objects such as a cutting knife. The rolled edge gives several advantages: 1. A non-stick coating is less likely to chip away because the sides are rounded. 2. The rolled edge is easier to hold and clean. 3. The rolled edge provides a point at which the pan can be hung during the time the non-stick is sprayed on manufacturing. Other bakeware is known. Professional bakers prefer to cook on raw aluminum pans. The aluminum transfers heat well and is very durable. However, aluminum pans must always be greased well. It is not necessary to roll the edge because these pans are not coated and professionals are not concerned about the raw edge. Fancy stainless steel bakeware has been sold mainly on the basis of its lustrous appearance. This bakeware will uphold a better finish than raw aluminum, but it does not transfer heat as well (which is important so that one can cook evenly) and it also needs to be well greased. Tinned steel bakeware is usually the least expensive type of bakeware available, but it is also the least durable. All of these types of bakeware without non-stick coatings need lengthy cleanups after use. The standard four-sided, non-stick type of jellyroll pan on the market has four sides. Therefore, to remove the cookies one must lift them off the sheet rather than slide them over the edge. This can break or otherwise damage the cookies while they are still hot and soft. Also known is a non-stick insulated cookie sheet. The advantage of an insulated sheet is that it heats more gently, and thus the cookies cook before they brown on the bottom. When insulated cookie sheets were first introduced, they tended to be made of aluminum or of tinned steel and so had longer cooking times. Now with dark-colored non-stick insulated sheets, the darker color makes the cooking time closer to normal. Insulated sheets are typically not dishwasher safe due to the possibility that water may seep in and collect between the sheets. One example of an insulated cookie sheet includes two formed sheets of metal that have been crimped together. Because the edges have a continuous crimp around the perimeter, there can be a folded side only on one or two edges. This is because a fold in sheet metal manufacture can only occur in a straight line. In some instances an insulated sheet is provided with two folded sides. In this case, there is still a possibility that cookies might slide off the wrong edge. Another insulated cookie sheet, with a fold on two sides, plus a third side with a raw edge has the advantage that here the cookies can be slid off one side only. The drawback, however, is that the third side has sharp edges and may be difficult to clean at the comers. This may be a reason why manufacturers do not use a non-stick coating on this item. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In order to overcome the disadvantages inherent in prior art cookie baking sheets, the present invention comprises a sheet of substantially flat, heat-resistant material forming a baking surface in a first plane and defining a rolled peripheral edge and a baking area within said peripheral edge. A generally upright wall is integrally formed with said sheet material and extends along only a first portion of said periphery and defines an upper edge contained within a second plane that is inclined relative to said first plane to provide said upright wall with a variable vertical height relative to said first plane from a maximum predetermined height to a minimum predetermined height relative to said first plane. In this manner, said variable height wall substantially encloses said baking area along said first portion of said peripheral edge, and baked cookies can only be slid off or pushed off into a receptacle without lifting the cookies along said second peripheral portion, which serves as a slide off chute or ramp. This baking sheet allows the baking contents to be slid or pushed from the cooking surface, over the edge of the sheet. The edge, being a rolled edge or otherwise that is continuous around the entire sheet, utilizes an integrated, formed exit ramp. This sheet, of one-piece construction, can uniquely have three sides and a fourth side that serves as the exit ramp. Additionally, because the sheet has a rolled edge, it can be coated with a non-stick coating. The coating assists the sliding or pushing of the contents (if the same coating was applied to a sheet without a rolled edge, it may chip or crack at the edges). | 20041122 | 20060314 | 20050428 | 94388.0 | 1 | ALEXANDER, REGINALD | COOKIE BAKING SHEET WITH COOKIE SLIDE-OFF RAMP | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,016 | ACCEPTED | Switch/network adapter port for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors in a dual in-line memory module format | A switch/network adapter port (“SNAP”) for clustered computers employing multi-adaptive processor (“MAP™”, a trademark of SRC Computers, Inc.) elements in a dual in-line memory module (“DIMM”) or Rambus™ in-line memory module (“RIMM”) format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available through use of the standard peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus. Particularly disclosed is a microprocessor based computer system utilizing either a DIMM or RIMM physical format processor element for the purpose of implementing a connection to an external switch, network, or other device. In a particular embodiment, connections may be provided to either the PCI, accelerated graphics port (“AGP”) or system maintenance (“SM”) bus for purposes of passing control information to the host microprocessor or other control chips. The field programmable gate array (“FPGA”) based processing elements have the capability to alter data passing through it to and from an external interconnect fabric or device. | 1-36. (canceled) 37. A processor element for a memory module bus of a computer system, said processor element comprising: a field programmable gate array configurable to perform an identified algorithm on an operand provided thereto and operative to alter data provided thereto on said memory module bus; and a data connection coupled to said field programmable gate array for providing said altered data to an external device coupled thereto. 38. The processor element of claim 37 further comprising: a control connection coupled to said processor element for indicating to a processor of said computer system an arrival of data on said data connection from said external device. 39. The processor element of claim 38 wherein said control connection indicates said arrival of data to said processor by means of a peripheral bus. 40. The processor element of claim 39 wherein said peripheral bus comprises a PCI bus. 41. The processor element of claim 38 wherein said control connection indicates said arrival of data to said processor by means of a graphics bus. 42. The processor element of claim 41 wherein said graphics bus comprises an AGP bus. 43. The processor element of claim 38 wherein said control connection indicates said arrival of data to said processor by means of a system maintenance bus. 44. The processor element of claim 43 wherein said graphics bus comprises an SM bus. 45. The processor element of claim 37 wherein said memory module bus comprises a DIMM bus. 46. The processor element of claim 45 wherein said processor element comprises a DIMM physical format. 47. The processor element of claim 37 wherein said memory module bus comprises a RIMM bus. 48. The processor element of claim 47 wherein said processor element comprises a RIMM physical format. 49. The processor element of claim 37 wherein said external device comprises one of another computer system, switch or network. 50. The processor element of claim 37 wherein said processor of said computer system comprises a plurality of processors. 51. The processor element of claim 37 wherein said field programmable gate array is further operative to alter data provided thereto from said external device on said data connection and providing said altered data on said memory module bus. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS The present invention is a continuation-in-part patent application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/755,744 filed Jan. 5, 2001 which is a divisional patent application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/481,902 filed Jan. 12, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,247,110, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/992,763 filed Dec. 17, 1997 for: “Multiprocessor Computer Architecture Incorporating a Plurality of Memory Algorithm Processors in the Memory Subsystem”, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,076,152, assigned to SRC Computers, Inc., Colorado Springs, Colo., assignee of the present invention, the disclosures of which are herein specifically incorporated by this reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates, in general, to the field of computer architectures incorporating multiple processing elements. More particularly, the present invention relates to a switch/network adapter port (“SNAP”) for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors (“MAP™”, a trademark of SRC Computers, Inc.) in a dual in-line memory module (“DIMM”) format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available from the peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus. Among the most currently promising methods of creating large processor count, cost-effective computers involves the clustering together of a number of relatively low cost microprocessor based boards such as those commonly found in personal computers (“PCs”). These various boards are then-operated using available clustering software to enable them to execute, in unison, to solve one or more large problems. During this problem solving process, intermediate computational results are often shared between processor boards. Utilizing currently available technology, this sharing must pass over the peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus, which is the highest performance external interface bus, commonly found on today's PCs. While there are various versions of this bus available, all are limited to less than 1 GB/sec. bandwidth and, because of, their location several levels of chips below the processor bus, they all. exhibit a very high latency. In low cost PCs, this bus typically offers only on the order of 256 MB/sec. of bandwidth. These factors, both individually and collectively can significantly limit the overall effectiveness of the cluster and, if a faster interface could be found, the ability of clusters to solve large problems would be greatly enhanced. Unfortunately, designing a new, dedicated chip set that could provide such a port is not only very expensive, it would also have to be customized for each type of clustering interconnect encountered. This would naturally lead to relatively low potential sale volumes for any one version of the chipset, thus rendering it cost ineffective. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the technique of the present invention a system and method is provided: which enables an existing, standard PC memory bus to be utilized in conjunction with a multi-adaptive processor (“MAP™”, a trademark of SRC Computers, Inc.) to solve this data transfer rate problem in a universally applicable way. To this end, disclosed herein is a switch/network adapter port for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors in a DIMM format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available from the PCI bus. One of the most commonly used memory formats in PCs today is the dual inline memory module (“DIMM”) format. These modules are-presently available in what is called a double data rate (“DDR”) format and PCs using this format incorporate a memory bus that can provide up to 1.6 GB/sec. of bandwidth today. In the near future, this bus will be further expanded to support quad data rate (“QDR”) DIMMs having up to 3.2 GB/sec. of bandwidth. A currently available alternative form of memory is the Rambus DIMM (“RIMM”). The basic features of RIMM are similar to that of the standard DIMM so, for purposes of the preceding discussion and ensuing disclosure, the term DIMM shall be utilized to denote both forms of memory. Since the DIMM memory comprises-the primary storage location for the PC microprocessor, it is designed to be electrically very “close” to the processor bus and thus exhibit very low latency and it is not uncommon for the latency associated with the DIMM to be on the order of only 25% of that of the PCI bus. By, in essence, harnessing this bandwidth as an interconnect between computers, greatly increased cluster performance may be realized. To this end, by placing a MAP element (in, for example, a DIMM physical format) in one of the PC's DIMM slots, it's field programmable gate array (“FPGA”) could accept the normal memory “read” and “write” transactions and convert them to a format used by an interconnect switch or network. As disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications, each MAP element may include chain ports to enable it to be coupled to other MAP elements. Through the utilization of the chain port to connect to the external clustering fabric, data packets can then be sent to remote nodes where they can be received by an identical board. In this particular application, the MAP element would extract the data from the packet and store it until needed by the receiving processor. This technique results in the provision of data transfer rates several times higher than that of any currently available PC interface. However, the electrical protocol of the DIMMs is such that once the data arrives at the receiver, there is no way for a DIMM module to signal the microprocessor that it has arrived, and without this capability, the efforts of the processors would have to be synchronized through the use of a continued polling of the MAP elements to determine if data has arrived. Such a technique would totally consume the microprocessor and much of its bus bandwidth thus stalling all other bus agents. To avoid this situation, the DIMM MAP element may be further provided with a connection to allow it to communicate with the existing PCI bus and could then generate communications control packets and send them via the PCI bus to the processor. Since these packets would account for but a very small percentage of the total data moved, the low bandwidth effects of the PCI bus are minimized and conventional PCI interrupt signals could also be utilized to inform the processor that data has arrived. In accordance with another implementation of the present invention, the system maintenance (“SM”) bus could also be used to signal the processor. The SM bus is a serial current mode bus that conventionally allows various devices on the processor board to interrupt the processor. With a MAP element associated with what might be an entire DIMM slot, the PC will allocate a large block of addresses, typically on the order of 1 GB, for use by the MAP element. While some of these can be decoded as commands, (as disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications) many can still be used as storage. By having at least as many address locations as the normal input/output (“I/O”) block size used to transfer data from peripherals, the conventional Intel™ chip sets used in most PCs will allow direct I/O transfers into the MAP element. This then allows data to arrive from, for example, a disk and to pass directly into a MAP element. It then may be altered in any fashion desired, packetized and transmitted to a remote node. Because both the disk's PCI port and the MAP element DIMM slots are controlled by the PC memory controller, no processor bus bandwidth is consumed by this transfer. It should also be noted that in certain PCs, several DIMMs may be interleaved to provide wider memory access capability in order to increase memory bandwidth. In these systems, the previously described technique may also be utilized concurrently in several DIMM slots. Nevertheless, regardless of the particular implementation chosen, the end result is a DIMM-based MAP element having one or more connections to the PCI bus and an external switch or network which results in many times the performance of a PCI-based connection alone as well as the ability to process data as it passes through the interconnect fabric. Particularly disclosed herein is a microprocessor based computer system utilizing either a DIMM or RIMM based MAP element for the purpose of implementing a connection to an external switch, network, or other device. Further disclosed herein is a DIMM or RIMM based MAP element having connections to the either the PCI or SM bus for purposes of passing control information to the host microprocessor or other control chips. Still further disclosed herein is a DIMM or RIMM based MAP element having the capability to alter data passing through it to and from an external interconnect fabric or device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The aforementioned and other features and objects of the present invention and the manner of attaining them will become more apparent and the invention itself will be best understood by reference to the following description of a preferred embodiment taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a simplified, high level, functional block diagram of a multiprocessor computer architecture employing multi-adaptive processors (“MAP”) in accordance with the disclosure of the aforementioned patents and patent applications in a particular embodiment wherein direct memory access (“DMA”) techniques may be utilized to send commands to the MAP elements in addition to data; FIG. 2 is a simplified logical block diagram of a possible computer application program decomposition sequence for use in conjunction with a multiprocessor computer architecture utilizing a number of MAP elements located, for example, in the computer system memory space; FIG. 3 is a more detailed functional block diagram of an exemplary individual one of the MAP elements of the preceding figures and illustrating the bank control logic, memory array and MAP assembly thereof; FIG. 4 is a more detailed functional block diagram of the control block of the MAP assembly of the preceding illustration illustrating its interconnection to the user FPGA thereof in a particular embodiment; and FIG. 5 is a functional block diagram of an exemplary embodiment of the present invention comprising a switch/network adapter port for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors in a DIMM format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available from the peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus. DESCRIPTION OF AN EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENT With reference now to FIG. 1, a multiprocessor computer 10 architecture in accordance with the disclosures of the foregoing patents and patent applications is shown. The multiprocessor computer 10 incorporates N processors 120 through 12N which are bi-directionally coupled to a memory interconnect fabric 14. The memory interconnect fabric 14 is then also coupled to M memory banks comprising memory bank subsystems 160 (Bank 0) through 16M (Bank M). A number of multi-adaptive processor elements (“MAP™”) 112 (as shown with more particularity in the following figure) are associated with one or more of the memory banks 16. The MAP elements 112 may include chain ports as also disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications. With reference now to FIG. 2, a representative application program decomposition for a multiprocessor computer architecture 100 incorporating a plurality of multi-adaptive processor elements 112 in accordance with the present invention is shown. The computer architecture 100 is operative in response to user instructions and data which, in a coarse grained portion of the decomposition, are selectively directed to one of (for purposes of example only) four parallel. regions 1021 through 1024 inclusive. The instructions and data output from each of the parallel regions 102, through 1024 are respectively input to parallel regions segregated into data areas 1041 through 1044 and instruction areas 1061 through 1064. Data maintained in the data areas 1041 through 1044 and instructions maintained in the instruction areas 1061 through 1064 are then supplied to, for example, corresponding pairs of processors 1081, 1082 (P1 and P2); 1083, 1084 (P3 and P4); 1085, 1086 (P5 and P6); and 1087, 1088 (P7 and P8) as shown. At this point, the medium grained decomposition of the instructions and data has been accomplished. A fine grained decomposition, or parallelism, is effectuated by a further algorithmic decomposition wherein the output of each of the processors 1081 through 1088, is broken up, for example, into a number of fundamental algorithms 1101A, 1101B, 1102A, 1102B through 1108B as shown. Each of the algorithms is then supplied to a corresponding one of the MAP elements 1121A, 1121B, 1122A, 1122B, through 1128B which may be located in the memory space of the computer architecture 100 for execution therein as will be more fully described hereinafter. With reference additionally now to FIG. 3, an exemplary implementation of a memory bank 120 in a MAP element-based system computer architecture 100 is shown for a representative one of the MAP elements 112 illustrated in the preceding figure. Each memory bank 120 includes a bank control logic block 122 bi-directionally coupled to the computer system trunk lines, for example, a 72 line bus 124. The bank control logic block 122 is coupled to a bi-directional data bus 126 (for example 256 lines) and supplies addresses on an address bus 128 (for example 17 lines) for accessing data at specified locations within a memory array 130. The data bus 126 and address bus 128 are also coupled to a MAP element 112. The MAP element 112 comprises a control block 132 coupled to the address bus 128. The control block 132 is also bi-directionally coupled to a user field programmable gate array (“FPGA”) 134 by means of a number of signal lines 136. The user FPGA 134 is coupled directly to the data bus 126. In a particular embodiment, the FPGA 134 may be provided as a Lucent Technologies OR3T80 device. The exemplary computer architecture 100 comprises a multiprocessor system employing uniform memory access across common shared memory with one or more MAP elements 112 which may be located in the memory subsystem, or memory space. As previously described, each MAP element 112 contains at least one relatively large FPGA 134 that is used as a reconfigurable functional unit. In addition, a control block 132 and a preprogrammed or dynamically programmable configuration ROM (as will be more fully described hereinafter) contains the information needed by the reconfigurable MAP element 112 to enable it to perform a specific algorithm. It is also possible for the user to directly download a new configuration into the FPGA 134 under program control, although in some instances this may consume a number of memory accesses and might result in an overall decrease in system performance if the algorithm was short-lived. FPGAs have particular advantages in the application shown for several reasons. First, commercially available FPGAs now contain sufficient internal logic cells to perform meaningful computational functions. Secondly, they can operate at bus speeds comparable to microprocessors, which eliminates the need for speed matching buffers. Still further, the internal programmable routing resources of FPGAs are now extensive enough that meaningful algorithms can now be programmed without the need to reassign the locations of the input/output (“1/0”) pins. By, for example, placing the MAP element 112 in the memory subsystem or memory space, it can be readily accessed through the use of memory “read” and “write” commands, which allows the use of a variety of standard operating systems. In contrast, other conventional implementations may propose placement of any reconfigurable logic in or near the processor, however these conventional implementations are generally much less effective in a multiprocessor environment because only one processor may have rapid access to it. Consequently, reconfigurable logic must be placed by every processor in a multiprocessor system, which increases the overall system cost. Because a MAP element 112 has DMA capability, (allowing it to write to memory), and because it receives its operands via writes to memory, it is possible to allow a MAP element 112 to feed results to another MAP element 112 through use of a chain port. This is a very powerful feature that allows for very extensive pipelining and parallelizing of large tasks, which permits them to complete faster. Many of the algorithms that may be implemented will receive an operand and require many clock cycles to produce a result. One such example may be a multiplication that takes 64 clock cycles. This same multiplication may also need to be performed on thousands of operands. In this situation, the incoming operands would be presented sequentially so that while the first operand requires 64 clock cycles to produce results at the output, the second operand, arriving one clock cycle later at the input, will show results one clock cycle later at the output. Thus, after an initial delay of 64 clock cycles, new output data will appear on every consecutive clock cycle until the results of the last operand appears. This is called “pipelining”. In a multiprocessor system, it is quite common for the operating system to stop a processor in the middle of a task, reassign it to a higher priority task, and then return it, or another, to complete the initial task. When this is combined with a pipelined algorithm, a problem arises (if the processor stops issuing operands in the middle of a list and stops accepting results) with respect to operands already issued but not yet through the pipeline. To handle this issue, a solution involving the combination of software and hardware as disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications. To make use of any type of conventional reconfigurable hardware, the programmer could embed the necessary commands in his application program code. The drawback to this approach is that a program would then have to be tailored to be specific to the MAP hardware. The system disclosed eliminates this problem. Multiprocessor computers often use software called parallelizers. The purpose of this software is to analyze the user's application code and determine how best to split it up among the processors. The technique disclosed provides significant advantages over a conventional parallelizer and enables it to recognize portions of the user code that represent algorithms that exist in MAP elements 112 for that system and to then treat the MAP element 112 as another computing element. The parallelizer then automatically generates the necessary code to utilize the MAP element 112. This allows the user to write the algorithm directly in his code, allowing it to be more portable and reducing the knowledge of the system hardware that he has to have to utilize the MAP element 112. With reference additionally now to FIG. 4, a block diagram of the MAP control block 132 is shown in greater detail. The control block 132 is coupled to receive a number of command bits (for example, 17) from the address bus 128 at a command decoder 150. The command decoder 150 then supplies a number of register control bits to a group of status registers iS2 on an eight bit bus 154. The command decoder 150 also supplies a single bit last operand flag on line 156 to a pipeline counter 158. The pipeline counter 158 supplies an eight bit output to an equality comparator 160 on bus 162. The equality comparator 160 also receives an eight bit signal from the FPGA 134 on bus 136 indicative of the pipeline depth. When the equality comparator 160 determines that the pipeline is empty, it provides a single bit pipeline empty flag on line 164 for input to the status registers 152. The status registers 152 are also coupled to receive an eight bit status signal from the FPGA 134 on bus 136 and it produces a sixty four bit status word output on bus 166 in response to the signals on bus 136, 154 and line 164. The command decoder 150 also supplies a five bit control signal on line 168 to a configuration multiplexer (“MUX”) 170 as shown. The configuration MUX 170 receives a single bit output of a 256 bit parallel-serial converter 172 on line 176. The inputs of the 256 bit parallel-to-serial converter 172 are coupled to a 256 bit user configuration pattern bus 174. The configuration MUX 170 also receives sixteen single bit inputs from the configuration ROMs (illustrated as ROM 182) on bus 178 and provides a single bit configuration file signal on line 180 to the user FPGA 134 as, selected by the control signals from the command decoder 150 on the bus 168. In operation, when a processor 108 is halted by the operating system, the operating system will issue a last operand command to the MAP element 112 through the use of command bits embedded in the address field on bus 128. This command is recognized by the command decoder 150 of the control block 132 and it initiates a hardware pipeline counter 158. When the algorithm was initially loaded into the FPGA 134, several output bits connected to the control block 132 were configured to display a binary representation of the number of clock cycles required to get through its pipeline (i.e. pipeline “depth”) on bus 136 input to the equality comparator 160. After receiving the last operand command, the pipeline counter 158 in the control block 132 counts clock cycles until its count equals the pipeline depth for that particular algorithm. At that point, the equality comparator 160 in the control block 132 de-asserts a busy bit on line 164 in an internal group of status registers 152. After issuing the last operand signal, the processor 108 will repeatedly read the status registers 152 and accept any output data on bus 166. When the busy flag is de-asserted, the task can be stopped and the MAP element 112 utilized for a different task. It should be noted that it is also possible to leave the MAP element 112 configured, transfer the program to a different processor 108 and restart the task where it left off. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the use of the MAP element 112 in a given application, some form of feedback to the use is required. Therefore, the MAP element 112 may be equipped with internal registers in the control block 132 that allow it to monitor efficiency related factors such as the number of input operands versus output data, the number of idle cycles over time and the number of system monitor interrupts received over time. One of the advantages that the MAP element 112 has is that because of its reconfigurable nature, the actual function and type of function that are monitored can also change as the algorithm changes. This provides the user with an almost infinite number of possible monitored factors without having to monitor all factors all of the time. With reference additionally now to FIG. 5, a functional block diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a computer system 200 in accordance with the present invention is shown comprising a switch/network adapter port for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors in a DIMM format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available from the peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus. In the particular embodiment illustrated, the computer system 200 includes one or more processors 2020 and 2021 which are coupled to an associated PC memory and I/O controller 204. In operation, the controller 204 sends and receives control information from a PCI control block 206. It should be noted that in alternative implementations of the present invention, the control block 206 may also be an AGP or SM control block. The PCI control block 206 is coupled to one or more PCI card slots 208 by means of a relatively low bandwidth PCI bus 210 which allows data transfers at a rate of substantially 256 MB/sec. In the alternative embodiments of the present invention mentioned above, the card slots 208 may alternatively comprise accelerated graphics port (“AGP”) or system maintenance (“SM”) bus connections. The controller 204 is also conventionally coupled to a number of DIMM slots 214 by means of a much higher bandwidth DIMM bus 216 capable of data transfer rates of substantially 2.1 GB/sec. or greater. In accordance with a particular implementation of the present invention, a DIMM MAP element 212 is associated with, or physically located within, one of the DIMM slots 214. Control information to or from the DIMM MAP element 212 is provided by means of a connection 218 interconnecting the PCI bus 210 and the DIMM MAP element 212. The DIMM MAP element 212 then may be coupled to another clustered computer MAP element by means of a cluster interconnect fabric connection 220 connected to the MAP chain ports. As previously noted, the DIMM MAP element 212 may also comprise a RIMM MAP element. Since the DIMM memory located within the DIMM slots 214 comprises the primary storage location for the PC microprocessor(s) 2020, 2021, it is designed to be electrically very “close” to the processor bus and thus exhibit very low latency. As noted previously, it is not uncommon for the latency associated with the DIMM to be on the order of only 25% of that of the PCI bus 210. By, in essence, harnessing this bandwidth as an interconnect between computer systems 200, greatly increased cluster performance may be realized. To this end, by placing the DIMM MAP element 212 in one of the PC's DIMM slots 214, its FPGA 134 (FIG. 3) could accept the normal memory “read” and “write” transactions and convert them to a format used by an interconnect switch or network. As disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications, each MAP element 212 includes chain ports to enable it to be coupled to other MAP elements 212. Through the utilization of the chain port to connect to the external clustering fabric over connection 220, data packets can then be sent to remote, nodes where they can be received by an identical board. In this particular application, the DIMM MAP element 212 would extract the data from the packet and store it until needed by the receiving processor 202. This technique results in the provision of data transfer rates several times higher than that of any currently available PC interface such as the PCI bus 210. However, the electrical protocol of the DIMMs is such that once the data arrives at the receiver, there is no way for a DIMM module within the DIMM slots 214 to signal the microprocessor 202 that it has arrived, and without this capability, the efforts of the processors 202 would have to be synchronized through the use of a continued polling of the DIMM MAP elements 212 to determine if data has arrived. Such a technique would totally consume the microprocessor 202 and much of its bus bandwidth thus stalling all other bus agents. To avoid this situation, the DIMM MAP element 212 may be further provided with the connection 218 to allow it to communicate with the existing PCI bus 210 which could then generate communications packets and send them via the PCI bus 210 to the processor 202. Since these packets would account for but a very small percentage of the total data moved, the low bandwidth effects of the PCI bus 210 are minimized and conventional PCI interrupt signals could also be utilized to inform the processor 202 that data has arrived. In accordance with another implementation of the present invention, the system maintenance (“SM”) bus (not shown) could also be used to signal the processor 202. The SM bus is a serial current mode bus that conventionally allows various devices on the processor board to interrupt the processor 202. In an alternative embodiment, the accelerated graphics port (“AGP”) may also be utilized to signal the processor 202. With a DIMM MAP element 212 associated with what might be an entire DIMM slot 214, the PC will allocate a large block of addresses, typically on the order of 1 GB, for use by the DIMM MAP element 212. While some of these can be decoded as commands, (as disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications) many can still be used as storage. By having at least as many address locations as the normal input/output (“I/O”) block size used to transfer data from peripherals, the conventional Intel™ chip sets used in most PCs (including controller 204) will allow direct I/O transfers into the DIMM MAP element 212. This then allows data to arrive from, for example, a disk and to pass directly into a DIMM MAP element 212. It then may be altered in any fashion desired, packetized and transmitted to a remote node over connection 220. Because both the disk's PCI bus 210 and the DIMM MAP element 212 and DIMM slots 214 are controlled by the PC memory controller 204, no processor bus bandwidth is consumed by this transfer. It should also be noted that in certain PCs, several DIMMs within the DIMM slots 214 may be interleaved to provide wider memory access capability in order to increase memory bandwidth. In these systems, the previously described technique may also be utilized concurrently in several DIMM slots 214. Nevertheless, regardless of the particular implementation chosen, the end result is a DIMM-based MAP element 212 having one or more connections to the PCI bus 210 and an external switch or network over connection 220 which results in many times the performance of a PCI-based connection alone as well as the ability to process data as it passes through the interconnect fabric. While there have been described above the principles of the present invention in conjunction with a specific computer architecture, it is to be clearly understood that the foregoing description is made only by way of example and not as a limitation to the scope of the invention. Particularly, it is recognized that the teachings of the foregoing disclosure will suggest other modifications to those persons skilled in the relevant art. Such modifications may involve other features which are already known per se and which may be used instead of or in addition to features already described herein. Although claims have been formulated in this application to particular combinations of features, it should be understood that the scope of the disclosure herein also includes any novel feature or any novel combination of features disclosed either explicitly or implicitly or any generalization or modification thereof which would be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art, whether or not such relates to the same invention as presently claimed in any claim and whether or not it mitigates any or all of the same technical problems as confronted by the present invention. The applicants hereby reserve the right to formulate new claims to such features and/or combinations of such features during the prosecution of the present application or of any further application derived therefrom. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates, in general, to the field of computer architectures incorporating multiple processing elements. More particularly, the present invention relates to a switch/network adapter port (“SNAP”) for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors (“MAP™”, a trademark of SRC Computers, Inc.) in a dual in-line memory module (“DIMM”) format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available from the peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus. Among the most currently promising methods of creating large processor count, cost-effective computers involves the clustering together of a number of relatively low cost microprocessor based boards such as those commonly found in personal computers (“PCs”). These various boards are then-operated using available clustering software to enable them to execute, in unison, to solve one or more large problems. During this problem solving process, intermediate computational results are often shared between processor boards. Utilizing currently available technology, this sharing must pass over the peripheral component interconnect (“PCI”) bus, which is the highest performance external interface bus, commonly found on today's PCs. While there are various versions of this bus available, all are limited to less than 1 GB/sec. bandwidth and, because of, their location several levels of chips below the processor bus, they all. exhibit a very high latency. In low cost PCs, this bus typically offers only on the order of 256 MB/sec. of bandwidth. These factors, both individually and collectively can significantly limit the overall effectiveness of the cluster and, if a faster interface could be found, the ability of clusters to solve large problems would be greatly enhanced. Unfortunately, designing a new, dedicated chip set that could provide such a port is not only very expensive, it would also have to be customized for each type of clustering interconnect encountered. This would naturally lead to relatively low potential sale volumes for any one version of the chipset, thus rendering it cost ineffective. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the technique of the present invention a system and method is provided: which enables an existing, standard PC memory bus to be utilized in conjunction with a multi-adaptive processor (“MAP™”, a trademark of SRC Computers, Inc.) to solve this data transfer rate problem in a universally applicable way. To this end, disclosed herein is a switch/network adapter port for clustered computers employing a chain of multi-adaptive processors in a DIMM format to significantly enhance data transfer rates over that otherwise available from the PCI bus. One of the most commonly used memory formats in PCs today is the dual inline memory module (“DIMM”) format. These modules are-presently available in what is called a double data rate (“DDR”) format and PCs using this format incorporate a memory bus that can provide up to 1.6 GB/sec. of bandwidth today. In the near future, this bus will be further expanded to support quad data rate (“QDR”) DIMMs having up to 3.2 GB/sec. of bandwidth. A currently available alternative form of memory is the Rambus DIMM (“RIMM”). The basic features of RIMM are similar to that of the standard DIMM so, for purposes of the preceding discussion and ensuing disclosure, the term DIMM shall be utilized to denote both forms of memory. Since the DIMM memory comprises-the primary storage location for the PC microprocessor, it is designed to be electrically very “close” to the processor bus and thus exhibit very low latency and it is not uncommon for the latency associated with the DIMM to be on the order of only 25% of that of the PCI bus. By, in essence, harnessing this bandwidth as an interconnect between computers, greatly increased cluster performance may be realized. To this end, by placing a MAP element (in, for example, a DIMM physical format) in one of the PC's DIMM slots, it's field programmable gate array (“FPGA”) could accept the normal memory “read” and “write” transactions and convert them to a format used by an interconnect switch or network. As disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications, each MAP element may include chain ports to enable it to be coupled to other MAP elements. Through the utilization of the chain port to connect to the external clustering fabric, data packets can then be sent to remote nodes where they can be received by an identical board. In this particular application, the MAP element would extract the data from the packet and store it until needed by the receiving processor. This technique results in the provision of data transfer rates several times higher than that of any currently available PC interface. However, the electrical protocol of the DIMMs is such that once the data arrives at the receiver, there is no way for a DIMM module to signal the microprocessor that it has arrived, and without this capability, the efforts of the processors would have to be synchronized through the use of a continued polling of the MAP elements to determine if data has arrived. Such a technique would totally consume the microprocessor and much of its bus bandwidth thus stalling all other bus agents. To avoid this situation, the DIMM MAP element may be further provided with a connection to allow it to communicate with the existing PCI bus and could then generate communications control packets and send them via the PCI bus to the processor. Since these packets would account for but a very small percentage of the total data moved, the low bandwidth effects of the PCI bus are minimized and conventional PCI interrupt signals could also be utilized to inform the processor that data has arrived. In accordance with another implementation of the present invention, the system maintenance (“SM”) bus could also be used to signal the processor. The SM bus is a serial current mode bus that conventionally allows various devices on the processor board to interrupt the processor. With a MAP element associated with what might be an entire DIMM slot, the PC will allocate a large block of addresses, typically on the order of 1 GB, for use by the MAP element. While some of these can be decoded as commands, (as disclosed in the aforementioned patents and patent applications) many can still be used as storage. By having at least as many address locations as the normal input/output (“I/O”) block size used to transfer data from peripherals, the conventional Intel™ chip sets used in most PCs will allow direct I/O transfers into the MAP element. This then allows data to arrive from, for example, a disk and to pass directly into a MAP element. It then may be altered in any fashion desired, packetized and transmitted to a remote node. Because both the disk's PCI port and the MAP element DIMM slots are controlled by the PC memory controller, no processor bus bandwidth is consumed by this transfer. It should also be noted that in certain PCs, several DIMMs may be interleaved to provide wider memory access capability in order to increase memory bandwidth. In these systems, the previously described technique may also be utilized concurrently in several DIMM slots. Nevertheless, regardless of the particular implementation chosen, the end result is a DIMM-based MAP element having one or more connections to the PCI bus and an external switch or network which results in many times the performance of a PCI-based connection alone as well as the ability to process data as it passes through the interconnect fabric. Particularly disclosed herein is a microprocessor based computer system utilizing either a DIMM or RIMM based MAP element for the purpose of implementing a connection to an external switch, network, or other device. Further disclosed herein is a DIMM or RIMM based MAP element having connections to the either the PCI or SM bus for purposes of passing control information to the host microprocessor or other control chips. Still further disclosed herein is a DIMM or RIMM based MAP element having the capability to alter data passing through it to and from an external interconnect fabric or device. | 20041123 | 20080902 | 20050428 | 57338.0 | 2 | SORRELL, ERON J | SWITCH/NETWORK ADAPTER PORT FOR CLUSTERED COMPUTERS EMPLOYING A CHAIN OF MULTI-ADAPTIVE PROCESSORS IN A DUAL IN-LINE MEMORY MODULE FORMAT | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,208 | ACCEPTED | Retaining wall block system | A retaining wall block system is described. The block system includes blocks of different sizes that are configured to be compatible with each other in the construction of a retaining wall or free-standing wall. Each block has at least three faces which are textured to produce the appearance of natural stone. The faces have varying sizes based on variations in width. | 1. A wall block system having a plurality of blocks suitable for use in constructing a wall from multiple courses of the blocks stacked one upon the other, the wall block system comprising: first and second blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a lower surface, thereby defining the block thickness, the upper surface having a plurality of pin receiving apertures, the lower surface having a channel; each block having opposed first and second faces, thereby defining the block length; each block having opposed side surfaces, thereby defining the block width as measured between midpoints of the side surfaces, a width of the first blocks being different than a width of the second blocks; and a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the body portion of each pin being sized to be received in a pin receiving aperture, the head portion being larger than a pin receiving aperture and being sized to be received in a channel, the pins being configured such that when the wall is constructed from the wall block system, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in one of the pin receiving apertures of a block in a next lower course of the wall. 2. The wall block system of claim 1 wherein the channel is parallel to the first and second faces. 3. The wall block system of claim 2 wherein the channel is equidistant from the first and second faces. 4. The wall block system of claim 1 wherein the first and second blocks comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. 5. The wall block system of claim 1 wherein the plurality of pin receiving apertures is arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. 6. A wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the wall comprising: at least a first lower course and a second upper course, each course comprising a plurality of first and second blocks; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from an opposed lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness, the upper surface having a plurality of pin receiving apertures, the lower surface having a channel; each block having opposed first and second faces, thereby defining a block length; each block having opposed side surfaces, thereby defining a block width as measured between midpoints of the side surfaces, the width of the first and second blocks being different; and a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the body portion of each pin being sized to be received in a pin receiving aperture, the head portion being larger than a pin receiving aperture and being sized to be received in a channel, the pins being configured such that when the wall is constructed, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in one of the pin receiving apertures of a block in a next lower course of the wall. 7. The wall of claim 6 wherein the channel is parallel to the first and second faces. 8. The wall of claim 7 wherein the channel is equidistant from the first and second faces. 9. The wall of claim 6 wherein the first and second blocks comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. 10. The wall of claim 6 wherein the plurality of pin receiving apertures is arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. 11. The wall of claim 6 wherein, for each pin of the plurality of pins, the head portion of the pin forms an annulus about the body portion of the pin. 12. A wall block system having at least three blocks, multiples of the three blocks being suitable for use in constructing a wall from multiple courses of the blocks stacked one upon the other, the wall having a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the wall block system comprising: first, second, and third blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a lower surface, thereby defining the block thickness, the upper surface having a plurality of pin receiving apertures, the lower surface having a channel; each block having opposed first and second faces, thereby defining the block length; each block having opposed side surfaces, thereby defining the block width as measured between midpoints of the side surfaces, the width of the first, second, and third blocks being different; and a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the body portion of each pin being sized to be received in a pin receiving aperture, the head portion being larger than a pin receiving aperture and being sized to be received in a channel, the pins being configured such that when the wall is constructed from the wall block system, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in one of the pin receiving apertures of a block in a next lower course of the wall. 13. The wall block system of claim 12 wherein the channel is parallel to the first and second faces. 14. The wall block system of claim 13 wherein the channel is equidistant from the first and second faces. 15. The wall block system of claim 12 wherein the first, second, and third blocks comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. 16. The wall block system of claim 12 wherein the plurality of pin receiving apertures is arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. 17. A wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the wall comprising: at least a first lower course and a second upper course, each course comprising a plurality of first, second, and third blocks; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from an opposed lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness, the upper surface having a plurality of pin receiving apertures, the lower surface having a channel; each block having opposed first and second faces, thereby defining a block length; each block having opposed side surfaces, thereby defining a block width as measured between midpoints of the side surfaces, the width of the first, second, and third blocks being different; and a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the body portion of each pin being sized to be received in a pin receiving aperture, the head portion being larger than a pin receiving aperture and being sized to be received in a channel, the pins being configured such that when the wall is constructed, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in one of the pin receiving apertures of a block in a next lower course of the wall. 18. The wall of claim 17 wherein the channel is parallel to the first and second faces. 19. The wall of claim 18 wherein the channel is equidistant from the first and second faces. 20. The wall of claim 17 wherein the first, second, and third blocks comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. 21. The wall of claim 17 wherein the plurality of pin receiving apertures is arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. 22. The wall of claim 17 wherein, for each pin of the plurality of pins, the head portion of the pin forms an annulus about the body portion of the pin. 23. A wall block system having at least three blocks, multiples of the three blocks being suitable for use in constructing a wall from multiple courses of the blocks stacked one upon the other, the wall having a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the wall block system comprising: first, second, and third blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a lower surface, thereby defining the block thickness, the upper surface having a plurality of pin receiving apertures, the lower surface having a channel; each block having opposed first and second faces, thereby defining the block length, the area of the first face being greater than the area of the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, thereby defining the block width as measured between midpoints of the side surfaces, the width of the first, second, and third blocks being different; and a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the body portion of each pin being sized to be received in a pin receiving aperture, the head portion being larger than a pin receiving aperture and being sized to be received in a channel, the pins being configured such that when the wall is constructed from the wall block system, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in one of the pin receiving apertures of a block in a next lower course of the wall. 24. The wall block system of claim 23 wherein the channel is parallel to the first and second faces. 25. The wall block system of claim 24 wherein the channel is equidistant from the first and second faces. 26. The wall block system of claim 23 wherein the first, second, and third blocks comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. 27. The wall block system of claim 23 wherein the plurality of pin receiving apertures is arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. | This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/601,051, filed Jun. 20, 2003, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/219,790, filed Aug. 15, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,637,981 which is a divisional of application Ser. No. 09/652,566, filed Aug. 31, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,447,213, which is a divisional of application Ser. No. 09/248,435, filed Feb. 11, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,149,352, the contents of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to retaining wall blocks and retaining walls constructed from such blocks. In particular, this invention relates to a retaining wall block system that allows the construction of walls having a random natural appearance with varying block face sizes to create the appearance of a natural stone wall. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Retaining walls are used in various landscaping projects and are available in a wide variety of styles. Numerous methods and materials exist for the construction of retaining walls. Such methods include the use of natural stone, poured concrete, precast panels, masonry, and landscape timbers or railroad ties. In recent years, segmental concrete retaining wall units, which are dry stacked (i.e., built without the use of mortar), have become widely accepted in the construction of retaining walls. An example of such a unit is described in U.S. Pat. No. Re 34,314, which issued to Forsberg (Forsberg '314). Such retaining wall units have gained popularity because they are mass produced and, consequently, relatively inexpensive. They are structurally sound, easy and relatively inexpensive to install, and couple the durability of concrete with the attractiveness of various architectural finishes. The retaining wall system described in Forsberg '314 has been particularly successful because of its use of a block design that includes, among other design elements, a unique pinning system that interlocks and aligns the retaining wall units, thereby providing structural strength and allowing efficient installation. This system is advantageous in the construction of larger walls, when combined with the use of geogrids hooked over the pins, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,914,876 to Forsberg ('876). The shape of the block is also an important feature during installation of a retaining wall. Forsberg '876 illustrates a fairly complex shape for a retaining wall block which is particularly advantageous in the construction of curved walls. The block is symmetrical about a vertical plane which bisects the block at a midway point through the front and back faces. Many commercially available blocks are symmetrical about a plane bisecting the front and back surfaces. Typically such blocks have planes rather than axes of symmetry, as there are differences between the top and bottom surfaces of such blocks. Clearly, blocks that are substantially square or rectangular (i.e., each surface being joined to another at an orthogonal angle) exhibit a great deal of symmetry. Other blocks are more complex in shape and exhibit only one vertical plane of symmetry. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,711,130 (Shatley) illustrates a block having substantially parallel front and back faces and non-parallel, mirror-image side wall surfaces. That is, there is a mirror plane of symmetry that vertically bisects the block. U.S. Pat. No. 5,598,679 (Orton et al.) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,294,216 (Sievert) illustrate a type of block having parallel front and back faces and non-parallel, converging side surfaces. The term “converging side surfaces” means that the sides walls of the blocks converge as they approach the rear of the block. Such blocks are also symmetrical about a vertical plane that passes through the front and back surfaces. There are advantages to having non-parallel surfaces on these blocks when constructing a retaining wall. The angles formed by these side surfaces permits construction of curvilinear walls, and moreover, permit the amount of curvature to vary according to the terrain and desired appearance of the retaining wall. Another important feature of retaining wall blocks is the appearance of the block. Blocks having angled or curved faces are well known in the art. Many manufacturers also vary the color and the texture or pattern on the front face of the block. It might be desirable for the face of the block to be smooth, serrated, or grooved or to have an aggregate appearance. The look of weathered natural stone is very appealing for retaining walls. There are several methods in the art to produce concrete retaining wall blocks having an appearance that to varying degrees mimics the look of natural stone. One well known method is to split the block during the manufacturing process so that the front face of the block has a fractured concrete surface that looks like a natural split rock. This is done by forming a slab in a mold and providing one or more grooves in the slab to function as one or more splitting planes. The slab is then split apart to form two or more blocks. Another method to create a weathered stone appearance is to tumble the blocks together with other blocks in a large rotating canister. The collisions of the blocks in the tumbler chips off random pieces of the blocks, rounding the edges and creating a look that can be quite close to the appearance of a natural stone. This is a labor intensive undertaking that also can result in undesirable damage to the blocks and high overall costs of production. Another method to make naturally appearing blocks has been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,078,940 and 5,217,630 (both to Sayles). These patents describe a method and an apparatus for manufacturing a concrete block having an irregular surface. The irregular surface can be made to look similar to split stone, and thus is very desirable. This is done by pouring uncured block material into a mold cavity and causing a portion of the material to be retained in place relative to the cavity walls when the block is removed from the cavity. This results in a split appearance for the surface, without having to perform the splitting operation. This is an advantage because the expense and time of conventional block splitting is avoided. Typically, retaining wall blocks are manufactured to have the desired appearance on the front face (i.e., the outer face of a wall) only. In the patents described above, the pattern or design is typically provided only to the front face because that is the only portion of the retaining wall block that is visible after the wall is constructed. Sometimes a portion of a side surface may be provided with a desired pattern or texture. In the Sayles patents described above, a natural or split look is obtained for only the front face. Such blocks do not allow the user the option to use either the front, side, or back faces of the block interchangeablity as the exposed “front face”. To create a wall block that has a roughened texture on the front, side and back surfaces poses certain problems. If a splitting method is used, multiple splits and two orientations for the splits are required to create a quadrilateral block with texture on three sides. If a tumbling method is used, substantial portions of the block faces will be smooth and not entirely natural looking. Tumbling also is an expensive production method. If the method combines splitting and tumbling, the cost of production increases to a point where the end cost to the consumer is very high. Creating a random, or ashlar, pattern in the face of a retaining wall is highly desirable. This gives the appearance of a mortared or dry-stacked natural stone wall, which is a traditional and well accepted look. Some current wall blocks are intended to create an ashlar pattern. However, the creation of a truly random appearance requires the production of multiple block shapes for use in a single retaining wall. This is inefficient from a production standpoint because this requires multiple molds and more kinds of blocks to inventory. If only one face of the block is intended to be the front face, then the block system will suffer a trade-off between having enough face sizes to create a random, natural appearance and the cost and inefficiency of using multiple molds and creating multiple inventory items. Because of the natural variation in size of the stones used in stone retaining walls, the wall surface has variations in depth from stone to stone. None of the prior art concrete segmental retaining wall blocks is capable of duplicating this effect due to their alignment and connection systems requiring uniform alignment of the blocks and their front faces. It would be desirable to produce a block that could have random variations in face depth while maintaining the structural integrity of the wall structure. It would be desirable to provide a system of blocks for constructing a retaining wall that combines the ease of installation of modern segmental retaining walls with the attractive appearance of a natural stone wall composed of stones of varying sizes. The block system should be efficient to produce, require a minimal number of different block shapes and allow the construction of walls with 90 degree corners, and the construction of freestanding walls with a desirable natural appearance. It would also be desirable to provide a retaining wall system that allowed an aesthetically pleasing randomness of appearance by varying the amount the front faces of individual blocks project out from the face of the wall, so that certain blocks project slightly out and others are slightly recessed, at the wall builder's option. Moreover, it would be desirable to provide a retaining wall block with a desirable weathered appearance on at least three sides that could be manufactured in a manner that minimizes the need for splitting or tumbling the block. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention is a system of blocks comprising blocks of different sizes that are configured to be compatible with each other in the construction of a retaining wall or free-standing wall. Each block has at least three faces which are textured in a manner resulting in the appearance of natural stone. The faces have varying sizes based on variations in width. The orientation of the faces may be reversed so that either the front or the back of the block may serve as an exposed face, to give the wall a pleasing random variation of the block sizes that creates the look of a natural stone wall. In a preferred embodiment, the wall blocks use an attachment system that allows a positive connection between courses of blocks, and which accommodates reversal in orientation of the blocks if desired. The attachment system also allows the individual blocks to be aligned with varying degrees of outward projection, to give the wall builder another means of introducing randomness to the appearance of the wall face. The blocks can be used to construct retaining walls, free-standing walls, or sharp corners (i.e., 90 degree angles) with a natural finish on all exposed sides. The block's side surfaces are configured to accommodate the construction of a variety of retaining walls, including walls having convex or concave curves. Known soil reinforcement methods such as geogrids may readily accommodated by the wall system. The wall system is designed to be easy to install and structurally sound. In one aspect, this invention is a wall block for use in forming a wall from multiple wall blocks, the wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the block comprising an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness; opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, the first face having an area greater than the second face; opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, the first and second faces being orthogonal to one of the side surfaces, the first and second faces together with the upper, lower and side surfaces forming a block body; wherein the block body is configured such that when a wall is constructed from the blocks, the front surface of the wall is formed of the first faces of a portion of the multiple wall blocks and the second faces of others of the multiple wall blocks. Preferably, the first face, the second face, and at least one side surface are textured in a manner resulting in the appearance of natural stone. The upper surface of the block may have first, second, and third pin-receiving apertures aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces, the third pin-receiving aperture being substantially equidistant between the first and second faces, the first pin-receiving aperture being between the first face and the third pin-receiving aperture and the second pin-receiving aperture being between the second face and the third pin-receiving aperture, the first, second, and third pin-receiving apertures being arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. Preferably, the first and second pin-receiving apertures are equidistant from the third pin-receiving aperture. The lower surface of the block may comprise a channel that is parallel to and equidistant from the first and second faces and the block may comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. In a second aspect, this invention is a wall block system having at least three blocks, multiples of the three blocks being suitable for use in constructing a wall from multiple courses of the blocks stacked one upon the other, the wall having a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the wall block system comprising first, second, and third blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length, the width of each block being different; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining the block thickness; each block having opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, thereby defining the block length, the area of the first face being greater than the area of the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, thereby defining the block-width; the first, second, and third blocks being configured such that they are capable of being positioned when constructing the wall such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks to thereby provide a front wall surface having an irregular block pattern. Preferably, the upper surface of each of the three blocks has first, second, and third pin receiving apertures aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces, the third pin receiving aperture being substantially equidistant between the first and second faces, the first pin receiving aperture being between the first face and the third pin receiving aperture and the second pin receiving aperture being between the second face and the third pin receiving aperture, the first, second, and third pin receiving apertures being arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. The wall block system also may comprise a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the pins being configured such that when a wall is constructed from the wall block system, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in a pin-receiving aperture of a second block in a next lower course of the wall. If no setback between the courses is desired, the body portion of the pin is configured to be received in the third pin-receiving aperture. If setback between courses of the wall is desired, the body portion of the pin is configured to be received in the second pin receiving aperture of the second block if the second block is positioned such that its first face is part of the front surface of the wall and in the first pin receiving aperture of the second block if the second block is positioned such that its second face is part of the front surface of the wall. Preferably, the first and second pin-receiving apertures are equidistant from the third pin-receiving aperture. In a third aspect, this invention is a wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the wall comprising: at least a first lower course and a second upper course, each course comprising a plurality of blocks; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness; each block having opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, the first face having an area greater than the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, the first and second faces being orthogonal to one of the side surfaces, the first and second faces together with the upper, lower and side surfaces forming a block body; the blocks being positioned in the courses such that the front surface of the wall comprises the first faces of a plurality of the blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the blocks to thereby provide an irregular block pattern. Preferably, the blocks in each course comprise first, second, and third blocks, the widths of the first, second, and third blocks being different, the blocks being positioned in the courses such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second and third blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks. In a fourth aspect, this invention is a wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the wall comprising: at least a first lower course and a second upper course, each course comprising a plurality of first, second, and third blocks; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness; each block having opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, thereby defining a block length, the area of the first face being greater than the area of the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, thereby defining a block width, the width of the first, second, and third blocks being different; the blocks being positioned in the courses such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks and a plurality of the second faces of the first, second, and third blocks to thereby provide an irregular block pattern. The wall may further comprise a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the head portion being configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion being configured to be received in a pin receiving aperture of a second block in a next lower course of the wall. When the front surface of the wall is substantially vertical, the body portion of the pin is configured to be received in the third pin receiving aperture. In a fifth aspect, this invention is a wall block for use in forming a wall from multiple wall blocks, the wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the block comprising: an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness, the upper surface having first, second, and third pin receiving apertures aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces, the third pin receiving aperture being substantially equidistant between the first and second faces, the first pin receiving aperture being between the first face and the third pin receiving aperture and the second pin receiving aperture being between the second face and the third pin receiving aperture, the first, second, and third pin receiving apertures being arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces; opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces; opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, the first and second faces together with the upper, lower and side surfaces forming a block body; and wherein the block body is configured such that when a wall is formed from the wall block, the front surface of the wall is formed of the first faces of a portion of the multiple wall blocks and the second faces of others of the multiple wall blocks. In a sixth aspect, this invention is a method for constructing a wall from blocks laid in multiple courses, one upon the other, such that the wall has a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the method comprising: providing wall blocks described above, and laying the blocks in a first course of the wall and a second course of the wall such that the front surface of the wall is formed of the first faces of a plurality of the blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the blocks. Preferably the method includes providing blocks having an attachment system allowing blocks in one course to be attached to blocks in the next lower course. Substantially vertical walls or angled walls may be obtained. In a seventh aspect, this invention is a method for constructing a wall from blocks laid in multiple courses, one upon the other, such that the wall has a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the method comprising: providing a wall block system which includes blocks as described above of at least three sizes including first, second, and third blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length, the width of each block being different; laying the first, second, and third blocks in the first and second courses such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks to thereby provide a front wall surface having an irregular block pattern. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 1C illustrate a perspective view, a top view, and a bottom view of a retaining wall block according to this invention. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a retaining wall of this invention. FIG. 3A is a front view of a retaining wall and FIG. 3B is a bottom view of the top-most course of blocks used in the retaining wall of FIG. 3A. FIG. 4 is a top view of one course of a retaining wall of this invention. FIG. 5A is a side view of one embodiment of a retaining wall of this invention and FIG. 5B is a detailed cross-sectional view of retaining pin positioned between two blocks. FIG. 6 is a side view of a second embodiment of a retaining wall of this invention. FIG. 7 is a bottom view of the block system of this invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In this application, “upper” and “lower” refer to the placement of the block in a retaining wall. The lower, or bottom, surface is placed such that it faces the ground. In a retaining wall, one row of blocks is laid down, forming a course. An upper course is formed on top of this lower course by positioning the lower surface of one block on the upper surface of another block. This invention is a block system comprising multiple sizes of blocks with differently dimensioned, interchangeable front and back faces. The blocks can be used to construct an eye pleasing, irregularly textured wall having a weathered, natural appearance. The texture of the wall is due to the variation in the size of the blocks, the weathered, natural appearance on the surfaces of the individual blocks, and the placement of the blocks in the wall. The shape of the blocks permits construction of stable walls having curved, or serpentine, shapes. The blocks are provided with pin-receiving apertures and channels, which, along with pins that are adapted to be received in the pin-receiving apertures, form an attachment system among the blocks in a wall. Any number of apertures could be used, but preferably, there are at least three pin-receiving apertures. Preferably, these apertures are in a line perpendicular to the first and second faces of the block at a midpoint between the first and second faces. Typically, the pin-receiving apertures are equidistant from each other. For blocks having core 20, as shown in FIG. 1, preferably there are two sets of three apertures disposed on either side of the core (i.e., one set is 22a, 22b and 22c and the second set is 22d, 22e, and 22f). For smaller blocks which typically do not have a core, only one set of apertures is necessary. The apertures are positioned to permit the alignment of blocks directly over one another or either forward or backward relative to one another so that either vertical or non-vertical walls may be constructed. Having more than one set of apertures allows a block in an upper course to span two blocks in a lower course and be locked into place in both of them. Preferably, a pin comprises a shoulder or head portion affixed to a body portion. The lower surface of the blocks comprises a channel that has a shape and a depth configured to receive the head portion of a pin when the pin is held in the aperture of an underlying block. FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 1C illustrate a block of this invention. A perspective view of block 5 is shown in FIG. 1A and top and bottom views of block 5 are shown in FIGS. 1B and 1C, respectively. Upper surface 8 is opposed to and substantially parallel to lower surface 10. Surface 8 is separated from surface 10 by the thickness of the block. First and second opposed faces 12 and 14 are substantially parallel. First face 12 has a greater surface area than second face 14. First face 12 and second face 14 are joined by and orthogonal to first side surface 16. That is, the angle formed by an imaginary line coincident with first face 12 and an imaginary line coincident with first side surface 16 is 90 degrees. First face 12 and second face 14 also are joined to second side surface 18. Side surfaces 16 and 18 are opposed and are non-parallel. Similarly, the angle formed between second face 14 and first side surface 16 is 90 degrees. The angles formed between either of the first and second faces and side surface 18 are non-orthogonal. That is, one angle will be acute and one will be obtuse. The block is provided with through-passage or core 20, as well as with pin-receiving apertures 22a, 22b, and 22c. The lower surface of the block is provided with channel 23 that is in a line coincident with the center aperture (22b) of the three pin-receiving apertures and parallel to first and second faces 12 and 14 of the block. Channel 23 has a depth and a profile sufficient to permit the use of pins having a shoulder or lip to be used in the pin-receiving apertures. Channel 23 spans at least a portion of the width of the block. The surfaces meet to form corners. For example, first face 12 meets side surface 18 to form corner 13. Because it is desirable to provide a natural stone-like appearance to the blocks, it is preferred that corners are rounded. The rounded corners give the blocks a “tumbled” appearance without the necessity of tumbling or processing the blocks after they are formed. FIG. 1A shows a block having first face 12 which is textured in a manner resulting in the appearance of natural stone. Second face 14 and side face 16 are similar in appearance, that is, they have a natural stone-like weathered appearance. Side surface 18, which sometimes is referred to as the angled side, is smoother than the other faces. It is conventional in the art of retaining wall blocks to refer to one face as the front face, that is, that facing outward in a retaining wall. As described above, conventional retaining wall blocks typically are designed to have a front face which is distinct in appearance from the back face. However, first and second faces 12 and 14 are interchangeable as they have the same weathered, natural appearance; that is, these faces may be either the front or the back of the block. One of the faces must have a larger surface area than the other of the faces. In addition, side face 16 has the same weathered appearance or texture as first and second faces 12 and 16. Thus, depending upon the dimensions of the block, the block may be rotated such that any of faces 12, 14, and 16 can be the “front” of the block. This can be seen in FIG. 2, wherein the top corner of the wall is a block with both a first face and a side surface facing outward. The block is manufactured to a desired thickness. This may range from about three inches (7.6 cm) to about 6 inches (15.2 cm) though it may be thinner or thicker depending upon the desired application. The block's dimensions are selected not only to produce a pleasing shape for the retaining wall, but also to permit ease of handling and installation. Typically one thickness of block is used to construct a retaining wall. The length of the block (i.e., defined as the distance from the first face to the second face) typically ranges from about 9.25 inches (23.5 cm) to about 10.25 inches (26.0 cm). The width of the block (i.e., defined as the distance from one side surface to the other side surface, as measured at a midpoint) for a conventional retaining wall typically varies from about 4 inches (10.2 cm) to about 16 inches (40.6 cm), as measured at a midpoint of the sides. For optimum use in retaining walls, the blocks of this invention are manufactured to have approximately the same length and various widths. Different sizes of blocks are illustrated in FIG. 7 and discussed further below. The sides of the blocks may be tapered. That is, for example, the surface area of the bottom of the block may be larger than the surface area of the top of the block. Tapering is typically a result of the manufacturing processes when removing a block from its mold. Blocks may provided with core, or passageway, 20, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, preferably located generally at the center of the block. The core extends through the thickness of the block. The dimension of the core can be varied as desired. For example, in a block having a length from first to second faces of about 9.5 inches (24.1 cm), the core is 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 cm) long. Providing a core is preferred because it results in a reduced weight for the block and also permits easier handing during installation of a retaining wall. The core is also useful when forming parapet walls, because concrete grout can be used to fill the cores and strengthen the wall. Blocks having cores can be aligned so that a wall can be reinforced with tension rods. Railing posts can be used as anchors in the cores. FIG. 3B is a bottom view of a course of a wall comprising blocks having the same lengths but different widths. The block preferably is provided with pin-receiving apertures. These apertures (22a, 22b, 22c; and 22d, 22e, 22f, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B) are provided as it is desirable to use pins to secure and align the blocks, attach a geogrid, and/or provide shear resistance. The Figures illustrate blocks having one or two sets of three evenly spaced pin-receiving apertures that are arranged in a line perpendicular to the first and second faces. FIG. 1 shows that first pin-receiving aperture is nearest first face 12, and the second is nearest second face 14. The third pin-receiving aperture lies between the first and second apertures, and preferably is spaced equidistant from them. The pin-receiving apertures are aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces. Of course, the number and the location of the pin-receiving apertures may be varied depending upon desired design features of a retaining wall. Typically, however, blocks having three pin-receiving apertures oriented as shown provide a maximum degree of flexibility in design choice. The function of these apertures is discussed further below. FIG. 2 illustrates a perspective view of a retaining wall made from the multiple block system of this invention. The first course of blocks AA of such a wall is typically laid in a trench and successive courses are laid one on top of the other. Pins can be used in the pin-receiving apertures to hold the courses of blocks in place, although in some applications where the wall design is simple, the weight of the blocks is sufficient to hold the blocks in place. In this illustration, three wall blocks, each having a different width, are used to form a wall having a front surface and a rear surface. Both the first and the second face of any one block may be used to form the front surface of the wall. The first and second faces of one block also are different in surface area. These features contribute to the random, natural appearance of the wall. An advantage of the block of this invention is that the as-manufactured block can be used in a wall having corners without any further surface treatment of the block. That is, both a front face and a side face are visible in this wall at the corner and both have a weathered, natural, appearance. Because the blocks of this invention have one angled side, the blocks may be used to form 90 degree corners. A random appearance of the wall is achievable since all sizes of blocks may be used anywhere in a wall. Alternatively, there may be an advantage in providing one of the blocks, preferably the smallest block, of this system with two sides that are angled. In this case, only the larger dimensioned blocks would be used to construct wall corners. A cap or finish layer 30 is shown in partial view at the top of the wall. The cap layer is discussed further below. FIG. 3A illustrates random placement of differently sized wall blocks in a retaining wall. Blocks are first laid in a trench to form the base layer. Blocks having various widths are randomly placed. In addition, the first face and the second face are different in surface area, and either may face outward. This variability in size contributes to the random and natural appearance of the wall of the front surface of the wall. Cap layer 40 is shown spanning the top of the wall. FIG. 3B is a bottom view of the top-most course of blocks of the wall of FIG. 3A. FIG. 3B illustrates how the same block is used to vary the appearance of the front surface of the wall by using both the first and second block faces as the front surface of the wall. FIG. 3B also illustrates placement of retaining pins in the center aperture, thus aligning the blocks one above another. Blocks 42 and 44 use pins in apertures on either side of their cores. Block 42 spans two blocks in the course below. The head portion of the pins fits within the channel that runs parallel to the first and second faces of the block. In addition, blocks in the wall may be moved forward or rearward of the front surface of the wall by altering the position of a retaining pin (i.e., selecting the first or second pin-receiving aperture of an underlying block rather than the third, or middle, aperture). Retaining pins 50 preferably are provided with a lip, shoulder, or head portion that prevents the pins from slipping through a pin-receiving aperture. When the pins are installed in the center pin-receiving aperture, the blocks of one course are aligned with blocks in adjacent courses, thus forming a straight wall. The head portion of the retaining pin fits within channel 23 of the block, thus holding the block in place. Having three pin-receiving apertures also permits construction of a wall in which some blocks may be placed slightly forward or behind adjacent blocks, which results in variable depth for the front face of the wall, thus producing a more natural stone-like appearance. FIG. 4 illustrates a top view of a course of blocks laid in a serpentine pattern. Continuous curved line C is shown running through the center of the blocks. Block length L is constant for the variously-sized blocks in this wall. Having one angled side surface per block permits a desirable degree of flexibility in the placement of the blocks, and is particularly noticeable on inside curves. FIG. 5A is a side view of a retaining wall and illustrates placement of retaining pins 52 in the pin-receiving apertures of the block. A trench is dug and leveling pad BB is laid in the trench and the first course of blocks is laid on top of the leveling pad. Both of these layers are installed below grade. Leveling pad BB comprises compacted free draining granular road base material such as crushed stone or unreinforced concrete. The leveling pad creates a level and somewhat flexible wall support base and eliminates the need to trench to a depth that would resist frost. The leveling pad can move as the ground freezes if necessary. Before building the wall, filter fabric FF is installed against the soil. The filter fabric prevents the flow of fine silt or sand through the face of the wall. Thus water can flow through, but particles that can stain the wall cannot. FIG. 5B illustrates a detailed cross-sectional view of a retaining pin positioned in a retaining wall. Blocks in the wall are provided with pin-receiving aperture 72 and with channel 73. In FIG. 5B, block 74 lies under block 75. Head portion 76 of pin 80 is configured to be received within channel 73 on the lower surface of block 75. Body portion 78 is configured to be received in pin-receiving aperture 72 of block 74. The shape of the channel in cross-section is configured to lock the head portion of pin 80 in place. Head portion 76 is larger in diameter than pin-receiving aperture 72 so that the pin does not fall through the aperture. The length of body portion 78 is less than the thickness of the block in this illustration although the length of the pin body may vary. Cap, coping, or finish, layer 50 is installed at the top of the wall. The cap layer may comprise blocks, cut stone, or precast concrete pieces. Also, concrete can be cast in place for the finish layer. In any event, the cap layer may have the desired surface finish on its top and all sides or can vary as a matter of design choice. Its thickness and appearance are matters of design choice. Typically the cap layer has no apertures that pass through its thickness. This layer may be affixed to the underlying course by means of adhesive (i.e., mortar or epoxy), pins, or other suitable means known to those of skill in the art. The wall shown in FIG. 5 is an example of a substantially vertical wall, a free-standing parapet wall, in which at least a portion of both the front and back faces of the wall is exposed. Thus, appearance of both wall faces is important. Because the block of this invention is manufactured to have the desired textured appearance of natural stone on three faces, the block can be installed to produce an attractive free-standing wall without any treatment or change to the surface of the block. Thus installation of a retaining wall even for a homeowner can be done easily and quickly without the need for special equipment. FIG. 6 is a side view of another type of retaining wall, in which the blocks of an upper course are set back from the blocks of a lower course, resulting in a wall that is angled from vertical. Leveling pad BB and the first course of blocks are installed below grade. Filter fabric FF is placed against the soil and forms a backing against which other blocks are placed. The wall is finished, or capped, with cap layer 60. FIG. 6 illustrates a conventional retaining wall in which the retained soil is level with the top of the wall. The degree of set back for the wall is chosen based upon considerations of aesthetic appearance and necessary structural strength. The amount of set back illustrated in FIG. 6 for a conventionally constructed retaining wall wherein the block height is about six inches (15.2 cm) is about one inch (2.54 cm). The amount of set back is determined by the location of the pin-receiving apertures in each block. Pins 62 fasten the blocks of an upper course to those of a lower course. FIG. 6 shows the body portion of pin 62 in the rear pin-receiving aperture (22a) of a block in a lower course and the head portion of that pin laying within the channel that is coincident with middle aperture 22b. Geogrid or geotextile 65 may be installed and held in place by both the blocks and the retaining pins to create a mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall. The use of geogrids is known in the art and is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. Re. 34,314 (Forsberg), hereby incorporated herein by reference. FIG. 7 illustrates the block system of this invention. Each block is the same in length (i.e., distance from first to second face, for example, 112 to 114) but different in width (i.e. distance from first to second side, for example 116 to 118). Three sizes of blocks are shown. On the left side of FIG. 7, lower surface 110 of block 100 is illustrated. First and second opposing faces 112 and 114 are substantially parallel and face 114 has a larger surface area than face 112. Faces 112 and 114 are joined by and orthogonal to first side surface 116. Faces 112 and 114 are also joined to second side surface 118 at non-orthogonal angles. Core 120 is provided in block 100. Channel 123 and two sets of pin-receiving apertures (122a, 122b, 122c; and 122d, 122e, 122f) are on either side of core 120. Channel 123 is parallel to and at a midpoint between faces 112 and 114. The pin-receiving apertures are in a line perpendicular to faces 112 and 114, and apertures 122b and 122e are coincident with channel 123. Block 100 may have various dimensions, but preferably has the proportions as depicted in the Figure. A convenient and practical size is about 14.5 inches (36.8 cm) for the long dimension of first face 112 and about 15.75 inches (40.0 cm) for second face 114. The length of the block (from 112 to 114) is about 9.5 inches (24.1 cm). The core is about 4 inches (10.2 cm) long and about 3 inches (7.6 cm) wide. The distance between the two sets of pin-receiving apertures is about 7.8 inches (19.8 cm). Lower face 210 of block 200 is at the top right side of FIG. 7. First and second opposing faces 212 and 214 are substantially parallel and face 214 has a larger surface area than face 212. Faces 212 and 214 are joined by and orthogonal to first side surface 216. Faces 212 and 214 are also joined to second side surface 218 at non-orthogonal angles. Core 220 is provided in block 200. Channel 223 and two sets of pin-receiving apertures (222a, 222b, 222c; and 222d, 222e, 222f) are provided in lower surface 210 of the block. The channel and the apertures are disposed on either side of the core. Channel 223 is substantially parallel to faces 212 and 214 and is coincident with apertures 222b and 222e. The length of this block is about 9.5 inches (24.1 cm), and the long dimension of sides 212 and 214 is about 8.5 inches (21.6 cm) and 10 inches (25.4 cm), respectively. The core is approximately 4 inches (10.2 cm) long and 2.75 inches (7 cm) wide. Lower face 310 of block 300 is at the bottom right side of FIG. 7. First and second opposing faces 312 and 314 are substantially parallel and face 314 has a larger surface area than face 312. Faces 312 and 314 are joined by and orthogonal to first side surface 316. Faces 312 and 314 are also joined to second side surface 318 at non-orthogonal angles. Channel 323 and one set of pin-receiving apertures (322a, 322b, and 322c) is provided in lower surface 310 of the block. Channel 323 is substantially parallel to faces 312 and 314 and is coincident with aperture 322b. The length of this block is about 9.5 inches (24.1 cm), and the long dimension of faces 312 and 314 is about 4.75 inches (12.1 cm) and 6 inches (15.2 cm), respectively. The blocks illustrated in FIG. 7 each have the same length but different widths. Further, each block has a first face that has a different surface area or, alternatively, a different long dimension (i.e., the distance between side surfaces as measured along the first face) than the second face. For construction of a wall and for optimum manufacturing processes, the length as well as the thickness of each block preferably are the same. The shape of the blocks therefore produces a high degree of flexibility in the placement of the blocks in a retaining wall, which is a cost advantage. Particularly desirable is a system in which all the blocks have the same length, but variable widths, so that a natural stone appearance is achieved for the wall. The pin-receiving apertures are used to form a wall with various degrees of set back, thus contributing to a natural appearance. Although particular embodiments have been disclosed herein in detail, this has been done for purposes of illustration only, and is not intended to be limiting with respect to the scope of the appended claims, which follow. In particular, it is contemplated by the inventor that various substitutions, alterations, and modifications may be made to the invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the claims. For instance, the choice of materials or variations in the shape or angles at which some of the surfaces intersect are believed to be a matter of routine for a person of ordinary skill in the art with knowledge of the embodiments disclosed herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Retaining walls are used in various landscaping projects and are available in a wide variety of styles. Numerous methods and materials exist for the construction of retaining walls. Such methods include the use of natural stone, poured concrete, precast panels, masonry, and landscape timbers or railroad ties. In recent years, segmental concrete retaining wall units, which are dry stacked (i.e., built without the use of mortar), have become widely accepted in the construction of retaining walls. An example of such a unit is described in U.S. Pat. No. Re 34,314, which issued to Forsberg (Forsberg '314). Such retaining wall units have gained popularity because they are mass produced and, consequently, relatively inexpensive. They are structurally sound, easy and relatively inexpensive to install, and couple the durability of concrete with the attractiveness of various architectural finishes. The retaining wall system described in Forsberg '314 has been particularly successful because of its use of a block design that includes, among other design elements, a unique pinning system that interlocks and aligns the retaining wall units, thereby providing structural strength and allowing efficient installation. This system is advantageous in the construction of larger walls, when combined with the use of geogrids hooked over the pins, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,914,876 to Forsberg ('876). The shape of the block is also an important feature during installation of a retaining wall. Forsberg '876 illustrates a fairly complex shape for a retaining wall block which is particularly advantageous in the construction of curved walls. The block is symmetrical about a vertical plane which bisects the block at a midway point through the front and back faces. Many commercially available blocks are symmetrical about a plane bisecting the front and back surfaces. Typically such blocks have planes rather than axes of symmetry, as there are differences between the top and bottom surfaces of such blocks. Clearly, blocks that are substantially square or rectangular (i.e., each surface being joined to another at an orthogonal angle) exhibit a great deal of symmetry. Other blocks are more complex in shape and exhibit only one vertical plane of symmetry. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,711,130 (Shatley) illustrates a block having substantially parallel front and back faces and non-parallel, mirror-image side wall surfaces. That is, there is a mirror plane of symmetry that vertically bisects the block. U.S. Pat. No. 5,598,679 (Orton et al.) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,294,216 (Sievert) illustrate a type of block having parallel front and back faces and non-parallel, converging side surfaces. The term “converging side surfaces” means that the sides walls of the blocks converge as they approach the rear of the block. Such blocks are also symmetrical about a vertical plane that passes through the front and back surfaces. There are advantages to having non-parallel surfaces on these blocks when constructing a retaining wall. The angles formed by these side surfaces permits construction of curvilinear walls, and moreover, permit the amount of curvature to vary according to the terrain and desired appearance of the retaining wall. Another important feature of retaining wall blocks is the appearance of the block. Blocks having angled or curved faces are well known in the art. Many manufacturers also vary the color and the texture or pattern on the front face of the block. It might be desirable for the face of the block to be smooth, serrated, or grooved or to have an aggregate appearance. The look of weathered natural stone is very appealing for retaining walls. There are several methods in the art to produce concrete retaining wall blocks having an appearance that to varying degrees mimics the look of natural stone. One well known method is to split the block during the manufacturing process so that the front face of the block has a fractured concrete surface that looks like a natural split rock. This is done by forming a slab in a mold and providing one or more grooves in the slab to function as one or more splitting planes. The slab is then split apart to form two or more blocks. Another method to create a weathered stone appearance is to tumble the blocks together with other blocks in a large rotating canister. The collisions of the blocks in the tumbler chips off random pieces of the blocks, rounding the edges and creating a look that can be quite close to the appearance of a natural stone. This is a labor intensive undertaking that also can result in undesirable damage to the blocks and high overall costs of production. Another method to make naturally appearing blocks has been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,078,940 and 5,217,630 (both to Sayles). These patents describe a method and an apparatus for manufacturing a concrete block having an irregular surface. The irregular surface can be made to look similar to split stone, and thus is very desirable. This is done by pouring uncured block material into a mold cavity and causing a portion of the material to be retained in place relative to the cavity walls when the block is removed from the cavity. This results in a split appearance for the surface, without having to perform the splitting operation. This is an advantage because the expense and time of conventional block splitting is avoided. Typically, retaining wall blocks are manufactured to have the desired appearance on the front face (i.e., the outer face of a wall) only. In the patents described above, the pattern or design is typically provided only to the front face because that is the only portion of the retaining wall block that is visible after the wall is constructed. Sometimes a portion of a side surface may be provided with a desired pattern or texture. In the Sayles patents described above, a natural or split look is obtained for only the front face. Such blocks do not allow the user the option to use either the front, side, or back faces of the block interchangeablity as the exposed “front face”. To create a wall block that has a roughened texture on the front, side and back surfaces poses certain problems. If a splitting method is used, multiple splits and two orientations for the splits are required to create a quadrilateral block with texture on three sides. If a tumbling method is used, substantial portions of the block faces will be smooth and not entirely natural looking. Tumbling also is an expensive production method. If the method combines splitting and tumbling, the cost of production increases to a point where the end cost to the consumer is very high. Creating a random, or ashlar, pattern in the face of a retaining wall is highly desirable. This gives the appearance of a mortared or dry-stacked natural stone wall, which is a traditional and well accepted look. Some current wall blocks are intended to create an ashlar pattern. However, the creation of a truly random appearance requires the production of multiple block shapes for use in a single retaining wall. This is inefficient from a production standpoint because this requires multiple molds and more kinds of blocks to inventory. If only one face of the block is intended to be the front face, then the block system will suffer a trade-off between having enough face sizes to create a random, natural appearance and the cost and inefficiency of using multiple molds and creating multiple inventory items. Because of the natural variation in size of the stones used in stone retaining walls, the wall surface has variations in depth from stone to stone. None of the prior art concrete segmental retaining wall blocks is capable of duplicating this effect due to their alignment and connection systems requiring uniform alignment of the blocks and their front faces. It would be desirable to produce a block that could have random variations in face depth while maintaining the structural integrity of the wall structure. It would be desirable to provide a system of blocks for constructing a retaining wall that combines the ease of installation of modern segmental retaining walls with the attractive appearance of a natural stone wall composed of stones of varying sizes. The block system should be efficient to produce, require a minimal number of different block shapes and allow the construction of walls with 90 degree corners, and the construction of freestanding walls with a desirable natural appearance. It would also be desirable to provide a retaining wall system that allowed an aesthetically pleasing randomness of appearance by varying the amount the front faces of individual blocks project out from the face of the wall, so that certain blocks project slightly out and others are slightly recessed, at the wall builder's option. Moreover, it would be desirable to provide a retaining wall block with a desirable weathered appearance on at least three sides that could be manufactured in a manner that minimizes the need for splitting or tumbling the block. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention is a system of blocks comprising blocks of different sizes that are configured to be compatible with each other in the construction of a retaining wall or free-standing wall. Each block has at least three faces which are textured in a manner resulting in the appearance of natural stone. The faces have varying sizes based on variations in width. The orientation of the faces may be reversed so that either the front or the back of the block may serve as an exposed face, to give the wall a pleasing random variation of the block sizes that creates the look of a natural stone wall. In a preferred embodiment, the wall blocks use an attachment system that allows a positive connection between courses of blocks, and which accommodates reversal in orientation of the blocks if desired. The attachment system also allows the individual blocks to be aligned with varying degrees of outward projection, to give the wall builder another means of introducing randomness to the appearance of the wall face. The blocks can be used to construct retaining walls, free-standing walls, or sharp corners (i.e., 90 degree angles) with a natural finish on all exposed sides. The block's side surfaces are configured to accommodate the construction of a variety of retaining walls, including walls having convex or concave curves. Known soil reinforcement methods such as geogrids may readily accommodated by the wall system. The wall system is designed to be easy to install and structurally sound. In one aspect, this invention is a wall block for use in forming a wall from multiple wall blocks, the wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the block comprising an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness; opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, the first face having an area greater than the second face; opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, the first and second faces being orthogonal to one of the side surfaces, the first and second faces together with the upper, lower and side surfaces forming a block body; wherein the block body is configured such that when a wall is constructed from the blocks, the front surface of the wall is formed of the first faces of a portion of the multiple wall blocks and the second faces of others of the multiple wall blocks. Preferably, the first face, the second face, and at least one side surface are textured in a manner resulting in the appearance of natural stone. The upper surface of the block may have first, second, and third pin-receiving apertures aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces, the third pin-receiving aperture being substantially equidistant between the first and second faces, the first pin-receiving aperture being between the first face and the third pin-receiving aperture and the second pin-receiving aperture being between the second face and the third pin-receiving aperture, the first, second, and third pin-receiving apertures being arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. Preferably, the first and second pin-receiving apertures are equidistant from the third pin-receiving aperture. The lower surface of the block may comprise a channel that is parallel to and equidistant from the first and second faces and the block may comprise a core extending the thickness of the block. In a second aspect, this invention is a wall block system having at least three blocks, multiples of the three blocks being suitable for use in constructing a wall from multiple courses of the blocks stacked one upon the other, the wall having a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the wall block system comprising first, second, and third blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length, the width of each block being different; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining the block thickness; each block having opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, thereby defining the block length, the area of the first face being greater than the area of the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, thereby defining the block-width; the first, second, and third blocks being configured such that they are capable of being positioned when constructing the wall such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks to thereby provide a front wall surface having an irregular block pattern. Preferably, the upper surface of each of the three blocks has first, second, and third pin receiving apertures aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces, the third pin receiving aperture being substantially equidistant between the first and second faces, the first pin receiving aperture being between the first face and the third pin receiving aperture and the second pin receiving aperture being between the second face and the third pin receiving aperture, the first, second, and third pin receiving apertures being arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces. The wall block system also may comprise a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the pins being configured such that when a wall is constructed from the wall block system, the head portion is configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion is configured to be received in a pin-receiving aperture of a second block in a next lower course of the wall. If no setback between the courses is desired, the body portion of the pin is configured to be received in the third pin-receiving aperture. If setback between courses of the wall is desired, the body portion of the pin is configured to be received in the second pin receiving aperture of the second block if the second block is positioned such that its first face is part of the front surface of the wall and in the first pin receiving aperture of the second block if the second block is positioned such that its second face is part of the front surface of the wall. Preferably, the first and second pin-receiving apertures are equidistant from the third pin-receiving aperture. In a third aspect, this invention is a wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the wall comprising: at least a first lower course and a second upper course, each course comprising a plurality of blocks; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness; each block having opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, the first face having an area greater than the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, the first and second faces being orthogonal to one of the side surfaces, the first and second faces together with the upper, lower and side surfaces forming a block body; the blocks being positioned in the courses such that the front surface of the wall comprises the first faces of a plurality of the blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the blocks to thereby provide an irregular block pattern. Preferably, the blocks in each course comprise first, second, and third blocks, the widths of the first, second, and third blocks being different, the blocks being positioned in the courses such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second and third blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks. In a fourth aspect, this invention is a wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the wall comprising: at least a first lower course and a second upper course, each course comprising a plurality of first, second, and third blocks; each block having an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness; each block having opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces, thereby defining a block length, the area of the first face being greater than the area of the second face; each block having opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, thereby defining a block width, the width of the first, second, and third blocks being different; the blocks being positioned in the courses such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks and a plurality of the second faces of the first, second, and third blocks to thereby provide an irregular block pattern. The wall may further comprise a plurality of pins, each pin having a head portion and a body portion, the head portion being configured to be received within the channel of the lower surface of a block in a first course of the wall and the body portion being configured to be received in a pin receiving aperture of a second block in a next lower course of the wall. When the front surface of the wall is substantially vertical, the body portion of the pin is configured to be received in the third pin receiving aperture. In a fifth aspect, this invention is a wall block for use in forming a wall from multiple wall blocks, the wall having a front surface and a rear surface, the block comprising: an upper surface spaced apart from a substantially parallel lower surface, thereby defining a block thickness, the upper surface having first, second, and third pin receiving apertures aligned along first, second, and third axes which are substantially perpendicular to the upper and lower surfaces, the third pin receiving aperture being substantially equidistant between the first and second faces, the first pin receiving aperture being between the first face and the third pin receiving aperture and the second pin receiving aperture being between the second face and the third pin receiving aperture, the first, second, and third pin receiving apertures being arranged in a row perpendicular to the first and second faces; opposed and substantially parallel first and second faces; opposed and non-parallel side surfaces, the first and second faces together with the upper, lower and side surfaces forming a block body; and wherein the block body is configured such that when a wall is formed from the wall block, the front surface of the wall is formed of the first faces of a portion of the multiple wall blocks and the second faces of others of the multiple wall blocks. In a sixth aspect, this invention is a method for constructing a wall from blocks laid in multiple courses, one upon the other, such that the wall has a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the method comprising: providing wall blocks described above, and laying the blocks in a first course of the wall and a second course of the wall such that the front surface of the wall is formed of the first faces of a plurality of the blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the blocks. Preferably the method includes providing blocks having an attachment system allowing blocks in one course to be attached to blocks in the next lower course. Substantially vertical walls or angled walls may be obtained. In a seventh aspect, this invention is a method for constructing a wall from blocks laid in multiple courses, one upon the other, such that the wall has a front surface with an irregular block pattern, the method comprising: providing a wall block system which includes blocks as described above of at least three sizes including first, second, and third blocks, each block having a thickness, width and length, the width of each block being different; laying the first, second, and third blocks in the first and second courses such that the front surface of the wall is comprised of the first faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks and the second faces of a plurality of the first, second, and third blocks to thereby provide a front wall surface having an irregular block pattern. | 20041123 | 20060314 | 20050407 | 98450.0 | 1 | LEE, JONG SUK | RETAINING WALL BLOCK SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,235 | ACCEPTED | Shoe with cushioning and speed enhancement midsole components and method for construction thereof | An athletic shoe, in particular a running shoe, having improved cushioning and energy returning properties that vary depending upon the speed of the runner due to incorporation of at least one insert containing dilatant compound encapsulated in a shell and set into the midsole of the running shoe is disclosed. A method for converting the midsole of an existing running shoe is also disclosed. | 1. A shoe midsole having a top surface, said shoe midsole fabricated from material having a fixed elastic modulus and having at least one cavity formed in said top surface, said at least one cavity filled with material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound. 2. The shoe midsole in claim 1 wherein said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound is contained within in a shell having the same size and shape as the at least one cavity and said shell is set into the at least one cavity. 3. The shoe midsole in claim 1 wherein said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound is contained in a shell set into the at least one cavity, and said at least one cavity comprises a bottom portion and a side wall molded upward from said bottom portion to said top surface, and said shell comprises a bottom portion having the same size and shape as the bottom portion of the at least one cavity, a side wall having the same size and shape as the side wall of the at least one cavity, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall so as to encapsulate said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound. 4. The shoe midsole in claim 1 wherein said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound is encapsulated within a shell set into the at least one cavity, and said at least one cavity comprises a bottom portion and a side wall molded upward from said bottom portion to said top surface, and said shell comprises a bottom portion having the same size and shape as the bottom portion of the at least one cavity, a side wall having the same size and shape as the side wall of the at least one cavity, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall so as to encapsulate said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound, and said shell is fabricated from material having a modulus of elasticity such that the modulus of elasticity of the shell combined with the material consisting essentially of the dilatant compound encapsulated within the shell is insignificantly different from the modulus of elasticity of only the material consisting essentially of the dilatant compound. 5. The shoe midsole in claim 1 wherein said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound is encapsulated within a shell set into the at least one cavity, and said at least one cavity comprises a bottom portion and a side wall molded upward from said bottom portion to said top surface, and said shell comprises a bottom portion having the same size and shape as the bottom portion of the at least one cavity, a side wall having the same size and shape as the side wall of the at least one cavity, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall so as to encapsulate said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound, and said shell is fabricated from polyurethane approximately 0.007 inches thick and the top portion of the shell is sealed to the bottom portion of the shell using radio frequency welding. 6. The shoe midsole of claim 1 wherein said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound is derived from a mixture of dimethyl siloxane, hydroxy-terminated polymers with boric acid, Thixotrol ST®, polydimethysiloxane, decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, glycerine, and titanium dioxide. 7. The shoe midsole of claim 1 wherein said at least one cavity is cylindrically shaped and has a diameter between 1-⅜″ and 1-⅝″ and has a side wall height between ⅜″ and ⅝″. 8. An insert to be set into a cavity of a shoe midsole, said insert comprising a shell encapsulating a material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound. 9. The insert in claim 8 wherein said shell comprises a bottom portion, a sidewall molded upward from said bottom portion to a top edge, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall top edge. 10. The insert in claim 8 wherein said shell is fabricated from material having a modulus of elasticity such that the modulus of elasticity of the shell combined with the material consisting essentially of the dilatant compound encapsulated within the shell is insignificantly different from the modulus of elasticity of only the material consisting essentially of the dilatant compound. 11. The insert in claim 8 wherein said shell comprises a bottom portion, a sidewall molded upward from said bottom portion to a top edge, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall top edge, and said shell is fabricated from polyurethane approximately 0.007 inches thick and the top portion of the shell is sealed to the bottom portion of the shell using radio frequency welding. 12. The insert in claim 8 wherein said material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound is derived from a mixture of dimethyl siloxane, hydroxy-terminated polymers with boric acid, Thixotrol ST®, polydimethysiloxane, decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, glycerine, and titanium dioxide. 13. The insert in claim 8 wherein said shell comprises a bottom portion having a diameter between 1-⅜″ and 1-⅝″, a cylindrical sidewall molded upward between ⅜″ and ⅝″ from said bottom portion to a top edge, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall top edge. 14. The insert in claim 8 wherein said shell comprises a bottom portion having a diameter between 1-⅜″ and 1-⅝″, a cylindrical sidewall molded upward between ⅜″ and ⅝″ from said bottom portion to a top edge, and a top portion sealed to said shell side wall top edge. 15. A shoe midsole having least one chamber encapsulating a material consisting essentially of a dilatant compound. 16. A method for converting a shoe midsole having a top surface into a shoe midsole having at least one cavity formed in said top surface and filling said at least one cavity with material consisting essentially of dilatant compound, comprising the steps of a. carving the cavity into the top surface of the midsole, thereby creating a continuous sidewall and a bottom wall in the cavity, b. constructing an insert comprising a shell filled with dilatant compound, c. setting the insert into the cavity in maximum contact with the bottom wall and sidewall of the cavity. 17. The method in claim 16 wherein any gaps between either the side wall of the cavity or the bottom wall of the cavity or both and the insert are filled with elastomeric filler material. 18. The method in claim 16 wherein said cavity is carved so as to be shaped cylindrically. 19. The method in claim 16 wherein said cavity is carved using a drill fitted with a Forstner drill bit. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS AND CLAIM TO PRIORITY This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 120 of Provisional Applications 60/539,288 and 60/548,077, filed Jan. 26, 2003 and Feb. 26, 2003, respectively, and hereby incorporates both said Provisional Applications by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The disclosed invention is directed to an athletic shoe, in particular a running shoe, having improved cushioning and energy returning properties that vary depending upon the speed of the runner due to incorporation of at least one insert containing dilatant compound encapsulated in a shell and set into the midsole of the running shoe. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Shoes are generally intended to provide comfort and protection to the foot by fulfilling a number of functions related to the interface between the bottom of the foot and the surface on which the foot impacts during walking and running. Among these functions are: protection against cuts and abrasion; traction to prevent slipping; shock absorption to avoid injuries and bone and muscle damage that can be caused by repeated pounding of the foot against the walking or running surface; flexibility to allow natural body movements; cushioning for comfort; and the ability to behave elastically so that energy is conserved in walking and running. Running shoes are shoes specifically made for running. Some running shoes are made for athletic competitions based on speed and endurance. Other running shoes are made for training for said competitions, as well as for non-competitive-related running for purposes such as exercise and fun. It is desirable during periods of actual competition to maximize the elastic behavior of a running shoe each time the runner's foot hits the ground, so as to conserve energy and provide a spring-like energy-returning effect with each step the runner makes and thereby assist the runner in achieving and sustaining higher speed, while nevertheless giving a level of cushioning and energy absorption suitable for comfort and injury and damage prevention. However, when running shoes are worn during periods when higher speed is less important, such as non-competitive running, walking, and jogging, it is desirable to maximize cushioning for comfort and shock absorption to prevent injury and damage. Moreover, it is desirable that all components of a running shoe be durable and lightweight. Elasticity affects speed in two important ways. First, when the shoe behaves elastically, more energy is returned, and running becomes more efficient. It is known from physics that the fundamental, or resonant, frequency (F) of simple harmonic oscillator (a mass connected to a spring) is given by the expression, F=A times square root (K/M) where A is a constant, K is elasticity of the spring, and M is the mass of the body. The amplitude of oscillation and energy efficiency is greatest at resonant frequency, and the above equation shows that the resonant frequency increases with increasing elasticity, and with decreasing weight. A runner's resonant frequency also increases in a similar way, so that as the shoes become more elastic, at a given weight the runner becomes more efficient at a faster pace. According to Hooke's Law, elastic materials can be described in terms of a property known as the elastic modulus, that is, a linear relationship between applied force and the amount the materials deform. For a given level of applied force, low-modulus materials deform more than high-modulus materials. Running shoes that interpose low-modulus materials between the bottom of the foot and the walking and running surface are better for absorbing energy to provide cushioning and shock absorption. Running shoes that interpose high-modulus materials are better for storing elastic energy and returning it to the runner's foot as it lifts off the ground. Running shoes can be optimized for either cushioning and shock absorption on the one hand or speed on the other hand by control of the elastic modulus. Accordingly, a great variety of running shoes and related devices is available on the market and described in prior art. Many running shoe components and materials are known which provide cushioning that attenuates and dissipates ground reaction forces. Prior art shoes have long incorporated a midsole composed of closed cell viscoelastic foams, such as ethyl vinyl acetate (“EVA”) and polyurethane (“PU”). EVA and PU are lightweight and stable foam materials that possess viscous and elastic qualities. The density or durometer, i.e., hardness, of EVA and PU can be altered by adjusting the manufacturing technique to provide differing degrees of cushioning. Alternate shoe structures for cushioning the impact of heel strike by incorporating gas or liquid or cushioning devices combinations thereof in chambers in the midsole are also well known. However, said running shoes and related devices are generally constructed of materials and in such a manner as to interpose materials having fixed elastic moduli between a runner's foot and the walking and running surface in order to achieve specific cushioning, shock absorbing and energy storing and returning properties. Dilatant compounds are also well known. For purposes of this invention, a dilatant compound is a polymeric material that changes from soft and pliable under slow application of a load to elastic and bouncy under rapid application of a load. Technically, this means that a dilatant compound is a polymeric material whose yield point and elastic modulus increase with increasing strain rate. In other words, it is a liquid with inverse thixotropy, that is, a viscous liquid suspension that temporarily solidifies under applied pressure. Alternatively, it can be described as a liquid suspension in which the resistance to flow increases faster than the rate of flow. A well-known example of a dilatant compound is the toy, Silly Putty® as described in U.S. Pat. No. 2,541,851. (Silly Putty is a registered trademark of Binney and Smith). Silly Putty® flows when slowly squeezed in the hand, but bounces when dropped on the floor. This behavior is known as strain-rate sensitivity. As shown in the Chart 1 below, the material is soft and pliable under slow application of load, or slow strain rate. At faster application of load, or high strain rate, the material behaves elastically, as indicated by the steeper slope of the left-hand side of the fast-load response shown schematically on Chart 1. Moreover, as shown in Chart 1, the yield point, i.e., the load at which the response changes from sloped (elastic) to horizontal (plastic) also increases at faster application of load. Since the amount of elastic energy stored is equal to the area beneath the elastic portion of the curve, it is evident that much more energy is stored during fast loading. While it has been taught to interpose devices having variable elastic moduli between a runner's foot and the midsoles of running shoes so as to provide variable shock absorbing and cushioning properties, it has not been taught to provide midsoles that achieve higher energy storing and returning properties at higher running speeds. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Generally, the present invention describes an improved running shoe having a midsole with a modulus of elasticity and yield point that increase at higher running speeds. In addition, the present invention describes a device that can be incorporated into the midsoles of existing running shoes to achieve higher energy storing and returning properties at higher running speeds. Further, the present invention describes a method for incorporating said devices into the midsoles of existing running shoes so as to achieve higher energy storing and returning properties at higher running speeds. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a longitudinal cross section of a shoe of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a top view of a shoe midsole of the present invention. FIG. 3 is an assembly drawing of a shoe of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a fragmentary longitudinal cross section of a shoe midsole insert of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a top view of a shoe midsole insert of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a longitudinal cross section of a shoe of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, and first more particularly to FIG. 1, a running shoe of the present invention is indicated in its entirety by the reference numeral 2. The shoe includes an outsole, generally indicated at 4, and a midsole, generally indicated at 6. Preferably, the outsole 4 is made of conventional durable material, such as carbon rubber, and the midsole 6 is made of a conventional cushioning material, such as foam PU or foam EVA. Other components of the running shoe include an upper 8, which may be of leather or other conventional upper materials. The midsole has an upper surface 5. An insole 3, sometimes called a sock liner and constructed from conventional thin, flexible material such as fabric conventionally bonded to foam PU or EVA, preferably is interposed between the bottom of the runner's foot and the midsole upper surface 5 for enhanced comfort. Alternatively, the insole may be omitted without impairing the function of the present invention. The midsole 6 receives compressive force either directly from the runner's foot or via the insole 3 when the runner is standing, walking or running. Referring to FIG. 2, the midsole 6 includes a forefoot region, generally indicated at 12 and a heel region, generally indicated at 14. The midsole 6 includes at least one cavity 16, preferably in the heel region 14. Alternatively, the cavity is included in forefoot region 12. Alternatively, one cavity is included in the heel region 14 in combination with one cavity that is included in the forefoot region 12. Referring to FIG. 3, each cavity 16 has a continuous side wall 40 and a bottom wall 42. Preferably each cavity 16 is sized and shaped for receiving an insert 18 filled with a dilatant compound, said insert 18 having been constructed to be substantially the same size and shape as the cavity 16. Referring to FIG. 4, preferably insert 18 is generally cylindrical or disc-shaped and has an upper surface 19 that conforms to the contour of midsole upper surface 5 in order to provide a uniform support on which the user may place his or her heel without feeling any discontinuities. The cavity 16 preferably is cylindrical in order to receive and retain insert 18. Insert 18 may be secured within cavity 16 with a suitable adhesive. In the preferred embodiment, the dilatant compound is derived from a mixture of dimethyl siloxane, hydroxy-terminated polymers with boric acid, Thixotrol ST® brand organic rheological additive manufactured by Elementis Specialties, Inc., polydimethysiloxane, decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, glycerine, and titanium dioxide. This compound is sold by Dow Corning as Dilatant Compound No. 3179. Other dilatant compounds that could be used are available on the market and described in the prior art. Referring to FIG. 4, the dilatant compound is preferably encapsulated fully, without air pockets or pockets of any other materials, in a shell that, when filled completely with the dilatant compound, will fit snugly into the cavity in the midsole. The shell comprises a bottom receptacle portion 30 into which the dilatant compound 32 is received and a top cover portion 34 that is attached to the bottom receptacle portion to seal in the dilatant compound. The bottom receptacle portion is a single piece having a bottom wall 36, a continuous sidewall 38 molded upward a height H from the bottom wall to a top edge 40, and a flange 42 molded outward from its inner perimeter 44 on the top edge to an outer perimeter 46. The top cover portion 34 is a flat piece shaped substantially congruent to the outer perimeter of the flange 42. The shell should be fabricated from material that is thin enough and flexible enough so as to permit immediate conformance of the dilatant compound-filled shell to the runner's foot and so that at any time the elastic modulus of the shell and the dilatant compound together will be insignificantly different from the elastic modulus of the dilatant compound alone. The shell should also be strong and durable enough so as not rupture upon the repeated application of pressures of up to 250 pounds per square inch. Preferably, the shell is made of polyurethane 0.007 inches thick. Preferably, for ease of manufacture, the shape of the bottom wall of the bottom receptacle portion is circular, the continuous sidewall is cylindrical having diameter D, and the outer perimeters of the flange and of the top cover piece are circular. Preferably, the width W of the flange is in a range between ⅛″ and ½″. Preferably, after the dilatant compound has been received into the bottom receptacle portion, the top cover piece is attached to the flange using radio frequency welding, which can be commercially accomplished by Polyworks LLC of North Smithfield, R.I. Upon manufacture as described above, the shell filled with dilatant compound together comprise the insert 18. Other shapes of inserts may be conventionally constructed. It should be recognized that since the shell material is thin and flexible and the dilatant compound behaves as a viscous liquid in the absence of an applied force, the shape of the insert may vary from the as-constructed shape. Preferably, the cavity 16 may be conventionally molded into the midsole during manufacture of the midsole. The cavity may also be carved into the midsole by conventional means. Preferred cylindrical cavities may be carved using a drill fitted with a commercially-available Forstner drill bit, the size of which drill bit is chosen to create a cylindrical cavity having, with reference to FIG. 3, a diameter equal to the diameter D of the insert to be placed therein, and a depth equal to the height H of the continuous sidewall 36 of the bottom receptacle piece of the insert. The insert is set into the cavity so that the bottom wall 36 and side wall 38 of the insert are in maximum contact with the bottom wall 42 and side wall 40 of the cavity. In setting the insert into the cavity, any gaps either between the side wall of the cavity and the side wall of the insert or the bottom wall of the insert and the bottom wall of the cavity or both are preferably filled with commercially-available elastomeric filler material such as Silicone II® brand 100% silicone sealant manufactured and sold by General Electric Company. Preferably, the insert is permanently retained in the midsole cavity using conventional adhesives to attach the bottom and side wall of the insert to the bottom and side wall of the cavity. The insert may also be permanently retained in the cavity by attaching the insole to the midsole upper surface 5 using conventional adhesives. The insert may also be removably set into the cavity and temporarily retained in the cavity by the pressure of the runner's foot in contact with the insole 3 or directly in contact with the midsole upper surface 5 and the top cover portion 34 of the insert. Preferably, when pressure is initially applied from the runner's foot to the insert when the runner first stands in a shoe, the dilatant compound will be compressed against the bottom and side walls of the insert, thereby exerting pressure against the bottom and sides of the midsole cavity. Preferably, the midsole is constructed from a material with an elastic modulus lower than the elastic modulus of the dilatant compound after the dilatant compound has been subjected to the impact of fast running. Therefore, under slow application of force from the foot, as in walking or slow running, the dilatant compound deforms plastically (i.e., flows like a liquid) and transfers the foot's applied force to the surrounding midsole so that the dilatant and midsole together exhibit the low elastic modulus of the midsole material, thereby promoting cushioning and shock absorption. Under fast application of force, as in when the foot begins to impact against the insert during fast running, the dilatant compound will exhibit its inverse thixotropic properties and achieve a higher modulus of elasticity than the surrounding midsole; then, the insert will transfer less of the foot's impact force to the surrounding midsole, and instead will return more of the energy directly to the foot, thereby assisting in lift-off and increasing the runner's speed and energy efficiency. On the one hand, it has been found that if the inner perimeter of the top edge 40 of the insert shell is larger than the perimeter of the portion of the runner's heel that exerts a degree of compressive impact on the insert necessary to cause the dilatant compound to exhibit its inverse thixotropic properties during running, portions of the dilatant compound will initially become relocated by “oozing” to portions of the insert outside said perimeter, so that exhibition of the inverse thixotropic properties does not occur or is significantly diminished, rather than remaining within the perimeter at the bottom of the runner's heel and receiving compressive impacts from the heel during running. In that case, the exhibition of the dilatant compound's inverse thixotropic properties in the packet during running will be diminished and the full benefits of the present invention will not be realized. On the other hand, if the inner perimeter of the top edge of the insert shell is smaller than the perimeter of the portion of the runner's heel that exerts a degree of compressive impact on the top wall of the insert necessary to cause the dilatant compound to exhibit its inverse thixotropic properties during running, the portions of the runner's heel that are outside said inner perimeter will exert compressive impact on the elastomeric, non-dilatant portions of the midsole. In that case, the full benefits of the present invention will not be realized. Preferably, the diameter D of each midsole insert would be custom fitted and fabricated based on the size and shape of the foot of the runner. Also preferably, the height H of the midsole insert would be custom fitted based on the thickness of the midsole. However, recognizing that such custom fitting and fabricating entails additional expense, I have found that a cylindrical insert in the heel region 14 having a diameter D of one and one half inches (1 ½″) and a height H of one-half inches (½″) provides substantially all of the benefits of the present invention in men's shoe sizes 5 through 13, which is equivalent to women's shoe sizes 6 through 14. Diameters varying from the preferred diameter by up to ⅛″ and heights varying from the preferred height by up to ⅛″ also provide substantially all of the benefits of the present invention. The insert constructed of the size and shape described above and constructed of the materials described above incorporated into the midsole of the running shoe maximize shock absorption and comfort during walking, jogging, and slow running, while maximizing the elastic return of energy during fast running. In an alternate embodiment of the invention, the dilatant compound is completely enclosed in one or more midsole chambers during manufacture of the midsole, using methods and materials of enclosure taught in the prior art. Referring to FIG. 6, the midsole 26 includes at least one chamber 28, preferably in the heel region 24, or in the forefoot region 22, or at least one chamber in each of the heel region and the forefoot region. Many long distance runners are identified as heel strikers, meaning that they tend to land on the heel of the shoe. For this reason it is important that a midsole insert always be present beneath the heel. Other runners, particularly sprinters and short distance runners, tend to land on the forefoot. For these runners, a forefoot midsole insert of the present invention may be set in the forefoot region of the midsole. Similarly, using the methods described above, an insert of the present invention may be placed in the heel region of the midsole in combination with an insert of the present invention placed beneath the forefoot. The following examples illustrate the use of the present invention: EXAMPLE 1 The rear midsole regions in a pair of worn out running shoes were cut open to expose gel pads beneath the heel. The gel pads were removed and replaced by midsole inserts consisting of packets of a dilatant compound, namely Silly Putty, wrapped in plastic. It was noted that the dilatant-compound midsole inserts restored the cushioning to the worn shoes to a level equal to or exceeding that of new shoes. The shoes were then used by a runner who trained at various speeds in a wide range of climatic conditions, and on a variety running surfaces for 100 miles. This trial demonstrated that a dilatant-compound midsole insert provides the combination of cushioning, shock absorption, and durability required for a running shoe. EXAMPLE 2 The performance of shoes with dilatant-compound midsole inserts as described in Example 1 was compared to that of the identical shoes with the original gel pads replaced, and to that of a new pair of shoes with intact gel pads. For purposes of this comparison, a 0.1-mile course was marked along a straight stretch of flat asphalt road. A runner was timed as he attempted to run as fast as possible while alternately wearing one of the three types of shoe. Between each sprint, the runner jogged back to the starting line and changed shoes for the next sprint. The three-way comparison was repeated a total of five times. As shown in Table 1, the average time for the shoe with the dilatant compound inserts (DC) was 1.29 seconds faster than the same shoe with its original gel pad replaced (Gel), and 1.83 seconds faster than the new shoe (NEW). These differences suggest improvements in mile times of 13 and 18 seconds, respectively. Statistical analyses (T-test) indicate that the probability that such differences could occur by chance is 2% or less. TABLE 1 Time, Time, Time, Difference, Difference, sec sec sec sec sec Trial No. DC Gel New Gel-DC New-DC 1 39.43 41.00 42.28 1.57 2.85 2 37.29 39.59 38.26 2.30 0.97 3 37.03 38.16 39.11 1.13 2.08 4 35.74 36.99 38.18 1.25 2.44 5 36.41 36.59 37.22 0.18 0.81 Total 185.90 192.33 195.05 6.43 9.15 Average 37.18 38.47 39.01 1.29 1.83 Std Dev 1.39 1.84 1.95 0.77 0.90 EXAMPLE 3 Six hundred pairs of various size running shoes with conventional foam EVA midsoles were factory produced using conventional manufacturing methods. Two pairs of size 11 shoes were selected at random, and carefully inspected for quality. A 0.5-inch-deep, 1.5-inch-diameter cavity was bored into the midsole beneath the heel regions of each shoe of one pair (Pair A). An insert constructed of dilatant compound encapsulated in a radio-welded 0.007 inch wall thickness polyurethane shell with the same dimensions as the cavity was set into the cavity of each shoe of Pair A using the methods described above. The second pair (Pair B) was left unchanged. To compare the high-speed performance of Pairs A and B, a 0.1-mile course was marked along a downhill stretch of asphalt road. A runner was timed as he attempted to run the downhill segment as fast as possible while alternating shoes A and B. Between each sprint, the runner jogged back to the start, and changed shoes for the next sprint. This two-way comparison was repeated a total of eight times. As shown in Table 2, the average time for the A shoes with the dilatant compound inserts of the present invention was 1.72 seconds faster than the B shoes without the dilatant compound insert. This result clearly demonstrates the speed-enhancing property of the dilatant compound midsole insert of the present invention. The magnitude of the difference suggests improvements in mile times of 18.9 seconds. Statistical analysis (T-test) indicates that this difference is real at a level of confidence greater than 99%. TABLE 2 Difference, sec Trial No. Time, sec A Time, sec B A − B 1 34.52 35.01 0.49 2 34.29 36.34 2.05 3 31.97 35.66 3.69 4 33.47 34.12 0.65 5 31.11 34.17 3.06 6 32.34 33.28 0.94 7 31.00 33.49 2.49 8 30.12 31.84 1.72 Total 258.82 273.91 15.09 Average 32.35 34.24 1.89 Std Dev 1.61 1.43 1.16 The present invention has been described in terms of a preferred embodiment, it being understood that obvious modifications and additions to this preferred embodiment will become apparent to those skilled in the relevant art upon a review of this disclosure. It is intended that all such obvious modifications and additions be covered by the present invention to the extent that they are included with the scope of the several claims appended hereto. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Shoes are generally intended to provide comfort and protection to the foot by fulfilling a number of functions related to the interface between the bottom of the foot and the surface on which the foot impacts during walking and running. Among these functions are: protection against cuts and abrasion; traction to prevent slipping; shock absorption to avoid injuries and bone and muscle damage that can be caused by repeated pounding of the foot against the walking or running surface; flexibility to allow natural body movements; cushioning for comfort; and the ability to behave elastically so that energy is conserved in walking and running. Running shoes are shoes specifically made for running. Some running shoes are made for athletic competitions based on speed and endurance. Other running shoes are made for training for said competitions, as well as for non-competitive-related running for purposes such as exercise and fun. It is desirable during periods of actual competition to maximize the elastic behavior of a running shoe each time the runner's foot hits the ground, so as to conserve energy and provide a spring-like energy-returning effect with each step the runner makes and thereby assist the runner in achieving and sustaining higher speed, while nevertheless giving a level of cushioning and energy absorption suitable for comfort and injury and damage prevention. However, when running shoes are worn during periods when higher speed is less important, such as non-competitive running, walking, and jogging, it is desirable to maximize cushioning for comfort and shock absorption to prevent injury and damage. Moreover, it is desirable that all components of a running shoe be durable and lightweight. Elasticity affects speed in two important ways. First, when the shoe behaves elastically, more energy is returned, and running becomes more efficient. It is known from physics that the fundamental, or resonant, frequency (F) of simple harmonic oscillator (a mass connected to a spring) is given by the expression, in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? F=A times square root ( K/M ) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where A is a constant, K is elasticity of the spring, and M is the mass of the body. The amplitude of oscillation and energy efficiency is greatest at resonant frequency, and the above equation shows that the resonant frequency increases with increasing elasticity, and with decreasing weight. A runner's resonant frequency also increases in a similar way, so that as the shoes become more elastic, at a given weight the runner becomes more efficient at a faster pace. According to Hooke's Law, elastic materials can be described in terms of a property known as the elastic modulus, that is, a linear relationship between applied force and the amount the materials deform. For a given level of applied force, low-modulus materials deform more than high-modulus materials. Running shoes that interpose low-modulus materials between the bottom of the foot and the walking and running surface are better for absorbing energy to provide cushioning and shock absorption. Running shoes that interpose high-modulus materials are better for storing elastic energy and returning it to the runner's foot as it lifts off the ground. Running shoes can be optimized for either cushioning and shock absorption on the one hand or speed on the other hand by control of the elastic modulus. Accordingly, a great variety of running shoes and related devices is available on the market and described in prior art. Many running shoe components and materials are known which provide cushioning that attenuates and dissipates ground reaction forces. Prior art shoes have long incorporated a midsole composed of closed cell viscoelastic foams, such as ethyl vinyl acetate (“EVA”) and polyurethane (“PU”). EVA and PU are lightweight and stable foam materials that possess viscous and elastic qualities. The density or durometer, i.e., hardness, of EVA and PU can be altered by adjusting the manufacturing technique to provide differing degrees of cushioning. Alternate shoe structures for cushioning the impact of heel strike by incorporating gas or liquid or cushioning devices combinations thereof in chambers in the midsole are also well known. However, said running shoes and related devices are generally constructed of materials and in such a manner as to interpose materials having fixed elastic moduli between a runner's foot and the walking and running surface in order to achieve specific cushioning, shock absorbing and energy storing and returning properties. Dilatant compounds are also well known. For purposes of this invention, a dilatant compound is a polymeric material that changes from soft and pliable under slow application of a load to elastic and bouncy under rapid application of a load. Technically, this means that a dilatant compound is a polymeric material whose yield point and elastic modulus increase with increasing strain rate. In other words, it is a liquid with inverse thixotropy, that is, a viscous liquid suspension that temporarily solidifies under applied pressure. Alternatively, it can be described as a liquid suspension in which the resistance to flow increases faster than the rate of flow. A well-known example of a dilatant compound is the toy, Silly Putty® as described in U.S. Pat. No. 2,541,851. (Silly Putty is a registered trademark of Binney and Smith). Silly Putty® flows when slowly squeezed in the hand, but bounces when dropped on the floor. This behavior is known as strain-rate sensitivity. As shown in the Chart 1 below, the material is soft and pliable under slow application of load, or slow strain rate. At faster application of load, or high strain rate, the material behaves elastically, as indicated by the steeper slope of the left-hand side of the fast-load response shown schematically on Chart 1. Moreover, as shown in Chart 1, the yield point, i.e., the load at which the response changes from sloped (elastic) to horizontal (plastic) also increases at faster application of load. Since the amount of elastic energy stored is equal to the area beneath the elastic portion of the curve, it is evident that much more energy is stored during fast loading. While it has been taught to interpose devices having variable elastic moduli between a runner's foot and the midsoles of running shoes so as to provide variable shock absorbing and cushioning properties, it has not been taught to provide midsoles that achieve higher energy storing and returning properties at higher running speeds. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Generally, the present invention describes an improved running shoe having a midsole with a modulus of elasticity and yield point that increase at higher running speeds. In addition, the present invention describes a device that can be incorporated into the midsoles of existing running shoes to achieve higher energy storing and returning properties at higher running speeds. Further, the present invention describes a method for incorporating said devices into the midsoles of existing running shoes so as to achieve higher energy storing and returning properties at higher running speeds. | 20041123 | 20090217 | 20050728 | 61133.0 | 2 | KAVANAUGH, JOHN T | SHOE WITH CUSHIONING AND SPEED ENHANCEMENT MIDSOLE COMPONENTS AND METHOD FOR CONSTRUCTION THEREOF | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,250 | ACCEPTED | Sheet dispensers and methods of making and using the same | Sheet dispensers, which provide feedback to a user or provide a unique function to a user, are disclosed. Visual, audio, aromatic, or other types of feedback may be provided to a user by the sheet dispenser. Sheet dispensers suitable for use as a switch, a room deodorizer, a flame-generating device, or a combination thereof are disclosed. A method of activating a switch-controlled object is also disclosed. Further, a method of making sheet dispensers is also disclosed. | 1. A sheet dispenser comprising: a housing for receiving a plurality of removable sheets; and means for providing feedback in response to removal of a sheet from the housing by a user, the feedback being perceivable by the user. 2. The sheet dispenser of claim 1, wherein the plurality of removable sheets are arranged in a stack that shuttles from a first position to a second position within the housing during removal of a sheet from the stack. 3. The sheet dispenser of claim 2, wherein the means for providing feedback comprises visual indicia positioned under the stack of removable sheets that is viewable upon movement of the stack of removable sheets within the housing between the first and second positions. 4. The sheet dispenser of claim 1, wherein the means for providing feedback comprises an aromatic feedback generator activated by removal of a sheet from the housing. 5. The sheet dispenser of claim 1, wherein the means for providing feedback comprises a flame generator activated by removal of a sheet from the housing. 6. The sheet dispenser of claim 1, wherein the means for providing feedback comprises a signal-receiving device that is activated by a signal transmitted in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 7. The sheet dispenser of claim 6, wherein the signal-receiving device is located inside the housing. 8. The sheet dispenser of claim 6, wherein the signal-receiving device is located outside the housing. 9. The sheet dispenser of claim 6, wherein the signal-receiving device generates visual feedback in response to the signal transmitted in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 10. The sheet dispenser of claim 6, wherein the signal-receiving device generates audio feedback in response to the signal transmitted in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 11. The sheet dispenser of claim 6, wherein the signal-receiving device generates aromatic feedback in response to the signal transmitted in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 12. A sheet dispenser comprising: a housing for receiving a plurality of removable sheets; and an activating mechanism responsive to removal of a sheet from the housing by a user to provide feedback that is perceivable by the user. 13. The sheet dispenser of claim 12, wherein the plurality of removable sheets are arranged in a stack that shuttles from a first position to a second position within the housing during removal of a sheet from the stack. 14. The sheet dispenser of claim 13, wherein the feedback comprises visual indicia positioned under the stack of removable sheets and the activating mechanism is movement of the stack of removable sheets within the housing between the first and second positions to allow the visual indicia to be viewed by the user. 15. The sheet dispenser of claim 12, wherein the feedback comprises aromatic feedback activated by removal of a sheet from the housing. 16. The sheet dispenser of claim 12, wherein the activating mechanism comprises switching circuitry for transmitting a signal to a signal-receiving device in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 17. The sheet dispenser of claim 16, wherein the signal-receiving device is located inside the housing. 18. The sheet dispenser of claim 16, wherein the signal-receiving device is located outside the housing. 19. The sheet dispenser of claim 16, wherein the signal-receiving device generates visual feedback in response to the signal transmitted by the switching circuitry in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 20. The sheet dispenser of claim 16, wherein the signal-receiving device generates audio feedback in response to the signal transmitted by the switching circuitry in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 21. The sheet dispenser of claim 16, wherein the signal-receiving device generates aromatic feedback in response to the signal transmitted by the switching circuitry in response to removal of a sheet from the housing. 22. A method of providing perceivable feedback to a user of a sheet dispenser, the method comprising: at least partially removing a first sheet from a stack of sheets housed by the sheet dispenser; and activating the feedback for perception by the user in response to removal of the first sheet. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein activating the feedback for perception by the user in response to removal of the first sheet comprises: shuttling the stack of sheets from a first position to a second position by removing the first sheet from the stack of sheets. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the feedback comprises visual indicia positioned under the stack of sheets that is viewable upon movement of the of the stack of sheets between the first and second positions. 25. The method of claim 22, wherein activating the feedback for perception by the user in response to removal of the first sheet comprises: initiating aromatic feedback in response to removal of the first sheet from the stack of sheets. 26. The method of claim 22, wherein activating the feedback for perception by the user in response to removal of the first sheet comprises: generating a flame in response to removal of the first sheet from the stack of sheets. 27. The method of claim 22, wherein activating the feedback for perception by the user in response to removal of the first sheet comprises: transmitting a signal to a signal-receiving device in response to removal of the first sheet from the stack of sheets. 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the signal-receiving device generates visual feedback in response to the signal transmitted in response to removal of the first sheet from the stack of sheets. 29. The sheet dispenser of claim 27, wherein the signal-receiving device generates audio feedback in response to the signal transmitted in response to removal of the first sheet from the stack of sheets. 30. The sheet dispenser of claim 27, wherein the signal-receiving device generates aromatic feedback in response to the signal transmitted in response to removal of the first sheet from the stack of sheets. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/301,909, filed Nov. 22, 2002, now allowed, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to sheet dispensers and uses for sheet dispensers. The present invention is further directed to methods of making sheet dispensers and applications using sheet dispensers. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Sheet dispensers are known in the art. Various sheet dispensers are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,770,320 issued to Miles et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,168 issued to Mertens et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,551,595 issued to Mertens et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,356 issued to Bastiaens et al., all of which are assigned to 3M Innovative Properties Company (St. Paul, Minn.), and all of which are herein incorporated by reference. Known sheet dispensers provide sheets or flags, such as Post-its notes or flags, to a user. The present invention is directed to new sheet dispensers, which provide sheets to a user, but also provide one or more additional features. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to new sheet dispensers, which provide one or more types of feedback to a user and/or one or more unique functions. The sheet dispensers of the present invention provide one or more types of feedback and/or functions due to the movement of a stack of sheets within the sheet dispenser. As a user removes a sheet from the sheet dispenser, the stack of sheets moves from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser. This movement of the stack of sheets either directly or indirectly provides feedback to a user and/or some event to take place. Examples of feedback include, but are not limited to, visual feedback, audio feedback, aromatic feedback, or a combination thereof. Exemplary events include, but are not limited to, associating data with a given sheet removed from the sheet dispenser. In one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers provide visual feedback to a user, wherein the visual feedback is indicia, which is at least partially blocked from view by the stack of sheets. As the stack of sheets moves from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser, the indicia becomes viewable to a user. The indicia may be any indicia including, but not limited to, printed text, handwritten text, artwork, etc. The sheet dispenser may be utilized as an advertising media by providing visual feedback to a user in the form of a company logo or slogan. In addition, the advertising sheet dispenser may also provide audio feedback in the form of sound alone or in combination with visual advertising feedback. For example, the sheet dispenser may provide visual feedback in the form of a company name or logo, as well as, audio feedback in the form of a company slogan or theme song. In other exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the sheet dispensers provide one or more unique functions resulting in the occurrence of an event. For example, the sheet dispenser may act as a switch to turn “on” or “off” a switch-activated device, such as a lamp, a sound system or an alarm clock. In this embodiment, as the stack of sheets moves from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser, the movement of the stack of sheets causes a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a signal-receiving device (or switch-activated device). The sheet dispensers of the present invention may also function as a room deodorizer providing aromatic feedback, such as a desirable scent. In this embodiment, removal of an individual sheet may produce the aromatic feedback. Alternatively, movement of the stack of sheets from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser may cause a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a scent-generating device, which produces the aromatic feedback. In yet a further embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers provide a flame for use as a match or other fire-starting device. In this embodiment, removal of an individual sheet may produce the flame. Alternatively, movement of the stack of sheets from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser may cause a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a fire-starting device, which produces the flame. The present invention is also directed to methods of using the new sheet dispensers, and systems containing at least one sheet dispenser of the present invention. The sheet dispensers of the present invention may be used in an office or home environment to provide one or more types of feedback to a user and/or one or more unique functions. As discussed above, the sheet dispensers of the present invention may be used as a switch for activating a switch-activatable device. The sheet dispensers may cooperate with a signal-receiving device, such as a personal computer, for associating data with a given sheet removed from the sheet dispenser. Other applications include, but are not limited to, use as an advertising media, use as a room deodorizer, use as a flame-generating device, and combinations thereof. The present invention is further directed to methods of making sheet dispensers, which provide one or more types of feedback and/or functions as described above. These and other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent after a review of the following detailed description of the disclosed embodiments and the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 depicts an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention; FIG. 2 depicts an exemplary individual sheet, which may be combined with other similar sheets to form a stack of sheets for use in the sheet dispensers of the present invention; FIG. 3A depicts an enlarged sectional side view of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention having a stack of sheets in a first position with a first sheet within the stack extending through a slot in the sheet dispenser; FIG. 3B depicts an enlarged sectional side view of the sheet dispenser of FIG. 3A, wherein the stack of sheets is in a second position with most of the first sheet extending through the slot and attached to a second sheet in a relaxed position; FIG. 3C depicts an enlarged sectional side view of the sheet dispenser of FIG. 3A, wherein the stack of sheets is in a second position with most of the first sheet extending through the slot and a portion of the second sheet extending through the slot; FIG. 3D depicts an enlarged sectional side view of the sheet dispenser of FIG. 3A, wherein the stack of sheets is in a second position, the first sheet is removed from the sheet dispenser and disconnected from the second sheet, and a portion of the second sheet is extending through the slot; FIG. 4 depicts an exemplary individual sheet having two separate and unconnected adhesive coating layers on a lower surface of the individual sheet; FIG. 5 depicts an enlarged sectional side view of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention containing a stack of sheets, wherein each sheet is a sheet as shown in FIG. 4; FIGS. 6A and 6B depict enlarged sectional side views of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as a switch, wherein the sheet dispenser contains mechanical switches for setting the sheet dispenser switch in an “on” or “off” mode; FIGS. 7A and 7B depict enlarged sectional side views of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as a switch, wherein the sheet dispenser contains photodiodes for setting the sheet dispenser switch in an “on” or “off” mode; FIGS. 8A and 8B depict enlarged sectional side views of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as a switch, wherein the sheet dispenser contains electrical contacts for setting the sheet dispenser switch in an “on” or “off” mode; FIG. 9 depicts a sheet dispenser in combination with a signal-receiving device; FIG. 10 depicts an enlarged sectional side view of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as a room deodorizer or a flame-generating device; FIG. 11 depicts a top schematic view of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as an advertising medium, wherein a stack of sheets is in a first position; FIG. 12 depicts the exemplary sheet dispenser of FIG. 11, wherein the stack of sheets is in a second position; and FIG. 13 depicts a top schematic view of an exemplary sheet dispenser for a sheet dispenser game, wherein the stack of sheets is fully dispensed. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION To promote an understanding of the principles of the present invention, descriptions of specific embodiments of the invention follow and specific language is used to describe the specific embodiments. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is intended by the use of specific language. Alterations, further modifications, and such further applications of the principles of the present invention discussed are contemplated as would normally occur to one ordinarily skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. The present invention is directed to a variety of sheet dispensers, each of which provides (i) feedback to a user, and/or (ii) one or more unique functions in addition to dispensing sheets. In one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser may be used as an advertising medium, providing visual and/or audio feedback to a user. In a second exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser provides a unique function by operating as a switch, generating a signal to be received by one or more switch-activated devices. In a third exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser may provide aromatic feedback by operating as a room deodorizer, wherein (i) the act of removing a sheet from the sheet dispenser or (ii) the movement of the stack of sheets within the sheet dispenser creates a desirable scent for a user. In a fourth exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser may provide aromatic feedback, as well as, provide a unique function by generating a flame to provide heat and/or light to a user, wherein (i) the act of removing a sheet from the sheet dispenser or (ii) the movement of the stack of sheets within the sheet dispenser creates the flame. The present invention is further directed to a variety of applications using the sheet dispensers alone or in combination with additional signal-receiving devices and/or switch-activatable devices. The present invention is further directed to a method of activating a switch, wherein the method comprises a step of at least partially removing a sheet from a sheet dispenser. The sheet dispensers of the present invention may have a size and shape similar to conventional sheet dispensers as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,770,320 issued to Miles et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,168 issued to Mertens et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,551,595 issued to Mertens et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,356 issued to Bastiaens et al., all of which are assigned to 3M Innovative Properties Company (St. Paul, Minn.), and all of which are herein incorporated by reference. A description of exemplary sheet dispensers of the present invention, methods of making sheet dispensers, and uses is given below. I. Sheet Dispenser Components Sheet dispensers of the present invention comprise one or more components as described below. A. Housing An exemplary sheet dispenser is shown in FIG. 1. Sheet dispenser 10 comprises housing 11 having an upper housing portion 12 attached to a lower housing portion 13. Upper housing portion 12 has an upper surface 14 and side walls 15, which provide a housing height, hh, suitable for containing a stack of sheets. Upper housing portion 12 may be temporarily or permanently attached to lower housing portion 13 along perimeter 16. As shown in FIG. 1, sheet tab portion 17 extends from sheet dispenser 10 through slot 18 in upper housing portion 12. The exemplary sheet dispenser as shown in FIG. 1 has a rectangular shape and is suitable for dispensing rectangular sheets or tags. It should be noted that the sheet dispensers and sheets of the present invention may have any other shape. Suitable shapes include, but are not limited to, rectangular, square, circular, oblong, rhombus, trapezoidal, barbell, diamond, or any other shape. Further, the sheet dispenser of FIG. 1 is described as having two separate components forming housing 11. It should be noted that sheet dispenser 10 may comprise a single component having an opening therein for inputting a new stack of sheets (not shown). Housing 11 of sheet dispenser 10 may comprise a variety of materials including, but not limited to, plastic, paper, glass, metal, or a combination thereof. Desirably, housing 11 is formed from a moldable plastic material. In one embodiment of the present invention, upper housing portion 12 comprises a molded plastic material and lower housing portion 13 comprises a paper substrate. In some cases, it is desirable for the upper housing portion 12 and/or the lower housing portion 13 to be formed from a transparent material so that a user can visually inspect the interior of sheet dispenser 10 enclosed by upper housing portion 12 and lower housing portion 13. In a further embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser comprises a transparent upper housing portion 12 and a lower housing portion 13, wherein an upper surface of lower housing portion 13 is coatable or printable. Printed messages, slogans, symbols, handwritten notes, or any other indicia may be adhered to, coated, printed, or written onto the upper surface of lower housing portion 13 as described below with reference to FIGS. 12-14. Although not required, upper housing portion 12 and/or lower housing portion 13 may further comprise stack restrictors (not shown) along one or more interior edges of upper housing portion 12 and/or lower housing portion 13. The stack restrictors restrict the movement of the stack of sheets within housing 11 so that the stack of sheets moves in a single, straight shuttle pathway between a first position and a second position within sheet dispenser with substantially no movement perpendicular to the single shuttle pathway. B. Stack of Sheets The sheet dispensers of the present invention further comprise a stack of sheets positioned within housing 11 of sheet dispenser 10. The stack of sheets comprises one or more sheets releasably attached to one another to form a stack. An exemplary individual sheet suitable for use in the stack of sheets is shown in FIG. 2. As shown in FIG. 2, individual sheet 20 comprises a single rectangular layer 21 of a sheet-forming material. Suitable sheet-forming materials include, but are not limited to, polymeric materials, papers, films, metal foils, and combinations thereof. Desirably, rectangular layer 21 comprises a transparent flexible polymeric material such as polyester, polypropylene or cellulose acetate. Rectangular layer 21 has opposite major side surfaces and opposite first and second ends 22 and 23. Desirably, at least a portion of a lower surface of rectangular layer 21 is coated with an adhesive coating 24, more desirably a pressure sensitive adhesive coating. As shown in FIG. 2, end portion 27 is coated with adhesive coating 24. Tab portion 17 of rectangular layer 21 is typically free of adhesive on both of the side surfaces along end portion 17 and adjacent first end 22. Tab portion 17 is typically smaller in area than second end portion 27 and may be printed with a bright colored ink (e.g., red, green or yellow) to make tab portion 17 visually distinguishable. One or more individual sheets 20 may be combined to form a stack of sheets suitable for use in the sheet dispenser of the present invention. FIG. 3A depicts a cross-sectional view of sheet dispenser 10 having a stack of sheets 30 positioned within housing 11 of sheet dispenser 10. As shown in FIG. 3A, stack of sheets 30 comprises seven individual sheets referred to herein as sheets 20a to 20g. As a user removes individual sheet 20a from sheet dispenser 10, stack 30 moves from a first position 31 towards a second position 32 within sheet dispenser 10. This shuttling motion is fully described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,770,320 issued to Miles et al. (the '320 patent), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In addition, FIGS. 3B to 3D further describe the shuttling motion below. As shown in FIG. 3B, stack of sheets 30 moves to second position 32 due to the partial removal of individual sheet 20a from sheet dispenser 10. At this stage of the sheet removal process, portion 201a of individual sheet 20a remains attached to second individual sheet 20b positioned below individual sheet 20a. As individual sheet 20a is further removed from sheet dispenser 10, a pulling force is exerted on second individual sheet 20b to force a portion of second individual sheet 20b through slot 18 along with portion 201a of individual sheet 20a. Such a configuration is shown in FIG. 3C. In FIG. 3C, portion 202b of second individual sheet 20b is positioned near the mouth of slot 18. As individual sheet 20a is pulled from sheet dispenser 10, adhesive layer 24a on a lower surface of individual sheet 20a remains adhered to individual sheet 20b and causes portion 202b of second individual sheet 20b to exit slot 18. As individual sheet 20a is further removed from sheet dispenser 10, end portion 203b of individual sheet 20b moves closer to exit slot 18. FIG. 3D depicts a final stage in the shuttling motion, wherein stack of sheets 30 is in second position 32, first individual sheet 20a is removed from sheet dispenser 10 and disconnected from second individual sheet 20b, and a portion of individual sheet 20b is extending through slot 18. At this stage, stack of sheets 30 is in position to shuttle back to first position 31 when individual sheet 20b is fully removed from sheet dispenser 10. As described above, the movement of stack of sheets 30 within sheet dispenser 10 results in one or more types of feedback to a user and/or one or more unique functions. Although the movement of stack of sheets 30 within sheet dispenser 10 has been described above in terms of moving from a first position 31 and a second position 32, it should be noted that movement of stack of sheets 30 to one or more intermediate positions between first position 31 and second position 32 may also result in any one of the above-described types of feedback and/or functions. One method of providing “stops” at intermediate locations between a first position 31 and a second position 32 is described below and depicted in FIGS. 4-5. The movement of stack of sheets 30 to one or more intermediate positions or “stops” between a first position 31 and a second position 32 may be facilitated by using a stack of sheets formed from individual sheets as shown in FIG. 4. Individual sheet 40 may comprise a rectangular layer 41 having a first end 42, a second end 43, an intermediate portion 44, and an end portion 45 opposite tab portion 17. In this embodiment, rectangular layer 41 has a first adhesive coating 46 on a lower surface of end portion 45 and a second adhesive coating 47 covering a portion of a lower surface of intermediate portion 44. Individual sheet 40 may be incorporated into a stack of similar sheets and positioned within sheet dispenser 10 as shown in FIG. 5. As shown in FIG. 5, stack of sheets 30 is in an intermediate position 51 between first position 31 and second position 32 within sheet dispenser 10. Stack of sheets 30 stops at intermediate position 51 when individual sheet 41a is partially removed from sheet dispenser 10 such that adhesive coating 47 disengages from adjacent individual sheet 41b. This “intermediate stop” between first position 31 and second position 32 is the result of a user applying a pull force to individual sheet 41a, wherein the pull force is greater than the adhesive force between adhesive coating 47 and adjacent individual sheet 41b, but less than the adhesive force between both (i) adhesive coating 46 and adhesive coating 47 and (ii) adjacent individual sheet 41b. As shown in FIG. 5, adhesive coating 46 on individual sheet 41a is still engaged with adjacent rectangular individual sheet 41b. By further removing individual sheet 41a from sheet dispenser 10 and disengaging adhesive coating 46 from adjacent individual sheet 41b, stack of sheets 30 continues to move towards second position 32. It should be noted that two or more separate and disconnected adhesive coatings (e.g., coatings 46 and 47) may be present on a lower surface of an individual sheet in order to have multiple intermediate stops as the individual sheet is removed from sheet dispenser 10. Further, the location of the adhesive coatings may be adjusted along the lower surface of each individual sheet to control the “stop” locations of stack of sheets 30 within sheet dispenser 10 between first position 31 and second position 32. It should be understood that other methods of producing multiple intermediate stops may be used in the present invention in addition to or independent from multiple adhesive coatings as described above. For example, stack of sheets 30 may be stopped mechanically at multiple locations between first position 31 and second position 32 within sheet dispenser 10 by placing mechanical barriers along the pathway between first position 31 and second position 32. Suitable mechanical barriers may include, but are not limited to, protrusions extending upward from the lower housing portion 13, protrusions extending downward from the upper housing portion 12, protrusions extending horizontally from side walls 15 of upper housing portion 12, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present invention, a mechanical switch or electrical contact may be used to temporarily stop stack of sheets 30 between first position 31 and second position 32. In a further embodiment of the present invention, individual sheets 40 may be coated with high release material and low release material to provide low adhesion and higher adhesion between adjacent sheets. For example, an upper surface of each individual sheet 40 may be coated with (1) one or more strips of high release material to provide one or more areas of low adhesion between adjacent sheets, and (2) one or more strips of low release material to provide one or more areas of higher adhesion between adjacent sheets. As a user pulls on an individual sheet, the stack of sheets 30 moves from first position 31 to one or more intermediate positions between first position 31 and second position 32 depending on the number of high adhesion regions on the individual sheet (i.e., the pulling force extended by a user is enough to overcome a single high adhesion region). The dimensions of stack of sheets 30 may vary depending on a number of factors including, but not limited to, individual sheet size, number of individual sheets in the stack, and the dimensions of the sheet dispenser. The height of stack of sheets 30, hs, is less than housing height, hh, in order to provide free movement of stack of sheets 30 within sheet dispenser 10. Typically, the height of stack of sheets 30, hs, is less than about 90% of housing height, hh. Desirably, stack of sheets 30 contains from about one to about 500 individual sheets, more desirably, from about one to about 100 individual sheets. Individual sheets 40 within stack of sheets 30 may also have a given shape and dimensions, which vary depending on the given application. Although individual sheets are described throughout the present invention as having a rectangular shape, it should be noted that individual sheets may have any shape. Suitable shapes include, but are not limited to, rectangular, square, circular, oblong, rhombus, trapezoidal, barbell, diamond, or any other shape. Typically, each individual sheet has a thickness ranging from about 0.001 to about 0.01 centimeters. As discussed above, individual sheets 40 may be formed from a variety of sheet-forming materials. Suitable sheet-forming materials include, but are not limited to, plastics, paper, metal, or combinations thereof. Desirably, the sheet-forming material comprises a polymeric material, such as, polyester (PET), polypropylene, or cellulose acetate. Stack of sheets 30 may comprise individual sheets 40 without additional components or may comprise one or more additional components. In one embodiment of the present invention, stack of sheets 30 comprises one or more individual sheets 40 positioned on a substrate referred to as a “backsheet” (shown and described further in FIGS. 8A and 8B below). When present, the backsheet typically has identical area/dimensions (i.e., length and width) as individual sheets 40. In some embodiments, the backsheet may have a thickness greater than individual sheets 40, desirably ranging from about 0.01 to about 0.02 cm. In a further embodiment, the backsheet is transparent or translucent so that the upper surface of lower housing portion 13 is viewable through the backsheet. As discussed below, the backsheet may further comprise one or more electrical contacts when the sheet dispenser is used as a switch or sound-generating device. A variety of adhesives may be used to form an outer coating on the individual sheets including, but not limited to, repositionable pressure sensitive adhesives and permanent PSAs. Examples of suitable repositionable pressure sensitive adhesives include, but are not limited to, repositionable pressure sensitive adhesives disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,691,140 issued to Silver, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,166,152 issued to Baker et al., both of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. C. Activatable Device In embodiments of the present invention wherein movement of the stack of sheets within the sheet dispenser generates a signal or electrical current, the sheet dispensers comprise at least one activatable device 99. Each activatable device 99 is capable of detecting and responding to movement of the stack of sheets 30 within housing 11 of sheet dispenser 10. Suitable activatable devices 99 include, but are not limited to, mechanical switches, photodiodes, electrical contacts, or combinations thereof. A number of exemplary sheet dispensers containing one or more activatable devices 99 are disclosed in FIGS. 6A-8B. FIGS. 6A and 6B depict enlarged sectional side views of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as a switch, wherein the sheet dispenser contains activatable devices 99 in the form of mechanical switches. As shown in FIG. 6A, mechanical switch 61 is “closed” due to the presence of stack 30 in first position 31 within sheet dispenser 10. Stack of sheets 30 forces pin 63 (protruding through shuttle substrate 64) downward pressing on mechanical switch 61 to “close” mechanical switch 61. In the “closed” position, mechanical switch 61 is activated to produce a first electrical current or other signal, which may be processed by electronics 66 and/or received by a first signal-receiving object (not shown) causing the first signal-receiving object to take some action. For example, the first signal-receiving object may be a light and the first signal may be to turn the light “on” or “off.” FIG. 6B depicts the sheet dispenser 10 of FIG. 6A after the removal of a sheet from sheet dispenser 10, resulting in the movement of stack of sheets 30 from first position 31 to second position 32. When stack of sheets 30 moves out of first position 31, mechanical switch 61 “opens” to discontinue the first signal described above. When stack of sheets 30 moves into second position 32, stack of sheets 30 forces pin 65 (also protruding through shuttle substrate 64) downward pressing on mechanical switch 62 to “close” mechanical switch 62. Mechanical switch 62 is activated to produce a second electrical current or signal, which may also be processed by electronics 66 and/or received by the first signal-receiving object (not shown) or a second signal-receiving object (not shown) causing either or both of first and second signal-receiving objects to take some action. A variety of mechanical switches may be used in the present invention as suitable mechanical switches 61 and 62. Suitable mechanical switches include any pair of conductive members, which are positioned in stationary positions relative to one another and may be connected to one another via pressure exerted on one or both of the conductive members. Suitable conductive members include, but are not limited to, conductive wire, film, foil, and a substrate coated with a conductive material. FIGS. 7A and 7B depict enlarged sectional side views of an exemplary sheet dispenser 10 of the present invention suitable for use as a switch, wherein the sheet dispenser 10 contains activatable devices 99 in the form of photodiodes. The photodiodes perform similarly to mechanical switches 61 and 62. As shown in FIG. 7A, photodiode 71 (protruding through shuttle substrate 73) receives light from LED 74. When stack of sheets 30 moves into first position 31, the beam of light from LED 74 to photodiode 71 is interrupted. A first signal is produced. The first signal may be processed by electronics 76 and/or received by a first signal-receiving object (not shown) causing the first signal-receiving object to take some action. For example, the first signal-receiving object may be a timer and the first signal may be to turn the timer “on” or “off.” FIG. 7B depicts the sheet dispenser 10 of FIG. 7A after the removal of a sheet from sheet dispenser 10, resulting in the movement of stack of sheets 30 from first position 31 to second position 32. When stack of sheets 30 moves out of first position 31, the beam of light between LED 74 and photodiode 71 is reconnected. Reconnection of the light between LED 74 and photodiode 71 may produce a second signal, which may be used to activate an activatable device. When stack of sheets 30 moves into second position 32, stack of sheets 30 interrupts the beam of light between LED 75 and photodiode 72 (also protruding through shuttle substrate 73). A third signal is produced. The third signal may also be processed by electronics 76 and/or received by the first signal-receiving object (not shown) or a second signal-receiving object (not shown) causing either of both of first and second signal-receiving objects to take some action. Although not shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B, it should be noted that electrical wiring may be used to connect LEDs 71 and 75 and photodiodes 71 and 72 to electronics 76. FIGS. 8A and 8B depict enlarged sectional side views of an exemplary sheet dispenser 10 of the present invention suitable for use as a switch, wherein the sheet dispenser 10 contains activatable devices 99 in the form of electrical contacts. The electrical contacts work similarly to mechanical switches 61 and 62, but in some cases, one or more male electrical contacts may move relative to one or more female electrical contacts as described below. As shown in FIG. 8A, a first electrical contact 81 (e.g., male contact) is located in a fixed position within shuttle substrate 83. Stack of sheets 30 is supported by backsheet 84. A second electrical contact 82 (e.g., female contact) is located within backsheet 84 and moves from first position 31 to second position 32 along with stack of sheets 30. As shown in FIG. 8A, stack of sheets 30 is located in first position 31, and first electrical contact 81 is not in contact with second electrical contact 82. At this time, the sheet dispenser switch is in an “off” position. FIG. 8B depicts the sheet dispenser 10 of FIG. 8A after the partial removal of sheet 41a from sheet dispenser 10, resulting in the movement of stack of sheets 30 from first position 31 to third position 33. At this location, first electrical contact 81 comes into contact with second electrical contact 82. Sheet dispenser “switch” 10 goes into an “on” mode, and a first signal is produced. The first signal may be processed by electronics 85 and/or received by a first signal-receiving object, such as speaker 86, causing the first signal-receiving object to take some action (i.e., play music). Speaker 86 may remain “on” for a fixed period of time or may stay “on” until further action is taken (i.e., when first electrical contact 81 comes into contact with second electrical contact 82 again on the return to first position 31). Although not shown, stack of sheets 30 moves to second position 32 once sheet 41a is completely removed from sheet dispenser 10 disconnecting first electrical contact 81 from second electrical contact 82. Electrical contacts 81 and 82 may be formed from any conductive material and have a structural shape, similar to conductive members described above. The area dimensions of contact surfaces of electrical contacts 81 and 82 may be the same size or may differ from one another. In one embodiment, the stationary electrical contact (i.e., electrical contact 81) may have a larger contact surface area than the mobile electrical contact (i.e., electrical contact 82) to ensure proper connection between the stationary electrical contact and the mobile electrical contact even if the stack position varies slightly along the single pathway between first position 31 and second position 32. It should be noted that in each of the embodiments disclosed in FIGS. 6A-8B, any number of activating devices 99 may be used and placed at any number of desired location within sheet dispenser 10. In some cases, only one activating device 99 (e.g., single mechanical switch or single set of electrical contacts) is desired. In other cases, two or more activating devices 99 may be desired. D. Power Source The sheet dispensers of the present invention may comprise a power source either within the sheet dispenser or connected thereto. Suitable power sources include, but are not limited to, direct current (DC) from a DC power supply or alternating current (AC) from an AC power supply. Desirably, the sheet dispenser contains one or more batteries or solar cells within the sheet dispenser or is connected to an external power source, such as an AC power supply (i.e., wall plug) or a universal serial bus (USB) port from a personal computer. E. Optional Components In addition to the sheet dispenser components described above, the sheet dispensers may comprise one or more optional components either within the sheet dispenser or externally connected to the sheet dispenser as described below and as shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 9 depicts sheet dispenser 10 in combination with a signal-receiving device 500. Signal-receiving device 500 may be any device capable of receiving a signal from sheet dispenser 10 including, but not limited to, any of the devices described herein such as visual feedback-generating devices, audio feedback-generating devices, aromatic feedback-generating devices, lights, etc., some of which are described below. In some cases, electrical wiring 400 may be used to transport a signal from sheet dispenser 10 to signal-receiving device 500. In other embodiments wherein sheet dispenser 10 produces a wireless signal, electrical wiring 400 is not necessary. 1. Electronics As described previously with respect to FIGS. 6A-8B illustrated above, in some embodiments of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may comprise electronics to process one or more signals produced by one or more activating devices. The one or more signals may be used by one or more signal-receiving devices to produce visual, audio, aromatic, or any other type of feedback to a user and/or provide some function for a user. 2. Speaker/Sound Generating Device As shown in FIGS. 8A-8B above, in some embodiments of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may comprise one or more speakers 86 or other sound-generating devices either within the sheet dispenser or externally connected to the sheet dispenser to provide audio feedback to a user. 3. Lights In some embodiments of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may comprise one or more lights positioned within the sheet dispenser or externally connected to the sheet dispenser to provide visual feedback or heat to a user. 4. Other Electrical Devices In some embodiments of the present invention, the sheet dispenser may be externally connected to one or more signal-receiving devices 500, including electrical devices other than lights to provide any of the above-mentioned types of feedback or some other function for a user. Suitable signal-receiving devices 500 include, but are not limited to, a gas burner, a gas log fireplace, a stopwatch or timer, an alarm clock, a vehicle ignition system, a room deodorizer, and a stove or other appliance. 5. Personal Computing Device In one desired embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser provides a signal to signal-receiving device 500 in the form of an external personal computing device. Suitable personal computing devices include, but are not limited to, a personal computer, a calculator, a hand-held computer, an electronic hand-held organizer (e.g., a Palm® pilot, manufactured by Palm Inc., Milpitas, Calif.), an email-receiving device (e.g., a BlackBerry® wireless e-mail device, manufactured by Research In Motion, Ltd., Waterloo, ON, Canada), a cell phone or other portable computing device. In one exemplary sheet dispenser system of the present invention, the sheet dispenser system comprises (i) a sheet dispenser containing (a) one or more activatable devices and (b) electronics for communicating with a signal-receiving device, in combination with (ii) a personal computer. In this embodiment, at least one of activatable device produces a signal, which is received by a microprocessor. The microprocessor processes the received signal and sends a message to a personal computer. The message send by the microprocessor passes through a universal serial port (USB) interface and a USB port of the personal computer. In this exemplary embodiment, power may be supplied to the electronics (i.e., microprocessor) and the activatable device from the personal computer through the USB port of the personal computer and the USB interface within the electronics. It should be noted that the sheet dispenser containing at least one activatable device may also contain a separate power source within the sheet dispenser housing as described above. One exemplary microprocessor suitable for use in the electronics of the sheet dispenser is an integrated circuit (IC) designated EZ-USB, which is commercially available from Cypress Semiconductor (Santa Clara, Calif.). It should be noted that the present invention is not limited in any way to the EZ-USB IC, which is provided as one example of a suitable electronic component for use in the present invention. 6. Scent-Producing Components In a further desired embodiment, the sheet dispensers of the present invention produce aromatic feedback to a user. In this embodiment, the sheet dispensers of the present invention contain one or more scent-producing components. One such dispenser is shown in FIG. 10. FIG. 10 depicts an enlarged sectional side view of an exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as a scent-producing device or room deodorizer. As shown in FIG. 10, sheet dispenser 10 contains stack of sheets 30, which moves from first position 31 to second position 32 upon removal of sheet 50a from sheet dispenser 10. In this embodiment, slot exit walls 110 are coated with a textured or roughened surface material 111 to increase the amount of friction between sheet 50a and the interior surfaces of sheet dispenser 10 in the vicinity of slot 18. In this embodiment, all of the sheets within stack of sheets 30 may have a coating on an upper surface of each sheet. As shown in FIG. 10, sheet 50a has an upper coating 112 thereon. Upper coating 112 comprises one or more scent-producing components. In one embodiment of the present invention, the scent-producing components are in the form of hollow spheres (not shown). The hollow spheres contain a fragrance or perfume. When upper coating 112 passes along textured or roughened surface material 111, the hollow spheres break, releasing the fragrance or perfume into the surrounding air. Suitable hollow spheres, fragrances and perfume include, but are not limited to, those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,487,801; 4,493,869; 4,720,417; 4,720,413; 4,889,755; 4,925,517; 5,039,243; and 5,391,374, the entirety of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. In a further embodiment of the present invention, the scent-producing components are present as a perfume or fragrance on an outer surface of each individual sheet of the stack of sheets. In this embodiment, the configuration of the stack of sheets minimizes exposure of the perfume or fragrance into the environment until an individual sheet is removed from the stack of sheets. In other words, the perfume or fragrance is contained between adjacent sheets within the stack of sheets, but not encapsulated as with the hollow spheres described above. By removing an individual sheet from the stack of sheets, an exposed surface of the individual sheet releases perfume or fragrance into the environment. It should be noted that in this embodiment, textured or roughened surface material 111 described in FIG. 10 above is not necessary to produce a scent. As described above, in other embodiments of the present invention, movement of the stack of sheets from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser may cause a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a scent-generating device, which produces aromatic feedback to a user. The scent-generating device may comprise a room deodorizer or pump sprayer. 7. Flame-Producing Components In yet a further desired embodiment, the sheet dispensers of the present invention produce feedback to a user in the form of a flame. In this embodiment, the sheet dispensers of the present invention may contain flame-producing components. Referring again to FIG. 10, such a sheet dispenser comprises a textured or roughened surface material 111 to increase the amount of friction between sheet 50a and the interior surfaces of sheet dispenser 10 in the vicinity of slot 18 as described above. The textured or roughened surface material 111 maybe similar to the material found on a matchbox or may be any other abrasive material. In addition, upper coating 112 comprises a match-like material. In this embodiment, upper coating 112 typically comprises a composition containing potassium chlorate, white phosphorus and sulfur, which are common components found in matches. When the match-like material of upper coating 112 passes along the matchbox-like material of roughened surface material 111, sheet 50a produces a flame. In this embodiment, at least a portion of sheet 50a is a combustible material, such as paper. As described above, in other embodiments of the present invention, movement of the stack of sheets from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser may cause a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a fire-starting device, which produces the flame. II. Methods of Making Sheet Dispensers The present invention is also directed to a method of making sheet dispensers, which are capable of providing one or more types of feedback and/or a unique function to a user. In one embodiment of the present invention, the method of making sheet dispensers comprises incorporating one or more activatable devices 99 into the housing (11 and 12) of the sheet dispenser 10. The one or more activatable devices 99 may be positioned within the housing (11 and 12) so as to detect movement of a stack of sheets 30 within the housing (11 and 12). The method may further comprise incorporating one or more additional components within or connected to the sheet dispenser 10 as described above. Each component may be attached to the housing (11 and 12) or other sheet dispenser component using conventional techniques including, but not limited to, adhesives, soldering, mechanical fasteners (i.e., screws, etc.). Typically, as shown in FIG. 1, sheet dispenser 10 comprises upper housing portion 12 temporarily bonded to lower housing portion 13. The method of making sheet dispenser 10 may comprise a molding process, wherein upper housing portion 12 is molded from a thermoformable material, such as plastic. Lower housing portion 13 may also be formed by a molding process when formed of plastic material, or may be formed by a papermaking process when formed from cellulosic materials. Upper housing portion 12 may be temporarily bonded to lower housing portion 13 via a pressure sensitive adhesive, tape, or mechanical fasteners, such as staples or clamps. In some embodiments of the present invention, the method of making sheet dispenser 10 comprises incorporating electronic circuitry into the sheet dispenser 10. In one embodiment of the present invention, electronic circuitry (not shown) is printed directly onto a surface of upper housing portion 12, lower housing portion 13, shuttle substrate 64 (shown in FIGS. 6A-6B), backsheet 84 (shown in FIGS. 8A-8B), or a combination thereof. Printing techniques suitable for use in the present invention include, but are not limited to, ink jet printing, screen printing, and conventional etching/photoresist methods. Electronic circuitry may also be printed onto an adhesive label, which is subsequently adhered to a surface of upper housing portion 12, lower housing portion 13, shuttle substrate 64 (shown in FIGS. 6A-6B), backsheet 84 (shown in FIGS. 8A-8B), or a combination thereof. In further embodiments of the present invention, the method of making sheet dispenser 10 comprises applying a textured or roughened coating material 111 onto a surface of upper housing portion 12 in order to increase the amount of friction between a sheet 50a being removed from the sheet dispenser 10 and an interior surface 110 of the housing in the vicinity of the sheet dispenser slot (as shown in FIG. 10). The textured or roughened coating material 111 may comprise a material suitable for rupturing hollow spheres when the hollow spheres come into contact with the textured or roughened coating material 111. Alternatively, the textured or roughened coating material 111 may comprise a matchbox-like material, which causes a match or match-like material to ignite during contact with the textured or roughened coating material 111. In this embodiment, the method may further comprise a step of coating an upper surface of an individual sheet, wherein the coating 112 comprises (1) hollow spheres containing a fragrance or perfume, or (2) a match-like material. The step of applying a roughened or textured material 111 proximate slot 18 of sheet dispenser 10 may be performed in a number of ways including, but not limited to, a coating process or a molding process. The roughened or textured material 111 may be coated onto a surface of upper housing portion 12 using conventional coating methods. Alternatively, roughened or textured material 111 may be applied to a surface of upper housing portion 12 during a molding process, wherein (i) a strip of roughened or textured material 111 is positioned on the thermoformable part used to form upper housing portion 12 (i.e., prior to or after an initial molding step to form upper housing portion 12), and (ii) then subjected to a molding step to secure the roughened or textured material 111 to the thermoformable part. III. Specific, Exemplary Applications As discussed above, the sheet dispensers have a number of new uses unlike conventional sheet dispensers. A few exemplary uses are given below. A. Use as an Advertising Medium In one desired embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser 10 provides visual and/or audio feedback to a user in the form of an advertising medium. An exemplary sheet dispenser of the present invention suitable for use as an advertising medium is shown in FIG. 11. FIG. 11 provides a top schematic view of a sheet dispenser 10, such as sheet dispenser 10 in FIG. 1. In sheet dispenser 10 of FIG. 11, upper housing portion 12 is transparent or translucent, such that upper surface 130 of lower housing portion 13 is viewable through upper housing portion 12. Upper surface 130 comprises three surface regions: first region 131, second region 132 and third region 133. As shown in FIG. 11, first region 131 is viewable through upper housing portion 12 when stack of sheets 30 is in first position 31; however, when stack of sheets 30 is in first position 31, stack of sheets 30 covers second region 132 and third region 133, making these regions temporarily unviewable. Any coated, printed or written image may be present on one or more of first region 131, second region 132 and third region 133. The coated, printed or written image may be any indicia, such as a company name or slogan, or may be any other message or image for a viewing sheet dispenser user. As shown in FIG. 11, first region 131 contains the printed indicia “XXXX.” As a user removes individual sheet 20a from stack of sheets 30 through slot 18, stack of sheets 30 moves to second position 32 as shown in FIG. 12. In FIG. 12, stack of sheets 30 is in second position 32. In this position, third region 133 is viewable, but first region 131 and second region 132 are blocked from view by stack of sheets 30. As shown in FIG. 12, third region 133 contains the printed indicia “YYYY”. As a user removes individual sheet 20b from stack of sheets 30, stack of sheets 30 moves back to first position 31 as shown in FIG. 11. As discussed above, a coated, printed or written image may be present in any one of first region 131, second region 132 and third region 133. In one embodiment of the present invention, indicia may be present in all three regions, such that indicia in second region 132 is viewable once all of the individual sheets in stack of sheets 30 are dispensed. One example of this embodiment is a sheet dispenser game, wherein the prize is displayed in second region 132. A top schematic view of an exemplary sheet dispenser 10 suitable for use as a sheet dispenser game is shown in FIG. 13. The exemplary sheet dispenser 10 shown in FIG. 13 contains printed indicia “XXXX” in first region 131 and printed indicia “YYYY” in third region 133. One possible sheet dispenser game is one in which first region 131 displays print indicia such as “Dispense all of the Post-it® Flags” and third region 133 displays print indicia such as “And claim your prize!”. During dispensing of individual sheets from a stack of sheets (not shown), the printed indicia in first region 131 and third region 133 are viewable by a user depending on the position of the stack of sheets. Once all of the individual sheets are dispensed, printed indicia in second region 132 is viewable to the user. As shown in FIG. 13, second region 132 contains printed indicia “ZZZZ” above and below slot 18. However, in the above-mentioned exemplary sheet dispenser game, second region 132 may display to a user a message indicating the game prize, if any, such as print indicia “You Win! $1,000,000”. In any of the above described sheet dispensers suitable for use as an advertising medium, the sheet dispenser may contain one or more additional features described above including, but not limited to, a sound-generating device, a scent-generating device, a light-generating device, a flame-generating device, and a switch-activating device. In one embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12 may also contain a sound-generating device, such as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, to produce a sound upon partial or complete removal of an individual sheet from the sheet dispenser. For example, in addition to visual advertising for a company or a company's product, the sheet dispenser may play the company's song or any other audio upon partial or complete removal of an individual sheet from the sheet dispenser. It should be understood that in any of the above described sheet dispensers including those suitable for use as an advertising medium, individual sheets within the stack of sheets may be printed or coated with a desired image, indicia or message to a user. B. Use as a Switch In one desired embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may be used to provide a unique function, namely as a switch as described above. The sheet dispenser switch may be used to turn “on” or “off” one or more electrical devices. The sheet dispenser switch may be activated by one or more methods described below. In one embodiment of the present invention, a first method of activating a switch is disclosed, wherein the method comprises a step of at least partially removing a first sheet from a stack of sheets within a sheet dispenser, wherein the step of at least partially removing a first sheet moves the stack of sheets from a first position to an intermediate position between the first position and a second position within the sheet dispenser (as was previously described with respect to FIGS. 4, 5 and 8A-8B). The movement of the stack of sheets within the sheet dispenser results in a switching mechanism. In an alternative embodiment, a second method comprises a step of completely removing a first sheet from the sheet dispenser, which causes the stack of sheets to move from a first position to a second position within the sheet dispenser (as was previously described with respect to FIGS. 3A-3D). In the first method or the second method, the method may further comprise one or more of the following steps: (1) positioning the sheet dispenser proximate to a switch-activated object, wherein the switch-activated object comprises, for example, at least one of a light source, a room deodorizer, a fireplace, a gas stove, and a personal computer; (2) forming a conductive path between the sheet dispenser and a switch-activated object; (3) in the first method, wherein the step of at least partially removing the first sheet from the sheet dispenser activates the switch, the first method comprises an additional step of completely removing the first sheet from the sheet dispenser to deactivate the switch; (4) in the second method, wherein the step of completely removing the first sheet activates the switch, the second method comprises an additional step of completely removing a second sheet to deactivate the switch; (5) inputting a new stack of sheets into the sheet dispenser; (6) in response to the step of at least partially removing or completely removing the first sheet from the sheet dispenser, sending a signal to a signal-receiving object, wherein the signal is an electrical signal, an audio signal, a wireless signal, or a combination thereof; (7) associating the sheet dispenser with a signal-receiving object, and the signal-receiving object is a personal computer, hand-held computer, an e-mail receiving device, or other portable device; (8) associating the sheet dispenser with a signal-receiving object, wherein the signal-receiving object monitors one or more features of the stack of sheets including, but not limited to, (a) a total number of sheets removed from the dispenser, (b) a last sheet completely removed from the dispenser, (c) a position of a sheet within the dispenser, wherein the position is either (i) ready to be completely removed from the dispenser or (ii) ready to be partially removed from the dispenser, and (d) a number of sheets remaining in the stack, or a combination thereof; and (9) associating the sheet dispenser with a signal-receiving object, wherein the signal-receiving object is a personal computer, and a set of data is associated with one or more sheets removed from the sheet dispenser. C. Use as a Switch In Combination With A Personal Computer In a further desired embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispenser is used in combination with a personal computer to provide a particular function and/or feedback to a user, namely, the ability to associate data inputted into a computer with a particular flag removed from the sheet dispenser. The sheet dispenser may be connected to a personal computer via a USB port. Each sheet removed from the sheet dispenser may be associated with a set of data entered into the personal computer via a user interface, such as a keyboard, document scanning device, etc. For example, a sheet removed from the sheet dispenser may be placed on a document to flag the document. Data related to the document may already be in the personal computer or may be entered immediately prior to or after removal of the sheet from the sheet dispenser. In this embodiment, a method of associating a set of data with one or more sheets removed from a sheet dispenser is disclosed, wherein the method comprises (a) at least partially removing a first sheet from a stack of sheets within a sheet dispenser, wherein the step of at least partially removing a first sheet shifts the stack of sheets from a first position to a second position within the sheet dispenser; and (b) inputting a set of data into a personal computer via a user interface, wherein the set of data is associated with the first sheet. In this embodiment, computer software on the personal computer may be used to monitor the activity of the switch. Upon receiving a signal generated by the switch in the dispenser (i.e., a change in position of the stack of sheets), the software executes one or more appropriate actions, such as initiation of KwikTag™ software, a software package commercially available from ImageTag, Inc. (Chandler, Ariz.). Coupling of the sheet dispenser of the present invention with the KwikTag™ software leads to a number of desirable results. Prior to the present invention, a user was required to enter a barcode value from a first tag (or sheet) of a new pad (i.e., stack of sheets) into the KwikTag™ software. After each tag (or sheet) was dispensed and attached to a document, the user was required to launch the software, enter the tag number on the document, move to the data entry interface, and then add descriptors for the document to be scanned. While the KwikTag™ software was sophisticated enough to assist the user in every phase of this operation, the loose coupling of (1) the tag dispensing operation, (2) the scanning of documents, and (3) the entry of data offered significant opportunity for errors, especially omission errors. As with any loosely coupled system, the opportunity for tags and associated data to become “out of sync” was significant and created a generally unsatisfactory system. The present invention eliminates possible errors in the above-described process. In one embodiment of the present invention, a user still enters the first barcode number from the first sheet of a new pad (or stack or sheets). When a document is to be scanned, a tag is dispensed. The resident software on the PC senses the dispenser's switch activation, and launches the KwikTag™ software. The interface of the software is immediately switched to the data entry interface, with the barcode number of the current tag. Upon completing the data entry, the user submits the document description, the counter increments by one, and the KwikTag™ software closes. The resident software then continues to monitor the USB port for further sheet dispensing. Bar codes from additional tags removed from the sheet dispenser are already calculated by the software, eliminating the need to input additional barcode information. By tying the dispensing action directly to the data entry interface, the coupling between the physical, tagged document and its associated digital data is tightened significantly, increasing system accuracy and user satisfaction, while streamlining the document archiving process. D. Use as a Scent-Generating Device In another embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may be used as a scent-generating device as described above. E. Use as a Flame-Generating Device In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may be used as a flame-generating device as described above. F. Use as a Switch and a Scent-Generating Device In a further embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers may be used as both a switch and a scent-generating device (or a flame-generating device) as described above. For example, the switch component of the sheet dispenser may turn off an alarm clock when a sheet is removed from the sheet dispenser, while the scent-generating component provides a fresh scent to aid in waking-up a user. While the specification has been described in detail with respect to specific embodiments thereof, it will be appreciated that those skilled in the art, upon attaining an understanding of the foregoing, may readily conceive of alterations to, variations of, and equivalents to these embodiments. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention should be assessed as that of the appended claims and any equivalents thereto. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Sheet dispensers are known in the art. Various sheet dispensers are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,770,320 issued to Miles et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,168 issued to Mertens et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,551,595 issued to Mertens et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,356 issued to Bastiaens et al., all of which are assigned to 3M Innovative Properties Company (St. Paul, Minn.), and all of which are herein incorporated by reference. Known sheet dispensers provide sheets or flags, such as Post-its notes or flags, to a user. The present invention is directed to new sheet dispensers, which provide sheets to a user, but also provide one or more additional features. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to new sheet dispensers, which provide one or more types of feedback to a user and/or one or more unique functions. The sheet dispensers of the present invention provide one or more types of feedback and/or functions due to the movement of a stack of sheets within the sheet dispenser. As a user removes a sheet from the sheet dispenser, the stack of sheets moves from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser. This movement of the stack of sheets either directly or indirectly provides feedback to a user and/or some event to take place. Examples of feedback include, but are not limited to, visual feedback, audio feedback, aromatic feedback, or a combination thereof. Exemplary events include, but are not limited to, associating data with a given sheet removed from the sheet dispenser. In one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers provide visual feedback to a user, wherein the visual feedback is indicia, which is at least partially blocked from view by the stack of sheets. As the stack of sheets moves from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser, the indicia becomes viewable to a user. The indicia may be any indicia including, but not limited to, printed text, handwritten text, artwork, etc. The sheet dispenser may be utilized as an advertising media by providing visual feedback to a user in the form of a company logo or slogan. In addition, the advertising sheet dispenser may also provide audio feedback in the form of sound alone or in combination with visual advertising feedback. For example, the sheet dispenser may provide visual feedback in the form of a company name or logo, as well as, audio feedback in the form of a company slogan or theme song. In other exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the sheet dispensers provide one or more unique functions resulting in the occurrence of an event. For example, the sheet dispenser may act as a switch to turn “on” or “off” a switch-activated device, such as a lamp, a sound system or an alarm clock. In this embodiment, as the stack of sheets moves from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser, the movement of the stack of sheets causes a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a signal-receiving device (or switch-activated device). The sheet dispensers of the present invention may also function as a room deodorizer providing aromatic feedback, such as a desirable scent. In this embodiment, removal of an individual sheet may produce the aromatic feedback. Alternatively, movement of the stack of sheets from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser may cause a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a scent-generating device, which produces the aromatic feedback. In yet a further embodiment of the present invention, the sheet dispensers provide a flame for use as a match or other fire-starting device. In this embodiment, removal of an individual sheet may produce the flame. Alternatively, movement of the stack of sheets from a first location to a second location within the sheet dispenser may cause a signal (or electrical current) to be sent to a fire-starting device, which produces the flame. The present invention is also directed to methods of using the new sheet dispensers, and systems containing at least one sheet dispenser of the present invention. The sheet dispensers of the present invention may be used in an office or home environment to provide one or more types of feedback to a user and/or one or more unique functions. As discussed above, the sheet dispensers of the present invention may be used as a switch for activating a switch-activatable device. The sheet dispensers may cooperate with a signal-receiving device, such as a personal computer, for associating data with a given sheet removed from the sheet dispenser. Other applications include, but are not limited to, use as an advertising media, use as a room deodorizer, use as a flame-generating device, and combinations thereof. The present invention is further directed to methods of making sheet dispensers, which provide one or more types of feedback and/or functions as described above. These and other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent after a review of the following detailed description of the disclosed embodiments and the appended claims. | 20041123 | 20070227 | 20050407 | 59269.0 | 1 | BOLLINGER, DAVID H | SHEET DISPENSERS AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,415 | ACCEPTED | Shoulder prosthesis with anatomic reattachment features | Apparatus and methods are disposed for maintaining the proper positioning of a prosthetic implant having proximal and distal ends within a prepared bone cavity during cement injection and curing. First stabilization means, implantable within the bone cavity, minimize lateral movement of the distal end of the implant, while second stabilization means, physically separate from the means for minimizing lateral movement of the distal end of the implant, minimize both the lateral movement of the proximal end of the implant and the rotational movement of the implant overall. In the preferred embodiment, the second stabilization means includes an apertured cap removably securable to the end of a bone having the prepared cavity through which the implant is inserted and held in place. This cap, which may either be entirely rigid or include a pliable membrane in the vicinity of the aperture, preferably further includes a first port associated with cement injection and a second port associated with cement over-pressurization. In an alternative embodiment, the second stabilization means includes a manually operated mechanism enabling the implant to be temporarily yet rigidly secured thereto in accordance with a desired orientation, preferably affording adjustments along multiple degrees of freedom prior to the rigid securement thereof. | 1-26. (canceled) 27. Shoulder replacement apparatus, comprising: an implant including an intramedullary stem; an implant head having a generally hemispherical articulating surface; and a plurality of visual indicators for adjusting the height of the implant head. 28. The shoulder replacement apparatus of claim 27, further comprising a plurality of visual indicators for adjusting the rotation of the implant head. 29. Shoulder replacement apparatus, comprising: a component configured for rigid coupling to a humerus; an implant having a head portion including a generally hemispherical articulating surface; and a plurality of visual indicators for adjusting the height of the implant head relative to the humerus. 30. The shoulder replacement apparatus of claim 29, further comprising a plurality of visual indicators for adjusting the rotation of the implant head relative to the humerus. 31. A method of positioning a joint-related implant to achieve a desired orientation, comprising the steps of: providing a joint-related implant having an articulating joint surface and an intramedullary stem; positioning the stem in an intramedullary canal of a bone; referencing a plurality of score marks to achieve a desired implant orientation; and cementing the implant in place once the desired orientation is achieved. 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the articulating joint surface corresponds to a proximal femur. 33. The method of claim 31, wherein the articulating joint surface corresponds to a proximal humerus. 34. The method of claim 31, wherein the articulating joint surface corresponds to a distal femur. 35. The method of claim 31, wherein the score marks indicate the rotational orientation of the implant. 36. The method of claim 31, wherein the score marks indicate the depth of the implant. 37. The method of claim 31, wherein the score marks indicate the lateral or transverse orientation of the implant. 38. A method of positioning a shoulder implant to achieve a desired orientation for cementation within an intramedullary canal of a humerus having an outer cortex, the method comprising the steps of: providing a shoulder prosthesis having an articulating joint surface corresponding to a proximal humerus and an intramedullary stem; positioning intramedullary stem within an intramedullary canal and adjusting the orientation of the prosthesis by referring to a plurality of score marks corresponding to the orientation. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the score marks indicate the rotational orientation of the prosthesis. 40. The method of claim 38, wherein the score marks indicate the depth of the prosthesis. 41. The method of claim 38, wherein the score marks indicate the lateral or transverse orientation of the prosthesis. | REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation application of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/396,576, filed Sep. 15, 1999, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/029,457, filed Mar. 5, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,267,785, which is a U.S. national phase application of Patent Cooperation Treaty application Serial No. U.S. Pat. No. 97/01754, filed Jan. 31, 1997, which claims priority of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/595,277, filed Feb. 2, 1996, the entire contents of each application being incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to arthroplasty and, more particularly to devices and techniques for positioning a prosthesis prior to fixation through the injection of a bonding agent. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In current joint repair situations, it is common practice to prepare host bone stock to receive an implant then, if satisfied with the physical correspondence, apply cement to the host, install the prosthesis, and stabilize the arrangement until curing. This approach has several disadvantages. Foremost among them arises from the unpredictable process of ensuring that, although the prosthesis may have been ideally placed prior to cementation, once the cement is applied, orientation may shift, resulting in a final configuration which is less than optimal. A few approaches have been attempted to assist in making the positioning of the final implant more predictable. As discussed further in the detailed description herein, one such approach utilizes a centralizing plug inserted distally within the medullary canal, and from which there extends a rod upon which a final implant including a corresponding central bore may be monorailed. The plug and rod are positioned in conjunction with a trial which also includes a central bore, which is then removed, the intramedullary cavity filled with cement and the final implant slid over the rod, displacing the cement as it is pushed down into position. Although this technique may assist in maintaining a side-to-side orientation prior to cementation, it does not address the simultaneous need for up-and-down and/or rotational stabilization. Additionally, as with current techniques, cement is applied to the host prior to the introduction of the final implant, leaving open the possibility that the final implant may be held in a position different from that associated with the trial, and may therefore result in an unacceptable misplacement as the cement cures. Other approaches do reverse this order, and install the final implant prior to the injection of cement. The known approaches, however, utilize a highly specialized prosthetic device including centralizing protrusions and internal channels through which the cement is introduced. That is, in these systems, the prosthesis itself is used as the cement injector. Due to their requirement for a highly specialized final prosthetic element, such systems are incompatible with currently available implant devices, and therefore raise costs while reducing the options of the practitioner. In addition, they do not adequately address the need for simultaneously stabilizing multiple degrees of freedom prior and during cementation. As a further disadvantage, the systems which use the prosthesis as the cement injector tend to use the cement as a grout between the outer surface of the implant and the inner surface of the receiving cavity. It has been shown, however, that the changes of success are improved through the creation of a thicker cement “mantle,” as opposed to a thin grout-type layer. The need remains, then, for a system whereby the prosthesis may be stabilized relative to multiple degrees of freedom prior to cementation, and, ideally, remain compatible with existing prosthetic components while forming a strong and stable bond to the host. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention resides in apparatus and methods for maintaining the proper positioning of a prosthetic implant having proximal and distal ends within a prepared bone cavity during cement injection and curing. In contrast to prior-art systems the invention provides first stabilization means, implantable within the bone cavity, for minimizing lateral movement of the distal end of the implant, and second stabilization means, physically separate from the means for minimizing lateral movement of the distal end of the implant, for minimizing both the lateral movement of the proximal end of the implant and the rotational movement of the implant overall. In the preferred embodiment, the second stabilization means includes an apertured cap removably securable to the end of a bone having the prepared cavity through which the implant is inserted and held in place. This cap, which may either be entirely rigid or include a pliable membrane in the vicinity of the aperture, preferably further includes a first port associated with cement injection and a second port associated with cement over-pressurization. In an alternative embodiment, the second stabilization means includes a manually operated mechanism enabling the implant to be temporarily yet rigidly secured thereto in accordance with a desired orientation, preferably affording adjustments along multiple degrees of freedom prior to the rigid securement thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A illustrates, in skeletal form, the first step of a prior-art implantation sequence involving host bed preparation; FIG. 1B depicts an intermediate step in the prior-art sequence wherein the cavity prepared according to FIG. 1A is filled with cement; FIG. 1C illustrates the final phase of this prior-art sequence wherein a femoral prosthesis is inserted into the injected cement prior to hardening; FIG. 2A illustrates a prior-art improvement over the sequence shown in FIGS. 1A through 1C, wherein a distal plug is used for distal centering of the implant; FIG. 2B illustrates yet another prior-art improvement over the approach of FIG. 2A wherein a vertically oriented rod is attached to the distal plug over which an implant may be slid after cement injection to further inhibit movement during curing; FIG. 3 is an arrangement according to this invention showing the use of a proximal cap which may be used either with a specially prepared prosthetic device or commercially available unit; and FIG. 4 illustrates two independently usable alternative embodiments according to the invention, including a multiple degree-of-freedom proximal retainment structure and a distal plug including leaf springs. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 of U.S. Pat. No. 5,340,362 shows an existing, prior-art procedure for inserting and cementing a prosthesis into a bone cavity, and this figure has been reproduced herein. In accordance with this technique, the canal is reamed or broached as shown in FIG. 1A, and a trial is typically inserted thereinto to ensure that the final prosthetic component will be properly received. After this trialing, cement is injected into the excavated area as shown in FIG. 1B, and the prosthesis is inserted as shown in FIG. 1C, and left in position while the cement hardens. As discussed in the background of the instant invention, the technique just described is deficient in that, although the prosthesis may be optimally oriented during the trial procedure, the position of the actual implant may shift upon insertion into the cemented host or thereafter, resulting in a misaligned final fixation. Various improvements also exist in the prior art to minimize such adjustment problems. At the very least, as shown in FIG. 6 of U.S. Pat. No. 4,994,085, reproduced herein as FIG. 2A, a distal centralizer 16 is inserted beforehand into the intramedullary cavity 13 to which the distal tip 17a of the implant 17 engages at point 16a. This, at least, stabilizes the relative position of the distal tip 17a, resulting in a narrower range of angles (A to B) through which the implant 17 may move within the cement-filled cavity prior to final curing. The teachings of this reference further improve upon post-cementation stabilization by incorporating a stabilizing rod 4 into the distal plug 6 over which a specially designed implant 2 having a centralized hole 4 is slidably installed, as shown in FIG. 2B herein (FIG. 4 of the issued patent). Assuming the various connections between rod 5, plug 6 and the inner walls of the intermedullary canal are relatively rigid, and the various tolerances involved are substantially tight, movement of the implant 2 is further restricted until the cement finally cures. Another approach taken according to the prior art involves the injection of cement after positioning of a specially designed implant into a prepared cavity. The '362 patent referenced above is directed toward such an approach. As with other arrangements of type, the final implant includes a cement canal along its longitudinal axis. A bone-cement injector is threaded onto the proximal portion of this cement canal, causing the cement to subsequently travel down and through the implant, eventually exiting through openings in and around its distal tip. A restrictor plug halts downward cement travel, thus initiating an upward, retrograde filling of the void in between the prosthesis and the cancellous bone wall. In addition to a single distal aperture through which the injected cement is introduced, side ports may also be included, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,274,163 and various other prior-art references. The methods and associated apparatus just described exhibit various shortcomings. In the technique described with reference to FIG. 2B herein, although movements within the curing cement bed are further restricted, the point of substantial stability remains at the distal tip of the implant, enabling a certain level of proximal misalignment to continue, as no true proximal stabilization is provided. Worse, perhaps, is that since the centering rod and bore through the specialized component are both circular, the final implant is still subject to up-and-down and/or rotational variation, resulting in potential misalignment upon fixation. With respect to the techniques wherein cement is injected after installation, although the implant may be stabilized both proximally and distally as the cement is injected, as with the device of the '085 patent, a specially designed implant including the injector ports must be utilized, resulting in a specialized unit demanding significantly higher cost. Furthermore, regardless of the existing system utilized, attention to the pressure of the cement during injection and curing has not been adequately addressed. Although, for example, the system described in the '163 patent referenced above utilizes various components to maintain pressurization, numerous sophisticated articles are required, including a high pressure nitrogen gas source, disposable cylinder and various associated valves and tubing which may be difficult to assemble, require skilled operators, or create expensive waste and maintenance problems. The present invention improves upon the prior art by providing a simplified apparatus and associated installation methods whereby an implant may be oriented both proximally and distally prior to the injection of cement, while, at the same time, providing means for guarding against rotational and up/down movement of the implant as well during such injection and subsequent curing. In addition, configurations according to the invention provide a simple means for expelling over-pressurized cement, thereby yielding a simple, but satisfactory indication that sufficient cement has been injected to an acceptable level. Although, in one embodiment, the invention makes advantageous use of a longitudinal bore through the implant, in another embodiment, all of the above improvements and advantages are realized in conjunction with standard, currently available prostheses, thus resulting in an approach which is both straightforward and economical. FIG. 3 is an oblique drawing of an arrangement according to this invention depicting various independent embodiments. Overall, an implant 310 is shown inserted into a prepared cavity 312, in this case the implant 310 being a femoral hip prosthesis and the cavity 312 being the intramedullary canal, though, as will be apparent to those of skill in the art of orthopedics, the general principles disclosed herein are not restricted to this application, and may be used in other joint situations, including the knee, shoulder and other situations. Certain features of the femur are shown such as the greater trochanter 313 and lesser trochanter 315, and it is assumed that a resection not visible in this figure has been performed on at least a portion of the proximal end of the femur along with reaming and other preparation of the medullary canal itself to accept the implant 310. Broadly, according to the invention, an apertured proximal sealing cap is installed over the resection portion of the femoral shaft, the prosthesis 310 is inserted through the proximal opening 320 of the seal, and cement is injected through an injection port 322. In a preferred embodiment, this proximal seal includes a horseshoe-shaped collar 330 having one or more means such as thumb screws 332 for releasably securing the collar 330 over the bone, and a preferably pliable gasket 334 made from rubber or other suitable polymeric materials through which the aperture 320 is formed. Also located on and through this gasket 334 is a flap valve 336 wherein the material forming the gasket 334 is adjusted to flap open or rupture at a predetermined pressure level, preferably on the order of 25 mm of mercury, which has shown to be advantageous for such orthopedic purposes. Preferably, this flap valve 336 is formed either by scoring the material of the gasket 334 in a manner conducive to such rupture, or, alternatively, the material may be thinned in this area to break under load. The embodiment of the proximal seal just described is that preferred for use in conjunction with standard, commercially available implants. That is, the aperture 320 formed in the gasket 334 may take the form of a slit, an oval, or another shape appropriate to the stem of the implant, enabling the device to be inserted therethrough and retained in place by the surrounding material of the gasket 334 against the stem, either through friction or high-tolerance. Alternatively, then, if a more precise geometry of the stem at the point where it emerges through the proximal seal is known, the material 334 may be of a more rigid composition, and may, in fact, be integrally formed to the collar 330, in which case the injection port 322 and valve 336 may be more elaborate and substantial. For example, if the area 334 is metal, the port 322 may be threaded for a more solid connection to commercially available injector nozzles, and the valve 336 may take advantage of more sophisticated pressure-release techniques available in the art, including adjustability for a particular pressure or range of pressures. Whether the implant is of a standard configuration or specialized for use in conjunction with the invention, a distal spacer 340 is preferably utilized for distal centering. A longitudinal rod 342 may optionally be added to, or installed on the plug 340, requiring a specialized implant having a longitudinal bore 344 akin to that described in the '085 patent referred to above, the exception being that, according to this invention, the implant 310 would be monorailed onto the optional rod 342 prior to the injection of cement into the cavity formed between the walls of the implant and the prepared medullary canal. Thus, as discussed above, the present invention may either be used with a specially prepared implant having this longitudinal bore and/or convenient wall geometries or, alternatively, and unlike the prior art, a standard prosthesis may be used. In the event that the prosthesis includes an arrangement to assist in installation or removal such as ring 350, the alternative proximal stabilization configuration of FIG. 4 may be used. To further assist in proximal securement, a multiple degree-of-freedom clamp arrangement illustrated generally at 404 may be attached to a proximal cover 406 secured to femoral end or attached to a portion of available bone material by whatever means. In the embodiment shown, a first rod 408 securely affixed to the member 406 at point 409, onto which there is disposed a slidable collar 412 which may be locked into position with a suitable device such as thumb screw 414. A second rod 420 and collar 422 contains two thumb screws, one to lock the collar 422 in position along rod 420, and a different thumb screw 430 for positive engagement with the prosthesis proper. It will be understood to those of skill that various other approaches may be utilized in accordance with the general principle contained herein to grasp and hold any portion or aperture of a standard implant without requiring its modification. FIG. 4 also shows an alternative distal plug according to the invention which may be used in combination with any of the embodiments previously described. With such an inventive plug, it is first seated distally at an appropriate distance within the intermedullary canal, and includes a plurality of deformable upwardly oriented leaf springs 490. Accordingly, with the plug 480 installed in place as shown, an even more generalized type of implant, and not requiring an actual, solid connection to such a distal spacer, may be inserted down and into the medullary canal and held in place while resisting distal side-to-side motion as the distal tip of the implant is retained within these leaf springs 490. This also allows adjustments in a longitudinal direction enabling fine tuning at the effective length of the implant. Note in FIG. 4 that the aperture through which the implant is inserted is quite a bit larger than that shown in FIG. 4 and, in fact, does not include a seal per se. This is due to the fact that, in accordance with this embodiment, cement may, in fact, be injected prior to or after the implant is held in place both proximally and distally. Indeed, according to this particular embodiment, a standard distal plug may be used in conjunction with the mechanism shown generally at 404 even without a cap or collar as shown. For example, this mechanism 404 may simply attach to an existing bone surface or structure instead of the point 409, thereby holding the implant in place proximally and distally while preventing motion in all dimensions as the cement cures, regardless of when it was injected. In accordance with an alternative methodology, the proximal and distal stabilizers may be used in conjunction with a trial then, upon achieving a desired orientation, a single manual fastener may be loosened, and the actual implant installed in the exact configuration of the trial to guarantee proper positioning. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In current joint repair situations, it is common practice to prepare host bone stock to receive an implant then, if satisfied with the physical correspondence, apply cement to the host, install the prosthesis, and stabilize the arrangement until curing. This approach has several disadvantages. Foremost among them arises from the unpredictable process of ensuring that, although the prosthesis may have been ideally placed prior to cementation, once the cement is applied, orientation may shift, resulting in a final configuration which is less than optimal. A few approaches have been attempted to assist in making the positioning of the final implant more predictable. As discussed further in the detailed description herein, one such approach utilizes a centralizing plug inserted distally within the medullary canal, and from which there extends a rod upon which a final implant including a corresponding central bore may be monorailed. The plug and rod are positioned in conjunction with a trial which also includes a central bore, which is then removed, the intramedullary cavity filled with cement and the final implant slid over the rod, displacing the cement as it is pushed down into position. Although this technique may assist in maintaining a side-to-side orientation prior to cementation, it does not address the simultaneous need for up-and-down and/or rotational stabilization. Additionally, as with current techniques, cement is applied to the host prior to the introduction of the final implant, leaving open the possibility that the final implant may be held in a position different from that associated with the trial, and may therefore result in an unacceptable misplacement as the cement cures. Other approaches do reverse this order, and install the final implant prior to the injection of cement. The known approaches, however, utilize a highly specialized prosthetic device including centralizing protrusions and internal channels through which the cement is introduced. That is, in these systems, the prosthesis itself is used as the cement injector. Due to their requirement for a highly specialized final prosthetic element, such systems are incompatible with currently available implant devices, and therefore raise costs while reducing the options of the practitioner. In addition, they do not adequately address the need for simultaneously stabilizing multiple degrees of freedom prior and during cementation. As a further disadvantage, the systems which use the prosthesis as the cement injector tend to use the cement as a grout between the outer surface of the implant and the inner surface of the receiving cavity. It has been shown, however, that the changes of success are improved through the creation of a thicker cement “mantle,” as opposed to a thin grout-type layer. The need remains, then, for a system whereby the prosthesis may be stabilized relative to multiple degrees of freedom prior to cementation, and, ideally, remain compatible with existing prosthetic components while forming a strong and stable bond to the host. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention resides in apparatus and methods for maintaining the proper positioning of a prosthetic implant having proximal and distal ends within a prepared bone cavity during cement injection and curing. In contrast to prior-art systems the invention provides first stabilization means, implantable within the bone cavity, for minimizing lateral movement of the distal end of the implant, and second stabilization means, physically separate from the means for minimizing lateral movement of the distal end of the implant, for minimizing both the lateral movement of the proximal end of the implant and the rotational movement of the implant overall. In the preferred embodiment, the second stabilization means includes an apertured cap removably securable to the end of a bone having the prepared cavity through which the implant is inserted and held in place. This cap, which may either be entirely rigid or include a pliable membrane in the vicinity of the aperture, preferably further includes a first port associated with cement injection and a second port associated with cement over-pressurization. In an alternative embodiment, the second stabilization means includes a manually operated mechanism enabling the implant to be temporarily yet rigidly secured thereto in accordance with a desired orientation, preferably affording adjustments along multiple degrees of freedom prior to the rigid securement thereof. | 20041123 | 20070612 | 20050428 | 58503.0 | 4 | GHERBI, SUZETTE JAIME J | SHOULDER PROSTHESIS WITH ANATOMIC REATTACHMENT FEATURES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,491 | ACCEPTED | Super-saturation method for information-media | A super-saturation method for information-media substantially relates to a three-body cooperation to direct information to an electronic media consumer (reader, surfer, viewer, listener, etc.). Embodiments of the present invention facilitate a first media body substantially offering out of context information placement using a second cooperating media body. A facilitator body preferably guarantees that a consumer of the second media is a known consumer of the first media. Accordingly, the second media body presents an out of context information placement. For example, an exclusive members-only Internet site “AAA” is oversubscribed with potential paying advertising content at $100 CPM. This exclusive site then offers unfulfilled advertisers an option to present their advertisements to certified “AAA” viewers, albeit on a non-AAA Internet site, for $50 CPM. The facilitator locates a certified AAA viewer at an Internet site “BBB” that normally charges $30 CPM. A facilitated contract(s) between AAA, BBB, and the facilitator divides a new revenue stream of $20 CPM between them—and each of the three bodies benefit. | 1. A super-saturation method for information-media, the method including the steps of: (A) tagging, by a first broadcaster of a first information-media or by the first broadcaster of the first information-media in conjunction with a tag-identification facilitating agency, a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; (B) recognizing, by a second broadcaster of a second information-media in conjunction with either a tag-identification facilitating agency or the first broadcaster, a visitor to the second information-media as having a tag; (C) accepting, by the second broadcaster, an offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and (D) presenting the offsite content to the recognized visitor. 2. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the offsite content presentation is an advertisement presentation. 3. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the offsite content presentation is a graphic item. 4. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the offsite content presentation is multimedia. 5. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the offsite content presentation is audio. 6. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the offsite content presentation is a banner. 7. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first information-media is Internet data communications protocol based. 8. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 7 wherein the Internet data communications media includes at least one content presentation of a plurality of content presentations. 9. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first information-media is a broadcasting system. 10. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first information-media is interactive data communications protocol based. 11. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 10 wherein interactive data communication is a telephone communication service. 12. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 10 wherein the interactive data communication is a wireless communication service. 13. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 10 wherein the interactive data communication is a cellular communication service. 14. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is a Web site of an Internet data communication server. 15. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is an advertising media. 16. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is a banner promotion agency. 17. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is a media agency. 18. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is a cellular telephone service provider. 19. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is a wireless communication media. 20. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the first broadcaster is a hyperlink. 21. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein tagging the preponderance of visitors includes placing a cookie into the web browser of substantially each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. 22. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 21 wherein placing the cookie into the web browser of substantially each visitor of the preponderance of visitors occurs when the visitor requests a page. 23. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein tagging the preponderance of visitors includes for substantially each visitor of the preponderance of visitors placing a notification into a telephone system database. 24. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein tagging the preponderance of visitors includes for substantially each visitor of the preponderance of visitors placing a message identifier record into a database for the preponderance of visitors. 25. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein tagging the preponderance of visitors includes for substantially each visitor of the preponderance of visitors placing a message into a cellular telephone SIM card. 26. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein tagging the preponderance of visitors includes for substantially each visitor of the preponderance of visitors placing a notification into a wireless communication service database. 27. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the tag is a cookie. 28. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the tag is an identification message. 29. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the tag is a notification in a telephone system database. 30. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the tag is a message identifier record in a database. 31. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the tag is a message in a cellular telephone SIM card. 32. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the tag is a notification into a wireless communication service database. 33. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is associated with an interactive data communication media. 34. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is a Web site on an Internet data communication media. 35. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is an advertising media. 36. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is a banner promotion agency. 37. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is a media agency. 38. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is a cellular telephone service provider. 39. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is a wireless communication media. 40. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second broadcaster is a hyperlink. 41. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second information-media and the first information-media constitute a single media. 42. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second information-media is Internet data communications protocol based. 43. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 42 wherein the Internet data communications media includes at least one content presentation of a plurality of content presentations. 44. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second information-media is interactive data communications protocol based. 45. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 44 wherein interactive data communication is a telephone communication service. 46. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 44 wherein interactive data communication is a wireless communication service. 47. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 44 wherein interactive data communication is a cellular communication service. 48. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second information-media is a broadcasting media. 49. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second information-media is a hyperlink. 50. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein the second information-media is a banner. 51. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein recognizing the visitor to the second information-media includes accessing a cookie. 52. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein recognizing the visitor to the second information-media includes receiving an identification message. 53. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein recognizing the visitor to the second information-media includes querying a notification in a telephone system database. 54. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein recognizing the visitor to the second information-media includes identifying a message identifier record in a database. 55. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein recognizing the visitor to the second information-media includes searching for a message in a cellular telephone SIM card. 56. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein recognizing the visitor to the second information-media includes finding a notification into a wireless communication service database. 57. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving an advertisement presentation. 58. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes a receiving graphic item. 59. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a multimedia presentation. 60. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving an audio presentation. 61. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a banner. 62. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the presenting the offsite content to the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster sending the offsite content presentation into a browser of the visitor. 63. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the presenting the offsite content to the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster directing a browser of the visitor to fetch the offsite content presentation. 64. The super-saturation method for information-media according to claim 1 wherein, in conjunction with the first broadcaster, the presenting the offsite content to the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster sending the offsite content presentation to the recognized visitor via the second information-media. 66. A system including computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a super-saturation method for information-media, the computer readable program code comprising: (A) a first computer readable program code for tagging, by a first broadcaster of a first information-media or by the first broadcaster of the first information-media in conjunction with a tag-identification facilitating agency, a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and (B) a second computer readable program code for recognizing, by a second broadcaster of a second information-media in conjunction with either a tag-identification facilitating agency or the first broadcaster, a visitor to the second information-media as having a tag; for accepting, by the second broadcaster, an offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and for presenting the offsite content to the recognized visitor. 67. A program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a super-saturation method for information-media, said method steps including: (A) a first broadcaster of the first information-media tagging a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and (B) a second broadcaster of a second information-media recognizing a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with a tag-identification facilitating agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting of the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/723,391, entitled A Super-Saturation Method for Information-Media. The disclosures of said application and its entire file wrapper (included all prior art references cited therewith) are hereby specifically incorporated herein by reference in their entirety as if set forth fully herein. Furthermore, a portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material, which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to a method for distributing information-media contents. More specifically, the present invention relates to expanding the revenue from information capacity of the media. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Data communications systems have evolved from simple methods of conveying information. In ancient times messages were carried by word of mouth. Later, messengers on foot carried hand-carved messages on stone tablets. This further evolved, as handwriting developed, to handwritten messages on papyrus, leather and then paper carried by foot messengers and later by messengers on horseback. Already, in those early times, there was a natural limit to the amount of information that any one messenger could carry. The advent of manual signaling from hilltop to hilltop was followed, with the arrival of electricity on the communication scene, by the electric telegraph. The amount of information that could be conveyed took a quantum leap forward. Again, there was a natural limit to the amount of information that could be carried by this new medium. At the turn of the last century, radio made its first tentative appearance on the communication scene. The flow of information seemed to have taken another quantum leap forward. In the middle of the last century, with the advent of the first computers and television, the communication age seems to have finally burst through all the limits of previous millennia. The past decade saw increases in the flow of information facilitated by developments of the Internet, cellular telephones and various wireless communication devises. All these have apparently broken prior historic limits to the flow of information. However, this is not the case. Another limit has become apparent, namely the limit of human capacity to peruse this vast flow of information to the point of saturation. An additional problem has also become apparent with the growth of the Internet and other data communication systems. Communication media are also being used for another purpose, in parallel with transmitting core information. This is the transmission of special messages alongside the core information. Special messages include advertisements, notifications, legal notices, credit warnings and a host of other items. These messages are both single directional or interactive between sender and targeted recipient. Generally, special messages are carried in a number of media. For example, advertisements are included in newspapers and magazines, on Internet Web sites, over cellular telephone media, radio, television and many others. The amount and proportion of such special messages that can be carried in a media is limited by a number of factors. These include aesthetic, physical and financial considerations. It would seem that these limiting factors may be expressed as the ratio of the amount of special messages to the quantity of core information. When the proportion of non-core information reaches a point of unacceptability to a viewer or reader, this point is termed saturation. Even for a media predicated on 100% special messages, there is a physical upper limit. Typically, in an Internet Web site, it has become commonplace to have a variety of special messages. These typically include advertisements with or without hyper-linking to other Web sites or other Web pages. In much the same way, magazines and newspapers carry special text and graphic messages in the form of advertisements, legal notices and so on. Again, there is an upper limit, even for print media predicated on 100% special messages. Either due to physical limitations or due to reaching an unacceptable ratio of special messages to core information, media reach the point of being unable to carry additional special messages. This saturation represents a financially limiting problem to that media after a popular media has a waiting list of advertisement orders. For this reason, many methods are used to try to extend this saturation point, for example, by using hyperlinks on a Web site, by adding supplements to newspapers or magazines, by adding special message supplements to credit card billing and many others. These techniques merely appear to delay the onset of saturation and is often rather ineffective. In some cases, it is undesirable, for financial considerations, to extend the physical size of the media. Therefore, a magazine may be limited to a specific number of pages and a Web site to a specific number of web pages. Equally, it is vital that aesthetics of any media be taken into consideration so that readers or viewers are not overwhelmed with the multiplicity and density of information represented by such saturation, making a media appear unfriendly and overwhelming. There is, then, a need for a method to reach beyond this point of saturation in a media. ADVANTAGES, OBJECTS AND BENEFITS OF THE INVENTION Technical Issues: The natural limitation to the quantity of special messages that may be applied to a data communication media is itself not a technical problem but rather one of financial, aesthetic and pragmatic considerations. However, the present invention provides a very technical solution to the saturation of many communication media. In essence, the present invention provides a solution by avoiding the characteristics causing saturation. This solution is achieved by making an alternative site in the same or an alternative media available for additional special messages, generally using existing modules and technology. Ergonomic Issues: Viewing a magazine that is supposed to be informative, but consists of a disproportionate amount of advertisements and other notices, is highly irritating. Viewing an Internet Web site for specific information only to find that it consists of advertisements, notices, warnings and other messages is no less problematic. Apart from the financial and physical implications, there is also a significant aesthetic problem. In general, communication media exist for reasons of economics. Finding a media that is aesthetically displeasing or too packed with information extraneous to the core information, will ultimately result in a loss of visitors to the site or readers to buy a magazine. The present invention addresses both the aesthetic problem and loss of revenue by a media site unable to accommodate additional special messages. Another important aspect of the present invention relates to using generally existing, known modules and technology, making implementation transparent. Also, sales persons will require no special or additional training in the techniques involved. Economic Issues: Imagine having sold all the available advertising space in a magazine and then receiving inquiries for additional advertising space. This is the essence of the financial problem addressed by the present invention—particularly in the context of electronic media such as Internet. Selling additional advertising space accessible in an alternative site or data communication media, even at a somewhat reduced price, represents a significant financial advantage to the magazine or broadcaster site. The present invention, by making additional space available, either at an alternative site or in an alternative media, provides an innovative and very financially attractive solution generally using existing modules and technology in an unobvious way. Revenue from this resource would not ordinarily have accrued to the original advertising media site without having an alternative to an otherwise fully subscribed advertising site. Moreover, a web site or magazine realize that no matter how big it is, the traffic to an aggregate of sites is always bigger than the traffic to one site and on a personal level, the number of pages seen by a reader of a web site within the web site is usually smaller than the number of the pages the web site reader reads elsewhere. Due to the aforementioned a web site with 20% of sold ad space and 80% unsold ad space might prefer to let its advertisers reach its audience outside of its web site in return for a lower price than lowering its price within the site and the reasons are clear, the number of pages the visitor will read outside the site are bigger than the number of pages the reader will read within the site and therefore it is preferable to the web site to sell its advertisers the visitor to its web site outside its site for a lesser site though but for a bigger number of exposures. Selling the visitor to its advertiser while not within the site (OUT OF CONTEXT ad) enables the site to reduce price without devaluing its relationships with the advertisers on the site it self. Notices The present invention will forthwith be described with a certain degree of particularity, however those versed in the art will readily appreciate that various modifications and alterations may be carried out without departing from either the spirit or scope, as hereinafter claimed. In describing the present invention, explanations are presented in light of currently accepted data communications theories and media models. Such theories and models are subject to changes, both adiabatic and radical. Often these changes occur because representations for fundamental component elements are innovated, because new transformations between these elements are conceived, or because new interpretations arise for these elements or for their transformations. Therefore, it is important to note that the present invention relates to specific technological actualization in embodiments. Accordingly, theory or model dependent explanations herein, related to these embodiments, are presented for the purpose of teaching, the current man of the art or the current team of the art, how these embodiments may be substantially realized in practice. Alternative or equivalent explanations for these embodiments may neither deny nor alter their realization. Furthermore, in most instances in the context of the present invention, an example of a facilitation is an offer; in other instances, a facilitation may be appreciated to include performance of an activity or an acceptance—as will forthwith be further appreciated by examples provided in the following Glossary. Glossary Broadcaster: A broadcaster is a participant in a distribution of electronic signals—be they digital signals, analog signals, or the likes. For example, in the context of the Internet, a broadcaster is preferably a media owner. In the broad context of interactive bi-directional electronic communications, a broadcaster is a predetermined party in a transmission path from a present communications initiator to a present designated recipient—for example a telephone call initiator, any repeater in the interconnection of that call to the recipient, or the recipient. Furthermore, in the context of today's hybrid electronic media, a broadcaster may be a programmable component that can be inserted into the caller to recipient path. Conjunction: In the context of the present invention, the expression “in conjunction” relates to a division of work between parties, such as between an agency and a broadcaster. This division may be of any proportion—so long as a nominal task remains for one of the parties to accomplish. In some circumstances, there is a definite preference for the division of labor to have a specific predefined asymmetry, while in other circumstances the division may occur using a simple easy to accomplish criteria. Furthermore, sometimes there is a specific bias as to which party performs some specific aspect of the conjunctive task, for example, according to a concern to preserve privacy, etc. Cookie: A Cookie is a message given to a Web browser by a Web server. The browser stores the message in a text file called cookie.txt or a cookie directory or the likes. The message is then sent back to the server each time the browser requests a page from the server. Cookies serve as recognition symbols or messages in a particular Web browser that can be recognized and acted upon by that cookie placing Web server. Offsite Content: In the context of the present invention, offsite content is content that derived from outside of the immediate local context of a present site. For example, on an Internet page, an offsite content may be a banner or may substantially be the result of clicking on a hyperlink to another page (be it in the same internet site or in another internet site)—especially when the hyper link is to outside of the current page. In the context of a telephone conversation between two parties, a audio time pulse placed by the telephone service provider is also an example of an offsite content. Likewise, “piped in” background music that a caller hears when waiting for his call to be transferred is an example of an offsite content. Super-saturation: In the context of the present invention, the term Saturation simplistically describes a situation where a data communication media site contains a maximum predetermined amount of content presentation apart from core information. This content presentation may be in the form of advertisements, notifications and other information not directly associated with core data. Maximum amount of content presentation is limited by physical, aesthetic and pragmatic factors. Exceeding this saturation level leads to the state of out of context media fulfillment, that is, containing more content presentation than is desirable, pragmatic, physically possible or aesthetically pleasing. Alternatively, in the context of the present invention, a more pragmatic definition for the term Saturation relates to a current level of predetermined content in a specific media instance; for example a web site currently has sold 20% of the space that it has allocated for advertising. In the nomenclature of the present invention, this represents a level of actual saturation of 20% of available in context advertising potential. The present invention generally relates to a super-saturation method whereby a new revenue stream is created by facilitating out of context potential (for advertising or otherwise) that is in excess of any actual saturation—be it 20% as in the pragmatic example or be it 100% as in the prior simplistic example. Simply stated, super-saturation relates to facilitating out of context placement of content, and this placement is by definition in addition to the saturation of the in context material—regardless of the level of in context materials. SIM Card: This is a Subscriber Identity Module card that is commonly inserted into a cellular telephone. Tagging: Tagging relates to an identification that reveals that the tagged visitor is known to have been at a predetermined information media, such as an internet site or a specific internet page, or have dialed up to a specific telephone number, etc. The tag need not contain any information that identifies the visitor nor need it contain any information that allows the visitor to be profiled. A tag simply identifies that its bearer was so marked for having been at a specific location, or for having been there for a predetermined amount of time, or for having conducted some specific action there, etc. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a super-saturation method for information-media, whereby a second information-media broadcaster in conjunction with an agency extends a content presentation of a first broadcaster beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold for content presentation of the first broadcaster, the method including the steps of: a) an agency facilitating visitor identification; (note: in the context of the present invention “an agency” is a service facilitator) b) in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media tagging a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and c) in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media recognizing a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. For a combination of financial and pragmatic considerations, it is a sine qua non that commercial Web sites and other data communication media, in presenting a variety of core information to viewers, readers or listeners, also insert an amount of non-core special message information. Special messages include advertisements, legal instruments, credit warnings and notifications, to name but a few. These special messages take the form of single directional informative messages or as interactive information directed at specific targeted clients. It is obviously in the best interest of a proprietor of these media, to place as much and as many special messages into each media presentation as possible, since this is a prime and significant source of revenue. However, there is a natural limitation to the quantity of special messages that may be applied to a data communication media. This limitation, described as saturation, is not itself a technical problem but rather one of financial, aesthetic and pragmatic considerations. A media may reach this saturation level due to pragmatic considerations such as limited physical size or space. In addition, saturation may occur due to a requirement to limit the cost of a producing a Web site, magazine, newspaper or other media application. In general, providers of core information need to provide a service that has an aesthetic appeal to targeted client viewers, readers or listeners. By insertion of excessive amounts of special messages and consequent over-saturation of a media site, targeted clients will find the sheer volume of data too overwhelming and difficult to maintain interest and to absorb. In addition, it is financially and from customer relationship point of view, undesirable to turn away clients who are willing to pay for insertion of special messages. In order to limit the amount of added special messages in a data communication media, while still not turning away requests for insertion of special messages, an alternative is needed. This alternative allows the Web site or other media to gain financially and still maintain customer confidence by applying a technique of super-saturation. The present invention provides a solution to this difficulty. Ordinarily, each media broadcaster has a targeted client base, to which core information is directed. Targeted client bases are related, for example, to income level, profession, age, sex or field of interest, to name a few. In general, special messages are directed to the particular targeted client base of a media broadcaster. Simply stated, when a media reaches special message saturation, in regard to the present invention, an agency or a second broadcaster is utilized to extend a special message content presentation through the use of a second, alternative information-media broadcaster. A special message, prepared at the direction of an agency by the first saturated media broadcaster are placed into the media of a second broadcaster. This special message presentation is for presentation to substantially the same targeted client base but on an off-site basis at another site servicing substantially the same client base. To reach this client base, an arrangement is entered into by the first broadcaster in conjunction with the agency, so that substantially all clients visiting the first broadcaster are tagged. This tag is recognized when a tagged visitor requests a visit to the second broadcaster site. Recognition of such a tag gives rise, in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster, to a number of possibilities. For example, in an Internet situation, the visitor is presented with the first broadcaster's special message. Alternatively, the visitor is caused to fetch a special message. Similarly, this special message is placed into a cellular Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card database, and targeted at a client base, appropriate to the first broadcaster. Another possibility is the use a telephone system data base. The present invention also relates to a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, whereby a second information-media broadcaster in conjunction with an agency extends a content presentation of a first broadcaster beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold for content presentation of the first broadcaster, the contracting structure including: a) a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering; i) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery of a content of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting offsite; and ii) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery; b) a second contractual agreement between the agency and a first broadcaster of the first information-media; i) whereby the first broadcaster provides a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; and ii) whereby the agency provides a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster for substantially each such facilitated placement; and c) a third contractual agreement between the agency and a second broadcaster of a second information-media; i) whereby the second broadcaster provides a facilitated recognizing of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and ii) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. Simply stated, the basis for this contracting structure is that a first broadcaster has reached a point of special message saturation. Another broadcaster in a second information-media, in conjunction with an agency, extends a special message content presentation on behalf of the first broadcaster. Therefore, the first broadcaster, in effect, reaches a content presentation beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold, or a state of super-saturation. A contracting structure in terms of the present invention, consists of three separate contracts. A first contractual agreement is between an agency offering, for example, to an advertiser or a credit card organization, respectively, an insertion of an advertisement or a credit warning into an offsite media. This offer arises as a result of a first broadcaster being unable to accommodate additional insertions, that is, being at a point of saturation. The agency includes, in terms of this contract, a provision for delivering the inserted item to an identified offsite visitor. The advertiser pays the agent for this service. A second contract is between the agency and a first broadcaster; in this case, the broadcaster that has reached saturation point, for insertion of additional items. The first broadcaster thus reaches a situation described by the present invention as super-saturation. The broadcaster agrees to provide tagging of substantially all visitors to this first media site. Further, the agency agrees to provide an alternative site for facilitating identified visitors from the first broadcaster site receiving the inserted item on visiting the second site. The agency pays the first broadcaster in terms off this contractual arrangement. Finally, the agency enters into a third contract with a second broadcaster. In terms of this contract, in conjunction with either the agency or the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster provides a procedure for recognizing a tagged visitor to the second media. This procedure includes the visitor accepting the offsite presentation item. The agency pays the second broadcaster for accepting this item. In terms of these three contracts, the first broadcaster benefits from selling a placement of an advertisement, a notification or other insertion into an alternative site. In spite of the first broadcaster being at a saturation point, by providing tagging of visitors to this first site, the first broadcaster provides the advertiser with a preponderance of first site visitors. These visitors are able to receive this message item at another appropriate site. The agency pays the second broadcaster for placing insertions on behalf of the advertiser for acceptance by visitors tagged at the first site. The advertiser benefits by having an advertisement, albeit at the second site, nevertheless targeted at visitors to the saturated first broadcaster site. The net proceeds from these contracts, of course, will accrue to the agency, which has acted as a facilitator and coordinator in terms of the contracts for this super-saturation method. Typically, a web site sales force will sell access to its audience via offsite content because no one knows better than a web site sales force, how to sell to their own audience. An agency will merely act as a facilitator that will charge a percentage or a fee for a transaction for finding the audience elsewhere. A second site where the visitor will be found will rent its unsold space for a fixed fee or for a percentage of the transaction as well. It should be noted that privacy is a huge issue that is substantially addressed by embodiments of the present invention. The second site need not even know where the audience of the first site is found nor that it is the first site that sold its space as an offsite space. The second site merely rents unsold space for an unknown visitor in return for a fee received from an agency and not the other site. The fact that an advertisement on behalf of site X advertiser is shown to the visitor while he is on site Y is of no consequence. Site X simply sold the space as offsite space to their advertiser. Site X does not know on which web site was their visitor found and they don't care as long as it is not a porn site or another site that belongs to a category that either Site X or their Advertiser is not interested in. Site X reports to its advertiser just that its ad was shown to Site X visitor on another site. In this embodiment none of the parties learns new information about the visitor. Site X and its advertiser do not know at what web site was Site X visitor found. The site where the Site X visitor is found does not know that it is a Site X visitor, just that an unsold space of its was sold by another anonymous site and that in return for renting its own space to the other anonymous site it is receiving from the agency a fee. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES In order to understand the invention and to see how it may be carried out in practice, embodiments will now be described, by way of non-limiting example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic view of a super-saturation method for information-media; FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic view of a first contractual agreement; FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic view of a second contractual arrangement; FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic view relating to a first broadcaster providing a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic view relating to an agency 502 providing a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster; FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic view relating to a third contractual agreement; and FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic view relating to details of the third contractual agreement. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION At the present, there is a vast flow of information. This occurs as a result of the growth and development of a number of data communication media. Although this has made information available literally at the press of a button, the limit of human capacity is becoming apparent. An additional problem has also become apparent with the growth of the Internet and other data communication systems. Communication media are also used for another purpose, in parallel with transmitting core information, using data communication media. This purpose is the transmission of special messages alongside core information. Special messages include advertisements, notifications, legal notices, credit warnings and a host of other items. These messages are both single directional and interactive between sender and targeted recipients. Typically, in Internet Web sites, it has become commonplace to have a variety of special messages. These include advertisements with or without hyper-linking to other Web sites or other Web pages, warnings, legal notices and credit control notices and a host of others. Similarly, cellular telephones SIM cards carry text and audio special messages. In addition, credit card databases carry credit warning messages and telephone system databases carry audio and text messages and warnings. In much the same way, magazines and newspapers carry special text and graphic messages in the form of advertisements, legal notices and so on. The amount and proportion of such special messages that can be carried in a media site is limited by aesthetic, physical and financial considerations. These considerations may be expressed as the ratio of the amount of non-core special message information to the quantity of core information. When the proportion of non-core information reaches a point of unacceptability to a viewer, listener or reader, this point is termed saturation. This saturation is financially limiting to media. Many methods are used to extend this saturation point, for example, by using hyperlinks on a Web site, by adding supplements to newspapers or magazines, by adding special message supplements to credit card billing and many others. These techniques merely appear to delay the onset of saturation but are often ineffective. In some situations, for financial considerations, it is impractical to extend the physical size of media sites. Therefore, a magazine may be limited to a specific number of pages and a Web site to a specific number of Web pages. Equally, aesthetics of any media site have to be taken into consideration. Readers, listeners or viewers must not overwhelmed with the multiplicity and density of information represented by over-saturation. This makes a media appear unfriendly and overwhelming. There is, then, a need for a method to reach beyond this point of saturation in a media without creating over-saturation. Turning to FIG. 1, illustrating a schematic view 100 of the steps of a super-saturation method for information-media. The present invention relates to a super-saturation method for information-media, whereby a second information-media broadcaster in conjunction with an agency extends a content presentation of a first broadcaster beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold for content presentation of the first broadcaster, the method including the steps of: a) an agency facilitating 101 visitor identification; (note: in the context of the present invention “an agency” is a service facilitator)an agency b) in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media tagging 102 a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and c) in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media recognizing 103 a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency 104 or in conjunction with the first broadcaster 105—the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. It is a sine qua non that commercial Web sites and other data communication media sites, while presenting core information to specifically targeted viewers, readers or listeners, also insert as much non-core special message information as possible. After all, this is a major revenue source for a site. In addition, non-core special messages are directed at these same specifically targeted viewers, readers or listeners. A targeted group is generally defined as market related to such aspects as age, technical field, sex, profession and many others. At a commercial site with substantive visitor traffic, there is a demand for space for special message items such as advertisements, notices and so on. If the media site arrives at a point of reaching a predetermined quantum of special message items, that is, reaches a point of saturation, clients—requiring additional space for further special messages cannot be satisfied. By insertion of excessive amounts of special messages and consequent over-saturation of a media site, targeted clients will find the sheer volume of data too overwhelming and difficult to maintain interest and to absorb. It is obviously in the best interest of a proprietor of these media, to place as much and as many special messages into each media presentation as possible, since this is a prime and significant source of revenue. Similarly, clients wishing to place special message items, have a vested interest insofar as directing, for example, advertisements for products or services, to the specifically targeted visitors to this site. Simply stated, when a media reaches special message saturation, in regard to the present invention, an agency, in conjunction with a suitable second broadcaster, is utilized to extend additional special message content presentation beyond saturation point. The second broadcaster site is selected specifically because this site targets a category of visitors similar to the first broadcaster site. A special message item, prepared, for example, by a client advertiser at the direction of the agency, is placed into the second broadcaster site. This special message presentation is for presentation to substantially the same targeted client base but on an off-site basis at an alternative site servicing substantially the same client base. To reach this client base, an arrangement is entered into by the first broadcaster in conjunction with the agency. Substantially all clients visiting the first broadcaster are tagged at the instance of this broadcaster. For example, a cookie is inserted into a visitor's browser or similar tags are placed into a customer database. Recognition of this tag occurs, in accordance with an arrangement between an agency and both first and second broadcasters, when a tagged visitor requests a visit to the second broadcaster site. Recognition of such a tag gives rise, in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster, to several possibilities. For example, in an Internet situation, a recognized visitor is presented with the first broadcaster's special message, situated in the second broadcaster. Alternatively, the visitor fetches a special message from the second broadcaster. Similarly, this special message is placed into a cellular SIM card database, targeted at a client base appropriate to the first broadcaster. Another possibility is the use a telephone system database to elicit a similar result. The net consequence of using the method of the present invention is that all parties to this method are satisfied. The client advertiser has exposure to a targeted visitor group. The first broadcaster, in spite of being saturated with inserted message items, is able to reach a situation of super-saturation and, consequently, benefit financially. The second broadcaster receives additional revenue with the addition of special message items. Finally, the agency benefits as a result of this application of the present invention, in a role as facilitator and coordinator. Turning now to FIGS. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, these illustrate schematically aspects of a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media. FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic view 200 of a first contractual agreement 201. FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic view 300 of a second contractual arrangement 301. FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic view 400 relating to a first broadcaster providing 401 a facilitated tagging 402, 403, 404 and 405 of a preponderance of visitors 406, 407, 408 and 409 to the first information-media. FIG. 5 illustrates a schematic view 500 relating to an agency 502 providing 503 a facilitated offsite placement 501 of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying 505 the first broadcaster 504. FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic view 600 relating to a third contractual agreement 601. Finally FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic view 700 relating to details of this third contractual agreement. The present invention also relates to a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, whereby a second information-media broadcaster in conjunction with an agency extends a content presentation of a first broadcaster beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold for content presentation of the first broadcaster, the contracting structure including: a) a first contractual agreement 201 between an agency offering 202 an offsite content presentation 203 for a first information-media and a content provider accepting 204 said offering; i) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery 205 of a content 206 of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting 207 offsite; and ii) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery; b) a second contractual agreement 301 between the agency 303 and a first broadcaster 304 of the first information-media 302; i) whereby the first broadcaster 401 provides a facilitated tagging 402, 403, 404 and 405 of a preponderance of visitors 406, 407, 408 and 409 to the first information-media; and ii) whereby the agency 502 provides 503 a facilitated offsite placement 501 of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying 505 the first broadcaster 504 for substantially each such facilitated placement; and c) a third contractual agreement 601 between the agency 602 and a second broadcaster 604 of a second information-media 603; i) whereby the second broadcaster provides 701 a facilitated recognizing 702 of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency 703 or in conjunction with the first broadcaster 704—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting 705 and 706 the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and ii) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. Simply stated, the basis for this contracting structure is that a first broadcaster has reached a point of special message saturation. Another broadcaster in a second information-media, in conjunction with an agency, extends a special message content presentation on behalf of the first broadcaster. Therefore, the first broadcaster, in effect, reaches a content presentation beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold, or a state of super-saturation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, a contracting structure consists of three separate contracts. A first contractual agreement is between an agency offering, for example, to an advertiser or a credit card organization, respectively, an insertion of an advertisement or a credit warning into an offsite media. This offer arises as a result of a first broadcaster being unable to accommodate additional insertions, that is, being at a point of saturation. The agency includes, in terms of this contract, a provision for delivering the inserted item to an identified offsite visitor. The advertiser pays the agent for this service. Furthermore, it is also conceivable that the first broadcaster is the content provider. A second contract is between the agency and a first broadcaster; in this case, the broadcaster that has reached saturation point, for insertion of additional items. The first broadcaster thus reaches a situation described by the present invention as super-saturation. The broadcaster agrees to provide tagging of substantially all visitors to this first media site. Further, the agency agrees to provide an alternative site for facilitating identified visitors from the first broadcaster site receiving the inserted item on visiting the second site. The agency pays the first broadcaster in terms off this contractual arrangement. Finally, the agency enters into a third contract with a second broadcaster. In terms of this contract, in conjunction with either the agency or the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster provides a procedure for recognizing a tagged visitor to the second media. This procedure includes the visitor accepting the offsite presentation item. The agency pays the second broadcaster for accepting this item. In terms of these three contracts, the first broadcaster benefits from selling a placement of an advertisement, a notification or other insertion into an alternative site. In spite of the first broadcaster being at a saturation point, by providing tagging to visitors to this first site, the first broadcaster provides the advertiser with a preponderance of first site visitors. These visitors are able to receive this message item at another appropriate site. The agency pays the second broadcaster for placing insertions on behalf of the other site (or the advertiser) for acceptance by visitors tagged at the first site. The advertiser benefits by having an advertisement, albeit at the second site, nevertheless targeted at visitors to the saturated first broadcaster site. The net proceeds from these contracts, of course, will accrue to the agency, which has acted as a facilitator and coordinator in terms of the contracts for this super-saturation method. As will be understood by a man of the art, the terminology in relation to Internet Web Site usage, of the phrase “Cost Per Thousand” (CPM) is used by Internet marketers to price advertising banners. Sites that sell advertising will guarantee an advertiser a certain number of impressions (number of times an advertising banner is downloaded and presumably seen by visitors.), then set a rate based on that guarantee times the CPM rate. A Web site that has a CPM rate of $25 and guarantees advertisers 600,000 impressions will charge $15,000 ($25×600) for those advertisers' advertising banner. By way of an example of the embodiments of the present invention, in a case of a ‘highly-valued’ section (i.e. Financial section) of a particular site, advertisements sell for $50 CPM. Advertisement space in this section is often sold out. However, another section of that site devoted to General News sells for only $10 CPM and is usually unsold. If a user browses the Financial section and then goes to the General News section, the user will be recognized by the agency as a Financial section visitor, ‘interested in Finance’. Because advertisers are willing to pay a premium to reach the ‘interested in finance’ person, portions of the inventory in the General News section may now be sold by the site for $35 instead of for the traditional $10. A further example relating to the embodiments of the present invention wherein a publisher sells visitors to its lucrative/sold-out site sections to its advertisers but on other web sites, as yet not sold-out. The as yet not-sold-out web sites rent their substantially unsold space to be sold by publishers to their own advertisers through an agency. For example, assuming that a publisher's Personal Finance section is sold out at $50 CPM. Visitors to this section will inevitably visit other content sites. The publisher's sales force, which already has the expertise to sell to the Personal Finance section audience, can now sell these Personal Finance section visitors to its own advertisers for $30 when those visitors surf other sites, thus providing the Publisher with a new revenue stream. In this next example, a publisher's unsold space is sold by other publishers as offsite space to their own advertisers. A technology related publisher, for example, may charge $60 CPM for advertising on its web site. However, the technology related publisher could charge its advertisers $45 CPM in return for showing offsite advertisements to the publisher's regular site audience. More simply stated, the technology related publisher will charge its advertisers $45 CPM in return for showing advertisements to its site audience while they visit other web sites. The publisher, which in its unsold space the technology related publisher audience was found, can charge through the agency, a fixed CPM or take a percentage of the revenues from the technology related publisher that used its advertising space to serve offsite advertisements to its own audience on behalf of its advertisers. Following these examples it is emphasized that as a publisher an important target is earn a new revenue stream without cannibalizing current revenues or devaluing currently selling advertising. Selling offsite advertisements is a significant improvement to the art. For example, selling a bundle of 10 exposures to advertisements within a site for $45 CPM and 100 exposures offsite for a $30 CPM, represents a significant revenue source. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is an advertising agency. In this capacity, an agency provides know-how and experience in advertising and in marketing of advertising media in a variety of fields such as the Internet, radio, television and news media. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is a credit agency. An important aspect of commerce includes controlling and regulating credit facilities. A credit agency is in a position to assist clients requiring to regulate customer credit lines. This can be accomplished in accordance with the present invention by utilizing notifications into a variety of media, such as telephone and cellular telephone databases. According to an additional embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is a public service organization. Public service organizations are often called on to assist members of the public in a large range of problems. These include, for example, finding a lost pet, tracing missing persons, assisting old-age pensioners and so on. Placing notifications in available media is pertinent to resolving such problems. According to a further embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is a legally empowered body. A multiplicity of legal matters form part of today's relationships with bodies such as banks, home loan institutions, adoption agencies and many others. Inevitably, legal matters include placing of various notices including notices of advisement, warning, information and a host of others. Access to all media is an important aspect for any legally empowered body. According to an alternative embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is a media agency. A media agency has a distinct advantage in dealing with not merely a multiplicity of media, but also advertisers, core information providers, and others. This is important in promoting relationships between advertisers, a substantial array of broadcasters, and other participants in relation to the present invention. According to one other embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is a cellular telephone service. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the agency is a wireless communication service. Agencies, in order to be able to form a liaison between advertisers and media broadcasters, need to have a working knowledge of the field of interest. Clearly, enterprises offering cellular telephone services and wireless communication services are able to provide access to a database of customers as well as access to related telephone and other communication media. According to an added embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, offering includes selling. According to an additional embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, offering includes renting. According to a further embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, offering includes leasing. According to an alternative embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, offering includes trading. According to one other embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, offering includes proposing for payment. When an agency becomes aware of a saturation situation at a media broadcaster, the agency makes proposals to prospective advertisers, notification organizations and others with regard to arranging media space. These special message insertions into appropriate media, related to a saturated media site, are negotiated from an offering, selling, renting and selling perspective. Included in this negotiation as part of offering are also trading between media sites and arrangements regarding payment. According to an added embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the offsite content presentation is an advertisement presentation. Advertisements are commercially important in promoting products and services. Insertion of successful advertisements is ideally made into media sites where core information or personnel are generally involved in related fields. There are many instances, however, where this is not necessary, for example, advertisements for insurance, restaurants, entertainment, etc. have a very general appeal. Therefore, offsite presentations can be made effective by judicious site selection. For example, people involved with finance and business generally read a financial section of a newspaper. Therefore, a luxury car advertisement is logically shown in that section. If, however, the financial section reader is identified while reading the general news section, the luxury car advertisement is shown to him again. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the offsite content presentation is a notification. Notifications generally relate to personnel or core information on a site. Therefore notifications regarding a lost pet, dog licensing requirements, etc. are appropriate to, for example, a magazine dealing with animals, dos and cats, and so on. Notifications of expiry of a media service are ideally made on a service offering the media service such as a cellular or wireless network. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the notification is a public service announcement. An example of this type of notification is using a particular regional telephone exchange to advise of some change in municipal services such as refuse removal, power cuts and water system repairs. According to another variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the notification is a personal reminder. The local telephone service and more recently, cellular telephone services have provided personal reminder notifications of many types. For example, wake-up calls, appointment reminders, etc. According to a further variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the notification is a judicial instrument. According to an additional variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the notification is a credit warning. Notifications cover an enormous selection of devises. Examples of these relate to bankruptcy, missing persons, meeting times, excessive spending on a credit card account, marriage, divorce, to name just a few. According to an added embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the offsite content presentation is a graphic item. Graphic presentations are used in many information-media due to the eye-appeal to the reader and viewer. Examples of graphic presentations, in the context of the present invention, include news photographs, graphical advertising presentations, promotional items, catalogues, cartoons and many more. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the offsite content presentation is a multimedia presentation. According to a further embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the offsite content presentation is an audio presentation. According to one other embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the offsite content presentation is a banner. Offsite presentations are not limited to merely text or graphic visual effects but include multimedia, audio and banner presentations. These are made up of movie clips, video productions and banners, either as stationary items or as moving presentations. According to a supplementary embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first information-media is an Internet data communications media. The Internet represents, in many respects, a rapidly growing communication media accessed by very large numbers of people. Internet sites vary in accordance with core information so that advertisements and any other notifications can be directed at very specific targeted groups of people. Substantially all aspects of the present invention relate well to use in this media, but, are not, by any means, restricted to it. According to another variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the Internet data communications media includes at least one content presentation of a plurality of content presentations. An implication of this embodiment relates to a concept that offsite presentations are not necessarily limited to a single presentation, nor to a presentation being limited to a single site or even to a single media. According to an added embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first information-media is an interactive data communications media. According to an additional variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the interactive data communication media is a telephone communication media. According to a further variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the interactive data communication media is a wireless communication media. According to another variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information, the interactive data communication media is a cellular communication media. In the past, advertising and placing of notices was a one-way information transference. An interesting development in the use of Internet advertising and notification techniques is the extent of possible interactivity. This is certainly also the case in many other media such as cellular, wireless and telephone media. By being easily and readily interactive, these media provide users with the possibility of quick responses to notifications. According to an added embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first information-media is a broadcasting media. Radio and television broadcasting are the oldest of the electronic communication media. These have been used both by core information presenters and advertisers, to present information to selected groups of people. This is especially true with regard to program material targeting specific population groupings based on selection techniques such as time of presentation. According to a further embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first information-media is a hyperlink. Hyperlinks are a very useful way to convey offsite notifications to targeted visitors. Hyperlinks are commonly used for placing advertising links to source presenters. This is achieved also by a broadcaster using a hyperlink to send a presentation item to a visitor's browser or to cause a visitor to fetch the presentation. According to an alternative embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first information-media is a banner. Banners are commonly used in a wide selection of media, including magazines, newspapers, bills, internet sites and others. These are usually brief and are an ideal media for drawing attention to other media, other advertisers and so on. Banners are also used for presenting hyperlinks and as a separate media presentation for notices of many types. Banners are used in virtually every communication media and supply a convenient brief communication media. Banners take a form such as headers in a newspaper and magazines, announcements in cellular voice mail systems, presentations in Internet sites, and so on. According to an additional embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster has an association with an interactive data communication media. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a Web site on an Internet data communication media. Sites in this scenario relate to, for example, dissemination of information, news, scientific data, entertainment and many others. Use of added insertions of advertising and notifications includes examples such as insurance promotion, banking, personal notices, product availability, and legal advisements, to name but a few. According to an added embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is an advertising media. There are already many Web sites relating exclusively to product and service promotion. These are not necessarily limited to a single product or service, or even a single range of products or services. In many cases, a range of goods and services is quite general. In some cases, broadcasters that are essentially advertising media, use appropriate core presentations as a base for advertising presentations. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a credit agency. These sites relate to placing warning messages and informative notices relating to creditworthiness and to financial status of a range of commercial enterprises and individuals. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a credit control agency for a credit card organization. Such a broadcaster, in the current embodiment context, will make use of a credit card organization database to direct notices to credit card users as well as to suppliers accepting payment by credit card. These notices generally relate, on the one hand to warnings regarding overspending or underpayment by card users, and, on the other hand, warning to suppliers. However, additional uses include promotional additions to billing documents and to information brochures. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a banner promotion agency. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a public service organization. Public service organizations provide a wide range of services, for example, to the elderly and infirm, to children, to unmarried mothers, financial and charity, and many others. Many such organizations publish web sites, magazines, newsletters and so on. Many include advertisements and a host of other notices. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a legally empowered body. A classic example of such a body is the revenue service although there are others such as the Society for the Protection of Animals, child protection agencies, pension and social benefit bodies, to name a few. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a media agency. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a cellular telephone service provider. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a wireless communication media. All the aforementioned media are able to utilize the present invention for promotional, advertising and notification to their customer base. This represents a large number of individuals and enterprises, which can be grouped into targeted databases. Advertising and notification messages are then sent to specifically targeted groups. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the first broadcaster is a hyperlink. A hyperlink provides a route for easy access to anywhere on the World Wide Web. Apart from a particular link, access is available to specific sites and to specific groups of sites having similar core information or similar areas of interest, for example, a group of sites relating to philately, dog breeding, hunting, and medicine, to name a few. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a cookie into each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which placing a cookie into each visitor of the preponderance of visitors includes placing an identification message into each visitor's web browser when the visitor requests a page. A cookie is a message given to a Web browser by a Web server. The browser stores the message in a special text file. This message is sent back to the server each time the browser requests a page from the server. This cookie then provides an identification of the visitor. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a notification into a telephone system database for each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a message identifier record into a database for each of the preponderance of visitors. In these instances, effectively, a result similar to using a cookie is achieved. However, instead of using the Web, a media database is utilized. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a credit warning into a creditcard database for each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. Notifying credit card users of overspending and underpayments are often used warnings. Notices are appended to credit card billing, sent to cardholders via merchants at the time of a transaction, and so on. Notices are also of an informative and promotional nature to encourage additional card use. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a personal notice into a public service database for each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. Notices for lost and found items, personal matters and many others are not uncommon uses for this media. Searching for long-lost relatives is another example. These are, naturally, conveyed to people to whom such notices are pertinent. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes sending a legal instrument into a legally empowered body database for each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. The database at such legally empowered body databases enable authorized personnel to trace failure to submit tax returns, failure to pay family maintenance, non-payment of traffic violation fines, and many others. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a message into a cellular telephone SIM card for each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, tagging a preponderance of visitors includes placing a notification into a wireless communication service database for each visitor of the preponderance of visitors. These databases are useful predominantly to the enterprise owning the database. However, these are also commonly used for advertising notices, product and service promotions, etc. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, each visitor of the preponderance of visitors to the first information-media is classified as a preferred visitor. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, wherein the preferred visitor includes each visitor of the preponderance of visitors classified as a preferred visitor remaining at the first information-media for a predetermined period of time. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, wherein each visitor of the preponderance of visitors classified as a preferred visitor includes a visitor spending a predetermined amount of money at the first information-media. In order to reach substantially the same targeted group of visitors at a second site, a tag is placed into specific visitors to the first site. Visitors are evaluated, according to particular criteria, and only those evaluated as preferred and are tagged. Generally, these criteria relate to time spent at the first site and to money spent. However, other criteria can be set such as, for example, replies to special questionnaires, responses to specific details, reaction to predetermined aspects of the first site etc. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a cookie. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is an identification message. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a notification in a telephone system database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a message identifier record in a database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a credit warning in a credit card database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a personal notice in a public service database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a legal instrument in a legally empowered body database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a message in a cellular telephone SIM card. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the tag is a notification into a wireless communication service database. Generally, tags and the process of tagging have mutatis mutandis, been described heretofore in relation to tagging. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster has an association with an interactive data communication media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a Web site on an Internet data communication media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is an advertising media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a credit agency. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a credit control agency for a credit card organization. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a banner promotion agency. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a public service organization. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a legally empowered body. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a media agency. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a cellular telephone service provider. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a wireless communication media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second broadcaster is a hyperlink. With respect to the second broadcaster, comments already made in regard to the first broadcaster are mutatis mutandis equally applicable here, given regard to the fact that both broadcaster can operate on the same or on different media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation, includes receiving an advertisement presentation. This offsite presentation relates to, for example, an advertisement presentation, a notification, a warning, a judicial notice and so on. This presentation would have been found in the first broadcaster site but for the first broadcaster having reached a point of saturation. The present invention provides a method for visitors to the first site, to receive these presentations at another site. This is achieved as a consequence of an agency coordinating tagging of visitors by the first broadcaster and coordinating with the second broadcaster recognizing each tagged visitor. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation, includes receiving a public service announcement. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation, includes receiving a personal reminder. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving judicial instrument. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a credit warning. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a graphic item. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a multimedia presentation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving an audio presentation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a banner. In the accepting the offsite presentation, it is implicit that the second broadcaster is providing tagged visitors, from the first site, with access to presentations which otherwise would have appeared in the first broadcaster. The reason for the second broadcaster providing this service relates primarily to a state of saturation in the first broadcaster. This relationship between first and second broadcaster is facilitated by an agency that has an association with both broadcasters, and, particularly to the needs of advertisers in the first broadcaster. It is this knowledge that allows the agency to provide a suitable second broadcaster with a similar targeted customer base to the first broadcaster. It is this that makes offsite promotional and advisory notices in a second broadcaster, of interest to both first broadcaster and to advertisers. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster dropping the offsite content presentation into a browser of the visitor. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster sending a browser of the visitor to fetch the offsite content presentation. Both dropping the offsite presentation into a visitor as well as sending the visitor to fetch offsite presentation are techniques usable by browsers in relation to the Internet. Similar procedures are possible in most other media. For example, insertion of appropriate data into a cellular telephone SIM card will advise a user regarding some presentation and equally will advise the user to proceed to some other media to fetch this information. Similar applications are feasible in regard to credit card users to mention just a few. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the agency the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster sending the offsite content presentation to the recognized visitor via the second information-media. Generally, substantially all comments and descriptions regarding interaction between an agency and the second broadcaster, apply mutatis mutandis to interaction of the first broadcaster in conjunction with the second broadcaster. However, negotiations between these broadcasters are made directly without the liaison assistance of an agency. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation, includes receiving an advertisement presentation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation, includes receiving a public service announcement. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation, includes receiving a personal reminder. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving judicial instrument. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a credit warning. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a graphic item. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a multimedia presentation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving an audio presentation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation includes receiving a banner. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster dropping the offsite content presentation into the browser of the visitor. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster sending the browser of the visitor to fetch the offsite content presentation. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which in conjunction with the first broadcaster the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor includes the second broadcaster sending the offsite content presentation to the recognized visitor via the second information-media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second information-media and the first information-media constitute a single media. For example, a lucrative section (advertising sold out) and a non-lucrative section (advertising space available) of a single Internet web-site. Various descriptive and definitive comments made regarding the first information-media apply mutatis mutandis to the second information-media. While these media can be different types of media, these can equally be the same media. This will commonly be the situation when using the Internet but this applies also to, for example, telephone, wireless and cellular networks. In addition, it is also feasible that the content provider is the first information-media; since it is not specifically necessary for a host and a service provider and a site to be the same entity. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second information-media is an Internet data communications media. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the Internet data communications media includes at least one content presentation of a plurality of content presentations such as a web site or a multi-media down load or a channel of updated information or web radio or web television. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second information-media is an interactive data communications media. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the interactive data communication media is a telephone communication media. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the interactive data communication media is a wireless communication media. According to a variation of an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the interactive data communication media is a cellular communication media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second information-media is a broadcasting media. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second information-media is a hyperlink. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, the second information-media is a banner. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes accessing a cookie. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes receiving an identification message. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes querying a notification in a telephone system database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes identifying a message identifier record in a database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes receiving a credit warning in a credit card database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes searching for a personal notice in a public service database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes querying a legal instrument in a legally empowered body database. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes searching for a message in (conjunction with the use of) a cellular telephone SIM card. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the super-saturation method for information-media, in which recognizing a visitor to the second information-media includes finding a notification into a wireless communication service database. It is an essential part of the present invention that in recognizing a visitor to the second information-media, a notification is found by the second broadcaster that had been placed in the visitor by the first broadcaster. The second broadcaster needed to provide this identification and recognition system to facilitate the concept of offsite advertising and the inserting of other notifications. There is an equivalence in these notifications, for example of a cookie in an Internet browser, a message emanating from a cellular telephone media database, a credit card warning emanating from a credit card users database, etc. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, a content provider is a store. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, a content provider is a service provider. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, a content provider is an advertisement provider. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, a content provider is a notification provider. In describing a content provider as a store, a service provider, an advertisement provider, a notification provider, these are all enterprises or individuals wishing to provide notifications to viewers, listeners and readers of a variety of media. In addition, first broadcaster can also be the content provider. Motivation for these content providers relate to commercial, interpersonal, legal, institutional, advisory and many other matters. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, an identified visitor is a visitor recognized by a cookie in a browser of the visitor. According to an embodiment of the present invention, the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, an identified visitor is a visitor recognized by a tag placed in a memory media associated with the visitor. Details relating to an identified visitor are generally described in terms of tags and tagging of visitors with regard to a super-saturation method for information-media and apply mutatis mutandis to the contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media. The present invention relates also to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a super-saturation method for information-media, the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including: a) first computer readable program code for causing an agency to facilitate visitor identification; b) tied to the first computer readable software, second computer readable program code for causing, in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media to tag a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and c) tied to the second computer readable software, third computer readable program code for causing, in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media to recognize a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster to accept the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. The present invention relates in addition to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a super-saturation method for information-media, the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a computer readable program code for causing an agency to facilitate visitor identification. The present invention relates further to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a super-saturation method for information-media, the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a computer readable program code for causing, in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media to tag a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag. The present invention relates furthermore to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a super-saturation method for information-media, the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a computer readable program code for causing, in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media to recognize a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster to accept the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. The present invention relates also to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a a) first computer readable program code for causing, a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering; i) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery of a content of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting offsite; and ii) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery; b) tied to the first computer readable software, second computer readable program code for causing a second contractual agreement between the agency and a first broadcaster of the first information-media; i) whereby the first broadcaster provides a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; and ii) whereby the agency provides a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster for substantially each such facilitated placement; and c) tied to the second computer readable software, third computer readable program code for causing a third contractual agreement between the agency and a second broadcaster of a second information-media; i) whereby the second broadcaster provides a facilitated recognizing of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and ii) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. The present invention relates in addition to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a first computer readable program code for causing, a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering: a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering; a) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery of a content of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting offsite; and b) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery. The present invention relates further to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a second computer readable program code for causing a second contractual agreement between the agency and a first broadcaster of the first information-media; a) whereby the first broadcaster provides a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; and b) whereby the agency provides a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster for substantially each such facilitated placement. The present invention relates to a computer program product including a computer usable media having computer readable program code embodied therein for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media the computer readable program code in said article of manufacture including a second computer readable program code for causing a third contractual agreement between the agency and a second broadcaster of a second information-media: a) whereby the second broadcaster provides a facilitated recognizing of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and b) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. The present invention also relates to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a super-saturation method for information-media, said method steps including: a) an agency facilitating visitor identification; b) in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media tagging a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and c) in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media recognizing a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. The present invention relates in addition to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a super-saturation method for information-media, said method step including an agency facilitating visitor identification. The present invention further relates to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a super-saturation method for information-media, said method step including in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media tagging a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag. The present invention relates furthermore to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a super-saturation method for information-media, said method step including in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media recognizing a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. The present invention further also relates to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, said method steps including: a) a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering; i) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery of a content of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting offsite; and ii) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery; b) a second contractual agreement between the agency and a first broadcaster of the first information-media; i) whereby the first broadcaster provides a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; and ii) whereby the agency provides a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster for substantially each such facilitated placement; and c) a third contractual agreement between the agency and a second broadcaster of a second information-media; i) whereby the second broadcaster provides a facilitated recognizing of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and ii) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. The present invention relates to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, said method including: a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering: a) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery of a content of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting offsite; and b) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery. The present invention also relates to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, said method including a second contractual agreement between the agency and a first broadcaster of the first information-media: a) whereby the first broadcaster provides a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; and b) whereby the agency provides a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster for substantially each such facilitated placement. The present invention in addition relates to a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, said method including a third contractual agreement between the agency and a second broadcaster of a second information-media: a) whereby the second broadcaster provides a facilitated recognizing of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and b) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Data communications systems have evolved from simple methods of conveying information. In ancient times messages were carried by word of mouth. Later, messengers on foot carried hand-carved messages on stone tablets. This further evolved, as handwriting developed, to handwritten messages on papyrus, leather and then paper carried by foot messengers and later by messengers on horseback. Already, in those early times, there was a natural limit to the amount of information that any one messenger could carry. The advent of manual signaling from hilltop to hilltop was followed, with the arrival of electricity on the communication scene, by the electric telegraph. The amount of information that could be conveyed took a quantum leap forward. Again, there was a natural limit to the amount of information that could be carried by this new medium. At the turn of the last century, radio made its first tentative appearance on the communication scene. The flow of information seemed to have taken another quantum leap forward. In the middle of the last century, with the advent of the first computers and television, the communication age seems to have finally burst through all the limits of previous millennia. The past decade saw increases in the flow of information facilitated by developments of the Internet, cellular telephones and various wireless communication devises. All these have apparently broken prior historic limits to the flow of information. However, this is not the case. Another limit has become apparent, namely the limit of human capacity to peruse this vast flow of information to the point of saturation. An additional problem has also become apparent with the growth of the Internet and other data communication systems. Communication media are also being used for another purpose, in parallel with transmitting core information. This is the transmission of special messages alongside the core information. Special messages include advertisements, notifications, legal notices, credit warnings and a host of other items. These messages are both single directional or interactive between sender and targeted recipient. Generally, special messages are carried in a number of media. For example, advertisements are included in newspapers and magazines, on Internet Web sites, over cellular telephone media, radio, television and many others. The amount and proportion of such special messages that can be carried in a media is limited by a number of factors. These include aesthetic, physical and financial considerations. It would seem that these limiting factors may be expressed as the ratio of the amount of special messages to the quantity of core information. When the proportion of non-core information reaches a point of unacceptability to a viewer or reader, this point is termed saturation. Even for a media predicated on 100% special messages, there is a physical upper limit. Typically, in an Internet Web site, it has become commonplace to have a variety of special messages. These typically include advertisements with or without hyper-linking to other Web sites or other Web pages. In much the same way, magazines and newspapers carry special text and graphic messages in the form of advertisements, legal notices and so on. Again, there is an upper limit, even for print media predicated on 100% special messages. Either due to physical limitations or due to reaching an unacceptable ratio of special messages to core information, media reach the point of being unable to carry additional special messages. This saturation represents a financially limiting problem to that media after a popular media has a waiting list of advertisement orders. For this reason, many methods are used to try to extend this saturation point, for example, by using hyperlinks on a Web site, by adding supplements to newspapers or magazines, by adding special message supplements to credit card billing and many others. These techniques merely appear to delay the onset of saturation and is often rather ineffective. In some cases, it is undesirable, for financial considerations, to extend the physical size of the media. Therefore, a magazine may be limited to a specific number of pages and a Web site to a specific number of web pages. Equally, it is vital that aesthetics of any media be taken into consideration so that readers or viewers are not overwhelmed with the multiplicity and density of information represented by such saturation, making a media appear unfriendly and overwhelming. There is, then, a need for a method to reach beyond this point of saturation in a media. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a super-saturation method for information-media, whereby a second information-media broadcaster in conjunction with an agency extends a content presentation of a first broadcaster beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold for content presentation of the first broadcaster, the method including the steps of: a) an agency facilitating visitor identification; (note: in the context of the present invention “an agency” is a service facilitator) b) in conjunction with the agency, a first broadcaster of the first information-media tagging a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media with a tag; and c) in conjunction with the agency, a second broadcaster of a second information-media recognizing a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor. For a combination of financial and pragmatic considerations, it is a sine qua non that commercial Web sites and other data communication media, in presenting a variety of core information to viewers, readers or listeners, also insert an amount of non-core special message information. Special messages include advertisements, legal instruments, credit warnings and notifications, to name but a few. These special messages take the form of single directional informative messages or as interactive information directed at specific targeted clients. It is obviously in the best interest of a proprietor of these media, to place as much and as many special messages into each media presentation as possible, since this is a prime and significant source of revenue. However, there is a natural limitation to the quantity of special messages that may be applied to a data communication media. This limitation, described as saturation, is not itself a technical problem but rather one of financial, aesthetic and pragmatic considerations. A media may reach this saturation level due to pragmatic considerations such as limited physical size or space. In addition, saturation may occur due to a requirement to limit the cost of a producing a Web site, magazine, newspaper or other media application. In general, providers of core information need to provide a service that has an aesthetic appeal to targeted client viewers, readers or listeners. By insertion of excessive amounts of special messages and consequent over-saturation of a media site, targeted clients will find the sheer volume of data too overwhelming and difficult to maintain interest and to absorb. In addition, it is financially and from customer relationship point of view, undesirable to turn away clients who are willing to pay for insertion of special messages. In order to limit the amount of added special messages in a data communication media, while still not turning away requests for insertion of special messages, an alternative is needed. This alternative allows the Web site or other media to gain financially and still maintain customer confidence by applying a technique of super-saturation. The present invention provides a solution to this difficulty. Ordinarily, each media broadcaster has a targeted client base, to which core information is directed. Targeted client bases are related, for example, to income level, profession, age, sex or field of interest, to name a few. In general, special messages are directed to the particular targeted client base of a media broadcaster. Simply stated, when a media reaches special message saturation, in regard to the present invention, an agency or a second broadcaster is utilized to extend a special message content presentation through the use of a second, alternative information-media broadcaster. A special message, prepared at the direction of an agency by the first saturated media broadcaster are placed into the media of a second broadcaster. This special message presentation is for presentation to substantially the same targeted client base but on an off-site basis at another site servicing substantially the same client base. To reach this client base, an arrangement is entered into by the first broadcaster in conjunction with the agency, so that substantially all clients visiting the first broadcaster are tagged. This tag is recognized when a tagged visitor requests a visit to the second broadcaster site. Recognition of such a tag gives rise, in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster, to a number of possibilities. For example, in an Internet situation, the visitor is presented with the first broadcaster's special message. Alternatively, the visitor is caused to fetch a special message. Similarly, this special message is placed into a cellular Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card database, and targeted at a client base, appropriate to the first broadcaster. Another possibility is the use a telephone system data base. The present invention also relates to a contracting structure for facilitating super-saturation of an information-media, whereby a second information-media broadcaster in conjunction with an agency extends a content presentation of a first broadcaster beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold for content presentation of the first broadcaster, the contracting structure including: a) a first contractual agreement between an agency offering an offsite content presentation for a first information-media and a content provider accepting said offering; i) whereby the agency provides a facilitated delivery of a content of the first content provider to an identified visitor visiting offsite; and ii) whereby the content provider pays for the facilitated delivery; b) a second contractual agreement between the agency and a first broadcaster of the first information-media; i) whereby the first broadcaster provides a facilitated tagging of a preponderance of visitors to the first information-media; and ii) whereby the agency provides a facilitated offsite placement of a content deriving from the first contractual agreement, the agency paying the first broadcaster for substantially each such facilitated placement; and c) a third contractual agreement between the agency and a second broadcaster of a second information-media; i) whereby the second broadcaster provides a facilitated recognizing of a visitor to the second information-media as having the tag, and thereupon by proxy—either in conjunction with the agency or in conjunction with the first broadcaster—the second broadcaster provides a facilitated accepting the offsite content presentation for the recognized visitor; and ii) whereby the agency pays for the facilitated delivery accepting. Simply stated, the basis for this contracting structure is that a first broadcaster has reached a point of special message saturation. Another broadcaster in a second information-media, in conjunction with an agency, extends a special message content presentation on behalf of the first broadcaster. Therefore, the first broadcaster, in effect, reaches a content presentation beyond a predetermined information-media saturation threshold, or a state of super-saturation. A contracting structure in terms of the present invention, consists of three separate contracts. A first contractual agreement is between an agency offering, for example, to an advertiser or a credit card organization, respectively, an insertion of an advertisement or a credit warning into an offsite media. This offer arises as a result of a first broadcaster being unable to accommodate additional insertions, that is, being at a point of saturation. The agency includes, in terms of this contract, a provision for delivering the inserted item to an identified offsite visitor. The advertiser pays the agent for this service. A second contract is between the agency and a first broadcaster; in this case, the broadcaster that has reached saturation point, for insertion of additional items. The first broadcaster thus reaches a situation described by the present invention as super-saturation. The broadcaster agrees to provide tagging of substantially all visitors to this first media site. Further, the agency agrees to provide an alternative site for facilitating identified visitors from the first broadcaster site receiving the inserted item on visiting the second site. The agency pays the first broadcaster in terms off this contractual arrangement. Finally, the agency enters into a third contract with a second broadcaster. In terms of this contract, in conjunction with either the agency or the first broadcaster, the second broadcaster provides a procedure for recognizing a tagged visitor to the second media. This procedure includes the visitor accepting the offsite presentation item. The agency pays the second broadcaster for accepting this item. In terms of these three contracts, the first broadcaster benefits from selling a placement of an advertisement, a notification or other insertion into an alternative site. In spite of the first broadcaster being at a saturation point, by providing tagging of visitors to this first site, the first broadcaster provides the advertiser with a preponderance of first site visitors. These visitors are able to receive this message item at another appropriate site. The agency pays the second broadcaster for placing insertions on behalf of the advertiser for acceptance by visitors tagged at the first site. The advertiser benefits by having an advertisement, albeit at the second site, nevertheless targeted at visitors to the saturated first broadcaster site. The net proceeds from these contracts, of course, will accrue to the agency, which has acted as a facilitator and coordinator in terms of the contracts for this super-saturation method. Typically, a web site sales force will sell access to its audience via offsite content because no one knows better than a web site sales force, how to sell to their own audience. An agency will merely act as a facilitator that will charge a percentage or a fee for a transaction for finding the audience elsewhere. A second site where the visitor will be found will rent its unsold space for a fixed fee or for a percentage of the transaction as well. It should be noted that privacy is a huge issue that is substantially addressed by embodiments of the present invention. The second site need not even know where the audience of the first site is found nor that it is the first site that sold its space as an offsite space. The second site merely rents unsold space for an unknown visitor in return for a fee received from an agency and not the other site. The fact that an advertisement on behalf of site X advertiser is shown to the visitor while he is on site Y is of no consequence. Site X simply sold the space as offsite space to their advertiser. Site X does not know on which web site was their visitor found and they don't care as long as it is not a porn site or another site that belongs to a category that either Site X or their Advertiser is not interested in. Site X reports to its advertiser just that its ad was shown to Site X visitor on another site. In this embodiment none of the parties learns new information about the visitor. Site X and its advertiser do not know at what web site was Site X visitor found. The site where the Site X visitor is found does not know that it is a Site X visitor, just that an unsold space of its was sold by another anonymous site and that in return for renting its own space to the other anonymous site it is receiving from the agency a fee. | 20041124 | 20101026 | 20050421 | 82563.0 | 6 | VAN BRAMER, JOHN W | ADDED-REVENUE OFF-SITE TARGETED INTERNET ADVERTISING | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,996,533 | ACCEPTED | System and method for multi-mode radio operation | Described is a system having a mobile station and an access point which connects the mobile station to a network. The mobile station has a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation. In the first mode of operation, the mobile station transmits a data packet intended for a further mobile station to the access point and the access point transmits the data packet to the further mobile station. In the second mode of operation, the mobile station transmits the data packet intended for the further mobile station directly to the further mobile station. | 1. A system, comprising: a mobile station; and an access point connecting the mobile station to a network; wherein the mobile station has a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation, the first mode of operation comprising the mobile station transmitting a data packet intended for a further mobile station to the access point and the access point transmitting the data packet to the further mobile station, the second mode of operation comprising the mobile station transmitting the data packet intended for the further mobile station directly to the further mobile station. 2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the mobile station includes a table to store a hardware address of the further mobile station. 3. The system according to claim 2, wherein the hardware address has a timer value associated therewith. 4. The system according to claim 3, wherein, when the timer value reaches a limit value, the hardware address is removed from the table. 5. The system according to claim 3, wherein the mobile station initiates communication with the further mobile station using the second mode of operation before an expiration of the timer value. 6. The system according to claim 1, wherein the mobile station switches from the first mode of operation to the second mode of operation when the mobile station hears an acknowledgment signal transmitted from the further mobile station to the access point. 7. The system according to claim 1, wherein the mobile station switches from the first mode of operation to the second mode of operation when the further mobile station enters a radio frequency coverage area of the mobile station. 8. The system according to claim 1, wherein the further mobile station uses the first mode of operation and the second mode of operation to transmit a further data packet to the mobile station. 9. The system according to claim 8, wherein the further mobile station includes a table to store a hardware address of the mobile station. 10. The system according to claim 1, wherein the mobile station operates in the second mode of operation to transmit the data packet to the further mobile station and operates in the first mode of operation to transmit data packets to additional mobile stations without leaving the second mode of operation. 11. A mobile station, comprising: a processor; and a memory storing a set of instructions for execution on the processor; wherein the set of instructions comprises a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation, the first mode of operation comprising the mobile station transmitting a data packet intended for a further mobile station to an access point connected to a network, and the access point transmitting the data packet to the further mobile station, the second mode of operation comprising the mobile station transmitting the data packet intended for the further mobile station to the further mobile station. 12. The mobile station according to claim 11, wherein the mobile station includes a table to store a hardware address of the further mobile station. 13. The mobile station according to claim 12, wherein the hardware address has a timer value associated therewith. 14. The mobile station according to claim 13, wherein when the timer value reaches a limit value, the hardware address is removed from the table. 15. The mobile station according to claim 11, wherein the mobile station operates in the first mode of operation to transmit data packets to additional mobile stations without leaving the second mode of operation. 16. A method, comprising: checking a field of a media access control frame transmitted to a mobile station; adjusting transmission power of the mobile station based on a value in the field; and transmitting a next media access control frame using the adjusted transmission power. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein the field is one of a type field and a subtype field. 18. A method, comprising: sending a data packet destined for a mobile unit to an access point; listening for one of a transmission of the data packet by the access point to the mobile unit and a transmission of an acknowledgment by the mobile unit to the access point; adding an address of the mobile unit to a table when the one of the listened for transmissions is detected; and sending a further data packet destined for the mobile unit directly to the mobile unit when the address is present in the table. 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein the address is a media access control address. 20. The method according to claim 18, further comprising removing the address from the table when a timer value associated with the address expires. 21. The method according to claim 18, further comprising receiving an acknowledgment from the mobile unit after the mobile unit has received the further data packet. 22. The method according to claim 18, further comprising resending the further data packet to the mobile unit when a timer expires before reception of an acknowledgment. 23. The method according to claim 18, further comprising resending the further data packet to the access point when a timer expires before reception of an acknowledgment. | BACKGROUND A conventional system may utilize a mobile unit that transmits and receives signals according to a wireless communication protocol (e.g., the IEEE 802.11 standard). The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two different types of networks: an ad-hoc network, or independent basic service set (“IBSS”), and an infrastructure network, or extended service set (“ESS”). In the infrastructure network, the mobile unit communicates with a further mobile unit or network device through an access point in conjunction with a distribution system (e.g., WAN, WWAN, LAN, WLAN, PAN, WPAN, etc.). Whereas, in the ad-hoc network, the mobile unit communicates directly with a further mobile unit or other network device. Under the 802.11 standard, the ad hoc network and the infrastructure network are mutually exclusive of each other. That is, if the mobile unit desired to connect to a printer, the printer could be added to the infrastructure network, thereby becoming a network resource available to the entire network. The mobile unit would communicate with the printer via the access point. In contrast, the mobile unit may establish exclusive communication with the printer by first disconnecting from the infrastructure network and switching to the ad-hoc network, where the mobile unit communicates directly with the printer without utilizing the access point. As currently implemented, the infrastructure network and the ad-hoc network have inherent disadvantages. For example, if the printer is added to the infrastructure network, data sent to the printer adds an additional load to network traffic, and the printer is subject to unwanted network activity. However, if the printer communicates with the mobile unit in an ad-hoc network, the mobile unit must disconnect from the infrastructure network. Thus, there presents a need for a simultaneous infrastructure/ad-hoc operating mode, or simultaneous basic service set (“SBSS”), whereby the mobile unit can maintain connection to the infrastructure network, while sending data directly to the printer. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A system having a mobile station and an access point which connects the mobile station to a network. The mobile station has a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation. In the first mode of operation, the mobile station transmits a data packet intended for a further mobile station to the access point and the access point transmits the data packet to the further mobile station. In the second mode of operation, the mobile station transmits the data packet intended for the further mobile station directly to the further mobile station. In addition, a mobile station having a processor and a memory storing a set of instructions for execution on the processor. The set of instructions comprises a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation. In the first mode of operation, the mobile station transmits a data packet intended for a further mobile station to an access point connected to a network, and the access point transmits the data packet to the further mobile station. In the second mode of operation, the mobile station transmits the data packet intended for the further mobile station to the further mobile station. Furthermore, a method for checking a field of a media access control frame transmitted to a mobile station, adjusting transmission power of the mobile station based on a value in the field and transmitting a next media access control frame using the adjusted transmission power. A method for sending a data packet destined for a mobile unit to an access point, listening for one of a transmission of the data packet by the access point to the mobile unit and a transmission of an acknowledgment by the mobile unit to the access point, adding an address of the mobile unit to a table when the one of the listened for transmissions is detected and sending a further data packet destined for the mobile unit directly to the mobile unit when the address is present in the table. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an exemplary embodiment of a system utilizing a first mode of operation according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is an exemplary embodiment of the system of FIG. 1 utilizing both the first mode of operation and a second mode of operation according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is an exemplary embodiment of an architecture of a mobile station according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is an exemplary embodiment of a MAC frame according to the present invention. FIG. 5 is a detailed view of a frame body of the MAC frame of FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a detailed view of a frame control field of the frame body of FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a table of type values and associated descriptions according to the present invention. FIG. 8 is a table of subtype values and associated descriptions according to the present invention. FIG. 9 is an exemplary embodiment of the system using a first mode of operation according to the present invention. FIG. 10 is an exemplary embodiment of the system of FIG. 9 using a second mode of operation according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is an exemplary embodiment of the system of FIG. 10 reverting to the first mode of operation. FIG. 12 is ane exemplary embodiment of a table of hardware addresses according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is an exemplary embodiment of a method for adding a hardware address to the table of a receiving mobile station. FIG. 14 is an exemplary embodiment of a method for determining which mode of operation to use according to the present invention. FIG. 15 is an exemplary embodiment of a method for transmitting a data packet according to the present invention. FIG. 16 is an exemplary embodiment of a method for entering the hardware address of the mobile station in the table of a further mobile station according to the present invention. FIG. 17 is an exemplary embodiment of a pairing timer according to the present invention. FIG. 18 is an exemplary embodiment of a power adjustment mechanism for the mobile station receiving the data packet according to the present invention. FIG. 19 is an exemplary embodiment of the power adjustment mechanism of FIG. 18 for the mobile station transmitting the data packet according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention may be further understood with reference to the following description and the appended drawings, wherein like elements are referred to with the same reference numerals. As shown in FIG. 1, the present invention includes a system 5 which provides for a multi-mode radio operation. The system 5 includes a wireless network 10 (e.g., WLAN, WPAN) that is connected to an access point 15 (“AP”). According to the present invention, a first mobile station 20 (“MS”) (e.g., PC, laptop, cell phone, PDA, hand-held computer, radio transceiver, etc.) may desire to communicate with a second MS 25. The first MS 20 and the second MS 25 operate according to an existing communication protocol, such as the IEEE 802.11 standard. As such, both the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 may have similar functionality, capabilities and components (e.g., processors, antennas, memory, etc.), including those described herein. In other embodiments of the present invention, the second MS 25 may be a receiver device (e.g., a printer, a headset, etc.). Though the invention may be described with regard to the first MS 20, those skilled in the art would understand that the present invention may be applied to any radio transceiver communicating over a network. Thus, the terms “first” and “second” are not limiting, but only provided for clarity and illustration of the exemplary embodiments of the invention. The first MS 20 has a first mode of operation, which is based on the existing communication protocol, such as the IEEE 802.11 standard. In the first mode of operation, the first MS 20 desires to send a data packet to the second MS 25. As is known in the art, and according to the 802.11 standard (e.g., the infrastructure network), the first MS 20 transmits the data packet to the AP 15 that is associated with the first MS 20. If the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 are associated with the AP 15, the AP 15 then transmits the data packet to the second MS 25. However, if the second MS 25 is not associated with the AP 15, the AP 15 transmits the data packet to the wireless network 10, which, in turn, transmits the data packet to a further AP which is associated with the second MS 25. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, any number of APs may be connected to the wireless network 10. The transmission of the data packet from the first MS 20 to the AP 15, in a wireless setting such as described herein, is known in the art as a “hop.” Thus, according to the 802.11 standard, the minimum number of hops that is required to transmit the data packet from the first MS 20 to the second MS 25 is two hops: one hop from the first MS 20 to the AP 15, and a second hop from the AP 15 to the second MS 25. The minimum two hops happens only when the AP 15 is associated with the first MS 20 and the second MS 25. The first MS 20 is further capable of utilizing a second mode of operation, shown in FIG. 2, based on the existing communication protocol. In the second mode, and according to the present invention, the first MS 20 intends to transmit the data packet to the second MS 25. However, in the second mode, the transmission of the data packet can be accomplished in one hop. That is, the first MS 20 can transmit the data packet directly to the second MS 25, without having to utilize the AP 15. As will be described herein, the second mode of operation is usable under certain conditions. However, the present invention allows the simultaneous use of both the first and second modes by the MSs 20,25. Thus, the first MS 20 may not have to disconnect from the wireless network 10 when communicating directly with the second MS 25. With reference to FIG. 2, the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 may be paired to form a local cell 30. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the local cell 30 is defined by a communicable range in which the first MS 20 can transmit and receive radio frequency (“RF”) signals. The local cell 30 may be located within an AP cell 35 which is defined by an RF transmit/receive range of the AP 15. To successfully communicate using the second mode of operation, the second MS 25 must be within the local cell 30 (i.e., MS 20 and MS 25 are within communicable range of each other). However, as will be described below, the MS 20 may remain in the second mode even if the MS 25 moves out of communicable range. Forming the local cell 30 may be accomplished in several ways. In one exemplary embodiment, the first MS 20 may be manually paired to the second MS 25. Manual pairing may be accomplished by, for example, entering a hardware address of the second MS 25 into a table 200, or near-list, contained within the first MS 20, which is shown in FIG. 12 and described below. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the term “hardware address” may be used to describe any unique address associated with a mobile device, for example, a media access control (“MAC”) address and/or basic service set identification (“BSSID”) throughout the application. Those terms may be used interchangeably throughout this description. The table 200 may further include a set of parameters associated with the hardware address. In this exemplary embodiment, the first MS 20 may be a mobile computer that is manually paired to the second MS 25 which is a dedicated printer. In this manner, the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 may only look for and communicate with each other. Any other activity in the AP cell 35 may go through the AP 15. However, in the same embodiment the MSs 20,25 may receive transmissions from other MSs within the AP cell 35. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the local cell 30 may further include any other MSs that are in communicable range with the first MS 20. The first MS 20 may be manually paired with any number of other MSs that are within the local cell 30 at a given time. Hardware addresses for the other MSs may be manually entered into the table 200 of the first MS 20. For example, the first MS 20 may be the mobile computer which is manually paired to the second MS 25 which is the dedicated printer. The local cell 30 formed by the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 may further include a further MS which may be a data capture device (e.g., bar code scanner, RFID reader, Magstripe reader, etc.). In a further embodiment, the local cell 30 may be formed automatically. In this embodiment, the first MS 20 can monitor and track any MS that comes within the local cell 30. For example, if the second MS 25 is located within the AP cell 35, but not within the communicable range of the first MS 20, the hardware address of the second MS 25 will not be in the table 200 of the first MS 20. However, when the second MS 25 moves into the communicable range of the first MS 20, the first MS 20 may include the hardware address of the second MS 25 in the table 200. This process will be described in further detail below. FIG. 3 shows an exemplary embodiment of a computing architecture 37 of the first MS 20. The architecture 37 allows the first MS 20 to utilize the first and second modes of operation. Specifically, the architecture 37 allows the first MS 20 to communicate directly with the second MS 25 without disconnecting from the wireless network 10. Operation of the computer architecture 37 will be described in further detail below. According to the present invention, transmission of a data packet from the first MS 20 to the second MS 25 may be accomplished using a MAC frame 40, an exemplary embodiment of which is seen in FIG. 4. The MAC frame 40 includes a frame header 50, a frame body 55 and a frame check sequence (“FCS”) 60. The frame header 50 typically has a 30 byte capacity, while the frame body 55 has a 2312 byte capacity and the FCS 60 has a 6 byte capacity. Each MAC frame 40 may correspond to a different function. For example, the MAC frame 40 may be used for a control function, a management function or a data function. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the frame body 55 may change (e.g., capacity, format, content, etc.) based on the function to be accomplished. The frame header 50 of the MAC frame 40 is shown in further detail in FIG. 5. Components and properties of the frame header 50 are generally known in the art. The frame header 50 includes a frame control field 65 adjacent to a duration/identification field 70, each of which may have a 2 byte capacity. The duration/identification field 70 for the data function represents the duration of the MAC frame 40, whereas for the control function, the field 70 represents an identity of the wireless station that initiated the transmission. A first address field 75 follows the duration/identification field 70 and represents a source address of the transmission (e.g., the hardware address of the first MS 20). A second address field 80 adjacent to the first address field 75 represents a destination address of the transmission (e.g., the hardware address of the second MS 25). A third address field 85 adjacent to the second address field 80 represents a receiving station address. As shown in FIG. 5, a sequence control field 90 may be adjacent to the third address field 85. The sequence control field 90 may have a 2 byte capacity. A fourth address field 95 represents a transmitting station address. In an exemplary embodiment, each address field 75,80,85,95 may have a 6 byte capacity, but the present invention may be implemented regardless of the size. An expanded view of the frame control field 65 is shown in FIG. 6. As noted above, the frame control field 65 has a 2 byte capacity, and the expanded view shows a bit-by-bit view. A protocol version field 100 is shown as the first portion of the frame control field 65. The protocol version field 100 is typically set to zero. A type field 105 and a subtype field 110 follow the protocol version field 100, and together describe the function (e.g., data, control, management) of the MAC frame 40. A “to DS” field 115 is adjacent to the subtype field 110. When the “to DS” field 115 has a one value, the MAC frame is transmitted to the distribution system. Adjacent to the “to DS” field 115 is a “from DS” field 120. When the “from DS” field 120 has a one value, the MAC frame has come from the distribution system. Further included in the frame control field 65 is a “more frag” field 125, which is located adjacent to the “from DS” frame 120. A one value in the “more frag” field 125 represents that one or more fragment frames may follow, whereas a zero value represents that this MAC frame 40 is an unfragmented frame or a last MAC frame. Adjacent to the “more frag” field 125 is a retry field 130, which, if a one value is present, indicates that this MAC frame 40 is a retransimission. A power management field 135 is seen disposed adjacent to the retry field 130. A one value indicates that the wireless station is in active mode, whereas a zero value indicates that the wireless station is in a power-save mode (e.g., sleep mode). Further included in the frame control field 65 is a “more data” field 140, which is disposed adjacent to the power management field 135. A one value in the “more data” field 140 indicates that an additional MAC frame(s) is buffered with the intention to be sent to the destination address of the transmission. A one value in a wired equivalent privacy (“WEP”) field 145 indicates that the data packet has been processed with a WEP algorithm. As understood by those skilled in the art, WEP is a security protocol for a WLAN, as defined in the 802.11 standard. A final field in the frame control field 65 is an order field 150, which, if a one value is present, indicates that the MAC frames must be strictly ordered when transmitted/received. As noted above, the type field 105 together with the subtype field 110 describe the function of the MAC frame 40. As seen in FIG. 7, a “00” type value indicates that the MAC frame 40 will perform the management function; a “Ol” type value indicates a control function; a “10” indicates a data function. A “11” type value is designated as reserved, according to the 802.11 standard. Thus, using the reserved type, each function (e.g., management, control, data) may have up to eight reserved subtypes, those dedicated to the function (four) plus the reserved type (four). For example, the data function may have up to eight dedicated subtypes (e.g., 1000 hex through 1111 hex). An exemplary embodiment of proposed type and subtype combinations is shown in FIG. 8. The subtype field 110 may comprise four bit values (i.e., b4-b7), each of which may indicate an event, status, setting, change, etc. For example, in the exemplary embodiment shown, the b6 value may indicate a power change. As such, a power increase may be indicated by a zero value, whereas a power decrease value may be indicated by a one. In this manner, the b6 value may be used to signify an increase or decrease in transmit power. The b7 value may be used to identify to further wireless stations that this MAC frame 40 came from the wireless station operating according to the second mode of operation. The first and second modes of operation will now be described in further detail. As shown in FIG. 9, the system 5 includes the AP 15, the first MS 20, the second MS 25 and a third MS 155. Each MS 20,25,155 has a radio frequency (“RF”) coverage area 160,165,170, respectively, associated therewith, which defines the range that the MS can effectively transmit and receive RF signals. According to the first mode of operation, the first MS 20 intends to send a data packet to the second MS 25, but does not know that the second MS 25 is within the coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. As such, the first MS 20 sends a data packet source signal 175 to the AP 15. The AP 15 sends an AP acknowledgment signal 180 back to the first MS 20 confirming receipt of the data packet source signal 175. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the AP 15 may not send the AP acknowledgment signal 180 if, for example, the data packet source signal 175 has been distorted, is unrecognizable or corrupted. The AP 15 then relays the data packet to the second MS 25 using a data packet destination signal 185. The second MS 25 sends an MS acknowledgment signal (“ACK”) 190 back to the AP 15 to confirm receipt of the data packet destination signal 185. According to the present invention, the first MS 20, after sending the data packet source signal 175, begins listening for transmissions from other wireless stations (e.g., APs, MSs) within its RF coverage area 160. Specifically, the first MS 20 listens for the data packet destination signal 185 from the AP 15 and/or the MS acknowledgment signal 190 from the second MS 25. The first MS 20 may not hear the data packet destination signal 185 if, for example, the second MS 25 is not located within the AP cell 35. That is, if the second MS 25 is associated with a further AP connected to the network 10, the AP 15 may transmit the data packet destination signal 185 to the further AP via the network 10. Thus, the first MS 20 may not hear the data packet destination signal 185 transmitted from the further AP, which is outside of the local cell 30. Similarly, the first MS 20 may not hear the MS acknowledgment signal 190 if the second MS 25 is outside of the local cell 30. If the first MS 20 hears one or both of the signals 185,190, the first MS 20 may assume that the second MS 25 is within the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. As such, the first MS 20 may switch to the second mode of operation and may send a further data packet signal(s) 195 directly to the second MS 25, without utilizing the AP 15. The second MS 25 may then send the MS acknowledgment signal 190 to the first MS 20, rather than the AP 15. If, however, the first MS 20 does not hear the data packet destination signal 185 and/or the MS acknowledgment signal 190, then the first MS 20 may continue to send data packet signals according to the first mode of operation (i.e., through the AP 15). Also, if the first MS 20 sends the further data packet signal 195 to the second MS 25 and does not receive the MS acknowledgment signal 190 from the second MS 25, the first MS 20 may abort communication using the second mode of operation, and revert to the first mode of operation. This may happen when, for example, the second MS 25 moves out of the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. After the first MS 20 has received an indication that the second MS 25 is within the RF coverage area 160, the first MS 20 may include the hardware address of the second MS 25 in the table 200. Thus, the first MS 20 may continue communicating with the second MS 25 using the second mode of operation, until, for example, the second MS 25 moves out of the RF coverage area 160. However, the first MS 20 may maintain the hardware address of the second MS 25 in the table 200 for a predetermined amount of time which will be explained further below. As shown in FIG. 10, the second MS 25 has re-entered the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20 after temporarily moving out of the RF coverage area 160. The first MS 20 retains the hardware address of the second MS 25 for a predetermined time after the hardware address is stored on the first MS 20. This timing will be described in greater detail below. Thus, the first MS 20 may immediately initiate communication with the second MS 25 using the second mode of operation during this predetermined time period. That is, the first MS 20 does not have to wait to hear the MS acknowledgment signal 190 from the second MS 25 to initiate the second mode of operation. Thus, the first MS 20 may assume that the second MS 25 remains within the RF coverage area 160 and send the data packet source signal 175 directly to the second MS 25. If the first MS 20 receives the MS acknowledgment signal 190 from the second MS 25, the first MS 20 thereby confirms the second MS 25 remains in the local cell 30 and can continue to transmit further data packet signals 195 using the second mode. However, if the second MS 25 does not receive the data packet source signal 175, for example, because the second MS 25 has moved out of the RF coverage area 160, the first MS 20 will revert to the first mode to send the data packet as will be described below. As shown in FIG. 11, the first MS 20 may send the data packet source signal 175 or the further data packet signal 195 to the second MS 25, but the second MS 25 may have vacated the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. Accordingly, the first MS 20 may attempt a predetermined number of retransmissions, with a uniform or exponential time interval (e.g., backoff) between each attempted retransmission. However, when the predetermined number of retransmissions reaches zero, or the predetermined time expires, the first MS 20 may remove the hardware address of the second MS 25 from the table 200. Thus, the first MS 20 may have to reacquire the hardware address of the second MS 25 at a later time, for example, when the second MS 25 moves back into the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. A further embodiment of the present invention involves utilization of the second mode of operation by the second MS 25. In this embodiment, the first MS 20 has previously sent the data packet source signal 175 and/or the further data packet signal 195 to the second MS 25. When the second MS 25 receives the signals 175,195, a logic circuit in the second MS 25 checks the fourth address field 95 to determine the hardware address of the wireless station that transmitted the data packet. Those of skill in the art will understand that the logic circuit as described herein may be implemented in software or hardware. Furthermore, any wireless station, including the first MS 20, may include the logic circuit described herein. If the fourth address field 95 has the hardware address of the AP 15 associated with the second MS 25, then the second MS 25 may assume that the first MS 20 is not within the RF coverage area 165 of the second MS 25, and the second MS 25 may transmit/receive data packets according to the first mode of operation. However, if the fourth address field 95 has the hardware address of the first MS 20, then the second MS 25 may assume that the first MS 20 is trying to initiate communication using the second mode of operation. The second MS 25 may then add the hardware address of the first MS 20 to the table 200 in the second MS 25 which lists the hardware addresses of any wireless station within the RF coverage area 165 of the second MS 25. As noted above, the second MS 25 may revert back to the first mode of operation after a predetermined number of failed retransmissions to the first MS 20 or a counter in the second MS 25 reaches zero or a predetermined number. An exemplary embodiment of the table 200 is shown in FIG. 12. The table 200 will be described with reference to the first MS 20, but those of skill in the art will understand that any wireless station may include the table 200. The table 200 may include a hardware address field 205, a timer field and/or retransmission field 210. The hardware address field 205 may include the hardware addresses of any of the wireless stations (e.g., the AP 15, the second MS 25, the third MS 155) within the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. The timer field 210 may include timer values that are associated with each hardware address in the hardware address field 205. For example, as seen in FIG. 12, the hardware address “00:A0:F8:23:EA:F7” has the timer value “5000” associated therewith. As noted above, the timer value may decrement to zero from a predetermined value (e.g., 45000 milliseconds), or increment to a predetermined value. The timer field 210 may alternatively be the retransmission field, which counts a number of failed retransmissions. According to the present invention, once the timer value reaches a limit value (e.g., zero, predetermined number), the hardware address associated therewith, and thus, the wireless station, may be removed from the table 200. As such, the first MS 20 may no longer initiate communication with that wireless station using the second mode of operation. However, the hardware address previously removed may be re-added to the table 200 if the wireless station re-enters the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the wireless station or device that has been manually paired with the first MS 20 may have the timer value associated therewith set to a value that reflects such a manually pairing. For example, as shown in FIG. 12, the hardware address “00:0B:F2:00:10:60” has the timer value set to zero. This may indicate that the hardware address should not be removed, unless done so manually (i.e., no decrement or increment to the timer value). The table 200 may further include a sorted list 215 (e.g., a fixed array of pointers) to optimize searches and resorting of the table 200 when, for example, hardware addresses are added/removed. When the hardware address needs to be found in the hardware address field 205, a binary search algorithm may be used on the sorted list 215 to quickly resolve the presence of the searched for hardware address. Similarly, when a new hardware address is appended to the table 200, the sorted list 210 may be re-organized to include the new hardware address. In this manner, less manipulation of a memory in the first MS 20 may be required. However, any search algorithm may be implemented based on the particular requirements of an individual system. Operation of the logic circuit, which checks the hardware address of the received data packet against the list of hardware addresses in the table 200, is shown generally by the exemplary method 300 in FIG. 13. In step 305, the second MS 25 receives the data packet from the wireless station. In step 310, the logic circuit in the second MS 25 checks the fourth address field 95 of the MAC frame 40 to determine whether the data packet came from the AP 15 or the first MS 20. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the second MS 25 may assume that the data packet came from another MS if the fourth address field 95 does not contain the hardware address of the AP with which the second MS 25 is currently associated (e.g., the AP 15). If the data packet came from the AP 15, then the second MS 25 processes the MAC frame 40 in the normal manner, as seen in step 325. However, if the data packet came from the first MS 20, as seen in step 315, then the second MS 25 checks its table 200 to determine if the hardware address of the first MS 25 is entered in the table 200. If the hardware address of the first MS 20 was found in the table 200, the timer value associated therewith is reset and the second MS 25 processes the MAC frame 40, as seen in step 325. As seen in step 320, if the hardware address of the first MS 20 was not in the table 200 of the second MS 25, then the hardware address is added to the table 200 and the table 200 is resorted. As understood by those skilled in the art, resetting the timer value in step 325 and adding the hardware address in step 320 may enable the second MS 25 to initiate communication with the first MS 20 using the second mode of operation by assuming that the first MS 20 is within RF coverage area 165. The timer value for the hardware address may be set via, for example, a management information base (“MIB”) configuration parameter, and begins to increment/decrement. In step 325, the MAC frame 40 is processed by the second MS 25. A decision by the first MS 20 regarding which mode of operation to use is shown generally by the exemplary method 400 in FIG. 14. In step 405, the logic circuit determines whether the second mode of operation is enabled. If not enabled, the first MS 20 transmits the data packet according to the first mode of operation, as shown in step 410. If the second mode of operation is enabled, the method 400 proceeds to step 415, wherein the logic circuit in the first MS 20 determines whether the hardware address of the destination MS (e.g., the second MS 25) is listed in the table 200 of the first MS 20. In step 420, if the hardware address of the second MS 25 is not in the table 200, the data packet is tagged to be sent to the AP 15. The first MS 20 then enables the auto-pairing by beginning to listen for the data packet destination signal 185 and/or the MS acknowledgment signal 190 within the RF coverage area 160 and adds the hardware address of the second MS 25 to its table 200, as seen in step 425. If the hardware address of the second MS 25 is in the table 200 of the first MS 20, step 430, then the data packet is tagged to be sent directly to the second MS 25. As understood by those skilled in the art, tagging may be accomplished by inserting the hardware address of the AP 15 or second MS 25 into the MAC frame 40. An exemplary embodiment of a method 500 of transmission of the data packet is shown in FIG. 15. In step 505, the first MS 20 determines whether the data packet is tagged to be sent directly to the second MS 25. If not, the first MS 20 transmits the data packet to the AP 15, as shown in step 510. If the data packet is tagged to be sent directly to the second MS 25, step 515 shows that the first MS 20 sets a fallback timer. As understood by those skilled in the art, the fallback timer may decrement from or increment to a predetermined value, which, when reached, may cause the first MS 20 to retransmit the data packet to the second MS 25 or transmit the data packet to the AP 15. As those skilled in the art would understand, transmission of the data packet to the AP 15 may include, for example, changing the hardware address in the fourth address field 95 and/or re-tagging the data packet to be sent to the AP 15. In step 520, the first MS 20 transmits the data packet to the second MS 25. After transmission, as seen in step 525, the first MS 20 determines whether it has received the MS acknowledgment signal 190 from the second MS 25 before the fallback timer reaches the predetermined value. If the MS acknowledgment signal 190 has not been received by the first MS 20 before the fallback timer reaches the predetermined value, the data packet is transmitted to the AP 15, as shown in step 510. If the MS acknowledgment signal 190 has been received by the first MS 20, then it may transmit the further data packet signal 195 directly to the second MS 25 and reset the fallback timer (when not a manual pairing). To further increase performance, the present invention may utilize the request to send/clear to send (“RTS/CTS”) mechanism defined by the 802.11 standard and well-known in the art. In this manner, the first MS 20 may complete a RTS/CTS handshake before transmitting the data packet over the wireless network. Use of the handshake may provide positive control over the wireless network and minimize collisions among wireless stations that may be hidden. An exemplary method 600 for automatically entering hardware addresses in the table 200 is shown in FIG. 16. In step 605, the first MS 20 hears the wireless station transmitting within the RF coverage area 160. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the wireless station does not have to transmit to the first MS 20, but is simply transmitting the data packet to another wireless station, which may be inside or outside the RF coverage area 160 of the first MS 20. In step 610, the first MS 20 determines whether the hardware address of the heard wireless station is currently included in the table 200. If the hardware address is in the table 200, the first MS 20 may reset the associated timer value. If the hardware address is not in the table 200, it is added to the table, as shown in step 615, and the timer value is set, as shown in step 620. The hardware address of the heard wireless station is maintained in the table 200 while the timer value is incremented/decremented. In step 625, the first MS 20 determines whether the timer value has reached the limit value, whereby the hardware address of the heard wireless station may be removed from the table 200. An exemplary embodiment of a pairing timer 700 used by the first MS will be described with respect to FIG. 17. In one embodiment, the first MS 20 may be active at all times, listening for other wireless stations within the RF coverage area 160. In a second embodiment, the first MS 20 may be active only for intervals of time. As shown in FIG. 17, the pairing timer 700 may include a first timer 705 and a second timer 710. The first timer 705 may be used for passive listening. That is, the first timer 705 may activate the first MS 20 for a predetermined time (e.g., 3-5 beacon intervals). The first timer 705 may allow the first MS 20 to hear wireless stations within the RF coverage area 160, thereby populating/updating the table 200 of the first MS 20. The first timer 705 may subsequently deactivate the first MS 20 after predetermined or MIB-defined intervals (e.g., 10 beacon intervals). As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the number of beacon intervals for activation/deactivation of the receiver may be optimized depending on the amount of traffic in the AP cell 35 and/or on the wireless network 10. The second timer 710 may be used to activate the first MS 20 after the data packet has been transmitted to the AP 15. In this manner, the first MS 20 is activated to listen for the data packet destination signal 185 from the AP 15 and/or the MS acknowledgment signal 190 from the second MS 20 for a predetermined or MIB-defined interval (e.g., 5-7 times the current beacon interval). As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the predetermined interval for listening for the signals 185,190 may be modified to increase the probability of hearing the signals 185,190 on the wireless network 10. Further optimization of the predetermined interval may be accomplished by averaging times between transmission of the data packet source signals 175 and heard data packet destination signals 185 and/or the MS acknowledgment signals 190. The present invention further provides for power adjustment of the first MS 20 (e.g., transmitting wireless station) by the second MS 25. Shown in FIG. 18 is an exemplary embodiment of a power adjustment mechanism 800 which may be utilized by the second MS 25 (e.g., wireless station receiving the data packet). In an idle state 805, the second MS 25 is idle, listening for traffic within its RF coverage area 165. In a packet processing state 810, the second MS 25 has received the data packet and begins packet processing. Along with standard packet processing, the logic circuit of the second MS 25 will determine whether the data packet came from the wireless station with its hardware address in the table 200 of the second MS 25 or the wireless station without its hardware address in the table 200 of the second MS 25. If the hardware address is not present in the table 200, the processing moves back to the idle state 805. If the hardware address is present in the table, the second MS 25 moves into an existing source state 815. In the existing source state 815, the subtype field 110 (shown in FIG. 6) in the frame control field 65 is checked to determine if it contains a power adjust subtype, such as those shown in FIG. 8. If the subtype field 110 does not contain the power adjust subtype, the processing moves back to the idle state 805. If the subtype field 110 does contain the power adjust subtype, the processing moves to an entry update state 820. Depending on the power adjust subtype, a power setting for the next transmission to the first MS 20 will be stored. For example, with reference to FIG. 8, the second MS 25 may indicate to the first MS 20 to increase the power of a next transmission by including a subtype value of “1000” in the subtype field 110. The present invention further provides for power adjustment of the second MS 25 (e.g., receiving wireless station) by the first MS 20. Shown in FIG. 19 is an exemplary embodiment of a power adjustment mechanism 900 which may be utilized by the first MS 20 (e.g., wireless station transmitting the data packet). In an idle state 905, the first MS 20 is idle, waiting for the data packet to transmit. In a packet processing state 910, the data packet is going to be transmitted from the first MS 20. The logic circuit of the first MS 20 determines whether the data packet will be sent to a wireless station with its hardware address in the table 200 of the first MS 25 or a wireless station without its hardware address in the table 200 of the first MS 25. If the hardware address is not present in the table 200, the processing moves to a transmit packet state 920, where the data packet is transmitted. If the hardware address is present in the table 200, the first MS 20 moves into an existing destination state 915. In the existing destination state 915, the hardware address of the second MS 25 has a previous received signal strength associated therewith. The previous received signal strength is compared with an optimal received signal strength stored in the first MS 20. The subtype value in the subtype field 110 may be adjusted to reflect the difference in the previous strength and the optimal strength. For example, the first MS 20 may input a “1000” value thereby instructing the second MS 25 to increase the power of its next transmission. When the subtype value has been adjusted, the processing moves to the transmit packet state 920. When the transmission has been completed, the processing returns to the idle state 905. The present invention further provides a mechanism for encrypting communication using the second mode of operation. As known by those skilled in the art, encryption is a mechanism that encodes transmitted data into a cipher-text to hide its meaning. In order for wireless stations to communicate directly, they may use a common set of encryption keys. For wireless stations that are paired manually, the encryption keys may be entered manually, as well. For wireless stations that are automatically paired, the process of associating with the AP 15 requires that the correct encryption keys be in place. The present invention further provides a mechanism for authentication, by which wireless stations accessing the wireless network 10 prove their identity. Manual pairing of wireless stations includes inherent authentication, because a user pairing the wireless stations authenticates each. Automatic pairing of wireless stations is inherent in the processed and mechanisms described above, because the wireless station that desires access to the wireless network 10, at some point, authenticates itself to the network 10. The present invention further provides a mechanism for layer management within the 802.11 standard. Association is a service that establishes an AP/MS mapping that enables the wireless station to access the distribution system. According to the present invention, the wireless station requiring access to the network 10, at some point, communicates with the AP 15. Disassociation is a service that removes an existing association, which occurs when the wireless station leaves the network. According to the present invention, wireless stations may leave the network 10 and remain paired. Re-association (i.e., roaming) is a service that transfers an established association between the MS and the AP from the AP to a further AP. Re-association remains a viable service when used in conjunction with the present invention. A synchronization service between the MSs 20,25 and the AP 15 is maintained through the above-described mechanisms utilizing beacon intervals and delivery traffic indication messages. A further service provided by the present invention is power management. As is known in the art, the MSs will go into sleep mode when they are inactive for a predefined period of time. Therefore, the MSs may never be heard by other MSs listening to activity in the wireless network 10. According to the present invention, the MS enters a modified sleep mode, whereby it periodically transmits a NULL data packet, or “chirps.” The chirps allow other wireless stations within the RF coverage area of the MS to establish communication therewith using the second mode of operation. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the periodicity of the NULL data packet transmissions may be varied and/or set at arbitrary values. The second mode of operation provides advantages not available when using solely the first mode of operation. For instance, the second mode of operation may increase the capacity of the system 5. As is known in the art, during a distributed coordination function (“DCF”), wireless stations (e.g., MSs, APs and any other wireless devices) contend temporally for access to the wireless network 10. The wireless stations use a network access mechanism, such as a carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (“CSMA/CA”) or a carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (“CSMA/CD”). CSMA/CA is a technique where the wireless station wishing to access the wireless network 10 listens to activity on the wireless network 10 before attempting a transmission. Activity on the wireless network 10 is derived from a carrier sensing mechanism provided by a physical layer of the 802.11 standard, which is known to those skilled in the art. By using CSMA/CA, the wireless station attempts to avoid collisions with activity on the wireless network by listening, rather than reacting to collisions detected (i.e., CSMA/CD). Another advantage provided by the second mode of operation is a decreased time for transmission of the data packet. As mentioned above, the minimum number of hops for transmission of the data packet is two hops. However, in the second mode of operation, the data packet is transmitted in one hop, because transmission through the AP 15 has been eliminated. Direct communication between the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 may increase overall throughput of the system 5, reduce latency of transmission of the data packet and reduce aggregate power of the system 5 which is consumed by transmission of the data packet. As understood by those skilled in the art, power consumption has an inversely proportional relationship with battery life. Thus, reduction of the aggregate power may extend the battery life. A further advantage provided by the second mode of operation is a decrease in an amount of noise present on the wireless network 10. As well as reducing traffic, transmissions between the first MS 20 and the second MS 25 may use a lower power because the MSs 20,25 may be within a close range. Close range communication may reduce interference within the wireless network 10. The above-described advantages are simply illustrative, and by no means exhaustive of the benefits of the present invention. The present invention may be further utilized in a person-to-person (“P2P”) voice system, a P2P priority system and a P2P communication system which utilizes a mesh network. The present invention has been described with the reference to the MSs 20,25, the AP 15, and the RF coverage areas 160,165. One skilled in the art would understand that the present invention may also be successfully implemented. Accordingly, various modifications and changes may be made to the embodiments without departing from the broadest spirit and scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims that follow. The specification and drawings, accordingly, should be regarded in an illustrative rather than restrictive sense. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>A conventional system may utilize a mobile unit that transmits and receives signals according to a wireless communication protocol (e.g., the IEEE 802.11 standard). The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two different types of networks: an ad-hoc network, or independent basic service set (“IBSS”), and an infrastructure network, or extended service set (“ESS”). In the infrastructure network, the mobile unit communicates with a further mobile unit or network device through an access point in conjunction with a distribution system (e.g., WAN, WWAN, LAN, WLAN, PAN, WPAN, etc.). Whereas, in the ad-hoc network, the mobile unit communicates directly with a further mobile unit or other network device. Under the 802.11 standard, the ad hoc network and the infrastructure network are mutually exclusive of each other. That is, if the mobile unit desired to connect to a printer, the printer could be added to the infrastructure network, thereby becoming a network resource available to the entire network. The mobile unit would communicate with the printer via the access point. In contrast, the mobile unit may establish exclusive communication with the printer by first disconnecting from the infrastructure network and switching to the ad-hoc network, where the mobile unit communicates directly with the printer without utilizing the access point. As currently implemented, the infrastructure network and the ad-hoc network have inherent disadvantages. For example, if the printer is added to the infrastructure network, data sent to the printer adds an additional load to network traffic, and the printer is subject to unwanted network activity. However, if the printer communicates with the mobile unit in an ad-hoc network, the mobile unit must disconnect from the infrastructure network. Thus, there presents a need for a simultaneous infrastructure/ad-hoc operating mode, or simultaneous basic service set (“SBSS”), whereby the mobile unit can maintain connection to the infrastructure network, while sending data directly to the printer. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A system having a mobile station and an access point which connects the mobile station to a network. The mobile station has a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation. In the first mode of operation, the mobile station transmits a data packet intended for a further mobile station to the access point and the access point transmits the data packet to the further mobile station. In the second mode of operation, the mobile station transmits the data packet intended for the further mobile station directly to the further mobile station. In addition, a mobile station having a processor and a memory storing a set of instructions for execution on the processor. The set of instructions comprises a first mode of operation and a second mode of operation. In the first mode of operation, the mobile station transmits a data packet intended for a further mobile station to an access point connected to a network, and the access point transmits the data packet to the further mobile station. In the second mode of operation, the mobile station transmits the data packet intended for the further mobile station to the further mobile station. Furthermore, a method for checking a field of a media access control frame transmitted to a mobile station, adjusting transmission power of the mobile station based on a value in the field and transmitting a next media access control frame using the adjusted transmission power. A method for sending a data packet destined for a mobile unit to an access point, listening for one of a transmission of the data packet by the access point to the mobile unit and a transmission of an acknowledgment by the mobile unit to the access point, adding an address of the mobile unit to a table when the one of the listened for transmissions is detected and sending a further data packet destined for the mobile unit directly to the mobile unit when the address is present in the table. | 20041124 | 20080212 | 20060525 | 58753.0 | H04B700 | 1 | NGUYEN, LEE | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR MULTI-MODE RADIO OPERATION | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04B | 2,004 |
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10,996,617 | ACCEPTED | Communicating data between an access point and multiple wireless devices over a link | The present invention provides a method and an apparatus for communicating data over a network between a communication node, for example, an access point having a first and a second antenna and a first and a second mobile station. The method comprises weighting a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weighting a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. A space division multiple access (SDMA) module may cause a transmission protocol to transmit the first data to the first mobile station on the downlink and transmit the second data to the second mobile station in parallel to the transmission of the first data on the downlink. In a telecommunication system, this substantially simultaneous transmission of the first and second data using a similar carrier frequency in a radio frequency communication over a wireless local area network (WLAN) may increase throughput of a downlink, for example, by a factor nominally equal to the number of antennas at an access point. | 1. A method for communicating data over a network between an access point having a first and a second antenna and a first and a second mobile station, the method comprising: weighting a first data at said access point to transmit said first data using said first and second antennas so that said first mobile station only receives said first data; and weighting a second data at said access point to transmit said second data using said first and second antennas so that said second mobile station only receives said second data. 2. A method, as set forth in claim 1, further comprising: transmitting said first data to said first mobile station on a downlink; and transmitting said second data to said second mobile station in parallel to the transmission of said first data on said downlink. 3. A method, as set forth in claim 1, further comprising: transmitting said first and said second data substantially simultaneously at a substantially similar carrier frequency in a radio frequency communication. 4. A method, as set forth in claim 3, further comprising: causing an increase in a downlink throughput by a factor nominally equal to the number of antennas at said access point. 5. A method, as set forth in claim 1, further comprising: increasing a first data rate of transmission of said first data and a second data rate of transmission of said second data using a single carrier frequency in a radio frequency communication based on a transmission protocol; discriminating transmissions of said first and said second data on a downlink in said radio frequency communication based on a spatial dimension; and applying a space division multiple access based on said transmission protocol to said transmissions to transmit said first and said second data substantially simultaneously from said access point to said first and second mobile stations, respectively. 6. A method, as set forth in claim 5, further comprising: defining at least one of said access point, said first and second mobile stations, and said downlink at least in part by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standard to establish said network including a wireless local area network; and coupling said access point to said first and second mobile stations through said wireless local area network. 7. A method, as set forth in claim 6, further comprising: estimating a first radio channel from said access point to said first mobile station over a pilot interval; and estimating a second radio channel from said access point to said second mobile station over said pilot interval. 8. A method, as set forth in claim 7, further comprising: initializing said transmission protocol before starting said transmissions of said first and second data over said downlink. 9. A method, as set forth in claim 8, wherein initializing said transmission protocol further comprising: exchanging one or more protocol data units and one or more acknowledgement frames between said access point and said first mobile station and said second mobile station. 10. A method, as set forth in claim 9, wherein initializing said transmission protocol further comprising: offsetting transmission of a first protocol data unit of said one or more protocol data units from said access point to said first mobile station relative to transmission of a second protocol data unit of said one or more protocol data units from said access point to said second mobile station by a predetermined time. 11. A method, as set forth in claim 9, wherein initializing said transmission protocol further comprising: shifting transmission of said first data relative to transmission of said second data; and canceling an interference based on synchronization between a first and a second acknowledgement frame of said one or more acknowledgement frames at said access point to recover said first acknowledgement frame that at least partially overlaps said second acknowledgement frame based on the shifted transmissions of said first and second data. 12. A method, as set forth in claim 11, further comprising: re-estimating said first radio channel associated with the recovered said first acknowledgement frame. 13. A method, as set forth in claim 12, further comprising: receiving one or more pilot symbols and one or more synchronization symbols of said first acknowledgement frame on a set of uncorrupted sub-carriers of a multiplicity of sub-carriers; computing estimates of said first radio channel at the uncorrupted sub-carrier frequencies based on at least one of the pilot symbols and the synchronization symbols of said first acknowledgement frame received on the multiplicity uncorrupted sub-carriers; and computing estimates of said first radio channel at a set of corrupted sub-carriers of said multiplicity of sub-carriers using the computed estimates at the uncorrupted sub-carrier frequencies. 14. A method, as set forth in claim 13, wherein computing estimates of said first radio channel at a set of corrupted sub-carriers of said multiplicity of sub-carriers using the computed estimates at the uncorrupted sub-carrier frequencies further comprises: applying interpolation in a frequency domain based on the computed channel estimates to compute estimates of said first radio channel at a set of corrupted sub-carriers of said multiplicity of sub-carriers. 15. A method, as set forth in claim 13, wherein computing estimates of said first radio channel at a set of corrupted sub-carriers of said multiplicity of sub-carriers using the computed estimates at the uncorrupted sub-carrier frequencies further comprises: computing estimates of said first radio channel at a set of corrupted sub-carriers of said multiplicity of sub-carriers based on the synchronization symbols of said first acknowledgement frame. 16. A method, as set forth in claim 9, further comprising: using a time division multiple access protocol to partition a radio resource including a channel across a space division multiple access mode and a non-space division multiple access mode of said access point; and reserving a portion of said channel for a transmission based on said space division multiple access protocol in said space division multiple access mode of said access point. 17. A communication node associated with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station, said communication node comprising: a first and a second antenna; a controller; and a memory storing instructions to cause said controller to weight a first data at said communication node to transmit said first data using said first and second antennas so that said first mobile station only receives said first data and weight a second data at said communication node to transmit said second data using said first and second antennas so that said second mobile station only receives said second data. 18. A communication node, as set forth in claim 17, wherein said communication node is an access point that transmits said first data to said first mobile station on a downlink and transmits said second data to said second mobile station in parallel to the transmission of said first data on said downlink. 19. A communication node, as set forth in claim 17, wherein said memory further storing: a transmission protocol; and a module to cause said transmission protocol to transmit said first data to said first mobile station on a downlink and transmit said second data to said second mobile station in parallel to the transmission of said first data on said downlink. 20. A communication node, as set forth in claim 17, further comprising: a communication interface coupled to said controller and said memory to transmit said first and said second data substantially simultaneously at a same carrier frequency in a radio frequency communication to increase a downlink throughput by a factor nominally equal to the number of antennas at said communication node. 21. A communication node, as set forth in claim 18, wherein said access point is coupled to said first and second mobile stations through said network including a wireless local area network and at least one of said access point, said first and second mobile stations, and said downlink are defined at least in part by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standard. 22. A telecommunication system comprising: an access point associated with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station, said access point including: a first and a second antenna, a controller, and a memory storing instructions to cause said controller to weight a first data at said access point to transmit said first data using said first and second antennas so that said first mobile station only receives said first data and weight a second data at said access point to transmit said second data using said first and second antennas so that said second mobile station only receives said second data. 23. A telecommunication system, as set forth in claim 22, wherein said access point transmits said first data to said first mobile station on a downlink and transmits said second data to said second mobile station in parallel to the transmission of said first data on said downlink to increase throughput on said downlink by a factor nominally equal to the number of antennas at said access point. 24. A telecommunication system, as set forth in claim 23, wherein said memory further storing: a transmission protocol; and a module to cause said transmission protocol to transmit said first and said second data substantially simultaneously at a same carrier frequency in a radio frequency communication and increase a first data rate of transmission of said first data and a second data rate of transmission of said second data. 25. A telecommunication system, as set forth in claim 24, wherein said access point is coupled to said first and second mobile stations through said network including a wireless local area network and at least one of said access point, said first and second mobile stations, and said downlink are defined at least in part by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standard. 26. An article comprising a computer readable storage medium storing instructions that, when executed cause a telecommunication system to: enable a communication node having a first and a second antenna to associate with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station; weight a first data at said access point to transmit said first data using said first and second antennas so that said first mobile station only receives said first data; and weight a second data at said access point to transmit said second data using said first and second antennas so that said second mobile station only receives said second data. 27. A method, as set forth in claim 9, wherein initializing said transmission protocol further comprises: delaying transmission of a first one of the protocol data units from said access point to said first mobile station relative to transmission of a second one of the protocol data units from said access point to said second mobile station by a predetermined time during a first period of operation; and delaying transmission of a third one of the protocol data units from said access point to said second mobile station relative to transmission of a fourth one of the protocol data units from said access point to said first mobile station by a predetermined time during a second period of operation. 28. A method, as set forth in claim 9, wherein initializing said transmission protocol further comprises: alternately delaying transmissions of the protocol data units from the access point to the first and second mobile stations, respectively. 29. A method, as set forth in claim 9, wherein initializing said transmission protocol further comprises: transmitting the protocol data units to the first and second mobile stations in a first preselected order during a first period of time and a second preselected order during a second period of time. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to telecommunications, and more particularly, to wireless communications. 2. Description of the Related Art Service providers are constantly exploring various ways to generate more revenue while meeting demands of customers in different network environments including Intranet, Extranet, and e-commerce applications. For instance, telecommunication service providers exchange fee-based wireless and wireline traffic between mobile users and communication nodes, such as access points (APs) over a network to provide a variety of services to residential and business customers. An access point may be a transceiver that connects devices on a wireless local area network (WLAN) to the wired infrastructure. While an access point may be used by service providers to assure end-to-end quality of service and bandwidth guarantees over different network environments, a telecommunication service provider may offer Internet Protocol (IP) telephony and other network enhanced communication services to these customers. In doing so, these providers may employ optical and wireless networks, Internet infrastructure, communications software to enable, for example, Web-based enterprise solutions that link private and public networks. One well-known standard, i.e., the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 specification describes the operation of mobile stations (MSs) and access points in a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). For a layered communication network protocol, this specification identifies both the physical layer (PHY), which details the nature of the transmitted signals, as well as the medium access control (MAC) layer, which defines a complete management protocol for interaction between mobile stations and access points. For more detailed discussion on the IEEE 802.11 standard (std.), one may refer to “Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) specifications,” published as IEEE std. 802.11, in 1999. Specifically, at least three versions of the IEEE 802.11 standard exist, all sharing the same MAC 802.11b layer which operates in the 2.4 Giga Hertz (GHz) frequency band and has a PHY layer based on code division multiple access (CDMA), offering a peak data rate of 11 Mega bit per second (Mbits/s). The 802.11a and 802.11g versions operate in the 5.2 and 2.4 GHz bands respectively, both sharing a PHY layer based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), offering a peak data rate of 54 Mbits/s. The IEEE 802.11 specification allows interoperability between wireless communication equipment from multiple vendors, and is commercially marketed as “Wi-Fi.” Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) has been studied extensively over the past few decades as a tool that uses spatial dimension to simultaneously transmit to, or receive from, multiple radios at the same carrier frequency. For more detailed discussion on the use of the spatial dimension to allow discrimination among multiple radio, one may refer to A. T. Alastalo, M. Kahola, “Smart-antenna operation for indoor wireless local-area networks using OFDM”, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 392-399, March 2003 and P. Vandenameele, L. Van Der Perre, M. G. E. Engels, B. Gyselinckx, H. J. De Man, “A combined OFDM/SDMA approach”, IEEE Journal on Select Areas of Communications, vol. 18, no. 11 pp. 2312-2321, November 2000. However, the application of SDMA to wireless mobile communication systems, especially to cellular systems, such as Global System of Mobile Communications (GSM), cdma2000 and Universal Mobile telecommunication Systems (UMTS) has not always been successful. While simple implementations in the form of a fixed sectorization have been found to be effective, more sophisticated schemes, such as dynamic beam-forming, have been difficult to implement due to serious incompatibilities with the multiple access protocols in the above-cited cellular systems. Therefore, the application of sophisticated techniques for increasing the data rates available to mobile stations on a downlink that both may comply with the IEEE 802.11a/g standard specifications has not been adequately addressed in the literature for many reasons. One reason for a lack of a high throughput downlink is that in most wireless LANs, the radio conditions are different at a transmitter and a receiver. As shown, FIG. 3 illustrates a stylized representation of a transmission protocol defined at least in part by IEEE 802.11 standard between a transmitter and a receiver where the transmitter transmits a MAC protocol data unit (MPDU) following listening and backoff, and in turn, the receiver transmits an acknowledgment (ACK) frame subject to a successful reception of the MPDU. The transmitter has no way of knowing whether the transmitted data was received correctly at the receiver. To this end, the IEEE 802.11 specifications state that upon a successful reception of a data burst (i.e., an MPDU), the receiver should send an acknowledgment frame (ACK) to the transmitter as confirmation. Should the transmitter not receive an ACK frame, it will assume a lost MPDU and will attempt re-transmission. The time interval between the last symbols of the MPDU and the first symbol of the ACK frame is referred to as a Short Inter-frame Space (SIFS) interval and is fixed at 16 μs in IEEE 802.11 networks. While the duration of a MPDU is arbitrary, the duration of an ACK frame is between 24 and 44 μs, depending upon the modulation and coding PHY parameters. More specifically, the IEEE 802.11 standard MAC protocol is based on carrier-sense multiple-access with collision-avoidance (CSMA/CA). This MAC protocol essentially describes a “listen before you talk” access mechanism, whereby a IEEE 802.11 radio (mobile or access point) listens to the communication medium before starting a transmission. If the communication medium is already carrying a transmission (i.e., the measured background signal level is above a specified threshold), the radio will not begin its transmission. In such circumstances, the radio enters a deferral mode, where it has to wait for a period over which the medium is idle before attempting to transmit. This period is the sum of a Deterministic Inter-frame Space (DIFS) interval (34 μs in 802.11a and g) and a stochastic backoff interval (a re-transmission delay) with discrete values uniformly distributed over a range. The value of this range doubles with every unacknowledged transmission, until a maximum limit is reached. Once a transmission is successfully received and acknowledged, the range is reduced to its minimum value for the next transmission. Providing increased downlink throughputs to legacy IEEE 802.11 mobile stations is an important distinguishing feature and marketing tool. However, multiple acknowledgement (ACK) bursts from different mobile stations may cause a reception problem upon their arrival at an access point. Likewise, accurate channel estimations may severely impact on successfully increasing the downlink throughputs. Therefore, without requiring a modification to the legacy IEEE 802.11 compliant mobile stations, a substantial increase in data rates using a single carrier frequency is not readily apparent on a downlink from an access point to the mobile stations in a WLAN. The present invention is directed to overcoming, or at least reducing, the effects of, one or more of the problems set forth above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment of the present invention, a method is provided for communicating data over a network between an access point having a first and a second antenna and a first and a second mobile station. The method comprises weighting a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weighting a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In another embodiment, a communication node is associated with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station. The communication node comprises a first and a second antenna, a controller and a memory storing instructions. The instructions cause the controller to weight a first data at the communication node to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the communication node to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In yet another embodiment, a telecommunication system comprises an access point associated with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station. The access point comprises a first and a second antenna, a controller and a memory storing instructions. The instructions cause the controller to weight a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In still another embodiment, an article comprises a computer readable storage medium storing instructions that, when executed cause a telecommunication system to enable a communication node having a first and a second antenna to associate with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station, weight a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention may be understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals identify like elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a telecommunication system including a communication node (e.g., an access point) having multiple antennas for simultaneous wireless communications of corresponding data over a network to a plurality of mobile users on a downlink according to one illustrative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a WLAN communication system including a SDMA downlink defined at least in part by IEEE 802.11 standard from the communication node (e.g., an access point) shown in FIG. 1 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 illustrates a stylized representation of a transmission protocol defined at least in part by IEEE 802.11 standard between a transmitter and a receiver where the transmitter transmits a MAC protocol data unit (MPDU) following listening and backoff, and in turn, the receiver transmits an acknowledgment (ACK) frame subject to a successful reception of the MPDU; FIG. 4 illustrates a stylized representation of a flow chart implementing a method for communicating a first and a second data from a first and a second antenna at the communication node (e.g., an access point) to a first and a second mobile station on the SDMA downlink shown in FIG. 2 consistent with one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates a stylized representation for SDMA transmissions based on the IEEE 802.11 standard on the SDMA downlink shown in FIG. 2 to the first and second mobile stations with the first and second antennas at the communication node (e.g., an access point) according to one illustrative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart to initialize the SDMA downlink for the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 according to one illustrative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart that depicts overlap of two synchronization segments for simultaneous SDMA transmission of MPDUs to the first and second mobile stations during the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 in accordance with one illustrative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart to impose a time-offset between the SDMA transmitted MPDUs for the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 in accordance with one illustrative embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart for channel estimation and alternating time-offset on the SDMA downlink to estimate a first radio channel associated with a reliably-recovered non-delayed first acknowledgement frame (ACK) such that identity of a user associated with the non-delayed MPDUs and ACKs be switched for successive SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 consistent with an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 10 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart for channel reservation for the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 that uses time division multiple access (TDMA) to partition a radio resource across SDMA and non-SDMA modes of the communication node (e.g., an access point) operation in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the description herein of specific embodiments is not intended to limit the invention to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS Illustrative embodiments of the invention are described below. In the interest of clarity, not all features of an actual implementation are described in this specification. It will of course be appreciated that in the development of any such actual embodiment, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developers' specific goals, such as compliance with system-related and business-related constraints, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time-consuming, but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. Generally, a communication node, e.g., an access point includes a plurality of antennas that simultaneously transmit information on a downlink to a plurality of mobile stations, e.g., laptops or wireless personal digital assistants (PDAs), in a cell over a network including a wireless local area network (WLAN). Essentially, an access point may weight a first data at the access point to transmit a first data using a first and a second antenna so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the access point to transmit a second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In some embodiments, advantageously the present invention may be adopted at the access point for substantially increasing a SDMA downlink throughput in an IEEE 802.11 cell such that the increase in the throughput involve no modification to IEEE 802.11 standard compliant mobile stations. For example, a near doubling of the throughput via two antennas at the access point 105a may be obtained. In other embodiments, the use of the present invention may reduce the overlap of the mobile station acknowledgement (ACK) bursts upon their arrival at the access point, providing increased throughputs to IEEE 802.11 mobile stations. Furthermore, a doubling of data rates using a single carrier frequency may be obtained on the SDMA downlink for the IEEE 802.11 mobile stations. In this manner, the access point may provide an improved throughput on the SDMA downlink for a WLAN network in a telecommunication system. Referring to FIG. 1, a telecommunication system 100 includes a communication node 105 having a first antenna 110(1) and a second antenna 110(m) for a simultaneous wireless communication of data over a network including a wireless local area network (WLAN) 115 to a plurality of mobile users on a downlink 120 according to one illustrative embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment, the communication node 105 may be an access point. For example, the access point may be a transceiver or a radio component in the WLAN 115 that operates as a transfer point between a wired and a wireless signal, and vice versa as a communication hub for users of a wireless device to connect to the WLAN 115. In other embodiment, the access point may be a base station that plugs into an Ethernet hub or to a server for a WLAN system cell, so that users may roam between access points. In another embodiment, the access point may operate as a bridge in a peer-to-peer connection. Being an interface between a wireless mobile communication network 125 and a wired network, e.g., a local area network (LAN) 130 of the WLAN 115, in one embodiment, the communication node 105, i.e., the access point may support multiple radio cells. These cells may enable roaming of a plurality of mobile devices, e.g., WLAN personal digital assistants, throughout a service area, such as in a facility. In this manner, according to one embodiment, the communication node 105 may transmit information to and receive information from mobile users to provide a service. Examples of the service include wireless data services, cellular services, Internet Protocol (IP) telephony and other communication services. Using the communication node 105, i.e., the access point, service providers may offer a full spectrum of service solutions that can address their customers' needs in provisioning services over Intranet, Extranet, and e-commerce solutions. In operation, at the communication node 105, i.e., the access point (AP), may weight a first data 135(1) at the communication node 105 to transmit the first data 135(1) using the first and second antennas 110(1-m) so that a first mobile station (MS) 145(1) only receives the first data 135(1) over a first radio channel (CH (1)) 140(1). The communication node 105 may weight a second data 135(k) to transmit the second data 135(k) in parallel to the first data 135(1) over a second radio channel (CH (k)) 140(1) to a second mobile station (MS) 145(k) during transmission of the first data 135(1) using the first and second antennas 110(1-m) so that the second mobile station 145(k) only receives the second data135(k). The first mobile station 145(1) may include a first mobile antenna 147(1) to communicate with the communication node 105 and likewise, second mobile station 145(k) may include a second mobile antenna 147(k). While an example of the first mobile station 145(1) may include a laptop computer, an example of the second mobile station 145(k) may include a wireless personal digital assistant (PDA). In one embodiment, the communication node 105 may transmit the first and said second data 135(1-k) substantially simultaneously at a same carrier frequency in a radio frequency communication. This substantially simultaneous transmission of the data 135(1-k) may increase throughput of the downlink 120 by a factor nominally equal to the number of antennas, i.e., “m”, at the communication node 105 or the access point. According to one embodiment, the communication node 105 may comprise a controller 150 and a memory 155. The memory 155 may store instructions to cause the controller 150 to weight the first data 135(1) at the communication node 105 to transmit the first data 135(1) using the first and second antennas 110(1-m) so that the first mobile station 145(1) only receives the first data 135(1). The memory 155 may further store instructions to cause the controller 150 to weight the second data 135(k) at the communication node 105 to transmit the second data 135(k) using the first and second antennas 110(1-m) so that the second mobile station 145(k) only receives the second data135(k). A communication interface 160 may be coupled to the controller 150 and the memory 155 to transmit the first and second data 135(1-k) substantially simultaneously. To this end, the memory 155 may further store a transmission protocol 160 and a space division multiple access (SDMA) module 170. The transmission protocol 160 may be responsible for forming data connections between the communication node 105 and the first and second mobile stations 145(1-k). The SDMA module 170 may cause the transmission protocol 160 to transmit the first data 135(1) to the first mobile station 145(1) on the downlink 120 and transmit the second data 135(k) to the second mobile station 145(k) in parallel to the transmission of the first data 135(1) on the downlink 120. The SDMA module 170 may increase the capacity of the telecommunication system 100, e.g., a WLAN radio system by taking advantage of spatial separation between users. The communication node 105, e.g., a base station may not transmit a transmission signal to an entire cell area, rather concentrate power of the transmission signal for parallel transmission of the first and second data 135(1-k) on the downlink 120 in the direction of the first and second mobile stations 145(1-k), respectively. By taking advantage of a spatial characteristic pertaining to space on Earth's surface (e.g., referring to distances, directions, areas and other aspects of space) of the first and second antennas 110(1-m) at the communication node 105, the SDMA module 170 may provide simultaneous access to multiple users, such as in radio frequency (RF) communications. Turning now to FIG. 2, a WLAN communication system 200 is shown to include a SDMA downlink 120a defined at least in part by the IEEE 802.11 standard from an access point 105a shown in FIG. 1 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Using a multiplicity of antennas, i.e., a first and a second antenna 110a(1-m), the access point 105a may transmit data including the first and second data 135(1-k) in parallel (e.g., simultaneously and at a same or single carrier frequency) to multiple IEEE 802.11a/g standard compliant wireless devices, i.e., a first and a second mobile station 145a(1-k) to first and a second antenna 147a(1-k), respectively. In this way, the SDMA downlink 120a may effectively double the throughput of the SDMA downlink 120a. In operation, the SDMA downlink 120a may use the spatial dimension to allow discrimination among a first and a second radio frequency transmission 205(1-k) at a data rate of 54 Mbits/s based on space division multiple access in the context of the IEEE 802.11 standard. The access point 105a may apply the transmission protocol 165 based on the SDMA module 170 to the first and second radio frequency transmissions 205(1-k) to transmit the first and said second data 135(1-k) substantially simultaneously from the access point 105a to the first and second mobile stations 145(1-k), respectively. To couple the access point 105a to the first and second mobile stations 145(1-k) through the WLAN 115, at least one of the access point 105a, the first and second mobile stations 145(1-k), and the SDMA downlink 120a may be defined at least in part by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standard to establish the network. The SDMA module 170 may estimate the first radio channel 140(1) from the access point 105a to the first mobile station 145(1) over a pilot interval and estimate the second radio channel 140(k) from the access point 105a to the second mobile station 145(k) over the pilot interval. A pilot interval may be a predetermined time period for transmission of a signal, either at a single frequency or several independent frequencies, for supervisory purposes including control, equalization, continuity, synchronization, or reference. For example, the access point 105a may transmit one or more pilot frequencies associated with a carrier frequency over the pilot interval. Before starting the first and second radio frequency transmissions 205(1-k) of the first and second data 135(1-k) over the SDMA downlink 120a, the transmission protocol 165 may be initialized. This initialization may entail exchanging one or more protocol data units, such as MAC layer protocol or packet data units (MPDUs) and one or more acknowledgement (ACK) frames between the access point 105a and the first mobile station 145(1) and the second mobile station 145(k). For example, a PDU may be a data object exchanged by the transmission protocol 165 within a given layer of a communication network protocol stack. A PDU may comprise both protocol control information and user data. Likewise, an ACK frame may be an acknowledgement portion of the transmission protocol 165 responsible for acknowledging the receipt of a transmission. An ACK frame may be either a separate packet or a piggy back packet on reverse link traffic. An ACK frame may be sent to indicate that a block of data arrived at its destination without error. For example, an ACK frame may be used for an end-to-end flow control to verify receipt of one or more frames in a service. As shown, FIG. 4 illustrates a stylized representation of a flow chart implementing a method for communicating the first and second data 135(1-k) from the first and second antennas 110a(1-m) at the access point 105a to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k) on the SDMA downlink 120a shown in FIG. 2 consistent with one embodiment of the present invention. At block 400, the SDMA module 170 may prepare data to communicate over the WLAN 115 between the access point 105a and the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k). The access point 105a may weight the first data 135(1) to transmit same using the first and second antennas 110a(1-m) so that the first mobile station 145a(1) only receives the first data 135(1) on the SDMA downlink 120a, as depicted in block 405. Similarly, as indicated at block 410, the access point 105a may weight the second data 135(k) for transmitting the same on the SDMA downlink 120a. That is, the access point 105a may transmit the second data 135(k) using the first and second antennas 110a(1-m) so that the second mobile station 145a(k) only receives the second data 135(k) during the transmission of the first data 135(1) to the first mobile station 145a(1) on the SDMA downlink 120a, as shown in block 410. Referring to FIG. 5, a stylized representation is depicted for SDMA transmissions based on the IEEE 802.11 standard over the SDMA downlink 120a shown in FIG. 2 to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k) with the first and second antennas 110a(1-m) at the access point 105a according to one illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The access point 105a may comprise a first weighter 500(1) to weight the first data 135(1) based on channel estimates of the first and second radio channels 140(1-k) as “w1(CH (1), CH (k)).” Likewise, the access point 105a may comprise a second weighter 500(k) to weight the second data 135(k) based on channel estimates of the first and second radio channels 140(1-k) as “wk (CH (1), CH (k)).” In operation, the weighted first and second data 135a(1-k) may be transmitted by both the antennas 110a(1-k) at the access point 105a over the associated first and second radio channels 140(1-k) to the first and the mobile stations 145a(1-k) for selective reception. The MAC layer protocol or packet data units, MPDU (1-k), and the acknowledgement (ACK) frames, ACK (1-k) may be exchanged between the access point 105a and the first mobile station 145a(1) and the second mobile station 145a(k), respectively. For simultaneous and co-channel transmission of independent data to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k), respectively, the access point 105a may obtain up-to-date estimates of the first and second radio channels 140(1-k) from the access point 105a to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k), respectively. That is, for the SDMA transmissions of the weighted first and second data 135a(1-k) to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k), respectively, with two (or more) antennas, i.e., the first and second antennas 110a(1-m) at the access point 105a, an initialization procedure for the SDMA downlink 120a, as shown in FIG. 2, based, at least in part, on the IEEE 802.11 standard may be initiated. Referring to FIG. 6, a stylized representation of a timing chart is illustrated to initialize the SDMA downlink 120a for the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 according to one illustrative embodiment of the present invention. To this end, a “SDMA initialization” procedure is initiated prior to commencement of a SDMA mode of operation at the access point 105a. In one embodiment, this “SDMA initialization” procedure involves that: (i). The access point 105a may transmit an MPDU to the first mobile station 145a(1) using equal weights at each antenna of the first and second antennas 110a(1-m). (ii). Upon successful reception of the MPDU, the first mobile station 145a(1) may respond with an ACK frame burst. The access point 105a may use a pilot segment of the received ACK frame to compute a fresh estimate of the first radio channel 140(1). (iii). The access point 105a may transmit an MPDU to the second mobile station 145a(k) using equal weights at each antenna of the first and second antennas 110a(1-m). (iv). Upon successful reception of the MPDU, the second mobile station 145a(k) may respond with an ACK frame burst. The access point 105a may use the pilot segment of the received ACK frame to compute a fresh estimate the second radio channel 140(k). (v). Channel estimates of the first and second radio channels 140(1-k) may then be used for SDMA transmissions, by the access point 105a, of the two independent MPDUs to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k), respectively. An unsuccessful reception of the MPDUs or ACK frames at any stage (i) to (iv) would indicate that the radio conditions are unsuitable for the SDMA transmissions for the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k) at this time. As a result, the current SDMA initialization procedure may then be abandoned, and a new SDMA initialization procedure may be commenced for a different pair of mobile stations. Turning now to FIG. 7, a stylized representation of a timing chart is illustrated that depicts overlap of two synchronization segments for simultaneous SDMA transmissions of MPDUs to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k) during the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 in accordance with one illustrative embodiment of the present invention. A simultaneous SDMA transmission of MPDUs (MPDU 1 and MPDU k) to the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k) may result in each mobile responding, after a period of time called SIFS, such as 16 μs, with an ACK burst. However, the two ACK bursts (ACK 1 frame and ACK k frame) may substantially overlap in time and mutually interfere upon arrival at the access point 105a. Each ACK burst may comprise a synchronization (S), pilot (P) and data segments. Apart from confirming a successful reception of the MPDUs, the pilot segments of the ACK bursts may be used to derive fresh channel estimates of the first and second radio channels 140(1-k) in preparation for the next SDMA transmissions. While the overlap of the two pilot segments may severely impede channel estimation, the overlap of the two synchronization segments may also severely degrade synchronization, as depicted in FIG. 7. To this end, FIG. 8 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart to impose a time-offset (To) between the SDMA transmitted MPDUs (MPDU 1 and MPDU k) for the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 in accordance with one illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The time-offset, To, between the SDMA transmitted MPDUs (MPDU 1 and MPDU k) may result in a similar time-offset in the ACK responses (ACK 1 frame and ACK k frame) of the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k). This time-offset reduces the interference between the two ACK frames, in particular during the critical synchronization and pilot intervals of the ACK 1 frame. Ideally, in one embodiment, a maximum value of this time-offset is 16 μs with no simultaneous transmission (Tx) and reception (Rx) at the access point 105a or the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k). However, to account for finite Tx/Rx switching times, a time-offset of 12 μs is used, as depicted in FIG. 8. Consistent with one embodiment, the ACK responses (ACK 1 frame and ACK k frame) may be recovered via interference cancellation at the access point 105a. Specifically, the two partially overlapping ACK bursts may be recovered via a procedure described below. i) Sample a received signal (e.g., at a Nyquist rate) synchronously with respect to the ACK 1 frame symbols. Synchronization may be achieved via the synchronization segment of ACK 1 frame. ii) Compute an over-sampled replica of a filtered second radio channel 140(k) synchronization and pilot segments of the ACK 2 frame, with samples synchronous with respect to the ACK 2 frame symbols. iii) Compute the contribution of the synchronization and pilot segments of the ACK 2 frame to the Nyquist-sampled received signal, e.g., by searching for the appropriate Nyquist-sampled polyphase component of the over-sampled signal and an associated appropriate time-offset. iv) Subtract the contribution of the synchronization and pilot segments of the ACK 2 frame at stage (iii) from the Nyquist-sampled received signal at stage (i). This results in a “cleaned-up” Nyquist-sampled received signal with contributions from the ACK 1 frame only. v) Estimate the ACK 1 frame symbols via conventional beam-forming using the first radio channel 140(1) estimates derived from previous ACK frames. If the detected ACK 1 frame symbols are in error, then the corresponding SDMA packet is lost. vi) Over-sample the received signal and create an over-sampled replica of a filtered first radio channel 140(1) ACK 1 frame. vii) Subtract the over-sampled replica of the ACK 1 frame from the over-sampled received signal and select the appropriate Nyquist-sampled polyphase component based on the result derived in stage (iii). This results in a “cleaned-up” Nyquist-sampled received signal with contributions from the ACK 2 frame only. viii) Estimate the ACK 2 frame symbols by applying a conventional beam-forming to the result of stage (vii) using the second radio channel 140(k) estimates derived from previous ACK frames. In this manner, both the first and second radio channels 140(1-k) may be estimated via the “cleaned” ACK frames at the output of a detector. However, since a non-delayed ACK 1 frame may be cleaned with a relatively more reliability than a delayed ACK 2 frame, the estimate of the first radio channel 140(1) derived from the ACK 1 frame may be a relatively more reliable than the estimate of the second radio channel 140(k) derived from the ACK 2 frame. One of the reasons for this difference in channel estimates is that while pilot symbols are generally transmitted on all 52 OFDM sub-carriers, according to the IEEE 802.11 specifications, synchronization symbols are generally transmitted only on 12 (roughly equi-spaced) sub-carriers out of the total of 52 OFDM sub-carriers. This means that the synchronization segment of the ACK 2 frame may interfere only with 12 sub-carriers of the pilot segment of the ACK 1 frame. In contrast, the 52 sub-carriers of the data segment of the ACK 1 frame may interfere with all 52 sub-carriers of the pilot segment of the ACK 2 frame. However, a poor quality of the second radio channel 140(k) estimates may have a severe impact on a successful application of the SDMA module 170 shown in FIG. 1 to the transmission protocol 165. According to one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 9 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart for channel estimation and alternating time-offset on the SDMA downlink 120a to estimate the first radio channel 140(1) associated with a reliably-recovered non-delayed first acknowledgement frame (ACK 1) such that identity of a user associated with the non-delayed MPDUs and ACK frames be switched for successive SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5. Using channel estimation and alternating time-offset, the above issue of difference in channel estimates may be addressed by estimating only the first radio channel 140(1) associated with the reliably-recovered non-delayed ACK 1 frame. The identity of the user associated with the non-delayed MPDUs and ACK frames may then be switched for successive SDMA transmissions. This technique of channel estimates is depicted in FIG. 9 for the first and second mobile stations 145a(1-k), shown as mobiles A and B. As illustrated above, estimation of the first radio channel 140(1) via the pilot segment of the ACK 1 frame is subject to interference from the strong synchronization or overlap segment of the ACK 2 frame. This interference may result in inadequate estimates of the first radio channel 140(1), subsequently affecting the recovery of the ACK frame. In one embodiment, the quality of the channel estimates may be improved by exploiting the characteristics of the synchronization (S) segment. More specifically, while pilot symbols are generally transmitted on all 52 OFDM sub-carriers, according to the IEEE 802.11 specifications, synchronization symbols are transmitted only in 12 (roughly equi-spaced) sub-carriers out of the total of 52 OFDM sub-carriers. This means that the synchronization segment of the ACK 2 frame may interfere only with 12 sub-carriers of the pilot segment of the ACK 1 frame. Thus, the remaining 40 sub-carriers of the pilot segment of the ACK 1 frame may be uncorrupted. This feature may be used to improve the quality of the first radio channel 140(1) estimates by avoiding the use of the corrupted ACK 1 frame pilot symbols on the 12 sub-carriers. As examples, two different techniques are described below. A first technique for channel estimates involves interpolation in the frequency domain. In the first technique, to compute estimates of the first radio channel 140(1) at the corresponding sub-carrier frequencies, the pilot symbols of the ACK 1 frame transmitted on the 40 uncorrupted sub-carriers may be used. Due to the absence of interference from the synchronization segment of the ACK 2 frame at these sub-carriers, a relatively higher quality of channel estimates may be obtained. Using the computed channel estimates interpolation in the frequency domain may be applied to compute estimates of the first radio channel 140(1) at the 12 remaining sub-carriers. A second technique for channel estimates involves channel estimation via synchronization symbols. Again, by using the pilot symbols of the ACK 1 frame transmitted on the 40 uncorrupted sub-carriers, channel estimates of the first radio channel 140(1) may be computed at the corresponding sub-carrier frequencies. Due to the absence of interference from the synchronization segment of the ACK 2 frame at these sub-carriers, a significantly better quality of channel estimates may be obtained. By using the strong synchronization symbols of the ACK 1 frame (rather than the pilot symbols), channel estimates of the first radio channel 140(1) may be computed at the 12 remaining sub-carriers. The synchronization segment of the ACK 1 frame may not at all overlap with the ACK 2 frame, resulting in a relatively higher quality channel estimates. In scenarios where a sequence of the SDMA transmissions on the SDMA downlink 120a may be interrupted by other IEEE 802.11 mobiles or access points contending for a same channel, a reservation process may be performed via the point coordination function (PCF) specified in the IEEE 802.11 standard. As a result, an SDMA initialization process would not be initiated every interruption. Thus, any associated overhead with an interruption would not impact the throughput gains achieved by the relatively higher quality channel estimates on the SDMA downlink 120a. To this end, FIG. 10 illustrates a stylized representation of a timing chart for channel reservation for the SDMA transmissions shown in FIG. 5 that uses time division multiple access (TDMA) to partition a radio resource across SDMA and non-SDMA modes of the communication node (e.g., an access point) operation in accordance with one illustrative embodiment of the present invention. The non-SDMA mode may represent a conventional IEEE 802.11 mode that services uplink (UL)/downlink (DL) real-time traffic. When the access point 105a contends for the SDMA mode, the access point 105a reserves a channel for the SDMA mode. The SDMA downlink 120a may carry non-real-time traffic for multiple mobile pairs since many scheduling options may be possible. A reservation interval may depend upon the mix of traffic, for example, 5-10 ms may allow efficient SDMA transmissions on the SDMA downlink 120a. Upon completion of the SDMA mode, the access point 105a may release the channel and revert back to conventional IEEE 802.11 non-SDMA mode, servicing remaining uplink (UL)/downlink (DL) real-time traffic. In some embodiments, advantageously the present invention may be adopted at the access point 105a for substantially increasing the SDMA downlink 120a throughput in an IEEE 802.11 cell such that the increase in the throughput involve no modification to IEEE 802.11 standard compliant mobile stations. For example, a near doubling of the throughput via two antennas at the access point 105a may be obtained. In other embodiments, the use of the present invention may avoid the overlap of the mobile station acknowledgement (ACK) bursts upon their arrival at the access point 105a, providing increased throughputs to IEEE 802.11 mobile stations. Furthermore, a doubling of data rates using a single carrier frequency may be obtained on the SDMA downlink 120a for the IEEE 802.11 mobile stations. While the invention has been illustrated herein as being useful in a telecommunications network environment, it also has application in other connected environments. For example, two or more of the devices described above may be coupled together via device-to-device connections, such as by hard cabling, radio frequency signals (e.g., 802.11(a), 802.11(b), 802.11(g), Bluetooth, or the like), infrared coupling, telephone lines and modems, or the like. The present invention may have application in any environment where two or more users are interconnected and capable of communicating with one another. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the various system layers, routines, or modules illustrated in the various embodiments herein may be executable control units. The control units may include a microprocessor, a microcontroller, a digital signal processor, a processor card (including one or more microprocessors or controllers), or other control or computing devices as well as executable instructions contained within one or more storage devices. The storage devices may include one or more machine-readable storage media for storing data and instructions. The storage media may include different forms of memory including semiconductor memory devices such as dynamic or static random access memories (DRAMs or SRAMS), erasable and programmable read-only memories (EPROMs), electrically erasable and programmable read-only memories (EEPROMs) and flash memories; magnetic disks such as fixed, floppy, removable disks; other magnetic media including tape; and optical media such as compact disks (CDs) or digital video disks (DVDs). Instructions that make up the various software layers, routines, or modules in the various systems may be stored in respective storage devices. The instructions, when executed by a respective control unit, causes the corresponding system to perform programmed acts. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the protection sought herein is as set forth in the claims below. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to telecommunications, and more particularly, to wireless communications. 2. Description of the Related Art Service providers are constantly exploring various ways to generate more revenue while meeting demands of customers in different network environments including Intranet, Extranet, and e-commerce applications. For instance, telecommunication service providers exchange fee-based wireless and wireline traffic between mobile users and communication nodes, such as access points (APs) over a network to provide a variety of services to residential and business customers. An access point may be a transceiver that connects devices on a wireless local area network (WLAN) to the wired infrastructure. While an access point may be used by service providers to assure end-to-end quality of service and bandwidth guarantees over different network environments, a telecommunication service provider may offer Internet Protocol (IP) telephony and other network enhanced communication services to these customers. In doing so, these providers may employ optical and wireless networks, Internet infrastructure, communications software to enable, for example, Web-based enterprise solutions that link private and public networks. One well-known standard, i.e., the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 specification describes the operation of mobile stations (MSs) and access points in a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). For a layered communication network protocol, this specification identifies both the physical layer (PHY), which details the nature of the transmitted signals, as well as the medium access control (MAC) layer, which defines a complete management protocol for interaction between mobile stations and access points. For more detailed discussion on the IEEE 802.11 standard (std.), one may refer to “Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) specifications,” published as IEEE std. 802.11, in 1999. Specifically, at least three versions of the IEEE 802.11 standard exist, all sharing the same MAC 802.11b layer which operates in the 2.4 Giga Hertz (GHz) frequency band and has a PHY layer based on code division multiple access (CDMA), offering a peak data rate of 11 Mega bit per second (Mbits/s). The 802.11a and 802.11g versions operate in the 5.2 and 2.4 GHz bands respectively, both sharing a PHY layer based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), offering a peak data rate of 54 Mbits/s. The IEEE 802.11 specification allows interoperability between wireless communication equipment from multiple vendors, and is commercially marketed as “Wi-Fi.” Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) has been studied extensively over the past few decades as a tool that uses spatial dimension to simultaneously transmit to, or receive from, multiple radios at the same carrier frequency. For more detailed discussion on the use of the spatial dimension to allow discrimination among multiple radio, one may refer to A. T. Alastalo, M. Kahola, “Smart-antenna operation for indoor wireless local-area networks using OFDM”, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 392-399, March 2003 and P. Vandenameele, L. Van Der Perre, M. G. E. Engels, B. Gyselinckx, H. J. De Man, “A combined OFDM/SDMA approach”, IEEE Journal on Select Areas of Communications, vol. 18, no. 11 pp. 2312-2321, November 2000. However, the application of SDMA to wireless mobile communication systems, especially to cellular systems, such as Global System of Mobile Communications (GSM), cdma2000 and Universal Mobile telecommunication Systems (UMTS) has not always been successful. While simple implementations in the form of a fixed sectorization have been found to be effective, more sophisticated schemes, such as dynamic beam-forming, have been difficult to implement due to serious incompatibilities with the multiple access protocols in the above-cited cellular systems. Therefore, the application of sophisticated techniques for increasing the data rates available to mobile stations on a downlink that both may comply with the IEEE 802.11a/g standard specifications has not been adequately addressed in the literature for many reasons. One reason for a lack of a high throughput downlink is that in most wireless LANs, the radio conditions are different at a transmitter and a receiver. As shown, FIG. 3 illustrates a stylized representation of a transmission protocol defined at least in part by IEEE 802.11 standard between a transmitter and a receiver where the transmitter transmits a MAC protocol data unit (MPDU) following listening and backoff, and in turn, the receiver transmits an acknowledgment (ACK) frame subject to a successful reception of the MPDU. The transmitter has no way of knowing whether the transmitted data was received correctly at the receiver. To this end, the IEEE 802.11 specifications state that upon a successful reception of a data burst (i.e., an MPDU), the receiver should send an acknowledgment frame (ACK) to the transmitter as confirmation. Should the transmitter not receive an ACK frame, it will assume a lost MPDU and will attempt re-transmission. The time interval between the last symbols of the MPDU and the first symbol of the ACK frame is referred to as a Short Inter-frame Space (SIFS) interval and is fixed at 16 μs in IEEE 802.11 networks. While the duration of a MPDU is arbitrary, the duration of an ACK frame is between 24 and 44 μs, depending upon the modulation and coding PHY parameters. More specifically, the IEEE 802.11 standard MAC protocol is based on carrier-sense multiple-access with collision-avoidance (CSMA/CA). This MAC protocol essentially describes a “listen before you talk” access mechanism, whereby a IEEE 802.11 radio (mobile or access point) listens to the communication medium before starting a transmission. If the communication medium is already carrying a transmission (i.e., the measured background signal level is above a specified threshold), the radio will not begin its transmission. In such circumstances, the radio enters a deferral mode, where it has to wait for a period over which the medium is idle before attempting to transmit. This period is the sum of a Deterministic Inter-frame Space (DIFS) interval (34 μs in 802.11a and g) and a stochastic backoff interval (a re-transmission delay) with discrete values uniformly distributed over a range. The value of this range doubles with every unacknowledged transmission, until a maximum limit is reached. Once a transmission is successfully received and acknowledged, the range is reduced to its minimum value for the next transmission. Providing increased downlink throughputs to legacy IEEE 802.11 mobile stations is an important distinguishing feature and marketing tool. However, multiple acknowledgement (ACK) bursts from different mobile stations may cause a reception problem upon their arrival at an access point. Likewise, accurate channel estimations may severely impact on successfully increasing the downlink throughputs. Therefore, without requiring a modification to the legacy IEEE 802.11 compliant mobile stations, a substantial increase in data rates using a single carrier frequency is not readily apparent on a downlink from an access point to the mobile stations in a WLAN. The present invention is directed to overcoming, or at least reducing, the effects of, one or more of the problems set forth above. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment of the present invention, a method is provided for communicating data over a network between an access point having a first and a second antenna and a first and a second mobile station. The method comprises weighting a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weighting a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In another embodiment, a communication node is associated with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station. The communication node comprises a first and a second antenna, a controller and a memory storing instructions. The instructions cause the controller to weight a first data at the communication node to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the communication node to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In yet another embodiment, a telecommunication system comprises an access point associated with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station. The access point comprises a first and a second antenna, a controller and a memory storing instructions. The instructions cause the controller to weight a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. In still another embodiment, an article comprises a computer readable storage medium storing instructions that, when executed cause a telecommunication system to enable a communication node having a first and a second antenna to associate with a network to communicate data to and from a first and a second mobile station, weight a first data at the access point to transmit the first data using the first and second antennas so that the first mobile station only receives the first data and weight a second data at the access point to transmit the second data using the first and second antennas so that the second mobile station only receives the second data. | 20041124 | 20090331 | 20060525 | 76816.0 | H04Q700 | 2 | WASHINGTON, ERIKA ALISE | COMMUNICATING DATA BETWEEN AN ACCESS POINT AND MULTIPLE WIRELESS DEVICES OVER A LINK | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04Q | 2,004 |
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10,996,795 | ACCEPTED | Electronic messaging exchange | Disclosed is a secure electronic message exchange system and method which provide a secure platform for using electronic messaging within a correctional institution or equivalent. The disclosed invention provides centralized access and control. Further, the invention includes features for monitoring, controlling, archiving, conversion, and billing. The present invention is also designed to provide routing and identification processing, content control, translation, file preparation, and encryption. | 1. A secure electronic message exchange system comprising: a plurality of composition stations; a multi-function unit; and a control platform coupled to said multi-function unit via a communications medium; wherein said control platform includes one or more apparatuses for the purposes of monitoring, controlling, conversion, and billing relating to correspondence between a plurality of local and remote users. 2. A system according to claim 1, wherein said local user composes a message to said remote user at said composition station. 3. (canceled) 4. A system according to claim 2, wherein said message is sent to said multi-function unit. 5. A system according to claim 2, wherein said multi-function unit modifies said message for transmission to said control platform. 6. A system according to claim 5, wherein said multi-function unit sends said modified message to said control platform via said communications medium. 7.-8. (canceled) 9. A system according to claim 1, wherein said control platform contains at least one server. 10. A system according to claim 1, wherein said control platform performs security checks of converted message converted by a conversion unit. 11. (canceled) 12. A system according to claim 6, wherein said remote user logs onto said control platform and views converted message converted by a conversion unit. 13.-14. (canceled) 15. A system according to claim 1, wherein a message composed by said remote user is sent to said multi-function unit by said control platform via said communications medium. 16.-29. (canceled) 30. A method for electronic message exchange, said method comprising the step of: logging onto a control platform by a plurality of local and remote users; authenticating said local and said remote users logging onto said control platform; controlling communication between said local user with a remote user; monitoring said communication between said local and said remote user; storing data relating to said communication between said local and said remote user; and billing for usage by said local and said remote user. 31.-32. (canceled) 33. A method according to claim 30, wherein said control platform enables said local user to electronically message said remote user. 34.-35. (canceled) 36. A method according to claim 33, wherein said remote user can block said local user from sending further said electronic messages to said remote user. 37. A method according to claim 30, wherein said stored data can be viewed by an administrator. 38.-42. (canceled) 43. A secure electronic message exchange system comprising: a plurality of workstations; a communications medium; and a control platform coupled to said workstation by said communications medium; wherein said control platform includes one or more apparatuses for the purposes of monitoring, controlling, conversion, and billing related to electronic messages exchanged between a plurality of local and remote users; and wherein said control platform prevents forwarding or copying of messages sent by said local user and received by said remote user to another party. 44. (canceled) 45. A system according to claim 43, wherein said control platform contains at least one server for storing data related to said electronic message exchange between said local and said remote user. 46. (canceled) 47. A system according to claim 43, wherein said control platform provides authentication of said local user. 48. (canceled) 49. A system according to claim 43, wherein said control platform sends a message to said remote user via the Internet. 50. A system according to claim 49, wherein said message contains authentication means for said remote user to log onto said control platform to view said electronic message sent by said local user. 51. (canceled) 52. A system according to claim 43, wherein said control platform provides authentication of said remote user. 53. A system according to claim 43, wherein said remote user can block said local user from sending future electronic messages to said remote user. 54.-57. (canceled) | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to the field of electronic messaging exchange in correctional institutions or similar facilities. In particular, the invention discloses the use of an electronic message exchange system with the capacity to monitor, control access, and bill for usage of such a system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION As electronic messaging has become commonplace with the advent of the Internet in recent years, many institutions, such as prisons, nursing homes, mental institutions, etc., have the need to offer inmates or residents controlled electronic messaging exchange access. Common forms of interaction for inmates and residents with external parties include such mediums as site visits and telephonic communication. While both of these methods can be useful, electronic messaging can prove to be more effective and provides an alternative to the aforementioned mediums. For the purposes of simplicity, discussion will be limited to inmates within a correctional facility, but the discussion can easily be expanded to include residents of other institutions. Site visits from an inmate's family, attorney, etc. are often not economically or physically possible. The inability of visitors to make site visits to the inmate results from such factors as the distance from and costs incurred to travel to the institution. Also, it is costly and difficult for some institutions to provide monitoring and security for the visitors and inmates. As a result, an alternative method is necessary to allow controlled inmate communication with external parties. An alternative to site visits, telephonic communication, poses other problems. Some visitors may be several time zones away from the penal institution making telephonic communication difficult and even prohibitive. Additionally, telephonic communication between external parties and inmates can prove expensive. There are two common methods of payment available to inmates. In the first method, a collect call is placed to an acceptable outside party. In the second method, an inmate has an account in which money is deposited from a variety of sources and for each phone call the cost of the call is then deducted from the account balance. The costs vary as a result of, inter alia, different service providers for different facilities. Usually the institutions contract a service provider to install, operate and maintain the facility's system. As a result, costs for calls within the penal institution are generally much more than for similar calls made outside of the institution. From the standpoint of the institution, inmate telephone usage can prove expensive as it is necessary to monitor and record the activities of each of the residents in order to properly charge each individual caller for his or her outgoing calls. There are three common methods for monitoring telephone calls: live monitoring, passive monitoring and monitoring via a standard recording device. One such system known in the art provides a computer-based telecommunication system for the purpose of allowing an institution to control, monitor, record and report usage and access to a telephone network. In addition, the institution controls who the inmate can or cannot call. Electronic messaging, such as emailing and instant messaging, has become prominent in recent years as a medium of information transfer. While there is good reason to provide inmates with electronic messaging access, there is also a necessity to control the inmate's access to sending and receiving electronic messages. There have been instances where email has been banned from prisons, even when received via a printed form, resulting from, inter alia, a lack of secure control methods. System control is necessary to prevent harassing messages to outside parties, to prevent fraudulent activities, etc. Therefore, systems in such environments must monitor and control the electronic messaging activity of each inmate. Systems should also have a means of maintaining electronic messaging records for each inmate. The system should include a means for communicating with emailed parties to enable the contacted parties to prevent future emails from inmates. The same holds true for instant messaging. In short, the communications system used in a regulated institution must employ unique monitoring and control functions often unnecessary in other types of electronic messaging exchange systems. Further, an exchange system in institutions should reduce the workload burden of the correctional facility while provide security through intelligence gathering capabilities. In order for the methods of monitoring and control to be effective, it is important to prevent inmates from exploiting any loop-holes that can be used to bypass the control features of the system. This control is vital to ensure that the inmate does not access blocked addresses, for example, to perpetrate additional criminal activities, or harass certain parties. An electronic messaging system with restricted access should be able to perform the same functions as a normal electronic messaging system. The system should provide keyword scans, translation, file preparation, encryption, control over sent and received electronic messages to and from external sources, a billing method, etc. While there are systems that provide for some of these features, there is no system that provides a comprehensive solution for electronic messaging in a correctional facility. The present invention encompasses all the elements into a single system enabling a secure electronic messaging system to be utilized in penal institutions. For example, systems are known in the art that filter unwanted, bulk, or junk emails, commonly referred to as “spam.” The filtering can be done by a variety of methods including: sender address, sender organization, recipient address, recipient organization, attachment type, and email message content type. Each of these filtering types can be used in order to reduce “spam.” The emails that pass the filtering process are then sent to the recipient(s). Potential “spam” is then stored in a separate location, where it is examined either by the potential recipient or a third party. If determined to be “spam,” it is deleted or moved to another folder. Another possibility is to have the potential “spam” automatically deleted without verification by a party. A different system provides a methodology for a computerized telecommunications system for voice to text message storage for use in correctional facilities. This system receives an external message via either voice or text. There are two storage means: a voice message box or an email inbox. If a voice message is received, it passes as a regular telephonic voice message is then stored as a voice message in the voice message box. If instead the storage unit is an email box and a voice message is received, the voice message is converted to text and the message is then saved. The reverse happens if the message is a text message and the storage medium is a voice message box. If a text message is received and the inmate has an email inbox, then the text message is saved as text. The inmate is then notified of the new message. This system can also allow the inmate to send either a text or voice message to an external party. If it is a voice message, then no conversion occurs and the message is sent. However, if an inmate's message is in the form of text, then either a text to voice conversion occurs before being sent to the outside party or the text message is sent via email to the external party. The invention is limited in the fact that it can only handle email or voice messages. Yet another system known in the art provides a system and method for providing a sponsored or universal telecommunications service and third party payer services. The system discloses a method for providing a service for a sponsor to pay for communication via voice, data, or multi-media services, on the behalf of others. The method further provides universal service for telecommunication voice and multimedia applications without tax or market subsidies. In the view of the foregoing, a need exists for an inclusive method for allowing inmates access to electronic messaging systems. The present invention provides an alternative to site visits, telephonic and other forms of communication. It also offers a secure method for using electronic messages within a correctional or similar institution, including such features as monitoring, controlling, archiving and billing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention embodies an electronic message exchange system for use in penal institutions, or similar facilities and institutions. It provides a combination of systems and services which allow inmates and their outside contacts to communicate via written correspondence in an expedient manner. Further, the present invention includes the capability for sending and receiving messages via a telephone and converting them as the necessary to text or similar format. The present invention also reduces the workload of the correctional facility staff and offers increased security by providing intelligence gathering capabilities. The present invention is designed to provide routing and identification processing, content control, translation, file preparation, and encryption. Also, a method for billing of services rendered is included, in addition to controlling the communication limitations for the inmate through such methods as populating an allowed or disallowed contact list, and controlling the frequency, size and length of communications. It also features alert methods for sent and received messages. The present invention provides a secure barrier, referred to herein as the central service center or central station, through which messages are forwarded to the intended party. The central service center is designed to gather information from the messages and alert the appropriate officials of those messages that present concerns prior to being disseminated to the receiving party. In addition, the central service center acts as the central processing center for incoming and outgoing messages. Its primary objective is to provide a centralized location capable of processing messages to and from approved accounts. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, files are created as a result of the required processes of the institution and saved in an approved format (i.e., email, printed medium, voice message, etc.). These files are then retrieved from or sent to the institution depending on the requirements. The service center also serves as a repository of all messages and of all primary data captured from those messages. Further, it serves as a web portal through which institutions and users can retrieve messages and data from those messages. Additionally, the central service center is preferably located remotely from the institution. However, it is foreseeable that the central service center may be located at the institution. Outside contacts gain access to the central service center preferably via their existing Internet Service Provider (ISP). The service center provides secure web-based access via a user-friendly interface to each outside contact through the system's software, preferably residing on a server at the service center. In the preferred embodiment, once an account is created and payment means are established, the outside contact may log in to the central service center. After the outside contact logs in, he or she may view a received message and/or compose a message to his or her intended recipient (i.e., an inmate). In the preferred embodiment, the outside contact's account is charged a monthly fee for the service. In an alternative embodiment, the outside contact's account is charged by an amount commensurate with the charges for each message. The payment method may be pre-paid or the account can be charged for later billing. These methods will vary and are customizable based on the institution's requirements. Furthermore, the central service center processes messages using various criteria, including, but not limited to, the intended recipient, keyword searches, language translation, suspect criteria, etc. Once these processes have been performed, files containing the appropriate information (i.e., a message to an inmate including necessary identification information about the sender and the recipient) are forwarded to a site server or multifunction device designated for the system, preferably located at the institution. The institution's staff has an opportunity to view the messages according to their desired priorities prior to allowing the messages to be delivered to their intended party. Additionally, the central service center also provides intelligence gathering and reporting capabilities which are made available through various screens in the system software. Administrators can access the system locally or remotely via the Internet. Certain aspects of the central service center may alternatively be incorporated into a site server, if supplied. The present invention also provides several methods of inputting text, including, but not limited to, a computer terminal, fax, and written correspondence. Also, an inmate may leave a voice message which is then preferably converted to text. Safe terminals may be provided for the inmate population which allow inmates to type outgoing messages and view incoming messages. In this embodiment, the safe terminals are preferably completely isolated from the Internet, connected only to the site server, and only capable of accessing the secure system software. If an inmate handwrites a message, the message is scanned and sent to the appropriate contact. Further, messages received from outside contacts may be printed onsite which, once the message is approved for viewing, the printed message is sent to the inmate. In an alternative embodiment, an integrated system is used for both instant messaging and email which allows inmates direct access to terminals for sending and receiving messages. In yet another different embodiment, two separate systems exist, one for instant messaging and one for email purposes. These embodiments also have a secure site (similar to the preferred embodiment) that both inmates and external parties log into in order to communicate with each other. Further, administrators can remotely access and manage the site. When safe terminals are incorporated into the system, the system preferably utilizes a secure user name and password for user authentication. In this embodiment, the institution pre-determines the user name and password, with the password preferably changing after a fixed interval of time or if tampering is suspected. However, to one of ordinary skill in the art, it is apparent that other forms of security measures can easily be implemented including such methods as radio frequency identification (RFID), and various biometric features. These methods can be used alone or in conjunction with any of the other security measures. In the preferred embodiment, each inmate has a unique recipient address or user identification that external parties can send a message to. When an outside party attempts to send an electronic message to an inmate, a series of control measures occur. The sender address is checked for authenticity and to ensure that the sender is an acceptable contact for the inmate. The acceptable contact list can be maintained via an “allowed contact list” or via a “disallowed contact list.” The allowed and disallowed lists may also be used in conjunction with each other. Content control is managed as the message itself is scanned for certain keywords and phrases. If a keyword or phrase is found, the message is flagged and sent to the service center or institution for manual examination. The message is translated as necessary, and the files are prepared and encrypted. After passing through the control measures, the message is then routed to the appropriate institution for viewing on the secure terminal or printing on the multifunction device. To one knowledgeable in the art, other authentications and control measures can be easily implemented. For outgoing inmate messages, a series of authentications is also performed similar to that of incoming messages. The present invention alerts the inmate of received messages preferably via the same method used by the institution for received mail. Also, the actual message may be delivered with the mail via a printed medium. In an alternative embodiment, the inmate is alerted after he or she successfully logs into a secure terminal, such as the aforementioned safe terminal. In yet a different embodiment, the inmate is notified on closed circuit monitors that display a list of the inmates that have new messages. The preferred embodiment of the present invention allows external users access to set up an account. It provides security checks for authorizing the external user. After the account is set up by the external party, the account holder can communicate via written messages with the desired inmate. The present invention further preferably provides a maximum limit to the amount of communication between the parties. In the preferred embodiment, the external party's account is billed a monthly service fee. In an alternative embodiment, each inmate has a registered account (as opposed to the account being registered to the external party). When the account is accessed and email is sent, the cost of the email is then deducted from the account balance. Payment occurs from such methods as pre-paying or billing after-the-fact for usage. A similar method can be implemented for instant messaging. Charges can be accrued based on measures such as total number of words, total number of lines, a fixed rate for each message sent or a rate for the time the inmate is logged in, etc. The present invention archives all incoming and outgoing messages through an automated storage database. This database can be searched in a variety of ways to retrieve desired information, except for restricted or privileged communications that are protected by the attorney-client privilege. These electronic messages are locked except to the authorized parties. In the current embodiment of the invention, when an inmate sends a message to an approved address, the recipient receives an email notification from an automated administrator stating that the inmate wishes to send the recipient a message. If the recipient desires to receive the message, he or she then logs onto a secure site via the Internet, enters the appropriate security identification, and views the message. The recipient is required to set up an account for the purposes of monitoring the messages sent and received. Also, the account is preferably billed based on a monthly service fee. All forms of forwarding or copying the message to anyone other than the original recipient are prevented. The external recipient then has the option of sending an email back to the inmate. Recipients can also choose to remove the inmate from their list, preventing the inmate from future contact with said recipient. When instant messaging is allowed by the institution, an inmate who wishes to have an instant message conversation with an approved external party sends a message to the external party through the secure site and if the party accepts, the outside party then logs onto the secure site where the instant messaging conversation then occurs. If the external party does not respond, the inmate has the option of sending a message to attempt to set up a date and time to hold the conversation. The message sent from the inmate to the outside party can be sent to an email address or an outside instant messaging platform. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide a comprehensive electronic message exchange system for use in penal or similar institutions. It is also an object of the present invention to provide secure written correspondence to and from an inmate in a secure facility. A different object of the present invention is to provide means for leaving a voice message and converting the voice message to text for viewing. It is another object of the present invention to provide a secure platform from which electronic messaging can occur. It is yet another object of the invention to provide security authentication for inmates and external parties. It is still another object of the invention to provide translation for incoming or outgoing messages. It is also an object of the invention to control the list with whom an inmate can electronically converse with. Additionally, it is an object of the invention to prevent messages from being forwarded to any additional parties by the recipient of the message. It is a further object of the invention to encrypt the incoming and outgoing messages within the electronic message exchange system. Furthermore, it is an object of the invention to provide content control for messages via such methods as keyword and phrase scanning. It is still another object of the invention to provide alerts for the inmate upon receiving a message from an external party. It is a further object of the invention to provide a billing method for services rendered while using the electronic message system. It is another object of the present invention to reduce institutional staff resources required for correspondence purposes. Further, it is an object of the present invention to provide the appropriate personnel with means to search for and view incoming and outgoing messages. Finally, it is an object of the invention to archive and store all messages in a database and to mark all protected messages for such reasons as attorney-client privilege, thus making them inaccessible except to those with the authority to access them. Other objects, features, and characteristics of the present invention, as well as methods of operation and functions of the related elements of the structure, and the combination of parts and economies of manufacture, will become more apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form part of this specification. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A further understanding of the present invention can be obtained by reference to a preferred embodiment set forth in the illustrations of the accompanying drawings. Although the illustrated embodiment is merely exemplary of systems for carrying out the present invention, both the organization and method of operation of the invention, in general, together with further objectives and advantages thereof, may be more easily understood by reference to the drawings and the following description. The drawings are not intended to limit the scope of this invention, which is set forth with particularity in the claims as appended or as subsequently amended, but merely to clarify and exemplify the invention. For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the preferred embodiment of the present invention depicting the electronic message exchange system. FIG. 2 is a flow chart of the preferred process of the present invention illustrating an external party sending messages to an inmate and viewing messages sent by an inmate. FIG. 3 depicts a flow chart of the preferred process of the present invention whereby an inmate sends a message to an external party. FIG. 4A depicts a block diagram of an alternative embodiment for the electronic messaging exchange system allowing inmates direct access to user workstations. FIG. 4B depicts a block diagram of an alternative embodiment illustrating a universal control system for incorporation of a telephonic communications system in conjunction with the electronic messaging exchange system. FIG. 5 is a flow chart of an alternative process of electronic message exchange between an inmate and an external party according to the present invention when inmates are provided direct access to user workstations. FIG. 6 shows a flow chart of an alternative process for electronic message exchange from an external party to an inmate according to the present invention when inmates are provided direct access to user workstations. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS As required, a detailed illustrative embodiment of the present invention is disclosed herein. However, techniques, systems and operating structures in accordance with the present invention may be embodied in a wide variety of forms and modes, some of which may be quite different from those in the disclosed embodiment. Consequently, the specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are merely representative, yet in that regard, they are deemed to afford the best embodiment for purposes of disclosure and to provide a basis for the claims herein, which define the scope of the present invention. The following presents a detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the present invention (in addition to some alternative embodiments). Starting first with FIG. 1, depicted is a block diagram of the preferred embodiment of the present invention illustrating the structural set up of the electronic message exchange system. When an inmate desires to send a message to an external party, the inmate goes to inmate composition station 102 located at institution site 100. In the preferred embodiment, an inmate composes a hand-written or typed text message on a preprinted form. On this form, the inmate fills out his or her personal registration number and the account number which the inmate wishes the message to be sent to. The account number is associated with an outside contact that has set up an account for access to the system. In an alternative embodiment, an inmate may leave a voice message, which is then converted to text. One of skill in the art will recognize that this conversion can easily be incorporated into the system. Also, the inmate may alternatively have access to a workstation for sending and receiving messages. The system preferably charges the outside contact a monthly fee for the ability to use the system, although other billing methods are foreseeable. The number of messages sent and received by the external party is configurable to meet the security and workload needs of each individual institution. For example, in the present embodiment each external party may send “n” messages and receive “n” messages from each inmate on their list where “n” is an integer. For instance, if an outside contact desires communication with two inmates, then the outside contact is allowed to send “n” messages to each inmate and receive “n” messages from each inmate, for a total of “4n” messages, “2n” for each inmate. After the inmate composes the message at inmate composition station 102 located at institution site 100, the message is sent to multi-function unit (MFU) 104. Preferably, MFU 104 is located in the institution's mailroom, but other locations are foreseeable. The inmate messages are loaded into MFU 104. MFU 104 scans the messages and the messages are electronically sent to central station 106. Central station 106 is preferably located remote to the institution and is preferably connected to MFU 104 via an Internet Protocol (IP) connection. At central station 106, conversion engine 108 converts the written or typed text messages received from MFU 104 into digital data that can be processed by server 110. Although only one server 110 is pictured, multiple servers may be used commensurate with the amount of data requirements. Central station 106 further includes such elements as routers and data services via local telephone company provided circuits (not shown in FIG. 1). The aforementioned conversion can be done by such means, including, but not limited to, optical character recognition (OCR) and intelligent character recognition (ICR). Once conversion engine 108 converts the message as necessary, server 110 at central station 106 associates each message with the intended recipient and the message sender. Server 110 checks to see if the attempted message exchange is acceptable. Server 110 also checks to ensure that the intended recipient and the inmate are authorized to communicate. It further provides keyword and phrase scans of the messages. In the preferred embodiment, the site staff are allowed to view messages and approve the before sending the message to the recipient. Additionally, the system notifies the intended recipient of the message that the inmate has sent a message and provides for secure access and user log in for the recipient to view the message from the inmate and compose messages to the inmate. The system preferably provides secure socket layer (SSL) protection of data sent to and received from server 110. The typed or written text messages are stored as an image or converted to another format as required and made available for viewing by the intended recipient on server 110. Server 110 provides a user-friendly interface for viewing and composing messages preferably via the Internet. It enables users to set up accounts and provides for billing for system usage. Server 110 also is capable of providing such features including, but not limited to, language translation, file encryption, filtering, file storage, and file preparation. Finally, messages received by the external party or the inmate are blocked from being forwarded, copied, etc. Next, FIG. 2 depicts a flow chart of the preferred process of the present invention illustrating both an external party sending messages to an inmate and viewing messages sent by an inmate. Initially, an external party attempts to access the secure system preferably via an Internet browser (step 200). The system provides a user-friendly interface for message viewing and composition. If the user has not yet set up an account, the user enters a new account request (step 202). The system then performs an authentication check of the potential account holder to ensure, inter alia, whether the user is an acceptable contact for the inmate (step 204). If the user passes the authentication step, the user is assigned a random account number (step 206). The user is then prompted to choose a password (step 208). Other authentication means are foreseeable as well, such as a personal identification number (PIN) or biometric identification means. Using the account number and password, the user logs into the system (step 210). If the user already has an account when he or she initially attempts to log into the system (step 200), the user proceeds directly to the log in step (step 210). After successful log in, the user views messages received from the inmate or composes messages to be sent to the inmate (step 212). The system then provides security checks (step 214) whereby the message is checked for such things as keywords, and content. If the message passes the security checks, it is then sent to the institution (step 220). If, however, the message fails the security checks, it is sent to an administrator (step 216). At this point, the message and all other relevant file data are stored in a database (step 218). The system preferably bills the appropriate account a monthly service fee. In alternative embodiments, other billing methods, such as billing for the number of messages sent or for message length, may be utilized. The preceding processes are preferably performed by server 110 located at central station 106. However, it is foreseeable that other servers or devices can be utilized to perform these functions. The message is sent to MFU 104 where the message is converted to a viewing format as required by the institution (step 220). The administrator preferably views the message and decides whether to allow the sending of the message (step 222). If the message passes the administrator check, the inmate is notified (step 224) and the inmate reads the message (step 226). If the message fails the administrator's check, it is blocked from the inmate (step 228). FIG. 3 depicts a flow chart of the preferred process of the present invention whereby an inmate sends a message to an external party. First, the inmate composes a message at inmate composition station 102 located at institution site 100 (step 300). As previously discussed, this message is preferably either hand written or typed and contains the necessary information regarding the inmate and the potential recipient. However, it is foreseeable that the inmate may leave a voice message or similar which is then converted as necessary. Also, the inmate may have direct access to a safe terminal or workstation for message composition. After the inmate completes the message, the message is sent to MFU 104. The message is scanned by MFU 104 and sent to conversion engine 108 located at central station 106 (step 302). The message is converted to a format appropriate for transmission to the recipient by conversion engine 108. Conversion engine 108 converts the message using such means as OCR or ICR. Next, security checks are performed on the message (step 304), which include, inter alia, making sure the recipient is an acceptable contact, keyword and phrase scan, and file preparation. If the message fails to pass the security checks (step 304), an administrator is notified (step 306), and the message is stored in a database (step 310). Further, the system preferably charges the appropriate account a service fee monthly. If the message instead passes the security check (step 304), the system sends a notification to the recipient stating that a new message from the inmate is available for viewing over the secure system site (step 308) and the message is stored (step 310). The recipient logs into the secure site preferably via an Internet browser (step 312) and views the message (step 212). The recipient also has the option of sending a message to the inmate at this point. If the recipient chooses to do so, the recipient then proceeds to compose a message (step 212). FIG. 4A shows a block diagram of the basic set up of the electronic message exchange system according to an alternative embodiment of the present invention. Computer control platform 401 is connected to the user work stations 403a-n and the external third parties 405a-n via connections 407a-n and 409a-n, respectively. Computer control platform 401 can be local or remote to the user workstations. Connection 407a-n can be either cable or wireless. In addition, connection 407a-n can be a Wide Area Network (WAN), a Local Area Network (LAN) connection, etc. Connection 409a-n connects the computer control platform 401 to the external third parties 405a-n via the Internet. Computer control platform 401 is monitored and controlled, either actively or passively, by an administrator. Computer control platform 401 contains one or more servers which processes the electronic messages, prepares and routes the electronic messages, performs security checks and encrypts the electronic messages. It also stores the electronic messages. In addition, computer control platform 401 prepares notifications to send to either the inmate or the external third party. It also has a secure platform for communication between the inmate and third party. Both the inmate and third party use this platform to send messages back and forth. Further, administrators can remotely or locally access the system via a workstation (not shown). In the remote access set up, the administrator accesses the system via the Internet to perform various administrative functions (i.e., viewing messages, setting control parameters, performing database searches, printing reports, etc.). FIG. 4B depicts a block diagram of another alternative embodiment of the present invention. In addition to enabling electronic messaging, this alternative embodiment provides a telephonic communication platform as is known in the art. Also, the system enables users to send and receive voice messages. Further, the system converts the messages from voice to a variety of text formats and from a variety of text formats to voice as necessary. Central control platform 511 contains central computer control platform 523 and central telephone control platform 521. Central computer control platform 523 performs the same functions as the aforementioned computer control platform 401. Central computer control platform 523 is connected to user workstations 503a-n and third party workstations 509a-n via connections 515a-n and connections 519a-n, respectively. Connection 515a-n may be cabling or wireless. Also, connection 515a-n can be a WAN connection, a LAN connection, etc. Connection 515a-n connects computer control platform 523 to the external third parties 509a-n via the Internet. Computer control platform 523 is monitored and controlled, either actively or passively, by an administrator. The administrator may perform various administrative functions via a local workstation (not shown) or remotely by accessing the system via the Internet. Computer control platform 523 contains one or more servers which process the electronic messages, prepares and routes the electronic messages, performs security checks and encrypts the electronic messages. It also stores the electronic messages. In addition, computer control platform 523 prepares notifications to send to either the inmate or the external third party. It also has a secure platform for communication between the inmate and third party. Both the inmate and third party use this platform to send messages back and forth. Central control platform 511 also contains central telephone control platform 521. Central telephone control platform 521 connects user telephonic communication devices 501a-n with external party telephonic communication devices 507a-n via connections 513a-n and 517a-n, respectively. Central telephone control platform 521 enables inmates to telephonically communicate with an external third party. Central telephone control platform 521 provides for control, monitoring, and billing. Further, central control platform 511 enables conversion between voice and text messages. For example, if the system receives a voice message, the system can convert the voice message to a text format for viewing. FIG. 5 depicts a flow chart of an alternative process showing the electronic messaging exchange between the inmate and the external party. As shown, the process begins with an inmate's attempt to log into the secure platform (step 101). The site then prompts for the inmate to enter a provided user name and password (step 103), although to one skilled in the art, other security measures such as biometrics, radio frequency identification (RFID), etc. can be used instead of or in conjunction with a user name and password. Next, the user authentication is checked (step 105). If the user is authenticated, the process continues where the inmate is asked to choose whether he or she would like to instant message (IM) or email an external party (step 107). If the user is not authenticated, the user is again prompted to enter the user name and password (step 119). If the user is authenticated on this second attempt, then the user is asked whether he wants to send an IM or email (step 107). If, however, the inmate again incorrectly inputs the proper identification, the session terminates and an administrator may be electronically notified (step 121). When this second attempt failure occurs, the session is checked to see if the user ever logged in (step 129). If the user was not logged in, then the system is exited (step 131. Preferably, a monthly service fee is charged to the appropriate account. However, fees can be also be charged based on a variety of different methods, including, but not limited to, a charge per email or IM, a per minute charge, or a charge for the length of messages sent or received. Also, the system may be set up such that a third party can pay for the email or IM communication. Once messages have been archived (step 117), the system exits (step 131). The system can be configured to allow only one log on attempt. Also, the system may be configured to allow for more than one attempt. Both of these can be controlled at the administrator's option. Additionally, the system may be triggered to automatically monitor or record communication after a certain number of attempts rather than terminate the session. Further, the system can be set to monitor or record any session that the administrator desires, such as for certain users that have previously attempted to engage in criminal activity via the system. The inmate decides whether to email or IM and the inmate either writes an email (step 109) or an IM (step 123). If the inmate chooses to compose an email, after the inmate writes the email, it is subjected to security measures including a content check and authentication that the potential recipient has an acceptable address (step 111). If the email passes through security, an email notification is sent to the recipient containing a log in identification, password and directions to a secure site that he or she can visit to view the sent message (step 113). The inmate is then prompted to log out (step 115). If the inmate chooses instead to continue, the process reverts back. The inmate is prompted to choose whether to IM or email (step 107). If the inmate logs out, the messages are archived (step 117). If the email fails to pass the security check (step 111), the session is terminated and the administrator is notified (step 121). In addition, at this point, a check of whether the user was logged in and if messages were sent occurs (step 129) and if verified, and messages are archived (step 117). If the message is confidential as protected by attorney-client privilege, it is locked so that it cannot be accessed by unauthorized sources. If the inmate chooses to write an IM instead of an email (step 107), the inmate writes an IM and attempts to send it (step 123). The instant message is subjected to the same security measures as an email (step 125). If the message fails to pass, the session is terminated and the administrator is notified (step 121). Next, the system checks to see if the user was logged in and if any messages were sent (step 129). If yes, the messages are archived and stored (step 117) and the system exits (step 131). When an IM passes the security constraints (step 125), a message is sent to the external recipient (step 127). After the message is sent (step 127), the contacted external party is notified of the attempted contact by the inmate (step 141). For example, the external party can be notified of the attempted contact by the inmate, through an email, or via a third-party instant messaging platform. The response can result in three different scenarios. The first is that there is no reply from the external party after a set interval of time (step 133). When this occurs, the user is prompted to log out or continue and attempt another electronic message exchange (step 115). Additionally, the user has the option of sending another message to the external party to set up a time and date when he or she wishes to hold a future IM conversation. If the user logs out, messages are archived and stored as previously discussed (step 117). If instead the inmate decides to attempt another message, the user is prompted to choose if he or she wants to write an email or IM (step 107). The second possibility when the external party is notified is that the external party declines the conversation and the administrator is notified (step 143). The user is prompted to log out or continue (step 115) and the process continues. The final possibility is that the external party accepts the invitation to join the inmate in an instant messaging conversation (step 135). Further, the external party logs into the secure site and a conversation ensues. The conversation is monitored via such methods as word spotting. If inappropriate conversation ensues the conversation is terminated immediately (step 137). If not, the conversation continues for a set length of time, after which the system terminates the conversation. The user is then prompted to log out (step 115) and the loop repeats. The system can be also be configured to automatically log out after a user has been logged in for a set time period. In this embodiment, the system is also set to notify the user at given intervals to warn the user of the remaining time before automatic log out occurs. FIG. 6 depicts an alternative process whereby an external party messages an inmate (step 301). The message goes through a security check (step 303). The security check may include both manual and automated security checks. The external party is verified as an acceptable contact for the inmate and the sender address is authenticated through such methods as a digital signature. If the message fails the security check, the administrator receives the message (step 315). Conversely, if the message passes the security checks, the system sends the message to the inmate (step 305). Next, the inmate is notified of the new message (step 307). The inmate then logs into the system and reads or sends messages (step 309), preferably following the same process as in FIG. 2. After completing the session, the inmate logs out (step 311). The messages are archived and stored (step 313). While the present invention has been described with reference to the preferred embodiment and several alternative embodiments, which embodiments have been set forth in considerable detail for the purposes of making a complete disclosure of the invention, such embodiments are merely exemplary and are not intended to be limiting or represent an exhaustive enumeration of all aspects of the invention. The scope of the invention, therefore, shall be defined solely by the following claims. Further, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that numerous changes may be made in such details without departing from the spirit and the principles of the invention. It should be appreciated that the present invention is capable of being embodied in other forms without departing from its essential characteristics. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>As electronic messaging has become commonplace with the advent of the Internet in recent years, many institutions, such as prisons, nursing homes, mental institutions, etc., have the need to offer inmates or residents controlled electronic messaging exchange access. Common forms of interaction for inmates and residents with external parties include such mediums as site visits and telephonic communication. While both of these methods can be useful, electronic messaging can prove to be more effective and provides an alternative to the aforementioned mediums. For the purposes of simplicity, discussion will be limited to inmates within a correctional facility, but the discussion can easily be expanded to include residents of other institutions. Site visits from an inmate's family, attorney, etc. are often not economically or physically possible. The inability of visitors to make site visits to the inmate results from such factors as the distance from and costs incurred to travel to the institution. Also, it is costly and difficult for some institutions to provide monitoring and security for the visitors and inmates. As a result, an alternative method is necessary to allow controlled inmate communication with external parties. An alternative to site visits, telephonic communication, poses other problems. Some visitors may be several time zones away from the penal institution making telephonic communication difficult and even prohibitive. Additionally, telephonic communication between external parties and inmates can prove expensive. There are two common methods of payment available to inmates. In the first method, a collect call is placed to an acceptable outside party. In the second method, an inmate has an account in which money is deposited from a variety of sources and for each phone call the cost of the call is then deducted from the account balance. The costs vary as a result of, inter alia, different service providers for different facilities. Usually the institutions contract a service provider to install, operate and maintain the facility's system. As a result, costs for calls within the penal institution are generally much more than for similar calls made outside of the institution. From the standpoint of the institution, inmate telephone usage can prove expensive as it is necessary to monitor and record the activities of each of the residents in order to properly charge each individual caller for his or her outgoing calls. There are three common methods for monitoring telephone calls: live monitoring, passive monitoring and monitoring via a standard recording device. One such system known in the art provides a computer-based telecommunication system for the purpose of allowing an institution to control, monitor, record and report usage and access to a telephone network. In addition, the institution controls who the inmate can or cannot call. Electronic messaging, such as emailing and instant messaging, has become prominent in recent years as a medium of information transfer. While there is good reason to provide inmates with electronic messaging access, there is also a necessity to control the inmate's access to sending and receiving electronic messages. There have been instances where email has been banned from prisons, even when received via a printed form, resulting from, inter alia, a lack of secure control methods. System control is necessary to prevent harassing messages to outside parties, to prevent fraudulent activities, etc. Therefore, systems in such environments must monitor and control the electronic messaging activity of each inmate. Systems should also have a means of maintaining electronic messaging records for each inmate. The system should include a means for communicating with emailed parties to enable the contacted parties to prevent future emails from inmates. The same holds true for instant messaging. In short, the communications system used in a regulated institution must employ unique monitoring and control functions often unnecessary in other types of electronic messaging exchange systems. Further, an exchange system in institutions should reduce the workload burden of the correctional facility while provide security through intelligence gathering capabilities. In order for the methods of monitoring and control to be effective, it is important to prevent inmates from exploiting any loop-holes that can be used to bypass the control features of the system. This control is vital to ensure that the inmate does not access blocked addresses, for example, to perpetrate additional criminal activities, or harass certain parties. An electronic messaging system with restricted access should be able to perform the same functions as a normal electronic messaging system. The system should provide keyword scans, translation, file preparation, encryption, control over sent and received electronic messages to and from external sources, a billing method, etc. While there are systems that provide for some of these features, there is no system that provides a comprehensive solution for electronic messaging in a correctional facility. The present invention encompasses all the elements into a single system enabling a secure electronic messaging system to be utilized in penal institutions. For example, systems are known in the art that filter unwanted, bulk, or junk emails, commonly referred to as “spam.” The filtering can be done by a variety of methods including: sender address, sender organization, recipient address, recipient organization, attachment type, and email message content type. Each of these filtering types can be used in order to reduce “spam.” The emails that pass the filtering process are then sent to the recipient(s). Potential “spam” is then stored in a separate location, where it is examined either by the potential recipient or a third party. If determined to be “spam,” it is deleted or moved to another folder. Another possibility is to have the potential “spam” automatically deleted without verification by a party. A different system provides a methodology for a computerized telecommunications system for voice to text message storage for use in correctional facilities. This system receives an external message via either voice or text. There are two storage means: a voice message box or an email inbox. If a voice message is received, it passes as a regular telephonic voice message is then stored as a voice message in the voice message box. If instead the storage unit is an email box and a voice message is received, the voice message is converted to text and the message is then saved. The reverse happens if the message is a text message and the storage medium is a voice message box. If a text message is received and the inmate has an email inbox, then the text message is saved as text. The inmate is then notified of the new message. This system can also allow the inmate to send either a text or voice message to an external party. If it is a voice message, then no conversion occurs and the message is sent. However, if an inmate's message is in the form of text, then either a text to voice conversion occurs before being sent to the outside party or the text message is sent via email to the external party. The invention is limited in the fact that it can only handle email or voice messages. Yet another system known in the art provides a system and method for providing a sponsored or universal telecommunications service and third party payer services. The system discloses a method for providing a service for a sponsor to pay for communication via voice, data, or multi-media services, on the behalf of others. The method further provides universal service for telecommunication voice and multimedia applications without tax or market subsidies. In the view of the foregoing, a need exists for an inclusive method for allowing inmates access to electronic messaging systems. The present invention provides an alternative to site visits, telephonic and other forms of communication. It also offers a secure method for using electronic messages within a correctional or similar institution, including such features as monitoring, controlling, archiving and billing. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention embodies an electronic message exchange system for use in penal institutions, or similar facilities and institutions. It provides a combination of systems and services which allow inmates and their outside contacts to communicate via written correspondence in an expedient manner. Further, the present invention includes the capability for sending and receiving messages via a telephone and converting them as the necessary to text or similar format. The present invention also reduces the workload of the correctional facility staff and offers increased security by providing intelligence gathering capabilities. The present invention is designed to provide routing and identification processing, content control, translation, file preparation, and encryption. Also, a method for billing of services rendered is included, in addition to controlling the communication limitations for the inmate through such methods as populating an allowed or disallowed contact list, and controlling the frequency, size and length of communications. It also features alert methods for sent and received messages. The present invention provides a secure barrier, referred to herein as the central service center or central station, through which messages are forwarded to the intended party. The central service center is designed to gather information from the messages and alert the appropriate officials of those messages that present concerns prior to being disseminated to the receiving party. In addition, the central service center acts as the central processing center for incoming and outgoing messages. Its primary objective is to provide a centralized location capable of processing messages to and from approved accounts. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, files are created as a result of the required processes of the institution and saved in an approved format (i.e., email, printed medium, voice message, etc.). These files are then retrieved from or sent to the institution depending on the requirements. The service center also serves as a repository of all messages and of all primary data captured from those messages. Further, it serves as a web portal through which institutions and users can retrieve messages and data from those messages. Additionally, the central service center is preferably located remotely from the institution. However, it is foreseeable that the central service center may be located at the institution. Outside contacts gain access to the central service center preferably via their existing Internet Service Provider (ISP). The service center provides secure web-based access via a user-friendly interface to each outside contact through the system's software, preferably residing on a server at the service center. In the preferred embodiment, once an account is created and payment means are established, the outside contact may log in to the central service center. After the outside contact logs in, he or she may view a received message and/or compose a message to his or her intended recipient (i.e., an inmate). In the preferred embodiment, the outside contact's account is charged a monthly fee for the service. In an alternative embodiment, the outside contact's account is charged by an amount commensurate with the charges for each message. The payment method may be pre-paid or the account can be charged for later billing. These methods will vary and are customizable based on the institution's requirements. Furthermore, the central service center processes messages using various criteria, including, but not limited to, the intended recipient, keyword searches, language translation, suspect criteria, etc. Once these processes have been performed, files containing the appropriate information (i.e., a message to an inmate including necessary identification information about the sender and the recipient) are forwarded to a site server or multifunction device designated for the system, preferably located at the institution. The institution's staff has an opportunity to view the messages according to their desired priorities prior to allowing the messages to be delivered to their intended party. Additionally, the central service center also provides intelligence gathering and reporting capabilities which are made available through various screens in the system software. Administrators can access the system locally or remotely via the Internet. Certain aspects of the central service center may alternatively be incorporated into a site server, if supplied. The present invention also provides several methods of inputting text, including, but not limited to, a computer terminal, fax, and written correspondence. Also, an inmate may leave a voice message which is then preferably converted to text. Safe terminals may be provided for the inmate population which allow inmates to type outgoing messages and view incoming messages. In this embodiment, the safe terminals are preferably completely isolated from the Internet, connected only to the site server, and only capable of accessing the secure system software. If an inmate handwrites a message, the message is scanned and sent to the appropriate contact. Further, messages received from outside contacts may be printed onsite which, once the message is approved for viewing, the printed message is sent to the inmate. In an alternative embodiment, an integrated system is used for both instant messaging and email which allows inmates direct access to terminals for sending and receiving messages. In yet another different embodiment, two separate systems exist, one for instant messaging and one for email purposes. These embodiments also have a secure site (similar to the preferred embodiment) that both inmates and external parties log into in order to communicate with each other. Further, administrators can remotely access and manage the site. When safe terminals are incorporated into the system, the system preferably utilizes a secure user name and password for user authentication. In this embodiment, the institution pre-determines the user name and password, with the password preferably changing after a fixed interval of time or if tampering is suspected. However, to one of ordinary skill in the art, it is apparent that other forms of security measures can easily be implemented including such methods as radio frequency identification (RFID), and various biometric features. These methods can be used alone or in conjunction with any of the other security measures. In the preferred embodiment, each inmate has a unique recipient address or user identification that external parties can send a message to. When an outside party attempts to send an electronic message to an inmate, a series of control measures occur. The sender address is checked for authenticity and to ensure that the sender is an acceptable contact for the inmate. The acceptable contact list can be maintained via an “allowed contact list” or via a “disallowed contact list.” The allowed and disallowed lists may also be used in conjunction with each other. Content control is managed as the message itself is scanned for certain keywords and phrases. If a keyword or phrase is found, the message is flagged and sent to the service center or institution for manual examination. The message is translated as necessary, and the files are prepared and encrypted. After passing through the control measures, the message is then routed to the appropriate institution for viewing on the secure terminal or printing on the multifunction device. To one knowledgeable in the art, other authentications and control measures can be easily implemented. For outgoing inmate messages, a series of authentications is also performed similar to that of incoming messages. The present invention alerts the inmate of received messages preferably via the same method used by the institution for received mail. Also, the actual message may be delivered with the mail via a printed medium. In an alternative embodiment, the inmate is alerted after he or she successfully logs into a secure terminal, such as the aforementioned safe terminal. In yet a different embodiment, the inmate is notified on closed circuit monitors that display a list of the inmates that have new messages. The preferred embodiment of the present invention allows external users access to set up an account. It provides security checks for authorizing the external user. After the account is set up by the external party, the account holder can communicate via written messages with the desired inmate. The present invention further preferably provides a maximum limit to the amount of communication between the parties. In the preferred embodiment, the external party's account is billed a monthly service fee. In an alternative embodiment, each inmate has a registered account (as opposed to the account being registered to the external party). When the account is accessed and email is sent, the cost of the email is then deducted from the account balance. Payment occurs from such methods as pre-paying or billing after-the-fact for usage. A similar method can be implemented for instant messaging. Charges can be accrued based on measures such as total number of words, total number of lines, a fixed rate for each message sent or a rate for the time the inmate is logged in, etc. The present invention archives all incoming and outgoing messages through an automated storage database. This database can be searched in a variety of ways to retrieve desired information, except for restricted or privileged communications that are protected by the attorney-client privilege. These electronic messages are locked except to the authorized parties. In the current embodiment of the invention, when an inmate sends a message to an approved address, the recipient receives an email notification from an automated administrator stating that the inmate wishes to send the recipient a message. If the recipient desires to receive the message, he or she then logs onto a secure site via the Internet, enters the appropriate security identification, and views the message. The recipient is required to set up an account for the purposes of monitoring the messages sent and received. Also, the account is preferably billed based on a monthly service fee. All forms of forwarding or copying the message to anyone other than the original recipient are prevented. The external recipient then has the option of sending an email back to the inmate. Recipients can also choose to remove the inmate from their list, preventing the inmate from future contact with said recipient. When instant messaging is allowed by the institution, an inmate who wishes to have an instant message conversation with an approved external party sends a message to the external party through the secure site and if the party accepts, the outside party then logs onto the secure site where the instant messaging conversation then occurs. If the external party does not respond, the inmate has the option of sending a message to attempt to set up a date and time to hold the conversation. The message sent from the inmate to the outside party can be sent to an email address or an outside instant messaging platform. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide a comprehensive electronic message exchange system for use in penal or similar institutions. It is also an object of the present invention to provide secure written correspondence to and from an inmate in a secure facility. A different object of the present invention is to provide means for leaving a voice message and converting the voice message to text for viewing. It is another object of the present invention to provide a secure platform from which electronic messaging can occur. It is yet another object of the invention to provide security authentication for inmates and external parties. It is still another object of the invention to provide translation for incoming or outgoing messages. It is also an object of the invention to control the list with whom an inmate can electronically converse with. Additionally, it is an object of the invention to prevent messages from being forwarded to any additional parties by the recipient of the message. It is a further object of the invention to encrypt the incoming and outgoing messages within the electronic message exchange system. Furthermore, it is an object of the invention to provide content control for messages via such methods as keyword and phrase scanning. It is still another object of the invention to provide alerts for the inmate upon receiving a message from an external party. It is a further object of the invention to provide a billing method for services rendered while using the electronic message system. It is another object of the present invention to reduce institutional staff resources required for correspondence purposes. Further, it is an object of the present invention to provide the appropriate personnel with means to search for and view incoming and outgoing messages. Finally, it is an object of the invention to archive and store all messages in a database and to mark all protected messages for such reasons as attorney-client privilege, thus making them inaccessible except to those with the authority to access them. Other objects, features, and characteristics of the present invention, as well as methods of operation and functions of the related elements of the structure, and the combination of parts and economies of manufacture, will become more apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form part of this specification. | 20041124 | 20100622 | 20061102 | 68266.0 | H04M164 | 1 | ANWAH, OLISA | ELECTRONIC MESSAGING EXCHANGE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04M | 2,004 |
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10,997,294 | ACCEPTED | Tactical flotation support system | The flotation device includes an inflatable bladder, inflation means, activation means for the inflation means and is self-contained. Preferably, a plurality of flotation bladders which are inflatable by the user, a third party or automatically are used. A closure system prevents accidental inflation of the inflation means. The devices provides buoyancy to personnel and associated equipment. | 1. A flotation device for a user or inanimate object, comprising: an air impermeable bladder; at least one inflation means for inflating the bladder; a container attached to the bladder wherein the container is designed to hold the bladder and the at least one inflation means; a closure means for closing the container; an actuation means for releasing the closure means; and an attachment means for attaching the container to the user or inanimate object. 2. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the bladder is constructed from a durable, water-resistant material. 3. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the bladder is constructed from nylon. 4. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the bladder is constructed from welded nylon. 5. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the at least one inflation means is selected from the group consisting of a compressed air cartridge and an oral inflation unit. 6. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the at least one inflation means is a compressed air cartridge which is actuated by the actuation means. 7. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the container is constructed from a durable, water-resistant material. 8. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the bladder is constructed from nylon. 9. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the closure means comprises: at least one loop; at least one grommet through which the at least one loop may extend; and a retaining means for temporarily retaining the at least one loop extended through the at least one grommet. 10. The device as set forth in claim 9 wherein the retaining means is a pin which is actuated by the actuation means. 11. The device as set forth in claim 1 wherein the actuation means is a handle. 12. The device as set forth in claim 11 wherein the handle is releasably attached to the container. 13. The device as set forth in claim 11 wherein the handle is releasably attached to the container by at least one method selected from the group consisting of hook and loop fastener and snaps. 14. A flotation device for a user or inanimate object, comprising: an air impermeable bladder constructed from welded nylon; a compressed air cartridge for inflating the bladder; a container attached to the bladder wherein the container is designed to hold the bladder and the compressed air cartridge, the container further comprising: a. at least one loop; and b. at least one grommet through which the at least one loop may extend and be temporarily retained; an actuation pin for releasing the loop from the grommet and for actuating the compressed air cartridge; and an attachment means for attaching the container to the user or inanimate object. 15. The device as set forth in claim 14 further comprising an oral inflation unit for inflating the bladder. 16. A method for providing buoyancy to a user or inanimate object, comprising: providing an air impermeable bladder, which bladder includes at least one inflation means; securing the bladder to a container; placing the bladder and the at least one inflation means within the container; closing the container by means of a closure device; attaching the container to the user or inanimate object; and releasing the closure device to allow inflation of the bladder. 17. The method as set forth in claim 16 wherein the at least one inflation means is selected from the group consisting of a compressed air cartridge and an oral inflation unit. 18. The method as set forth in claim 16 wherein the at least one inflation means is a compressed air cartridge which is activated by releasing the closure device. 19. The method as set forth in claim 16 wherein the closure device comprises: at least one loop; at least one grommet through which the at least one loop may extend; and a pin for temporarily retaining the at least one loop extended through the at least one grommet whereby releasing the closure device is accomplished by releasing the pin such that the at least one loop is released from the at least one grommet. 20. The method as set forth in claim 19 wherein the at least one inflation means is a compressed air cartridge which is actuated by releasing the closure device pin. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/524,061, filed Nov. 24, 2003. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention is generally related to buoyancy device. More particularly, the invention is directed to a high capacity buoyancy device capable of providing buoyancy to individuals and substantial amounts of equipment. 2. Description of Related Art Buoyancy devices are well known in the prior art, particularly in the form of waist-mounted life belts or life preservers which are typically mounted around the wearer's neck and over their shoulders. These devices are inflated manually or by CO2 cartridges and provide buoyancy for an individual. Numerous life belts exist. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,394,866 describes a personal flotation device which is filled using a single gas cartridge and worn in a waist belt and inflated as needed. U.S. Pat. No. 6,231,411 describes a device for providing fashionable flotation support by placing air chambers into a belt for inflation and individual buoyancy. U.S. Pat. No. 6,179,677 shows a belt for use in water activities which has a manually inflatable bladder and at least one waterproof storage pocket are built. U.S. Pat. No. 6,106,348 describes a flotation device worn around a belt having a nozzle with a geometric design which overcomes the problems introduced by using a gas cartridge and the cold gas vented from the cartridge. U.S. Pat. No. 5,954,556 describes a flotation belt with multiple bladders which can be independently inflated by gas cartridges. The bladders are integral with the belt and remain around the wearer's waist. U.S. Pat. No. 5,839,932 describes a belt mounted water rescue device having pockets to hold different water rescue aids such as an inflatable belt, rescue tow line and other rescue tools as desired. The bladder can be inflated manually or by gas cartridges. Other examples of belt-type buoyancy devices are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,702,279; U.S. Pat. No. 5,466,179; U.S. Pat. No. 5,456,623; U.S. Pat. No. 5,453,033; U.S. Pat. No. 5,393,254; U.S. Pat. No. 5,382,184; U.S. Pat. No. 5,368,512; U.S. Pat. No. 5,022,879; U.S. Pat. No. 4,842,562; U.S. Pat. No. 4,379,705; U.S. Pat. No. 4,360,351; U.S. Pat. No. 2,452,475; and U.S. Pat. No. 1,833,614; U.S. Pat. No. 6,676,467 describes an airbag for swimmers. The device is intended to provide flotation for an individual and is filled by the wearer manually, an electrical pump or compressed gas. The air bag is worn around the waist or chest, under a swimsuit. U.S. Pat. No. 6,659,689 describes a complex flotation device which provides buoyancy and rescue assistance. This device is specifically designed to support a person and a 35 lb pack. It includes an inflatable neck collar and a front positioned inflatable element. The device may also include body armor, a releasable inflatable raft, and/or a second bladder. The bladder(s) may be inflated by gas cartridges or manually. U.S. Pat. No. 4,560,356 describes a flotation system. The system is a container which includes an inflatable flotation device. Opening the top flap of the container causes activation of a gas cartridge, inflation of the device and release of the device from the container. The container is connected to a wearer by a means such as a belt strap or the container can be connected to a boat or other water vehicle. In addition to the flotation device, the container may include water rescue devices such as an inflatable marker (also automatically inflated by opening the container flap) or other signal devices. Therefore, there is need for a buoyancy device which is capable of providing buoyancy to individuals as well as the equipment they may need to carry, often substantial in weight. Further, there is a need for a compact, portable, lightweight, reusable device which includes redundant safety measures and which does not interfere with normal movement. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention addresses these needs by providing a flotation device for a user or inanimate object. The device includes an air impermeable bladder constructed from a durable, water-resistant material such as welded nylon. The bladder is inflated by, preferably a compressed air cartridge and/or an oral inflation means. The bladder and inflation device is enclosed in a container. The container is also constructed from a water-resistant material such as nylon. The container is preferably closed by a loop, grommet and pin system. The pin is further preferably designed to actuate the compressed air cartridge such that releasing the pin simultaneously opens the container and actuates the compressed air cartridge. In the preferred embodiment, a handle releasably attached to the container actuates both the compressed air cartridge and release of the closure means. The handle can be attached to the container by hook and loop fastener, snaps or other easily released means. The container further includes an attachment device, such as a loop, for attaching the container to the user or inanimate object. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete description of the subject matter of the present invention and the advantages thereof, can be achieved by the reference to the following detailed description by which reference is made to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the present invention in the open configuration; FIG. 2a is a front view of the bladder portion of the preferred embodiment of the present invention in the open configuration; FIG. 2b is a front view of the container portion of the preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3a is a front view of the preferred embodiment of the present invention in the closed configuration; FIG. 3b is a side view of the preferred embodiment of the present invention in the closed configuration; and FIG. 3c is a rear view of the preferred embodiment of the present invention in the closed configuration. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The following detailed description is of the best presently contemplated modes of carrying out the invention. This description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of illustrating general principles of embodiments of the invention. Referring to FIGS. 1 through 3, the preferred embodiment of a flotation device 20 in accordance with the present invention is illustrated. Flotation device 20 consists of an inflatable bladder 22, at least one inflation means 24,26, activation means 28 for activating the inflation means, a container 30 and an attachment means 32 for attaching the device to a person and/or equipment. The inflatable bladder 22 is made from a durable, air impermeable material which is preferably resistant to either fresh or salt water damage. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the bladder 22 is made from 200-denier nylon which is welded into the bladder shape. The bladder 22 includes one or more inflation means 24,26. Preferably, one inflation means is a 38 gram CO2 cartridge 24 which can be activated by the wearer or by another person. The bladder 22 can also include a manual inflation means such as an oral inflation tube 26. The inflation means 26 is preferably activated by means of a handle 28 which is releasably connected to a container 30 (described in detail below). The bladder 22 and inflation means 24,26 are stored within a container 30. The container 30 is made from a durable, water resistant material such as nylon. The container 30 is securely attached to the bladder 22. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the container 30 is secured around the bladder 22 and inflation means 24,26 by means of loops 34 which are fed through grommets 36. A pin 38 is extended through the loops 34 as they extend through the grommets 36. In this particularly preferred embodiment, the pin 38 is connected to the handle 28 such that pulling the handle 28 to activate the CO2 cartridge 24 simultaneously pulls the pin 38 to release the loops 34 from the grommets 36, thus allowing the container 30 to open such that the bladder 22 can inflate. The handle 28 is connected to the container 30 in a manner which allows for quick and easy removal. For example, snaps or hook and loop fastener can be used. The flotation device 20 can be attached to the wearer or equipment by any satisfactory means. In a preferred embodiment, the container 30 includes a loop 32 through which a belt or other item can be threaded. If desired, the container 30 can be structurally strengthened at the attachment point for the loop 32. The preferred method of use by an individual is to secure two flotation devices 20, preferably one on the left and one on the right. If needed for flotation, the handle 28 is grasped and pulled to simultaneously activate the CO2 cartridge 24 and open the container 30. Due to the easily accessible placement of the handle 28, the handle 28 can be activated by a person not wearing the device to provide buoyancy for a person unable to activate the device himself or for an inanimate object. In the preferred orientation, one on either side of the wearer's body, this flotation device 20 does not interfere with normal activity, whether deployed or not. In its preferred embodiment, the flotation device 20 will raise 370 lbs from a depth of 33 feet in less than 10 seconds. The flotation device is reusable by deflating the bladder 22 and replacing it into the container 30. If necessary, the CO2 cartridge 24 is replaced. The container 30 is then reclosed using the preferred loop 34 and grommet 36 system and secured with the pin 38. The handle 28 is reattached to the container 30 resulting in a compact, easily transportable, lightweight, high capacity flotation device 20. Many improvements, modifications, and additions will be apparent to the skilled artisan without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as described herein and defined in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention is generally related to buoyancy device. More particularly, the invention is directed to a high capacity buoyancy device capable of providing buoyancy to individuals and substantial amounts of equipment. 2. Description of Related Art Buoyancy devices are well known in the prior art, particularly in the form of waist-mounted life belts or life preservers which are typically mounted around the wearer's neck and over their shoulders. These devices are inflated manually or by CO 2 cartridges and provide buoyancy for an individual. Numerous life belts exist. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,394,866 describes a personal flotation device which is filled using a single gas cartridge and worn in a waist belt and inflated as needed. U.S. Pat. No. 6,231,411 describes a device for providing fashionable flotation support by placing air chambers into a belt for inflation and individual buoyancy. U.S. Pat. No. 6,179,677 shows a belt for use in water activities which has a manually inflatable bladder and at least one waterproof storage pocket are built. U.S. Pat. No. 6,106,348 describes a flotation device worn around a belt having a nozzle with a geometric design which overcomes the problems introduced by using a gas cartridge and the cold gas vented from the cartridge. U.S. Pat. No. 5,954,556 describes a flotation belt with multiple bladders which can be independently inflated by gas cartridges. The bladders are integral with the belt and remain around the wearer's waist. U.S. Pat. No. 5,839,932 describes a belt mounted water rescue device having pockets to hold different water rescue aids such as an inflatable belt, rescue tow line and other rescue tools as desired. The bladder can be inflated manually or by gas cartridges. Other examples of belt-type buoyancy devices are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,702,279; U.S. Pat. No. 5,466,179; U.S. Pat. No. 5,456,623; U.S. Pat. No. 5,453,033; U.S. Pat. No. 5,393,254; U.S. Pat. No. 5,382,184; U.S. Pat. No. 5,368,512; U.S. Pat. No. 5,022,879; U.S. Pat. No. 4,842,562; U.S. Pat. No. 4,379,705; U.S. Pat. No. 4,360,351; U.S. Pat. No. 2,452,475; and U.S. Pat. No. 1,833,614; U.S. Pat. No. 6,676,467 describes an airbag for swimmers. The device is intended to provide flotation for an individual and is filled by the wearer manually, an electrical pump or compressed gas. The air bag is worn around the waist or chest, under a swimsuit. U.S. Pat. No. 6,659,689 describes a complex flotation device which provides buoyancy and rescue assistance. This device is specifically designed to support a person and a 35 lb pack. It includes an inflatable neck collar and a front positioned inflatable element. The device may also include body armor, a releasable inflatable raft, and/or a second bladder. The bladder(s) may be inflated by gas cartridges or manually. U.S. Pat. No. 4,560,356 describes a flotation system. The system is a container which includes an inflatable flotation device. Opening the top flap of the container causes activation of a gas cartridge, inflation of the device and release of the device from the container. The container is connected to a wearer by a means such as a belt strap or the container can be connected to a boat or other water vehicle. In addition to the flotation device, the container may include water rescue devices such as an inflatable marker (also automatically inflated by opening the container flap) or other signal devices. Therefore, there is need for a buoyancy device which is capable of providing buoyancy to individuals as well as the equipment they may need to carry, often substantial in weight. Further, there is a need for a compact, portable, lightweight, reusable device which includes redundant safety measures and which does not interfere with normal movement. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention addresses these needs by providing a flotation device for a user or inanimate object. The device includes an air impermeable bladder constructed from a durable, water-resistant material such as welded nylon. The bladder is inflated by, preferably a compressed air cartridge and/or an oral inflation means. The bladder and inflation device is enclosed in a container. The container is also constructed from a water-resistant material such as nylon. The container is preferably closed by a loop, grommet and pin system. The pin is further preferably designed to actuate the compressed air cartridge such that releasing the pin simultaneously opens the container and actuates the compressed air cartridge. In the preferred embodiment, a handle releasably attached to the container actuates both the compressed air cartridge and release of the closure means. The handle can be attached to the container by hook and loop fastener, snaps or other easily released means. The container further includes an attachment device, such as a loop, for attaching the container to the user or inanimate object. | 20041124 | 20080226 | 20050602 | 64292.0 | 1 | OLSON, LARS A | TACTICAL FLOTATION SUPPORT SYSTEM | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,997,357 | ACCEPTED | Data encryption systems and methods | Data encryption systems and methods. The system includes a storage device storing data and an encryption/decryption module. The encryption/decryption module randomly generates a device key seed according to the occurrence time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device, and applies the device key seed to data encryption. | 1. A data encryption system, comprising: a storage device, comprising: data D; and an encryption/decryption module randomly generating a device key seed Sd according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device, and applying the device key seed Sd to the data encryption of the data D. 2. The system of claim 1 further comprising a host receiving the device key seed Sd from the storage device, generating a host key seed Sh, generating a first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, encrypting the host key seed Sh using the first key Kn, and transmitting the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) to the storage device, wherein the storage device further generates the first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, decrypts the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) using the first key Kn to obtain the host key seed Sh, generates a second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and encrypts the data D using the second key Kn+1. 3. The system of claim 2 wherein the host further receives the encrypted data Kn+1(D) from the storage device, generates the second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and decrypts the encrypted data Kn+1(D) using the second key Kn+1 to obtain the data D. 4. The system of claim 1 wherein the specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a control transmission defined by USB (Universal Serial Bus). 5. The system of claim 4 wherein the control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. 6. The system of claim 1 wherein the specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a normal data transmission defined by USB (Universal Serial Bus). 7. A data encryption method, comprising: randomly generating a device key seed Sd according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device; and applying the device key seed Sd to the data encryption of data D. 8. The method of claim 7 further comprising: reception of the device key seed Sd from the storage device by a host; generating a host key seed Sh in the host; generating a first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd in the host; encrypting the host key seed Sh using the first key Kn in the host; transmitting the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) from the host to the storage device; generating of the first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd in the storage device; decrypting the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) using the first key Kn to obtain the host key seed Sh in the storage device; generating a second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd in the storage device; and encrypting the data D using the second key Kn+1 in the storage device. 9. The method of claim 8 further comprising: reception of the encrypted data Kn+1(D) from the storage device by the host; generating the second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd in the host; and decrypting the encrypted data Kn+1(D) using the second key Kn+1 to obtain the data D in the host. 10. The method of claim 7 wherein the specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a control transmission defined by USB (Universal Serial Bus). 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. 12. The method of claim 7 wherein the specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a normal data transmission defined by USB (Universal Serial Bus). | BACKGROUND The present disclosure relates generally to data protection mechanisms, and, more particularly, to data encryption systems and methods. Computers can be used to remotely authenticate and authorize digital data. Network applications are also convenient, but data protection is critical. Conventionally, data, such as authentication data can be protected using a hardware or software based fixed or non-fixed key encryption. Authentication data, for example, can be encrypted according to public key cryptography before transmission to a service provider. Upon reception of the encrypted data, the service provider decrypts the encrypted data to obtain the authentication data, and authorize a user. If the encryption is hardware based, additional device cost is incurred. Additionally, the authentication data is always stored in a portable device. The design of the device will become complicated due to the size limitations. If the encryption employs a fixed key, the same authentication data may result in the same encrypted data. That is, the storage device storing the authentication data can be easily imitated by a simulator or by sniffing and re-transmitting the encrypted data. If the encryption employs a non-fixed key, the non-fixed key is generated by searching for a key in a database. The database storing the file is still at risk. Further, in non-fixed key encryption, the key must be distributed to both connected sides and the key may be sniffed during transmission. SUMMARY Data encryption systems and methods are provided. In an exemplary embodiment of a data encryption system, the system comprises a storage device comprising data D and an encryption/decryption module. The encryption/decryption module randomly generates a device key seed Sd according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device, and applies the device key seed Sd and a seed generated by a host to data encryption. An embodiment of the system further comprises a host to receive the device key seed Sd from the storage device. The host generates a host key seed Sh, generates a first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, encrypts the host key seed Sh using the first key Kn, and transmits the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) to the storage device. The storage device generates the first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, and decrypts the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) using the first key Kn to obtain the host key seed Sh. The storage device further generates a second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and encrypts the data D using the second key Kn+1. The host further receives the encrypted data Kn+1(D), generates the second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and decrypts the encrypted data Kn+1(D) using the second key Kn+1 to obtain the data D. The specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a control transmission or normal data transmission defined by USB (Universal Serial Bus). The control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. The host key seed is randomly generated and difficult to be predicted and amended. The generation method for the host key seed, however, is not limited. The system generates the host key seed according to the operation capability of the host. In some embodiments, the system generates the host key seed using a complex algorithm requiring higher operational requirement, or according to the interval between the execution of an application and the reception of the device key seed with less operational requirements. In an exemplary embodiment of a data encryption method, a device key seed Sd is randomly generated according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device. The device key seed Sd is applied to data encryption on a storage device. The device key seed Sd is further transmitted from the storage device to a host. In the host, a host key seed Sh is generated, a first key Kn is generated according to the device key seed Sd, the host key seed Sh is encrypted using the first key Kn, and the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) is transmitted to the storage device. After reception of the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh), the storage device generates the first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, and decrypts the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) using the first key Kn to obtain the host key seed Sh. The storage device then generates a second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and encrypts the data D using the second key Kn+1. The encrypted data Kn+1(D) is further transmitted from the storage device to the host. The host generates the second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and decrypts the encrypted data Kn+1(D) using the second key Kn+1 to obtain the data D. The specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a control transmission or normal data transmission defined by USB. The control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. The host key seed is randomly generated and difficult to be predicted and amended. The generation method for the host key seed, however, is not limited. The system generates the host key seed according to the operation capability of the host. In some embodiments, the system generates the host key seed using a complex algorithm requiring higher operational requirements, or according to the interval between the execution of an application and the reception of the device key seed with less operational requirements. Data encryption methods may take the form of program code embodied in a tangible media. When the program code is loaded into and executed by a machine, the machine becomes an apparatus for practicing the disclosed method. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Data encryption systems and methods will become more fully understood by referring to the following detailed description with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of a data encryption system; and FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing an embodiment of a data encryption method. DESCRIPTION Data encryption systems and methods are provided. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of a data encryption system. An embodiment of the data encryption system 100 comprises a host 110 and a storage device 120. The storage device 120 connects to the host 110 via a channel 130, such as a USB (Universal Serial Bus) transmission channel. The host 110 may be a computer system, an electronic schoolbag, a mobile device, such as a PDA, or other processor-based electronic devices. The host 110 comprises an encryption/decryption module 111, for generating host key seeds and keys, and performing encryption and decryption operations. The storage device 120 may be a mobile device, such as a mobile phone, USB handy disk, or a language learning machine. The storage device 120 comprises an encryption/decryption module 121, and data 122 requiring protection during transmission, such as authentication data for digital copyright control. The encryption/decryption module 121 may be implemented in software or hardware. To reduce cost, a software implementation may be the best choice. Similarly, the encryption/decryption module 121 generates device key seeds and keys, and performing encryption and decryption operations on the data 122. FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing an embodiment of a data encryption method. When an application (not shown in FIG. 1) executes on the host 110 and must read data 122 from the storage device 120, in step S201, the host 110 transmits a read data request to the storage device 120. When the storage device 120 receives the request, in step S202, a device key seed Sd is randomly generated according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device 120, and in step S203, the device key seed Sd is transmitted to the host 110. It is understood that if the device key seed Sd is generated according to the interval between two specific operations, the two operations may be of different type. The interval can be measured using the MCU (Micro Control Unit) tick number of the storage device 120. The specific operation is received on the storage device 120 from the host 110, and corresponds to a control transmission defined by USB. The control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. The descriptors comprise device, configuration, interface, endpoint, and string descriptors. Additionally, the specific operation may be received on the storage device 120 from the host 110, and correspond to a normal data transmission defined by USB. For example, if a FIFO queue of the host 110 is 64 bytes, and each transmission with 64 bytes triggers a USB data transmission. If the host 110 transmits 198 bytes of data, the storage device 120 receives three USB data transmissions each of 64 bytes, and one USB data transmissions of 6 bytes. Each of the four USB data transmissions can be candidates for the specific operations. When each of the operations occurs, an interrupt is triggered to notify the MCU of the storage device 120 regarding the requirement of the operation, and the storage device 120 can obtain the system clock wherein the operation occurred. After the host 110 receives the device key seed Sd, in step S204, a host key seed Sh is generated. It is understood that the host key seed Sh is randomly generated and difficult to be predicted and amended. The generation method for the host key seed Sh, however, is not limited. The host 110 generates the host key seed Sh according to the operation capability of the host 110. In some embodiments, the host 110 generates the host key seed Sh using a complex algorithm, or according to the interval between the execution of the application and the reception of the device key seed Sd. Then, in step S205, the host 110 generates a first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, in step S206, encrypts the host key seed Sh using the first key Kn, and in step S207, transmits the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) to the storage device 120. It is understood that a key seed can be performed with a predetermined number of operations, to thus generate the key for software encryption. The predetermined operations are dependent on different software encryptions. For example, if both the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd are 32 bits, a key with 8m bits is generated using following equation (in program language C): F(Sh,Sd)=(Sh*Sd)&0xff+((Sh<<8)*Sd)&0xff00+((Sh<<16)*Sd)&0xff0000+((Sh<<24)*Sd)&0xff000000+((Sh+Sd)&0xff+((Sd<<8)*Sh)&0xff00+((Sd<<16)*Sh)&0xff0000+(Sd<<24)*Sh)&0xff000000)<<32. m is an integer within 1 to 8. That is, the key is the last 8m bits of F(Sh, Sd). Additionally, if any of Sh and Sd is not present, the absentee can be replaced by a predefined constant C with 32 bits. The above equation is one example, the method for generating the key is not limited thereto. The encryption mechanism can be any symmetric encryption, and the complexity and security level of a software encryption method can be selected according to hardware and security requirements. For example, the encryption can be performed by left rotating r bits of authentication data. The value of r is determined according to Kn %64 (Kn is a key generated using F(Sh, Sd) in the n-th transmission). In some embodiments, TEA (Tiny Encryption Algorithm) can be employed. In TEA, a key with 32 bits is obtained from the last 32 bits of F(Sh, Sd). Similarly, the above encryption mechanisms are not limited thereto. After reception of the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh), in step S208, the storage device 120 generates the first key Kn according to the device key seed Sd, and in step S209, decrypts the encrypted host key seed Kn(Sh) using the first key Kn to obtain the host key seed Sh. Then, in step S210, the storage device 120 generates a second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, in step S211, encrypts the data D using the second key Kn+1, and in step S212, transmits the encrypted data Kn+1(D) to the host 110. After reception of the encrypted data Kn+1(D), in step S213, the host 110 generates the second key Kn+1 according to the host key seed Sh and the device key seed Sd, and in step S214, decrypts the encrypted data Kn+1(D) using the second key Kn+1 to obtain the data D. The data D can be transmitted to the application for further processing, such as authentication. Data encryption methods, or certain aspects or portions thereof, may take the form of program code (i.e., executable instructions) embodied in tangible media, such as products, floppy diskettes, CD-ROMS, hard drives, or any other machine-readable storage medium, wherein, when the program code is loaded into and executed by a machine, such as a computer, the machine thereby becomes an apparatus for practicing the methods. The methods may also be embodied in the form of program code transmitted over some transmission medium, such as electrical wiring or cabling, through fiber optics, or via any other form of transmission, wherein, when the program code is received and loaded into and executed by a machine, such as a computer, the machine becomes an apparatus for practicing the disclosed methods. When implemented on a general-purpose processor, the program code combines with the processor to provide a unique apparatus that operates analogously to application specific logic circuits. While the invention has been described by way of example and in terms of preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited thereto. Those who are skilled in this technology can still make various alterations and modifications without departing from the scope and spirit of this invention. Therefore, the scope of the present invention shall be defined and protected by the following claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present disclosure relates generally to data protection mechanisms, and, more particularly, to data encryption systems and methods. Computers can be used to remotely authenticate and authorize digital data. Network applications are also convenient, but data protection is critical. Conventionally, data, such as authentication data can be protected using a hardware or software based fixed or non-fixed key encryption. Authentication data, for example, can be encrypted according to public key cryptography before transmission to a service provider. Upon reception of the encrypted data, the service provider decrypts the encrypted data to obtain the authentication data, and authorize a user. If the encryption is hardware based, additional device cost is incurred. Additionally, the authentication data is always stored in a portable device. The design of the device will become complicated due to the size limitations. If the encryption employs a fixed key, the same authentication data may result in the same encrypted data. That is, the storage device storing the authentication data can be easily imitated by a simulator or by sniffing and re-transmitting the encrypted data. If the encryption employs a non-fixed key, the non-fixed key is generated by searching for a key in a database. The database storing the file is still at risk. Further, in non-fixed key encryption, the key must be distributed to both connected sides and the key may be sniffed during transmission. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Data encryption systems and methods are provided. In an exemplary embodiment of a data encryption system, the system comprises a storage device comprising data D and an encryption/decryption module. The encryption/decryption module randomly generates a device key seed S d according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device, and applies the device key seed S d and a seed generated by a host to data encryption. An embodiment of the system further comprises a host to receive the device key seed S d from the storage device. The host generates a host key seed S h , generates a first key K n according to the device key seed S d , encrypts the host key seed S h using the first key K n , and transmits the encrypted host key seed K n (S h ) to the storage device. The storage device generates the first key K n according to the device key seed S d , and decrypts the encrypted host key seed K n (S h ) using the first key K n to obtain the host key seed S h . The storage device further generates a second key K n+1 according to the host key seed S h and the device key seed S d , and encrypts the data D using the second key K n+1 . The host further receives the encrypted data K n+1 (D), generates the second key K n+1 according to the host key seed S h and the device key seed S d , and decrypts the encrypted data K n+1 (D) using the second key K n+1 to obtain the data D. The specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a control transmission or normal data transmission defined by USB (Universal Serial Bus). The control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. The host key seed is randomly generated and difficult to be predicted and amended. The generation method for the host key seed, however, is not limited. The system generates the host key seed according to the operation capability of the host. In some embodiments, the system generates the host key seed using a complex algorithm requiring higher operational requirement, or according to the interval between the execution of an application and the reception of the device key seed with less operational requirements. In an exemplary embodiment of a data encryption method, a device key seed S d is randomly generated according to the time of a specific operation or the interval between two specific operations on the storage device. The device key seed S d is applied to data encryption on a storage device. The device key seed S d is further transmitted from the storage device to a host. In the host, a host key seed S h is generated, a first key K n is generated according to the device key seed S d , the host key seed S h is encrypted using the first key K n , and the encrypted host key seed K n (S h ) is transmitted to the storage device. After reception of the encrypted host key seed K n (S h ), the storage device generates the first key K n according to the device key seed S d , and decrypts the encrypted host key seed K n (S h ) using the first key K n to obtain the host key seed S h . The storage device then generates a second key K n+1 according to the host key seed S h and the device key seed S d , and encrypts the data D using the second key K n+1 . The encrypted data K n+1 (D) is further transmitted from the storage device to the host. The host generates the second key K n+1 according to the host key seed S h and the device key seed S d , and decrypts the encrypted data K n+1 (D) using the second key K n+1 to obtain the data D. The specific operation is received on the storage device, and corresponds to a control transmission or normal data transmission defined by USB. The control transmission comprises status getting, feature clearing, feature setting, address setting, descriptor getting, descriptor setting, configuration getting, configuration setting, interface getting, interface setting, or frame synchronization. The host key seed is randomly generated and difficult to be predicted and amended. The generation method for the host key seed, however, is not limited. The system generates the host key seed according to the operation capability of the host. In some embodiments, the system generates the host key seed using a complex algorithm requiring higher operational requirements, or according to the interval between the execution of an application and the reception of the device key seed with less operational requirements. Data encryption methods may take the form of program code embodied in a tangible media. When the program code is loaded into and executed by a machine, the machine becomes an apparatus for practicing the disclosed method. | 20041123 | 20150106 | 20060323 | 66888.0 | G06F1214 | 2 | WYSZYNSKI, AUBREY H | Data encryption systems and methods | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,004 |
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10,997,712 | ACCEPTED | Container for providing easy access to beverage cans | A container having a multiplicity of cans therein. The container disclosed is modified from a rectangular, closed wall container to a container with part of the walls removed, thereby allowing easy access to the cans of the container. Applicant discloses a unique relationship between the walls of the opened container and the size of the beverage cans. Applicant also discloses a method for constructing a closed container that may be easily modified to remove the cans of the container. | 1. A container comprising: a plurality of walls including a front wall, a rear wall, a top wall, a bottom wall and two side walls, the walls containing a multiplicity of stacked cylindrical cans in can columns and can rows, the can columns located between the front wall and the rear wall, there being at least a top can row and a next to the top can row, the top can row including a forwardmost can adjacent the front wall and a rearward most can adjacent the rear wall, each can having a can top, a can bottom, a can height, a can diameter, and a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the front wall, wherein the top wall and the bottom wall are spaced apart by about a whole multiple of can diameters, and the two side walls are spaced apart by about the can height, the front and back wall spaced apart by about a whole multiple of can diameters; and a removable access portion, the removable access portion comprised of a portion of each of the top wall, the front wall and the two side walls, such that removal of the portion leaves a pair of side wall edges, which side wall edges expose a substantial part of the can top and the can bottom of the forwardmost can, for ease of removal of the forwardmost can, and removal of the access portion further provides access to the cans remaining after removal of the forwardmost can; wherein the front wall retains cans in the next to the top can row from rolling out of the container when the bottom wall is resting flat on a support surface. 2. A container for holding a multiplicity of cylindrical cans, each can having a can diameter and a can height, the container comprising: twelve cylindrical cans, each can comprising a can diameter and a can height, each can further comprising a longitudinal axis; a rear wall having a rear wall height of about a whole multiple of the can diameter; a front wall spaced apart from the rear wall by about a whole multiple of can diameters, having a front wall height, the front wall height being less than the rear wall height, the front wall being substantially parallel to the longitudinal axes; a bottom wall having a bottom wall length of about a whole multiple of the can diameter; a top wall having a top wall length less than the bottom wall length; and two side walls, each of the side walls having a front edge running from the front wall to the top wall, the sidewalls separated by about the can height. 3. The container of claim 2 wherein at least part of each edge of the two sidewalls is oblique with respect to the front wall and the top wall. 4. A container holding a multiplicity of substantially identical items arranged in a plurality of rows and columns, each item having an item diameter and an item height, wherein the arrangement has a top row and a next-to-the-top row, and wherein each column has a column width of about the item diameter and each row has a row height of about the item diameter, comprising: a rear wall having a rear wall height of about a whole multiple of the row height; a bottom wall for resting on a support surface having a bottom wall length of about a whole multiple of the column width; a front wall having a front wall height less than the rear wall height but sufficiently high to restrain the next-to-the-top row of items when the bottom wall is resting on the support surface; a top wall having a top wall length less than the bottom wall length; two side walls, each of the side walls having a front edge connecting the front wall to the top wall, wherein at least part of each edge is oblique with respect to the front wall and the top wall, the sidewalls separated by about the item height; and wherein each of the items comprises a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the front wall. 5. A container for holding a multiplicity of cylindrical cans, each can having a can diameter and a can height, the container comprising: a rear wall and a front wall each having a height of about a whole multiple of the can diameter; a bottom wall and a top wall each having a length of about a whole multiple of the can diameter; two side walls between the bottom and top walls, the sidewalls separated by about the can height; a scored line having a front wall segment running on the front wall, a top wall segment running on the top wall, and side wall segments running on the side walls, the scored line defining a removable section of the container, and wherein at least a part of the front wall segment runs at a height less than the rear wall height, and at least a part of each of the side wall segments runs obliquely with respect to the front wall and the top wall; and wherein each of the cans comprises a longitudinal axis, and wherein the front wall is substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis. 6. A method of providing easy access to items arranged in a container in a plurality of rows and columns, each item having an item diameter and an item height, wherein the arrangement has a top row and a next-to-the-top row, and wherein each column has a column width of about the item diameter and each row has a row height of about the item diameter, comprising: providing a rectangular paper container comprising six rectangular walls including two side walls separated by about the item height, a front wall and a rear wall having a height of about a whole multiple of the row height, and a top wall and a bottom wall adapted to rest on a support surface, the bottom wall having a length of about a whole multiple of the column width; scoring a front wall score on the front wall, at least a part of the front wall score being made at a height less than the rear wall height but sufficiently high to restrain the next-to-the-top row of items when the bottom wall is resting on the support surface and when the front wall is separated at the front wall score; scoring a top wall score on the top wall; scoring side wall scores on the side walls, at least a part of each of the side wall scores being made oblique to the front wall and the top wall; and wherein the scores define a section, the removal of which allows easy access to the items, and wherein each of the items comprises a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to items, and wherein each of the items comprises a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the front wall. 7. A container comprising: twelve substantially identical items, each item having a height and a diameter; and a rectangular carton, adapted to contain the twelve items in a row and column arrangement, the row and column arrangement including a top row and a next-to-the-top row, the rectangular carton including a front wall, a rear wall, a top wall, a bottom wall for resting on a level support surface, and two side walls, the front and rear walls having a height, the top and bottom walls having a length, the rectangular carton further adapted to enclose the twelve items such that the height of the front wall and the height of the rear wall is about equal to a multiplicity of whole item diameters and the length of the bottom wall and the length of the top wall is about equal to about a multiplicity of whole item diameters and wherein the front wall includes a front wall scored line segment located such that removal of a front wall portion above the front wall scored line segment will define a lip that will retain the next-to-the-top row of cylindrical items from falling out of the container when the bottom wall is on a level support surface, and wherein the top wall includes a top wall scored line segment such that removal of a top wall portion in front of the top wall scored line segment results in, in conjunction with the removal of the front wall portion above the front wall scored line segment, an opening providing access to the items. 8. The container of claim 7 wherein each of the side walls include a scored line segment at least partly oblique, running between the front wall and the top wall. 9. A method of manufacturing a container: providing a paper sheet member; scoring a portion of the sheet member with a score line; folding the sheet member around a plurality of items, each of the items having an item height, an item diameter, and a longitudinal axis, the folded sheet member defining a generally rectangular container having a top wall, a bottom wall, a front wall, a rear wall, and two side walls containing the items arranged in a plurality of stacked rows, the plurality of stacked rows containing at least a top row and a next-to-the-top row, wherein a row height is about equal to the item diameter and wherein the front wall and the rear wall have a height of about a whole multiplicity of row heights and the top wall and the bottom wall have a length of about a whole multiplicity of item diameters, and the sidewalls are separated about the item height, and wherein folding the sheet member further comprises: locating at least a portion of the score line on the front wall so as to define an edge that is sufficiently high to restrain the next to the top row; orienting the front wall substantially parallel to the longitudinal axes; and locating at least a portion of the score line on the top wall and the side walls. 10. A container comprising: a plurality of items, each item comprising an item diameter and an item height, each item further comprising a longitudinal axis, and wherein the items are arranged to include a bottom row; a rear wall having a rear wall height of about a whole multiple of the item diameters; a front wall having a front wall height, the front wall height being less than the rear wall height but capable of restraining at least the bottom row of items from rolling out of the container, the front wall being substantially parallel to the longitudinal axes; a bottom wall having a bottom wall length of about a whole multiple of the item diameters; a top wall having a top wall length less than the bottom wall length; and two side walls, each of the side walls having a front edge running from the front wall to the top wall, wherein at least part of each edge is oblique with respect to the front wall and the top wall, the sidewalls separated by about the item height. 11. A container comprising: a plurality of items, each item comprising an item diameter and an item height, each item further comprising a longitudinal axis, and wherein the items are arranged to include a bottom row; two side walls separated by about the item height; a rear wall having a rear wall height of about a whole multiple of the item diameters; a front wall substantially parallel to the longitudinal axes and comprising a front wall edge, at least part of the front wall edge being at a front wall height that is less than the rear wall height but sufficiently high to restrain items in the bottom row from rolling out of the container; a bottom wall having a bottom wall length of about a whole multiple of the item diameters; and a top wall having a top wall edge spaced apart from the front wall, such that at least part of the top wall has a top wall length less than the bottom wall length, wherein a distance between at least part of the front wall edge and at least part of the top wall edge is greater than an item diameter, and wherein the front wall edge and the top wall edge at least partly define an opening through which the items may be accessed. 12. A container comprising: a plurality of walls including a front wall, a rear wall, a top wall, a bottom wall and two side walls, the walls containing a multiplicity of stacked cylindrical cans in can columns and can rows, the can columns located between the front wall and the rear wall, there being at least a top can row and a next to the top can row, the top can row including a forwardmost can adjacent the front wall and a rearward most can adjacent the rear wall, each can having a can top, a can bottom, a can height, a can diameter, and a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the front wall, wherein the top wall and the bottom wall are spaced apart by about a whole multiple of can diameters, and the two side walls are spaced apart by about the can height, the front and back wall spaced apart by about a whole multiple of can diameters wherein the top wall further includes a handle; and a removable access portion, the removable access portion comprised of a portion of each of the top wall, the front wall and the two side walls, such that removal of the portion leaves a pair of side wall edges, which side wall edges expose a substantial part of the can top and the can bottom of the forwardmost can, for ease of removal of the forwardmost can, and removal of the access portion further provides access to the cans remaining after removal of the forwardmost can; wherein the front wall retains cans in the next to the top can row from rolling out of the container when the bottom wall is resting flat on a support surface and wherein the removable access portion is identified by indicia. 13. A container for holding a multiplicity of items, each item having a item diameter and a item height, the container comprising: twelve items, each item comprising a item diameter and a item height, each item further comprising a longitudinal axis; a rear wall having a rear wall height of about a whole multiple of the item diameter; a front wall spaced apart from the rear wall by about a whole multiple of item diameters, having a front wall height, the front wall height being less than the rear wall height, the front wall being substantially parallel to the longitudinal axes; a bottom wall having a bottom wall length of about a whole multiple of the item diameter; a top wall having a top wall length less than the bottom wall length; and two side walls, each of the side walls having a front edge running from the front wall to the top wall, the sidewalls separated by about the item height. 14. A container holding a multiplicity of substantially identical cans arranged in a plurality of rows and columns, each can having an can diameter and a can height, wherein the arrangement has a top row and a next-to-the-top row, and wherein each column has a column width of about the can diameter and each row has a row height of about the can diameter, comprising: a rear wall having a rear wall height of about a whole multiple of the row height; a bottom wall for resting on a support surface having a bottom wall length of about a whole multiple of the column width; a front wall having a front wall height less than the rear wall height but sufficiently high to restrain the next-to-the-top row of cans when the bottom wall is resting on the support surface; a top wall having a top wall length less than the bottom wall length; two side walls, each of the side walls having a front edge connecting the front wall to the top wall, wherein at least part of each edge is oblique with respect to the front wall and the top wall, the sidewalls separated by about the can height; and wherein each of the cans comprises a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the front wall. 15. A container for holding a multiplicity of cylindrical cans, each can having a can diameter and a can height, the container comprising: a rear wall and a front wall each having a height of about a whole multiple of the can diameter; a bottom wall and a top wall each having a length of about a whole multiple of the can diameter, the top wall including a handle; two side walls between the bottom and top walls, the sidewalls separated by about the can height; a scored line having a front wall segment running on the front wall, a top wall segment running on the top wall, and side wall segments running on the side walls, the scored line defining a removable section of the container, and wherein at least a part of the front wall segment runs at a height less than the rear wall height, and at least a part of each of the side wall segments runs obliquely with respect to the front wall and the top wall; and wherein each of the cans comprises a longitudinal axis, and wherein the front wall is substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis. 16. A method of providing easy access to items arranged in a container in a plurality of rows and columns, each item having an item diameter and an item height, wherein the arrangement has a top row and a next-to-the-top row, and wherein each column has a column width of about the item diameter and each row has a row height of about the item diameter, comprising: providing a rectangular paper container comprising six rectangular walls including two side walls separated by about the item height, a front wall and a rear wall having a height of about a whole multiple of the row height, and a top wall having a handle and a bottom wall adapted to rest on a support surface, the bottom wall having a length of about a whole multiple of the column width; scoring a front wall score on the front wall, at least a part of the front wall score being made at a height less than the rear wall height but sufficiently high to restrain the next-to-the-top row of items when the bottom wall is resting on the support surface and when the front wall is separated at the front wall score; scoring a top wall score on the top wall; scoring side wall scores on the side walls, at least a part of each of the side wall scores being made oblique to the front wall and the top wall; and wherein the scores define a section, the removal of which allows easy access to the items, and wherein each of the items comprises a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to items, and wherein each of the items comprises a longitudinal axis substantially parallel to the front wall. | This is a continuation of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/935,209, filed Sep. 7, 2004, which is a continuation of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/388,951, filed Mar. 14, 2003 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,789,673, issued Sep. 14, 2004); which is a continuation of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/946,004, filed Sep. 4, 2001 (U.S. Pat. No. 6,550,651); which is a continuation of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/542,661, filed Apr. 4, 2000 (U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,293). FIELD OF THE INVENTION Beverage can containers, more specifically a beverage can container for providing easy access to the beverage cans contained therein. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Beverages, such as soda or beer, often come in cylindrical, aluminum, typically 12 oz. cans. Traditionally, one could buy a single can or a “six pack.” The six pack is simply six cans contained in a typically rectangular paper container or hung on interconnected plastic rings. More recently, cans of soda and beer have become available in packs of twelve cans. The twelve pack is typically rectangular cardboard with the cans, usually in a 4×3 matrix arrangement, stacked closely next to one another. The twelve pack has walls typically constructed of light cardboard or thick paperboard, being thicker than writing stock paper but not as robust or thick as corrugated cardboard. These twelve packs presently enjoy popularity with use by Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola, the two leading providers of soda as well as by many major domestic beer companies. The twelve pack containers provide a convenient means to carry the beverage cans but are not handy for dispensing the cans. Typically, the consumer will purchase the twelve pack, bring it home, tear the pack open and pull out the cans to stack them in the refrigerator, discarding the container. Applicant provides, however, for a modification to the currently available twelve pack to convert the carrying container to a dispensing container. That is, the cans will remain within the carrying container, the container acting, as modified by applicant as a beverage can dispenser. An object of Applicant's present invention is to provide for a container for beverage cans which will allow easy access to the beverage cans for easy removal but will also hold the beverage cans therein. It is also an object of Applicant's present invention to provide a modification to currently existing beverage can containers so that the containers, as modified, will provide easy access to the cans therein. This and other objects are provided for in a generally rectangular, paper beverage can container with a corner removed on a diagonal line across the two side walls, the line running from a front wall to the adjacent top wall. There are a number of benefits with Applicant's novel beverage container with a dispensing cutout therein. These include ease of access. This is obtained by placing the twelve pack container on edge with a cutout in the upper corner. Easy and fast accessibility to the cold beverage cans will increase consumption and sales of the product. Applicant's invention also provides for gravity feed to enhance access to the beverage cans. This is created by the weight of the cans when the beverage container is placed in a vertical position. This position naturally pushes the cans, under the influence of gravity, towards the front wall of the container. The cutout location is designed to take maximum advantage of this gravity feed. Another advantage of Applicant's invention is the ability to effectively utilize space, especially in a refrigerator or kitchen cabinet. By placement of the cutout in the position indicated, the container may be placed vertically to save space. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the preferred embodiment of applicants invention. FIG. 1A is side view of a 12 oz. beverage can. FIG. 1B is a perspective view of the beverage container modified accordingly to Applicant's invention. FIG. 2 is a side elevational view of the preferred embodiment of applicants invention. FIG. 3 is a side elevational view of an embodiment of Applicants invention. FIG. 4 is a two dimensional pattern of a typical paper twelve pack container illustrating the area removed to provide for applicants unique dispenser. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Line 12A shows the position of a line on the front wall of a beverage container from one side wall to the next, the line being straight and meeting the edge between the front wall and the side wall at a 90° angle. The line 12D shows the position of a diagonal line across each of the two side walls between the front wall and the top wall, lines 12D, at 12B and 12C showing a preferred range of the position of line 12D with respect to the top wall. Line 12E is a line across the top wall, one side wall to the next and perpendicular to the edges of the top wall. The beverage container will be cut through along lines 12A, 12D and 12E to remove section 12 from the rest of the container (See FIG. 1B). The position of lines 12A, 12D and 12E may be premarked, scored (or otherwise weaken) by the manufacturer of the beverage container so as to direct the consumer to the position for cutting and removing portion 12. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a modified twelve pack container 10 with cylindrical aluminum 12 oz. beverage cans A packed inside in a 4×3 arrangement and designating two side walls S/W, a top wall T/W, a bottom wall B/W, a front wall F/W and a rear wall R/W. It is noted that the two side walls have the greatest surface area, the top and bottom walls having a surface area between the two side walls and the front and rear walls, which have the least surface area. A support surface, such as a refrigerator shelf, is designated SS. The top, bottom, front and rear walls are defined when the container is placed on a support surface, as illustrated in FIG. 1, with the F/W chosen to provide for the most convenient access. FIG. 1 also illustrates Applicant's modification, being a cut or removed portion 12, the removed portion being a corner of the container where the front wall meets the top wall and defined by a diagonal line across the two sidewalls between the front wall and the top wall, and a line across the top wall and across the front wall, this line along which the removed portion is defined designated 12A. FIG. 2 illustrates a side elevational view of the twelve pack of FIG. 1 wherein the dimension designated D is the approximate diameter of a 12 oz. aluminum beverage can, typically about 6.6 centimeters. As can be seen in FIGS. 1 and 2 the typical twelve pack beverage container is a little over 4 diameters long (about 26 cms) and about 3 “diameters” high (about 20 cms) to enclose therein, in a 3×4 matrix, twelve cans. Furthermore it sometimes includes a handle 14 thereon, the handle typically being walls defining a cut out in the top wall for the receipt of a hand thereinto. The height (H) of a typical 12 oz. metal beverage can is about 12.6 cm. In FIG. 2 it is seen that Applicant modifies the standard heavy paper wall twelve pack container by cutting off the corner created by the joinder of the front wall and top wall. This is preferably done in the manner illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. The preferred height of the front wall defined after the cut across the front wall is less than two diameters but greater than one diameter, more preferably between 1.50 and 1.80 times D. Indeed, the most preferred height of the front wall defining the cut to remove portion 12 is between 1¼ diameter and 1¾ diameter. Such dimension allows easy receipt of the second course of cans but is high enough to prevent the second course of cans from falling out when there are still 3 courses in the container. The preferred length of the top wall defined after the cut is between 1 and 3 diameters, preferably between 1 and 2 diameters. These cut dimensions are illustrated by lines 12B and 12C set forth in FIG. 2. Cuts along the lines 12A, 12D and 12E may be made with a knife, razor or any other suitable instrument. When the cuts are made as set forth in FIGS. 1 and 2, portion 12 can be removed (See FIG. 1B) and the single can at the top corner will then be removed and the container placed in the position illustrated in FIG. 1 for easy dispensing of the remaining cans. FIG. 3 provides for a diagonal cut 12C across the side walls S/W's that terminates adjacent handle 14. Handle 14, in a 4×3 twelve pack is usually at 2 diameters from a top edge (half way across top wall T/W) to provide for proper balance. FIG. 4 illustrates a flattened twelve pack pattern 16 which will fold together to provide for a typical twelve pack with dimension. Handle 14 is illustrated. Scored line 18 is made as part of the process of constructing the container, typically after the outer perimeter 20 defining the pattern 16 of the box is formed. Scored line 18 may be grooves, scratches or notches, or any other means known in the trade to weaken the paperboard such that it is easier for the user to remove portion twelve. Indeed, with proper scoring in ways known in the trade, it is fairly easy to remove portion twelve without a cutting instrument. Note in FIG. 4 that folding the pattern 16 will provide for the twelve pack illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 with the diagonal line 12D running across the side walls from the front wall F/W to the top wall T/W. In an alternate preferred embodiment Applicant provides a twelve pack container with a line marked on the front wall F/W at between 1D and 2D, on the top wall T/W between 1D and 3D and across the two side walls S/W's to define the pattern for removal of a corner 12 of a twelve pack container as illustrated in FIGS. 1-4 to show a consumer that they may cut the container along the line to convert it into the Applicants novel dispenser container as illustrated. Although the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments, this description is not meant to be construed in a limited sense. Various modifications of the disclosed embodiments, as well as alternative embodiments of the inventions will become apparent to persons skilled in the art upon the reference to the description of the invention. It is, therefore, contemplated that the appended claims will cover such modifications that fall within the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>Beverages, such as soda or beer, often come in cylindrical, aluminum, typically 12 oz. cans. Traditionally, one could buy a single can or a “six pack.” The six pack is simply six cans contained in a typically rectangular paper container or hung on interconnected plastic rings. More recently, cans of soda and beer have become available in packs of twelve cans. The twelve pack is typically rectangular cardboard with the cans, usually in a 4×3 matrix arrangement, stacked closely next to one another. The twelve pack has walls typically constructed of light cardboard or thick paperboard, being thicker than writing stock paper but not as robust or thick as corrugated cardboard. These twelve packs presently enjoy popularity with use by Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola, the two leading providers of soda as well as by many major domestic beer companies. The twelve pack containers provide a convenient means to carry the beverage cans but are not handy for dispensing the cans. Typically, the consumer will purchase the twelve pack, bring it home, tear the pack open and pull out the cans to stack them in the refrigerator, discarding the container. Applicant provides, however, for a modification to the currently available twelve pack to convert the carrying container to a dispensing container. That is, the cans will remain within the carrying container, the container acting, as modified by applicant as a beverage can dispenser. An object of Applicant's present invention is to provide for a container for beverage cans which will allow easy access to the beverage cans for easy removal but will also hold the beverage cans therein. It is also an object of Applicant's present invention to provide a modification to currently existing beverage can containers so that the containers, as modified, will provide easy access to the cans therein. This and other objects are provided for in a generally rectangular, paper beverage can container with a corner removed on a diagonal line across the two side walls, the line running from a front wall to the adjacent top wall. There are a number of benefits with Applicant's novel beverage container with a dispensing cutout therein. These include ease of access. This is obtained by placing the twelve pack container on edge with a cutout in the upper corner. Easy and fast accessibility to the cold beverage cans will increase consumption and sales of the product. Applicant's invention also provides for gravity feed to enhance access to the beverage cans. This is created by the weight of the cans when the beverage container is placed in a vertical position. This position naturally pushes the cans, under the influence of gravity, towards the front wall of the container. The cutout location is designed to take maximum advantage of this gravity feed. Another advantage of Applicant's invention is the ability to effectively utilize space, especially in a refrigerator or kitchen cabinet. By placement of the cutout in the position indicated, the container may be placed vertically to save space. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the preferred embodiment of applicants invention. FIG. 1A is side view of a 12 oz. beverage can. FIG. 1B is a perspective view of the beverage container modified accordingly to Applicant's invention. FIG. 2 is a side elevational view of the preferred embodiment of applicants invention. FIG. 3 is a side elevational view of an embodiment of Applicants invention. FIG. 4 is a two dimensional pattern of a typical paper twelve pack container illustrating the area removed to provide for applicants unique dispenser. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041124 | 20180327 | 20050407 | 67465.0 | 1 | BUI, LUAN KIM | CONTAINER FOR PROVIDING EASY ACCESS TO BEVERAGE CANS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,997,790 | ACCEPTED | Water amusement park conveyors | An amusement ride system and method are described. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may be generally related to water amusement attractions and rides. Further, the disclosure generally relates to water-powered rides and to a system and method in which participants may be more involved in a water attraction. An amusement ride system may include system for conveying a participant from a first source of water to a second source of water. The system may include one or more fluid jets. The fluid jets may function to produce a fluid stream having a predetermined velocity which is selectively greater, less than, or the same as a velocity of a participant at each of the fluid jet locations and are oriented tangentially with respect to the surface of the source of water so as to contact a participant and/or participant vehicle. An amusement ride system may include a system for controlling a participant flow rate through a multi path water amusement ride system. The system may include at least one gate mechanism which functions, upon activation, to inhibit a participant from entering one or more path choices. An amusement ride system may include a system for facilitating entry of a participant on a floatation device. The system may include one or more portions of water including a depth of water which allows a participant to more easily enter a floatation device. | 1-591. (canceled) 592. A system for conveying a participant from a first source of water to a second source of water comprising: a belt; wherein the belt is coupled to the first source of water and to the second source of water; a belt movement system, configured to move the belt in a loop during use; and one or more fluid jets configured to produce a fluid stream having a predetermined velocity which is selectively greater, less than, or the same as a velocity of a participant at each of the fluid jet locations, wherein at least some of the fluid jets are positioned along a portion of the first source of water and/or a portion of the second source of water substantially adjacent to a portion of the belt, and wherein the fluid jets are oriented tangentially with respect to the surface of the source of water so as to contact a participant and/or participant vehicle as a participant and/or participant vehicle passes by each of the locations. 593. The system of claim 592, wherein the fluid comprises water. 594. The system of claim 592, wherein the fluid comprises air. 595. The system of claim 592, wherein at least one of the fluid jets is configured to impart momentum to a participant and/or participant vehicle. 596. The system of claim 592, wherein at least one of the fluid jets is configured to assist a participant and/or participant vehicle on the first portion of the belt. 597. The system of claim 592, wherein at least one of the fluid jets is configured to move a participant and/or participant vehicle toward the first portion of the belt. 598. The system of claim 592, wherein at least one of the fluid jets is configured to move a participant and/or participant vehicle away from the belt. 599. The system of claim 592, wherein at least a portion of the water path system adjacent the first portion of the belt comprises water at a depth allowing an participant vehicle to float. 600. The system of claim 592, wherein at least a portion of the water path system adjacent the first portion of the belt comprises water at a depth allowing a participant to more easily enter an participant vehicle. 601. The system of claim 592, wherein at least a portion of the water path system adjacent the first portion of the belt comprises water at a depth of less than about 2 feet. 602. The system of claim 592, wherein at least a portion of the water path system adjacent the first portion of the belt comprises water at a depth in the range of 1 to 3 feet. 603. The system of claim 592, further comprising a water flow sensor coupled to the first source of water, wherein the water flow sensor is configured to monitor the water flow rate of the first source of water proximate the belt. 604. The system of claim 592, further comprising: a water flow sensor coupled to the first source of water, wherein the water flow sensor is configured to monitor the water flow rate of the first source of water proximate the belt; and a controller, wherein the controller is coupled to the belt movement system and the water flow sensor. 605. The system of claim 592, further comprising: a water flow sensor coupled to the first source of water, wherein the water flow sensor is configured to monitor the water flow rate of the first source of water proximate the belt; and a controller, wherein the controller is coupled to the belt movement system and the water flow sensor, and wherein the controller is configured to produce a control signal for the belt movement system, and wherein the belt movement system is configured to move the belt in response to the control signal. 606. The system of claim 592, wherein a portion of the belt extends below the surface of the water. 607. (canceled) 608. The system of claim 592, wherein the first source of water is at a different elevation than the second source of water. 609. (canceled) 610. (canceled) 611. (canceled) 612. (canceled) 613. (canceled) 614. (canceled) 615. (canceled) 616. (canceled) 617. The system of claim 592, wherein the belt comprises a material and design to inhibit the participant from moving in a direction opposite that of the direction the belt is moving. 618. The system of claim 592, wherein a protective device is positioned to cover the outer edges of the belt, wherein the participants are inhibited from accessing the belt movement system by the protective device. 619. The system of claim 592, further comprising a detection device positioned above the belt movement system, wherein the detection device is configured to detect when a participant is in a position above a predetermined height above the belt. 620. (canceled) 621. The system of claim 592, further comprising a detection device positioned above the belt movement system, wherein the detection device is configured to produce a detection signal when a participant is in a position above a predetermined height above the belt, and wherein the detection device is electronically coupled to the belt movement system such that the belt movement system is deactivated in response to a received detection signal. 622. The system of claim 592, further comprising a deflector plate positioned below the surface of the water wherein the deflector plate is positioned to inhibit the participant from moving to a position below the belt. 623. The system of claim 592, further comprising a deflector plate positioned below the water wherein the deflector plate is positioned to inhibit the participant from moving to a position below the belt, and wherein the deflector plate is substantially angled to guide participants onto and/or off the belt. 624. The system of claim 592, further comprising a deflector plate positioned below the water, wherein the deflector plate is positioned to inhibit the participant from moving to a position below the belt, and wherein the deflector plate is substantially angled to guide participants onto and/or off the belt, and wherein the deflector plate is permeable to water so as not to inhibit a current in the water directing a participant onto the belt. 625. (canceled) 626. (canceled) 627. (canceled) 628. (canceled) 629. (canceled) 630. (canceled) 631. (canceled) 632. (canceled) 633. The system of claim 592, wherein the belt comprises a width such that only a single participant enters the system at the same time during use. 634. The system of claim 592, wherein the belt comprises a width such that at least two participants enter the system at the same time during use. 635. The system of claim 592, further comprising at least one floating queue line positioned within the first source of water upstream from the belt, wherein the floating queue line is configured to position the participants in a predetermined configuration prior to moving onto the belt during use. 636. (canceled) 637. (canceled) 638. (canceled) 639. The system of claim 592, further comprising a barrier positioned on each side of the belt, wherein the barrier is configured to inhibit participants from leaving the belt as the participants are conveyed along the belt. 640. The system of claim 592, further comprising a plurality of barrier position along the belt, wherein the barriers are configured to define channels along the belt, and wherein participants move along the belt within the defined channels during use. 641. (canceled) 642. The system of claim 592, wherein the participant is riding on a floatation device. 643. The system of claim 592, wherein the belt movement system comprises: at least two rollers, wherein the belt is coupled to the rollers such that rotation of the rollers causes the belt to move around the rollers during use; and a power supply coupled to at least one of the rollers, wherein the power supply is configured to supply a rotational force to at least one of the rollers during use. 644. A method for conveying a participant from a first source of water to a second source of water comprising: moving a belt in a loop using a belt movement system, wherein the belt is coupled to a first source of water and to a second source of water, wherein the belt and belt movement system form at least part of a conveyor belt system, and wherein each source of water is configured to contain a sufficient amount of water to allow the participant to float within the sources of water; producing a fluid stream using one or more fluid jets having a predetermined velocity which is selectively greater, less than, or the same as a velocity of a participant at each of the fluid jet locations, wherein at least some of the fluid jets are positioned along a portion of the first source of water and/or a portion of the second source of water substantially adjacent to a portion of the belt, and wherein the fluid jets are oriented tangentially with respect to the surface of the source of water so as to contact a participant and/or participant vehicle as a participant and/or participant vehicle passes by each of the locations. 645-824. (canceled) | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present disclosure generally relates to amusement attractions and rides. More particularly, the disclosure generally relates to a system and method for an amusement ride. Further, the disclosure generally relates to amusement rides featuring systems and methods for conveying participants between different areas of an amusement park in a safe and efficient manner. The amusement ride may include water features and/or elements. 2. Description of the Relevant Art The 80's decade has witnessed phenomenal growth in the participatory family water recreation facility, i.e., the waterpark, and in water oriented ride attractions in the traditional themed amusement parks. The main current genre of water ride attractions, e.g., waterslides, river rapid rides, and log flumes, and others, require participants to walk or be mechanically lifted to a high point, wherein, gravity enables water, participant(s), and riding vehicle (if appropriate) to slide down a chute or incline to a lower elevation splash pool, whereafter the cycle repeats. Generally speaking, the traditional downhill water rides are short in duration (normally measured in seconds of ride time) and have limited throughput capacity. The combination of these two factors quickly leads to a situation in which patrons of the parks typically have long queue line waits of up to two or three hours for a ride that, although exciting, lasts only a few seconds. Additional problems like hot and sunny weather, wet patrons, and other difficulties combine to create a very poor overall customer feeling of satisfaction or perceived entertainment value in the waterpark experience. Poor entertainment value in waterparks as well as other amusement parks is rated as the biggest problem of the waterpark industry and is substantially contributing to the failure of many waterparks and threatens the entire industry. Water parks also suffer intermittent closures due to inclement weather. Depending on the geographic location of a water park, the water park may be open less than half of the year. Water parks may be closed due to uncomfortably low temperatures associated with winter. Water parks may be closed due to inclement weather such as rain, wind storms, and/or any other type of weather conditions which might limit participant enjoyment and/or participant safety. Severely limiting the number of days a water park may be open naturally limits the profitability of that water park. The phenomenal growth of water parks in the past few decades has witnessed an evolution in water-based attractions. In the '70s and early '80s, these water attractions took the form of slides from which a participant started at an upper pool and slid by way of gravity passage down a serpentine slide upon recycled water to a lower landing pool. U.S. Pat. No. 3,923,301 to Meyers discloses such a slide dug into the side of a hill. U.S. Pat. No. 4,198,043 to Timbes and U.S. Pat. No. 4,196,900 to Becker et al. disclose such slides supported on a structure. Each of these slides only allowed essentially one-dimensional movement from the upper pool, down the slide to the lower pool. Consequently, the path taken down the slide always remained the same thus limiting the sense of novelty and the unexpected for the participant after multiple uses. Cognizant of this limitation in traditional water slides, new water attractions were developed which inserted a little more of the element of chance during the ride. One such attraction has up to twelve people seated within a circular floating ring being propelled down a flume comprising a series of man-made rapids, water falls and timed water spouts. As the floating ring moves down the path of the water attraction, contact with the sides of the flume cause the ring to rotate thus moving certain people in closer proximity to the “down-river” side of the rapids, the water falls and the spouts. Those people who were closest to such features of the water ride tended to get the most wet. Since such movement was determined mostly by chance, each participant had an equal chance of getting drenched throughout the ride by any one of the many water ride features. This later type of ride, though an improvement over the traditional water slide, was still essentially a one-dimensional travel from an upper start area down to a lower start area where all features came into play. Furthermore, each of these features were either continuously active (such as the water fall) or automatically activated by the proximity of the floating ring to the feature. The popularity of these types of rides has resulted in very long lines at such water parks. Observers, such as those waiting in line for the water ride, could not interact (except verbally) with those participants on the ride. Consequently, the lasting memory at such parks may not be about the rides at the park, but the long lines and waiting required to use the rides. Traditional floatation devices used in amusement/water parks include such vehicles as inner tubes, floating boards, and/or other floatation devices upon which one or more riders may float. Unfortunately the traditional floatation devices do not translate well to rides or portions of rides, which do not incorporate water as a means for propelling a vehicle and/or at least decreasing the coefficient of friction between the vehicle and the track. It would be advantageous to incorporate a vehicle into amusement rides which moved equally as well along tracks/courses incorporating water as well as tracks/courses which do not incorporate water. This might reduce costs associated with using water in amusement park rides as well as add additional dimensions to the enjoyment of the ride. Vehicles typically used for amusements rides and especially water-based amusement rides are typically mere modes of transportation. The track (e.g., channel) typically provides the preponderance of enjoyment or amusement associated with a ride. The shape and/or design of the vehicle itself do not typically add any aspect of enjoyment to the ride. Vehicles which allowed, and even encouraged, participants within the vehicle to interact with the amusement ride environment would add another dimension to amusement rides in general and water amusement ride specifically. SUMMARY For the reasons stated above and more, it is desirable to create a natural and exciting amusement ride system to transport participants between rides as well as between parks that will interconnect many of the presently diverse and stand-alone water park rides. An amusement ride system and method are described. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may be generally related to water amusement attractions and rides. Further, the disclosure generally relates to water-powered rides and to a system and method in which participants may be more involved in a water attraction. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a rollable carrier. The rollable carrier may include an exterior rollable surface and an inner area. The inner area may include a participant container. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a path system. The path system may function to substantially contain the rollable carrier such that the rollable carrier will remain in the path system while rolling. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may function to roll in a path system while containing a participant in the participant container. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may be inflatable. The rollable carrier may include an inflatable area positioned between a participant container and an exterior rollable surface. The inflatable area may at least partially protect a participant. The rollable carrier may be freely rollable. The rollable carrier may allow water from a water path system to contact a participant. The rollable carrier may roll over while in a water path system, thereby causing the participant container to also roll over. The rollable carrier may be substantially transparent. The rollable carrier may include at least one restraint positioned in the participant container and coupled to the rollable carrier. The restraint may inhibit movement of the participant relative to the participant container. Generally restraints are used herein to describe any system or mechanism which inhibits movement of one body relative to another body. The rollable carrier may include an opening allowing the participant to access the inside of the participant container. The rollable carrier may include a positionable stop configured to close the opening. The rollable carrier may be formed at least in part from a flexible material. In some embodiments, a path system may include a first elevation and a second elevation, wherein the first elevation and the second elevation are different. The path system may include a continuous loop. At least one portion of the path system may include a loop that allows the rollable carrier to traverse a full vertical circle. The path system may include a waterfall configured to allow the rollable carrier to drop from a first higher elevation to a second lower elevation. The difference between the elevations may be between about 2 ft. to about 12 ft. In some embodiments, a portion of a path system may include special effects. The special effects may include visual effects (e.g., lighting displays). Path systems may include a conduit through which a rollable carrier may be conveyed. A portion of the conduit may be enclosed and pressurized fluids may assist conveying the rollable carrier the enclosed conduit. The path system may inhibit the rollable carrier from exiting a portion of the path system. An amusement ride system may include an elevation system to convey a rollable carrier from a first elevation to a second elevation. The elevation system may include, for example, a fluid jet, a conveyor belt system, an uphill water slide, a wind tunnel or a vertical jet to elevate the rollable carrier to a predetermined height. A horizontal fluid jet may be coupled to a vertical jet to move the rollable carrier off of the vertical jet. Wind tunnels and fluid jets may fall under a broad category of elevation systems referred to as fluid assisted elevation systems. Wind tunnels may use reduced air pressure within a conduit to pull a rollable carrier through the conduit. Wind tunnels may use increased air pressure within a conduit to push a rollable carrier through the conduit. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a floating queue line. The floating queue line may be coupled to a portion of a path system. The floating queue line may include a channel. The channel may hold water at a depth sufficient to allow a rollable carrier and/or a participant to float within the channel. The floating queue line may be coupled to a water ride such that a participant remains in the water while being transferred from the channel along the floating queue line to the water ride. A portion of a water path system may include a substantially horizontal channel segment including a first portion and a second portion. The portion may include a water inlet positioned at the first portion and a water outlet positioned at the second portion. Water may be transferred into the channel at the first portion and transferred out of the channel at the second portion in sufficient quantities to create a hydraulic gradient between the first portion and the second portion. A portion of a path system may include a substantially angled channel segment including a high elevation end and a low elevation end. The angled channel segment may function such that a participant moves in a direction from the upper elevation end toward the lower elevation end. The path system may include a water inlet at the high elevation end. A predetermined amount of water may be transferred into the angled channel segment at the high elevation end such that friction between a rollable carrier and the angled channel segment is reduced. A flowing body of water may have a depth sufficient to allow a participant and/or a rollable carrier to float within the channel during use In some embodiments, a path system may include a plurality of fluid jets spaced apart. The fluid jets may be positioned along the path system at predetermined locations. The fluid jets may be oriented tangentially with respect to the path system surface so as to contact a participant and/or rollable carrier as a participant and/or rollable carrier passes by each of the locations. Each of the fluid jets may produce a fluid stream having a predetermined velocity that is selectively greater, less than, or the same as the velocity of the participant and/or rollable carrier at each of the fluid jet locations. A portion of a path system may be coupled to a walkway. A segment of the portion of the path system is at substantially the same height as a portion of the walkway such that a participant walks from the walkway into the water within the path system. A portion of a path system may be coupled to a stairway. The stairway may function such that a participant walks along the stairway into the water within the path system. A path system may include a docking station coupled to at least a portion of the path system. The docking station may receive and inhibit movement of rollable carriers to allow participants to exit or enter the rollable carriers. An amusement ride system may include at least one overflow pool coupled to a path system. The overflow pool may collect water overflowing from the path system. In some embodiments, an amusement ride may form a portion of a transportation system. The transportation system would itself be a main attraction with water and situational effects while incorporating into itself other specialized or traditional water rides and events. The system, though referred to herein as a transportation system, would be an entertaining and enjoyable part of the waterpark experience. In certain embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a continuous water ride. Amusement ride systems may include a system of individual water rides connected together. The system may include two or more water rides connected together. Water rides may include downhill water slides, uphill water slides, single tube slides, multiple participant tube slides, space bowls, sidewinders, interactive water slides, water rides with falling water, themed water slides, dark water rides, and accelerator sections in water slides. Connecting water rides may reduce long queue lines normally associated with individual water rides. Connecting water rides may allow participants to remain in the water and/or a vehicle (e.g., a floatation device) during transportation from a first portion of the continuous water ride to a second portion of the continuous water ride. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include an elevation system to transport a participant and/or rollable carrier from a first elevation to a second elevation. The first elevation may be at a different elevational level than a second elevation. The first elevation may include an exit point of a first water amusement ride. The second elevation may include an entry point of a second water amusement ride. In some embodiments, a first and second elevation may include an exit and entry points of a single water amusement ride. Elevation systems may include any number of water and non-water based systems capable of safely increasing the elevation of a participant and/or vehicle. Elevation systems may include, but are not limited to, spiral transports, water wheels, ferris locks, conveyor belt systems, water lock systems, uphill water slides, and/or tube transports. In some embodiments, an elevation system may include a system based on an Archimedes screw. However, while the Archimedes screw lifts fluids trapped within cavities formed by its inclined blades, the screw conveyor propels dry bulk materials (powders, pellets, flakes, crystals, granules, grains, etc.) through the pushing action of its rotating blades. A screw conveyor system may be used to convey one or more rollable carriers from a first elevation to a second elevation. In some embodiments, a water amusement ride may include an angled field area. The angled field area may include a high elevation end and a low elevation end. A water amusement ride may include at least one rollable carrier comprising an exterior rollable surface and an inner area. The inner area may include a participant container. The angled field area may be configured to substantially contain the rollable carrier such that the rollable carrier will remain in the angled field area while rolling. The rollable carrier may function to roll in the angled field area from the high elevation end of the angled field area to the low elevation end of the field area while containing a participant in the participant container. In some embodiments, a water amusement ride may include a plurality of amusement elements associated with the angled field area. The amusement elements may function to affect the movement of the rollable carrier. A water amusement ride may include an elevation system which functions to convey at least one of the rollable carriers from the low elevation end of the angled field to the high elevation end of the angled field. In some embodiments, an amusement ride conveyor may include a path system. A portion of the path system may include a conduit. A pressure adjustment mechanism coupled to the conduit may function to adjust the pressure in at least a portion of the conduit. The pressure adjustment mechanism may adjust the pressure such that at least one rollable carrier is conveyed through at least a portion of the conduit in response to the change in pressure. The rollable carrier may include an exterior rollable surface and an inner area. The inner area may include a participant container which functions to contain a participant. In some embodiments, an amusement ride conveyor may include an elevation system. The elevation system may function to elevate at least one participant from a lower first elevation to a higher second elevation. The elevation system may include a vertical fluid jet which functions to elevate the participant to the higher second elevation. The elevation system may include a horizontal fluid jet which functions to move the participant off of the vertical fluid jet when the participant has reached the higher second elevation. An amusement ride conveyor may include a water path system coupled to the elevation system. The water path system may function to receive the participant from the elevation system. The water path system may function such that water flows in the water path system. In some embodiments, a system for conveying a participant from a first source of water to a second source of water may include a belt; wherein the belt is coupled to the first source of water and to the second source of water. The system may include a belt movement system which functions to move the belt in a loop during use. The system may include one or more fluid jets functioning to produce a fluid stream having a predetermined velocity which is selectively greater, less than, or the same as a velocity of a participant at each of the fluid jet locations. At least some of the fluid jets may be positioned along a portion of the first source of water and/or a portion of the second source of water substantially adjacent to a portion of the belt. The fluid jets may be oriented tangentially with respect to the surface of the source of water so as to contact a participant and/or participant vehicle as a participant and/or participant vehicle passes by each of the locations. In some embodiments, a system for controlling a participant flow rate through a multi path water amusement ride system may include a first belt; wherein the first belt is coupled to a first source of water and to a second source of water. The system may include a second belt; wherein the second belt is coupled to the first source of water and to a third source of water. A first portion of the first and second belts may be positioned substantially adjacent to each other. The system may include a first belt movement system, which functions to move at least the first belt in a loop. The system may include a second belt movement system, which functions to move at least the second belt in a loop. The system may include at least one gate mechanism positioned substantially adjacent the first portions of the first and second belts. At least one of the gate mechanisms may function upon activation, to inhibit a participant from entering the first or second belt. In some embodiments, a system for facilitating entry of a participant on a floatation device may include a belt; wherein the belt is coupled to a first source of water and to a second source of water. The system may include a belt movement system which functions to move the belt in a loop. The first source of water and/or the second source of water may include a portion substantially adjacent the belt, wherein the portion of the first and/or second source of water comprises a depth of water which allows a participant to more easily enter a floatation device. Depending on a water amusement parks geographic location, the waterpark may only be open for less than half of the year due to inclement weather (e.g., cold weather, rain, etc.). What is needed is a way to enclose portions or substantially all of the waterpark when weather threatens to shut down the park. However, it would be beneficial to have some type of enclosure that may be at least partially removed or retracted to open up at least a portion of the waterpark to the environment during good weather. Positionable screens may be used to substantially enclose a portion of a waterpark during inclement weather. A multitude of positionable screens may be retractable/extendable within one another. The screens may also serve other functions in addition to protecting participants from uncomfortable weather conditions. The screens may be used to trap and recirculate heat lost from, for example, the water enclosed within the screens. The positioning of the screens may be automated, manual, or a combination of both. The screens may be formed from materials that allow most of the visible light spectrum through while inhibiting transmission of potentially harmful radiation. Other components which may be incorporated into the system are disclosed in the following U.S. Patents, herein incorporated by reference: an appliance for practicing aquatic sports as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,564,190; a tunnel-wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,792,260; a low rise water ride as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,805,896; a water sports apparatus as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,905,987; a surfing-wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,954,014; a waterslide with uphill run and floatation device therefore as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,011,134; a coupleable floatation apparatus forming lines and arrays as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,020,465; a surfing-wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,171,101; a method and apparatus for improved water rides by water injection and flume design as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,213,547; an endoskeletal or exoskeletal participatory water play structure whereupon participants can manipulate valves to cause controllable changes in water effects that issue from various water forming devices as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,048; a waterslide with uphill run and floatation device therefore as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,230,662; a method and apparatus for improving sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,236,280; a method and apparatus for a sheet flow water ride in a single container as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,271,692; a method and apparatus for improving sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,393,170; a method and apparatus for containerless sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,401,117; an action river water attraction as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,421,782; a controllable waterslide weir as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,453,054; a non-slip, non-abrasive coated surface as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,494,729; a method and apparatus for injected water corridor attractions as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,503,597; a method and apparatus for improving sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,564,859; a method and apparatus for containerless sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,628,584; a boat activated wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,664,910; a jet river rapids water attraction as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,667,445; a method and apparatus for a sheet flow water ride in a single container as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,738,590; a wave river water attraction as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,766,082; a water amusement ride as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,433,671; and, a waterslide with uphill runs and progressive gravity feed as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,779,553. The system is not, however, limited to only these components. All of the above devices may be equipped with controller mechanisms to be operated remotely and/or automatically. For large water transportation systems measuring miles in length, a programmable logic control system may be used to allow park owners to operate the system effectively and cope with changing conditions in the system. During normal operating conditions, the control system may coordinate various elements of the system to control water flow. A pump shutdown will have ramifications both for water handling and guest handling throughout the system and will require automated control systems to manage efficiently. The control system may have remote sensors to report problems and diagnostic programs designed to identify problems and signal various pumps, gates, or other devices to deal with the problem as needed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Advantages of the present invention may become apparent to those skilled in the art with the benefit of the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments and upon reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 depicts an embodiment of an amusement park ride vehicle. FIG. 2 depicts an embodiment of an amusement park ride vehicle. FIG. 3 depicts an embodiment of an amusement park ride vehicle. FIG. 4A-FIG. 4D depicts embodiments of an amusement park ride vehicles. FIG. 5 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an interior of amusement park ride vehicle. FIG. 6 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an interior of amusement park ride vehicle. FIG. 7 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a conduit of an amusement park ride. FIG. 8 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a conduit of an amusement park ride. FIG. 9 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a conduit of an amusement park ride. FIG. 10 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a conduit of an amusement park ride. FIG. 11 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a conduit of an amusement park ride. FIG. 12 depicts an embodiment of an amusement park ride. FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of an amusement park ride. FIG. 14 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement park ride. FIG. 15 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement park ride. FIG. 16 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a conveyor belt system. FIG. 17 depicts a side view of an embodiment of a conveyor lift station coupled to a water ride. FIG. 18 depicts a side view of an embodiment of a conveyor lift station with an entry conveyor coupled to a water slide. FIG. 19 depicts a side view of an embodiment of a conveyor lift station coupled to an upper channel. FIG. 20 depicts an embodiment of an elevation system used in combination with a water amusement ride. FIG. 21 depicts an embodiment of an elevation system. FIG. 22 depicts an embodiment of an entry portion of an elevation system. FIG. 23 depicts an embodiment of an exit portion of an elevation system. FIG. 24 depicts an embodiment of a drive mechanism of an elevation system. FIG. 25 depicts an embodiment of an elevation system. FIG. 26 depicts an embodiment of a gate mechanism of an elevation system. FIG. 26A depicts an embodiment of a gate mechanism. FIG. 27 depicts an embodiment of a tension mechanism of an elevation system. FIG. 28 depicts an embodiment of a drive mechanism of an elevation system. FIG. 29 depicts an embodiment of an exit portion of an elevation system. FIG. 30 depicts an embodiment of an elevation system. FIG. 31 depicts an embodiment of an entry portion of an elevation system. FIG. 32 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a path system of an amusement ride. FIG. 33 depicts an embodiment of a fluid enhanced elevation system. FIG. 34 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement ride including an amusement affect. FIG. 35 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement ride including an elevation system. FIG. 36 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement ride including an elevation system. FIG. 37 depicts an embodiment of an Archimedes conveyor inspired elevation system for an amusement ride. FIG. 38 depicts a cross-sectional side view of an embodiment of a water lock system with one chamber and a conduit coupling the upper body of water to the chamber. FIG. 39 depicts an embodiment of a floating queue line with jets. FIG. 40 depicts an embodiment of an amusement ride including interactive elements for participants and observers. FIG. 41 depicts an embodiment of an amusement ride including interactive elements for participants and observers. FIG. 42 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of an adjustable weir in a powered down state in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. FIG. 43 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of an adjustable weir in a 50% retracted state in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. FIG. 44 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of an adjustable weir in a fully retracted state in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. FIG. 45 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of an adjustable weir in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. FIG. 46 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of an adjustable weir. While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawing and will herein be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Typically today's amusement ride vehicles found in amusement parks (e.g., water parks) are passive and merely follow a predetermined path (e.g., a track, channel, and/or directed flow of water). Most vehicles only require a participant to sit in a prone position and be carried along a predetermined route. Typically movements of a vehicle (and any participants associated with the vehicle) are determined solely by the course and layout of the predetermined route. Most amusement ride vehicles are designed to either function in a wet or dry environment and not both. The few amusement rides incorporating vehicles which function in a wet and dry environment are based on vehicles which move along tracks and in which water is merely an effect of the ride and not part of any type of propulsion means. An alternate type of amusement ride vehicle was developed to address the problems and issues stated above associated with amusement rides and vehicles in particular. In some embodiments, a vehicle may include a rollable carrier. Within the context of the embodiments described herein, a rollable carrier may be generally defined as having a substantially rounded shape and is not limited by any means to a spherical shape, and furthermore rollable merely implies at least that the object so described is capable of rolling along a surface. FIG. 1 depicts an embodiment of amusement park ride rollable carrier 100. Rollable carrier 100 may include inner area 101 and exterior rollable surface 104. Inner area 101 may include participant container 102. Participant container 102 may function to temporarily enclose or carry one or more participants 106. Participant container 102 may be coupled to exterior rollable surface 104. Participant container 102 may be coupled to exterior rollable surface 104 using elongated members 108. FIG. 1 merely depicts a representative number of elongated members 108, there may be anywhere from tens to thousands of such elongated members coupling participant container 102 to exterior rollable surface 104. Rollable carrier 100 may include an opening 110 coupling space outside of the rollable carrier and exterior rollable surface 104 to the inside of participant container 102. Opening 110 may allow one or more participants 106 to enter and exit rollable carrier 100. A rollable carrier may function to carry one or more participants inside of the confines of the rollable carrier. A rollable carrier may be designed so that it may float in water with or without participants inside. Such a design would allow a rollable carrier to traverse dry or wet based amusement rides. The rollable carrier may be able to float along a water channel and/or roll along a dry path system. In some embodiments, a path system may include, for example, conduits, channels, portions of natural rivers, portions of natural bodies of water, rails, and/or tracks. Path systems may include paths that split into two or more paths. Paths, which have split, may subsequently rejoin at a later point in the path system. In some embodiments, a “dry” path system may include any path system through which a rollable carrier does not float, but may include path systems upon which water flows (e.g., for effect and/or for reducing friction). In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may not float. It may not be necessary for the rollable carrier to float if water is not incorporated as part of the ride or if water is not present in any portion of the ride to a depth requiring the rollable carrier to float. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may include a participant container encased in an exterior rollable surface. The participant container and/or exterior rollable surface may be substantially hollow. The participant container may be coupled to the exterior rollable surface. The participant container may be coupled to the exterior rollable surface such that the participant container is inhibited from contacting the exterior rollable surface. The participant container may be designed to temporarily contain one or more participants. The participant container may be coupled to the exterior rollable surface using elongated members. A first end of the elongated member may be coupled to the participant container and a second end of the elongated member may be coupled to the exterior rollable surface. Multiple elongated members may be used to couple the participant container to the exterior rollable surface. In some embodiments, elongated members may be substantially equally distributed about the outer surface of the participant container and the interior surface of the exterior rollable surface. Equally distributing elongated members about the surface of the two spheres may inhibit the participant container from contacting the exterior rollable surface (e.g., even when an unrestrained participant enclosed within the participant container is being thrown around while the rollable carrier is moving). The elongated members may be composed of a flexible material (e.g., cords). In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may be inflatable. A rollable carrier may include a participant container encased in an exterior rollable surface. The participant container may be coupled to the exterior rollable surface such that the participant container is inhibited from contacting the exterior rollable surface. Portions of the rollable carrier may be at least partially formed from pliable materials. At least a portion of the area between the participant container and the exterior rollable surface may form a sealed compartment. The sealed compartment may include a resealable opening. The sealed compartment may be inflated with a fluid. Fluids may include liquids (e.g., water) and/or gases (e.g., air). Inflating the sealed compartment with fluids may provide shape to a rollable carrier composed primarily of pliable materials (e.g., PVC). An inflated sealed compartment may provide a means of cushioning a participant enclosed in the participant container. The inflated sealed compartment may inhibit an enclosed participant from injury. The inflated sealed compartment may provide buoyancy to the rollable carrier. The inflated sealed compartment may allow the rollable carrier and any participants enclosed therein to float substantially above the surface of a body of water. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may be formed from a material which is substantially transparent. In an embodiment, at least a portion of a rollable carrier may be formed from a material which is substantially transparent. Transparency of a rollable carrier may allow a participant enclosed within the rollable carrier to see outside of the rollable carrier, potentially improving the enjoyment of the participant's use of the rollable carrier/amusement ride. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may include an opening allowing participants to more easily access the interior of the rollable carrier (e.g., the exterior rollable surface). The opening may be a fixed size. The opening may allow an average sized adult to easily enter and exit the rollable carrier. Openings may be adjustable. For example an opening may be adjusted so it is smaller so that a child may enter easily but not prematurely exit accidentally during an amusement ride. The rollable carrier may include some means for temporarily closing the opening during the amusement ride. The closing mechanism may include a flexible netting which allows air to easily flow through the rollable carrier. The closing mechanism may include a mechanism which is substantially water tight so that any water injected into the rollable carrier with participants will remain in the rollable carrier during the ride. In some embodiment, a rollable carrier may include more than one opening. More than one opening in the rollable carrier may facilitate airflow through the rollable carrier. Facilitating airflow through a rollable carrier may be advantageous for several reasons. Advantages of increasing airflow in a rollable carrier may include increasing the comfort and/or safety of participant(s) within the rollable carrier. Increasing airflow may assist in cooling down the interior of the participant container, heated from solar energy and/or participants contained therein. Increasing airflow may reduce build up of gases (e.g., CO2) to potentially dangerous levels. Rollable carriers which include multiple openings may include openings of various sizes. One or more openings may be appropriately sized to allow participants to enter/exit the rollable carrier. One or more openings may be relatively small and may primarily function to increase airflow through the rollable carrier. Rollable carriers may include multiple openings while still be capable of floating with one or more participants inside the participant container. Examples of rollable carriers which may be adapted for the herein described purposes are illustrated in New Zealand Patent No. 270146 to Akers et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. FIG. 2 depicts an embodiment of amusement park ride rollable carrier 100. In the depicted embodiment, rollable carrier 100 is depicted with an exterior rollable surface 104 formed from a more rigid material. Participant container 102 may be formed from a more flexible material. Forming participant container 102 from a more flexible material may inhibit participant 106 from being injured during the amusement ride. Elongated members 108 may be formed from a more flexible and/or elastic material in an effort to absorb impacts produced from participant 106 thrown against the interior surface of participant container 102 and inhibit injury of the participant. In some embodiments, participant container 102 may also be formed of more rigid materials. Rollable carrier 100 may include an opening 110 facilitating entry/exit of participant 106 into the rollable carrier. FIG. 3 depicts an embodiment of amusement park ride rollable carrier 100. Rollable carrier 100 may include exterior rollable surface 104. Exterior rollable surface 104 may be formed from a more rigid material that does not require inflation. Instead of forming a participant container suspended within exterior rollable surface 104 to carry participant 106, a plurality of individually inflated flexible containers 112 may be coupled to the interior surface of exterior rollable surface 104. Flexible containers 112 may act to inhibit participant 106 from being injured during the course of an amusement ride. FIG. 4A-FIG. 4D depict embodiments of amusement park ride rollable carriers 100. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may include a spherical shape as depicted in FIG. 4A. Within the context of the embodiments described herein, spherical may be generally defined as having a substantially sphere like shape and is not limited by any means to a perfectly spherical shape, and furthermore spherical merely implies at least that the object so described is capable of rolling along a surface. However, FIG. 4A should not be seen as a limiting example, and FIG. 4B-FIG. 4D should be seen as other exemplary embodiments falling within the scope of the definition of spherical as presented herein. All of the examples depicted in FIG. 4A-FIG. 4D have at least one thing in common in that they all possess an exterior rollable surface with the ability to roll along a surface. Some of the shapes depicted may facilitate movement along only one axis while some of the shapes depicted may allow movement along more than one axis. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may comprise one or more restraints. FIG. 5 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement park ride rollable carrier. Specifically, the portion(s) of interest depicted in FIG. 5 include restraints 114. Restraints 114 may function to inhibit movement of participant 106 within a rollable carrier during an amusement ride. Inhibiting movement of a participant may assist in preventing injuries to the participant. Another advantage of inhibiting movement of a participant in a rollable carrier is dependent on the experience the participant is seeking, inhibition of movement may increase the enjoyment of the participant. Inhibiting movement of a participant during an amusement ride may enhance a participants experience by allowing the participant to experience the end-over-end rolling motion of the rollable carrier as it moves through the amusement ride. FIG. 5 depicts a number of restraints 114. Restraints 114 depicted in FIG. 5 are merely depicted as an example. One skilled in the art might assuredly devise new restraints and/or adapt existing technologies to be used to restrain a participant. All of the restraints used in FIG. 5 may be used or only a few in combination with one another. Restraints may be “passive” (i.e., once activated do not require the participant to do anything for the restraint to work) or “active” (i.e., may require the participant to actively use the restraint for the restraint to work (e.g., a hand hold)). In some embodiments, restraints may be formed from a substantially flexible material such that a participant will not be harmed by running in to them, especially if the participant decides not to use them. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may include more than one set of restraints. Multiple sets of restraints may be employed for when more than one participant rides within the rollable carrier. When more than one participant uses the rollable carrier during an amusement ride it may be prudent for safety reasons for all of the participants within the rollable carrier to wear restraints. When multiple participants use the same rollable carrier at once restraining their movement may help to avoid the participants bumping into each other and injuring themselves. FIG. 6 depicts an embodiment of a portion of an amusement park ride rollable carrier. FIG. 6 depicts a top perspective view of participant 106 seated in a chair incorporated into a rollable carrier. The chair may include restraints as described herein to inhibit a participant from moving around. The chair may be formed as part of a participant container enclosed in an exterior rollable surface of the rollable carrier. The chair may be inflated in some embodiments. The chair may be connected to the space separating the two spheres such that when the rollable carrier is inflated (in such embodiments where the rollable carrier is an inflatable rollable carrier) the chair is inflated as well. In some embodiments, the chair may not be inflatable; the chair however may be formed from flexible/pliable materials. A chair formed from flexible/pliable materials may increase the comfort and/or enjoyment of a participant. A chair formed from flexible/pliable materials may increase the safety of a participant by, for example, providing one less inflexible object for the participant to collide with and harm himself/herself. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may not float. It may not be necessary for the rollable carrier to float if water is not incorporated as part of the ride, or if water is not present in any portion of the ride to a depth requiring the rollable carrier to float. An example of such an embodiment may include a rollable carrier. The rollable carrier may be formed from a rigid or semi-rigid cage like material. The rollable carrier may be formed from a substantially transparent material. In some embodiments, the rollable carrier may be formed from a material which is substantially not transparent; however, a participant riding within the rollable carrier may still have good visibility of his surrounding outside of the rollable carrier due to the openings in the cage like material. The rollable carrier may include some type of padding surrounding the material forming the cage to protect the participant. The inside of the cage may include padding material (e.g., at least for the safety of the participant). The outside of the cage may include padding material (e.g., at least for the safety of the participant, at least in as much as to protect the participants extremities from becoming pinched or injured or from being run over by the rollable carrier during use). A rollable carrier including perforations (e.g., as in a cage structure) may allow water to enter the rollable carrier. Water may be present during at least a portion of an amusement ride, but only used in minimal amounts when the rollable carrier used for the ride is not sufficiently buoyant. However, minimal amounts of water used in such a situation may be helpful. Water used in minimal amounts may add to the enjoyment of the amusement ride for the participant. A perforated rollable carrier may allow water to enter the rollable carrier adding to the enjoyment and fun of the amusement ride. Minimal amounts of water may reduce friction along the surface of the amusement ride. In some embodiments, an amusement ride may include a rollable carrier. The rollable carrier may include a participant container and an exterior rollable surface. The participant container may be positioned in the rollable carrier. The participant container may move independently of the exterior rollable surface. For example when the exterior rollable surface is rolling/revolving as the rollable carrier moves along a path system of an amusement ride the participant container may not revolve with the exterior rollable surface. Examples of rollable carriers which may be adapted for the herein described purposes are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 4,501,434 to Dupois; U.S. Pat. No. 5,791,254 to Mares et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 3,066,951 to Gray; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,545,574 to Sassak all of which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Rollable carriers described herein may be used in amusement rides. The amusement ride may include so called “water” amusement rides. Water amusement rides typically include water as an effect at least in some portion of the amusement ride. The amusement ride may include multiple different elevation points coupled to one another with some type of path system. A path system may include, for example, a conduit or channel. Channels typically include a water element and may include water deep enough for a buoyant rollable carrier to float along the channel. The channel may include sides that are high enough to inhibit water within the channels from inadvertently spilling over the sides. The channel may include sides that are high enough to inhibit a rollable carrier from exiting over the sides prematurely and/or in an uncontrolled manner. In some embodiments, a path system may include a conduit (e.g., a tube). The conduit may not include water or any type of water element. The conduit as the term implies is a fully enclosed path system which may inhibit a rollable carrier from exiting over the sides prematurely and/or in an uncontrolled manner. “Fully enclosed” is not necessarily limited to a seamless and/or continuous sheet forming the conduit. The conduit may be formed out of a rigid material in a cage or net like formation. A perforated conduit may allow participants in rollable carriers greater visibility and/or enjoyment during an amusement ride. The conduit may be formed from substantially transparent materials. In some embodiments, portions of the conduit may be formed from substantially transparent materials. Forming portions of a conduit from transparent materials may allow a participant greater visibility (and consequently greater enjoyment) during an amusement ride. In some embodiments, substantially parallel bars coupled together may form a conduit. In some embodiments, mixtures of different materials and methods for forming conduits may be employed. FIG. 7 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a path system of an amusement park ride. The embodiment of path system 116 (e.g., a conduit) depicted in FIG. 7 is formed from a substantially transparent material. If participant 106 is positioned in a transparent rollable carrier 100, then the participant may experience an additional aspect of the amusement ride. FIG. 8 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a path system of an amusement park ride. The embodiment of path system 116 (e.g., a conduit) depicted in FIG. 8 is formed from at least two materials of different transparencies. The upper portion 116a of path system 116 may be formed from a substantially transparent material. The lower portion 116b of path system 116 may be formed of a substantially opaque material. Advantages of such a path system may include reducing construction costs. For example various opaque construction materials may be less expensive than comparable translucent materials. The translucent portion of the path system may be less expensive to produce in part due to the fact that it is not necessary to produce the top portion to the same weight bearing capacities of the lower portion of the path system. If participant 106 is positioned in a transparent rollable carrier 100, then the participant may experience an additional aspect of the amusement ride FIG. 9 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a path system of an amusement park ride. The embodiment of path system 116 (e.g., a conduit) depicted in FIG. 9 is formed from at least two materials. The upper portion 116a of path system 116 may be formed from a network of restraining elongated members (e.g., metal bars). These restraining members may act to inhibit rollable carrier 100 from prematurely exiting the path system, while allowing participant 106 to view his/her surroundings outside of the rollable carrier/path system as well as possibly obtain a better sense of motion. The lower portion 116b of path system 116 may be formed of a solid continuous material which is either substantially opaque or translucent. Advantages of such a path system may include reducing construction costs. The upper portion 116a of the path system may be less expensive to produce in part due to the fact that it is not necessary to produce the top half to the same weight bearing capacities of the lower portion of the path system. If participant 106 is positioned in a transparent rollable carrier 100, then the participant may experience an additional aspect of the amusement ride FIG. 10 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a path system of an amusement park ride. The embodiment of path system 116 (e.g., a conduit) depicted in FIG. 10 is formed from at least two materials. Upper portion 116a of path system 116 may be formed from a network of restraining elongated members (e.g., flexible nets/netting). These restraining members may act to inhibit rollable carrier 100 from prematurely exiting the path system, while allowing participant 106 to view his/her surroundings outside of the rollable carrier/path system as well as possibly obtain a better sense of motion of the rollable carrier. The restraining members may be supported using various systems known to one skilled in the art. The embodiment depicted in FIG. 10 illustrates a flexible netting forming upper portion 116a supported by support members 118. The lower portion 116b of path system 116 may be formed of a solid continuous material which is either substantially opaque or translucent. Advantages of such a path system may include reducing construction costs. The upper portion 116a of the path system may be less expensive to produce in part due to the fact that it is not necessary to produce the top half to the same weight bearing capacities of the lower portion of the path system. If participant 106 is positioned in a transparent rollable carrier 100, then the participant may experience an additional aspect of the amusement ride FIG. 11 depicts an embodiment of a portion of a path system of an amusement park ride. The embodiment of path system 116 (e.g., a conduit) depicted in FIG. 111 is formed from a network of restraining elongated members (e.g., metal bars or tubes). These restraining members may act to inhibit rollable carrier 100 from prematurely exiting the path system, while allowing participant 106 to view his/her surroundings outside of the rollable carrier/path system as well as possibly obtain a better sense of motion of the rollable carrier. The restraining members may be supported using various systems known to one skilled in the art. If participant 106 is positioned in a transparent rollable carrier 100, then the participant may experience an additional aspect of the amusement ride. FIG. 12 depicts an embodiment of amusement park ride 120. The embodiment of amusement park ride 120 depicted in FIG. 12 illustrates a basic version of the amusement ride. The amusement ride may include path system 116, body of water 122, and elevation system 124. Path system 116 may include any path system described herein as well as any path system capable of safely accommodating rollable carriers described herein. In some embodiments, a path system may include a water element. The water element may include, for example, a relatively thin sheet of water. A thin sheet of water may reduce friction. The water element may include a relatively thick sheet of water. A thick sheet of water may be deep enough so that a rollable carrier and any participants therein may float on top of the water. A thick sheet of water may, however, be shallow enough to inhibit accidental drowning (e.g., between about 2 feet and about 3 feet). The path system embodiment, depicted in FIG. 12, forms a continuous loop, so that a participant may ride continuously if so desired. The path system depicted in FIG. 12 may use gravity to convey a rollable carrier and/or participant from a first higher elevation to a second lower elevation. In some embodiments, a path system may not form a continuous loop. In such embodiments, the end and the beginning of the ride are not connected. In some embodiments, a path system may not in itself form a continuous loop, however, the path system may form a portion of a much larger amusement ride and/or system of amusement rides which are coupled to each other. Elevation system 124 may include any elevation system capable of safely transporting rollable carriers to a higher elevation. The elevation system depicted in FIG. 12 is a conveyor belt system. Other examples of appropriate elevation systems are described herein. Body of water 122 (e.g., a pool) is merely one example of a receiving area for incoming rollable carriers. The receiving area does not necessarily have to include a water element. A body of water, such as the one depicted in FIG. 12 may, however, facilitate movement of the rollable carriers from the lower elevation end point of the path system to the lower elevation beginning of the elevation system. A body of water may add another aspect for a participant to enjoy, providing an exciting “splash down” landing for the participant. Participants may enter/exit the rollable carrier/ride at various access points 126 along the amusement ride depicted in FIG. 12. In some embodiments, an amusement ride may include one access point 126. In some embodiments, an amusement ride may be designed to accommodate multiple access points 126. The amusement ride depicted in FIG. 12 may employ body of water 122 as an access point. Body of water 122 may be situated at the lowest point of elevation along the amusement ride facilitating its use as an entry/exit point. The beginning of the path system at the top of the elevation system may be employed as an entry/exit point. The amusement ride depicted in FIG. 12 has as its highest point of elevation the beginning of the path system at the top of the elevation system; hence, if this area is employed as an access point, a means for participants to ascend to the area (e.g., a stairway or lift) is included in the amusement ride. FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of amusement park ride 120. The embodiment of amusement park ride 120 depicted in FIG. 13 illustrates a more complex version of an amusement ride relative to FIG. 12. The amusement ride may include path system 116, body of water 122a and 122b, elevation system 124, and amusement elements 128. Path system 116 may include any path system described herein as well as any path system capable of safely accommodating rollable carriers described herein. In some embodiments, a path system may include a water element. The path system embodiment, depicted in FIG. 13, forms a continuous loop, so that a participant may ride continuously if so desired. The path system depicted in FIG. 13 may use gravity to convey a rollable carrier and/or participant from a first higher elevation to a second lower elevation. Portions of the path system may at least in part make use of the momentum of a rollable carrier gained during a decent from a high to a low elevation to assist the rollable carrier to move from the low elevation to a second high elevation. The amusement park ride depicted in FIG. 13 includes a number of amusement elements 128. “Amusement elements” may be generally defined as elements incorporated into an amusement ride for the purpose of providing pleasurable excitement and/or diversion to one or more participants. At least two of the amusement elements depicted in FIG. 13 include amusement elements 128a and 128b. Amusement element 128a includes a “360° loop.” The general concept of a 360° loop is well known to one skilled in the art of amusement rides, and is especially associated with roller coasters. However water based amusement rides, heretofore, are not known to have ever incorporated a 360° loop. A 360° loop may include a fully enclosed conduit, unlike most roller coasters. A fully enclosed conduit may be necessary because, unlike traditional roller coasters, rollable carriers as described herein are typically not coupled to a track. Amusement element 128b includes two successive hills. A fully enclosed conduit may not be necessary. It may however be desirable to employ enclosed conduits for at least portions of amusement element 128b (e.g., portions including at least the highest points of elevation, 360° loop) for reasons discussed herein. In some embodiments, amusement elements may include a “waterfall.” The waterfall may be configured to allow the rollable carrier to drop from a first higher elevation to a second lower elevation. In certain embodiments, the difference between the elevations is between about 2 ft. to about 12 ft. A waterfall may allow a rollable carrier to experience free fall over a predetermined distance to add enjoyment to the amusement ride. Almost all water park rides require substantial waiting periods in a queue line due to the large number of participants at the park. This waiting period is typically incorporated into the walk from the bottom of the ride back to the top, and can measure hours in length, while the ride itself lasts a few short minutes, if not less than a minute. A series of corrals are typically used to form a meandering line of participants that extends from the starting point of the ride toward the exit point of the ride. Besides the negative and time-consuming experience of waiting in line, the guests are usually wet, exposed to varying amounts of sun and shade, and are not able to stay physically active, all of which contribute to physical discomfort for the guest and lowered guest satisfaction. Additionally, these queue lines are difficult if not impossible for disabled guests to negotiate. The concept of a continuous water ride was developed to address the problems and issues stated above associated with water amusement parks. Continuous water rides may assist in eliminating and/or reducing many long queue lines. Continuous water rides may eliminate and/or reduce participants having to walk back up to an entry point of a water ride. Continuous water rides may also allow the physically handicapped or physically challenged to take advantage of water amusement parks. Where before that may have been difficult if not impossible due to many flights of stairs typically associated with water amusement parks. Amusement rides employing the rollable carriers described herein may be incorporated into a continuous water ride. In some embodiments, continuous water rides may include a system of individual water rides connected together. The system may include two or more water rides connected together. Amusement rides employing the rollable carriers described herein may include downhill water slides, uphill water slides, single tube slides, multiple participant tube slides, space bowls, sidewinders, interactive water slides, water rides with falling water, themed water slides, dark water rides, and/or accelerator sections in water slides. Connections may reduce long queue lines normally associated with individual water rides. Connections may allow participants to remain in the water and/or a rollable carrier (e.g., a floatation device) during transportation from a first portion of the continuous water ride to a second portion of the continuous water ride. In some embodiments, an exit point of a first water ride may be connected to an entry point of a second water ride forming at least a portion of a continuous water ride. The exit point of the first water ride and the entry point of the second water ride may be at different elevation levels. An elevation system may be used to connect the exit point of the first water ride and the entry point of the second water ride. In some embodiments, an entry point of a second water ride may have a higher elevation than an exit point of a first water ride coupled to the entry point of the second water ride. In some embodiments, elevation systems may include any system capable of transporting one or more participants and/or one or more rollable carriers from a first point at one elevation level to a second point at a different elevation level. Elevation systems may include a conveyor belt system. Elevation systems may include a water lock system. Elevation systems may include an uphill water slide, a spiral transport system, and/or a water wheel. FIG. 14 depicts an embodiment of amusement ride 120 forming at least a portion of a continuous water ride. Amusement ride 120 may include body of water 122a. Body of water 122a may include pools, lakes, and/or wells. Body of water 122a may be natural, artificial, or an artificially modified natural body of water. A non-limiting example of an artificially modified natural body of water might include a natural lake which has been artificially enlarged and adapted for water amusement park purposes (e.g., entry ladders and/or entry steps). Amusement ride 120 may include downhill water slide 130. Downhill water slide 130 may convey participants from body of water 122a at a first elevation to a lower second elevation into typically some type of water container (e.g., body of water, channel, floating queue line, and/or pool). The water container at the lower second elevation may include, for illustrative purposes only, second body of water 122b (e.g., a pool). Amusement ride 120 may include elevation system 124. Elevation system 124 may include any system capable of safely moving participants and/or rollable carriers from a lower elevation to a higher elevation. Elevation system 124 is depicted as a conveyor belt system in FIG. 14. Elevation system 124 may convey participants to body of water 122c. FIG. 14 depicts merely a portion of one embodiment of amusement ride 120. FIG. 15 depicts an embodiment of a portion of amusement ride 120. Amusement ride 120 may include body of water 122c. Body of water 122c may be coupled to downhill water slide 130. Downhill water slide 130 may couple body of water 122c to body of water 122d. Body of water 122d may be positioned at a lower elevation than body of water 122c. Body of water 122d may include access point 126a. Access point 126a may allow participants to safely enter and/or exit body of water 122d. As depicted in FIG. 15 access points 126 may be stairs. Access points 126 may also include ladders and/or a gradually sloping walkway. Body of water 122d may be coupled to body of water 122c with elevation system 124. Elevation system 124 as depicted in FIG. 15 is a conveyor belt system. Elevation system 124 may be at least any system of elevation described herein. Body of water 122c may be coupled to a second water ride. The second water ride may be, for example, torrent river 134. FIG. 15 depicts one small example of amusement ride 120. Amusement ride 120 may allow participants and/or their rollable carriers 100 to ride continually without having to leave their rollable carrier. For example a participant may enter body of water 122c through access point 126b. The participant may ride rollable carrier 100 down downhill water slide 130 to body of water 122d. At this point the participant has the choice to exit body of water 122d at access point 126a or to ride their rollable carrier 100 up elevation system 124 to body of water 122c. For safety reasons one or both ends of elevation system 124 may extend below the surface of bodies of water 122. Extending the ends of elevation system 124 below the surface of the water may allow participants to float up on elevation system 124 more safely. Participants who choose to ride elevation system 124 to body of water 122c may then choose to either exit access point 126b, ride downhill water slide 130 again, or ride torrent river 134. In some embodiments, bodies of water 122 may include multiple elevation systems 124 and multiple water rides connecting each other. In some embodiments, floating queue lines and/or channels may couple water rides and elevation systems. Floating queue lines may help control the flow of participants more efficiently than without using floating queue lines. In some embodiments, elevation systems may include a conveyor belt system. Conveyor belt systems may be more fully described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/952,036 (Publication No. US-2002-0082097-A1), herein incorporated by reference. This system may include a conveyor belt system positioned to allow participants to naturally float up or swim up onto the conveyor and be carried up and deposited at a higher level. Such a system may also be modified to convey rollable carriers. The conveyor belt system may also be used to take participants and rollable carriers out of the water flow at stations requiring entry and/or exit from the amusement ride. Participants and rollable carriers float to and are carried up on a moving conveyor on which participants may exit the rollable carriers. New participants may enter the rollable carriers and be transported into the amusement ride at a desired location and velocity. The conveyor may extend below the surface of the water so as to more easily allow participants to naturally float or swim up onto the conveyor. Extending the conveyor below the surface of the water may allow for a smoother entry into the water when exiting the conveyor belt. Typically the conveyor belt takes participants and rollable carriers from a lower elevation to a higher elevation, however it may be important to first transport the participants to an elevation higher than the elevation of their final destination. Upon reaching this apex the participants then may be transported down to the elevation of their final destination on a water slide, rollers, or on a continuation of the original conveyor that transported them to the apex. This serves the purpose of using gravity to push the participant off and away from the belt, slide, or rollers into a second water ride of the continuous water ride and/or a floating queue. The endpoint of a conveyor may be near a first end of a horizontal hydraulic head channel wherein input water is introduced through a first conduit. This current of flowing may move the participants away from the conveyor endpoint in a quick and orderly fashion so as not to cause increase in participant density at the conveyor endpoint. Further, moving the participants quickly away from the conveyor endpoint may act as a safety feature reducing the risk of participants becoming entangled in any part of the conveyor belt or its mechanisms. A deflector plate may also extend from one or more ends of the conveyor and may extend to the bottom of the channel. When the deflector plate extends at an angle away from the conveyor it may help to guide the participants up onto the conveyor belt as well as inhibit access to the rotating rollers underneath the conveyor. These conveyors may be designed to lift participants from one level to a higher one, or may be designed to lift participants and rollable carriers out of the water, onto a horizontal moving platform and then return the rollable carrier with a new participant to the water. The conveyor belt speed may also be adjusted in accordance with several variables. The belt speed may be adjusted depending on the participant density; for example, the speed may be increased when participant density is high to reduce participant waiting time. The speed of the belt may be varied to match the velocity of the water, reducing changes in velocity experienced by the participant moving from one medium to another (for example from a current of water to a conveyor belt). Conveyor belt speed may be adjusted so participants are discharged at predetermined intervals, which may be important where participants are launched from a conveyor to a water ride that requires safety intervals between the participants. Several safety concerns should be addressed in connection with the conveyor system. The actual belt of the system should be made of a material and designed to provide good traction to participants and rollable carriers without proving uncomfortable to the participants touch. Detection devices or sensors for safety purposes may also be installed at various points along the conveyor belt system. These detection devices may be variously designed to determine if any participant on the conveyor violating safety parameters. Gates may also be installed at the top or bottom of a conveyor, arranged mechanically or with sensors wherein the conveyor stops when the participant collides with the gate so there is no danger of the participant being caught in and pulled under the conveyor. Runners may cover the outside edges of the conveyor belt covering the space between the conveyor and the outside wall of the conveyor so that no part of a participant may be caught in this space. All hardware (electrical, mechanical, and otherwise) should be able to withstand exposure to water, sunlight, and various chemicals associated with water treatment (including chlorine or fluorine) as well as common chemicals associated with the participants themselves (such as the various components making up sunscreen or cosmetics). In some embodiments, a conveyor belt system may include restraining devices and/or gripping devices. Restraining devices may be used to inhibit rollable carriers and/or participants from moving while on the conveyor belt (other than the movement associated with the movement of the conveyor belt itself when activated). Many of the rollable carriers described herein may have a tendency to move on their own in a direction opposite that of the conveyor belt if the conveyor belt is moving from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation. Restraining devices may be used to inhibit movement of a rollable carrier and/or participants relative to a conveyor belt. Restraining members may include paddle type embodiments coupled to a conveyor belt. Paddles may include solid members. Paddles may include supported netting. Some type of netting (e.g., any materials which may allow fluids to pass through) may be used to form restraining members. Materials which allow fluids (e.g., water and/or air) to pass through may decrease resistance as the restraining members travel around the conveyor belt system, especially when unoccupied by a rollable carrier. Decreasing resistance may be advantageous in that the elevation system may require less energy to operate. FIG. 16 depicts an embodiment of a portion of elevation system 124 (e.g., conveyor belt system). The conveyor belt system pictured in FIG. 16 may include restraining members 114. Restraining members 114 may function to support rollable carriers 100 as the rollable carriers are conveyed along elevation system 124. The restraining members may include a shape which is designed to be compatible with a particular rollable carrier. For example, in some embodiments, restraining members 114 may include a curvature to better accommodate a rollable carrier with a rollable surface as depicted in FIG. 16. In some embodiments, end 124a of elevation system 124 may be positioned above beginning 124b of a second portion of the elevation system at a sufficient height to allow restraining members 114 to more easily pass around end restraining members 114a without interference from beginning restraining members 114b. As depicted in FIG. 16 the second portion of the elevation system may include a conveyor belt system, set at a decline instead of an incline to control the rate of decent. In some embodiments, an elevation system may end allow a rollable carrier to enter the beginning of a downhill slide or any other water amusement ride known to one skilled in the art. In some embodiments, restraining members, such as the ones depicted in FIG. 16 may include a means for collapsing or lying relatively flat against the conveyor belt when approaching end 124a of elevation system 124 such that end 124a may not require a significant drop off to allow the restraining system to rotate around the end. Various sensors may also be installed along the conveyor belt system to monitor the number of people using the system in addition to their density at various points along the system. Sensors may also monitor the actual conveyor belt system itself for breakdowns or other problems. Problems include, but are not limited to, the conveyor belt not moving when it should be or sections broken or in need of repair in the belt itself. All of this information may be transferred to various central or local control stations where it may be monitored so adjustments may be made to improve efficiency of transportation of the participants. Some or all of these adjustments may be automated and controlled by a programmable logic control system. Various embodiments of the conveyor lift station include widths allowing only one or several participants side by side to ride on the conveyor according to ride and capacity requirements. The conveyor may also include entry and exit lanes in the incoming and outgoing stream so as to better position participants onto the conveyor belt and into the outgoing stream. More embodiments of conveyor systems are shown in FIG. 17-FIG. 19. FIG. 17 shows a dry conveyor for transporting participants entering the system into a channel. It includes a conveyor belt portion ending at the top of downhill slide 130 which participants slide down on into the water. FIG. 18 shows a wet conveyor for transporting participants from a lower channel to a higher one with downhill slide 130 substituted for the launch conveyor. FIG. 19 shows a river conveyor for transporting participants from a channel to a torrent river. This embodiment does not have a descending portion. In some embodiments, a conveyor belt system may be oriented substantially vertically. A vertical conveyor belt system may decrease the time required to convey a participant over a particular elevational distance relative to a conveyor belt system disposed at an angle. The use of vertical conveyor belts may also reduce the amount of land required by an amusement ride. A vertical conveyor belt may function much like an elevator, in so far as it may start and stop to load and unload participants. A vertical conveyor belt may include a restraining system. The restraining system may function to inhibit rollable carriers from moving relative to the conveyor belt. Restraining systems may include any type of restraint system known to one skilled in the art. Restraining systems may include container systems coupled to the conveyor belt. A container may be coupled to the conveyor belt and may be open on one side such that as the container travels around with the conveyor belt a rollable carrier may enter the container at a first elevation (e.g., a lower elevation). The belt may carry the container to a second elevation (e.g., a higher elevation relative to the first elevation). A programmable control system may stop whenever a container reaches the first and second elevation allowing rollable carriers to enter and exit the container. The conveyor belt system may include a programmable control system which is partially or fully automated. The conveyor belt system may include sensors which detect whether or not a container is occupied by a rollable carrier and/or if a rollable carrier is waiting to board a container. Such a sensor system may be coupled to a programmable control system allowing the conveyor belt system to work more efficiently (e.g., containers will not stop at a particular elevation if there exists no rollable carrier to enter or exit the container. A vertical conveyor belt may include restraining systems. Restraining systems may include a container with a roof and a gate. The gate may be opened and closed automatically in response to signals from a sensor system triggered by participants and/or rollable carriers. Gates may be opened/closed by amusement park employees. In some embodiments, Vertical conveyor belts may use a combination of programmable control systems, sensor systems, and amusement park employees to ensure the safety of participants. FIG. 20 depicts an embodiment of elevation system 124 used in combination with amusement ride 120. Elevation system 124 includes a vertical conveyor system which conveys rollable carriers 100 from lower body of water 138 to upper channel/path system 140. Elevation system 124 may include restraints 114. Restraints 114 may function to inhibit rollable carriers 100 from moving relative to the conveyor belt 124a. Conveyor belt 124a may run in a continuous loop picking up rollable carriers 100 and conveying them from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation. Restraints 114 may include restraints 114a and restraints 114b. Restraints 114a may function as a retainer for rollable carriers 100 inhibiting their movement. Restraints 114b may function as a retainer for rollable carriers 100 inhibiting their movement. Restraints 114b may function to act as a surface to transfer rollable carriers 100 from restraints 114a to upper channel/path system 140 In some embodiments, an elevation system may include fluid enhanced elevation system. A fluid enhanced elevation system may include a water jet which functions to increase the elevation of a participant and/or rollable carrier. The fluid enhanced elevation system may function by projecting a volume of water/air at a high pressure in order to elevate a participant and/or rollable carrier. In some embodiments, an elevation system using pressurized fluids may be used to elevate a participant/rollable carrier only a few feet (e.g., the elevation system may only be used as an amusement effect for the enjoyment of the participant). In some embodiments, a horizontally directed fluid jet, or some other means, may be used to displace a participant/rollable carrier off of a fluid enhanced elevation system. The participant/rollable carrier may already be in an elevated state due to an activated vertically directed fluid jet upon displacement using the horizontally directed fluid jet. FIG. 21 through FIG. 31 depict embodiments of conveyor belt elevation systems as well as embodiments of specific portions of the conveyor belt elevation systems. FIG. 21 depicts an embodiment of conveyor belt elevation system 124. Conveyor belt elevation system 124 may be used to convey participants from a lower first elevation to a higher second elevation. Although generally elevation systems described herein are used for moving participants and/or participant carriers from a lower to a higher elevation, it should be noted that with little to no modification elevation systems described herein may be used to convey participants and/or participant carriers from a higher to a lower elevation or even convey participants over a specified distance along a substantially constant elevation. FIG. 22 through FIG. 24 depict embodiments of specific portions of conveyor belt elevation system depicted in FIG. 21. Conveyor belt elevation systems may include conveyor belt 125. FIG. 22 depicts an embodiment of entry portion 124a of a conveyor belt elevation system. Entry portion 124a may be substantially submerged under water during operation of a conveyor belt elevation system. Submerging the entry portion may function to ensure a smooth transition for participants from a water filled channel onto a belt of the conveyor belt elevation system. The entry portion may include sensors which function to detect when participants have entered the conveyor belt elevation system. FIG. 23 depicts an embodiment of exit portion 124b of a conveyor belt elevation system. Exit portion 124b may be substantially submerged under water during operation of a conveyor belt elevation system. Submerging the exit-portion may function to ensure a smooth transition for participants from a belt of the conveyor belt elevation system into a water filled channel or some other portion of an amusement ride. The exit portion may include sensors which function to detect when participants have exited the conveyor belt elevation system. FIG. 24 depicts an embodiment of drive mechanism 124c of a conveyor belt elevation system. FIG. 24 depicts how a conveyor belt may thread through a drive mechanism. The drive mechanism depicted specifically is used for situations where drive mechanisms cannot be located at the upper end of the conveyor belt (e.g., river lifts). FIG. 25 depicts an embodiment of conveyor belt elevation system 124. Conveyor belt elevation system 124 may include entry portion 124a as depicted in, for example, FIG. 22. Conveyor belt elevation system 124 may include exit portion 124b, drive mechanism 124c, gate mechanism 124d, and tension mechanism 124e. FIG. 26 depicts an embodiment of gate mechanism 124d. Gate mechanism 124d may function to control the access rate of participant and/or participant carriers onto conveyor belt elevation system 124. The gate mechanism may ensure that only one participant carrier enters the conveyor belt system at a time and/or maintain optimal spacing between participant carriers along the conveyor belt system. The gate mechanism may include a positionable arm. The positionable arm may be coupled to a dam or gate. The gate may be buoyant and function to hinder the progress of participants. The positionable arm may function to position the gate in an upward hindering position as depicted in FIG. 26. The positionable arm may function to position the gate in a position to allow participants to pass unhindered (e.g., retracting the gate so it is flush with the floor of, for example, a channel). The gate mechanism may function such that few or no pinch points are accessible to a participant. The gate mechanism may be driven by outboard actuators (e.g., hydraulic or pneumatic). The gate mechanism may include a pivot shaft, actuators, and local drive unit. The gate mechanism may include sensors. Some of the sensors may communicate the position of the gate to a programmable controller. Some of the sensors may detect when participants approach the gate. Some of the sensors may detect when participants have safely cleared the gate. Sub-framework of the gate may be mounted directly to the path system flooring (e.g., concrete). FIG. 26 depicts only one embodiment of gate mechanism 124d, in other embodiments gate mechanisms may include adjustable weirs as described herein. Gate mechanisms may include any mechanism which is capable of controlling the flow of participants through a section or portion of a water amusement park. In some embodiments, gate mechanisms may be used to direct participants toward one or more paths when there exists two or more alternative path choices built into a water amusement park ride system. The gate mechanism may be coupled to a control system. The control system and/or gate mechanism may be coupled to sensors. The control system may be at least partially automated. In some embodiments, participants may signal which path option they prefer and a gate mechanism may comply appropriately with the participant's choice. For example, a participant may signal manually (e.g., vocally or using hand signals) which path option the participant prefers. Using motion detectors and/or voice recognition software may allow a control system to automatically position a gate mechanism such that a participant enters the desired path option. In some embodiments, a gate mechanism may be manually controlled by an operator. In some embodiments, a participant may use a personal electronic signally device to indicate which path option they prefer. For example a participant identifier may be used as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,654 entitled “CONTINUOUS WATER RIDE,” herein incorporated by reference. In some embodiments, a gate mechanism may function to regulate the flow of participants between a multi-path option such that participants are distributed appropriately to maintain a maximum participant flow rate reducing participant waiting times. Appropriately distributing participants between path options of a water amusement ride and/or elevation system may include substantially evenly distributing participants between path options. Appropriately distributing participants between path options of a water amusement ride and/or elevation system may include distributing participants between path options based on each paths particular participant flow capacity. FIG. 26A depicts an embodiment of gate mechanism 124d. Gate mechanism 124d depicted in FIG. 26A is configured to distribute participants between two conveyor belt elevation systems 124. Gate mechanism 124d depicted in FIG. 26A is depicted in a neutral position with both path options available. The gate mechanism may pivot from side to side selectively blocking and opening the different path options (e.g., conveyor belt elevation system). FIG. 26A depicts an embodiment including two path options (e.g., conveyor belt elevation system); however, other embodiments may include any number of path options through which the flow of participants may or may not be controlled using one or more gate mechanisms or similar devices. One skilled in the art may use and/or modify common methods and devises to act as or accomplish similar ends of the gate mechanism (e.g., diverting participants between path options and/or controlling the flow of participants through a particular section of a water amusement ride and/or system). FIG. 27 depicts an embodiment of tension mechanism 124e of a conveyor belt elevation system. Tension mechanism 124e may function to provide additional tension to a conveyor belt when necessary. The tension mechanism may include sensors. Some of the sensors may detect when there is not enough tension on the conveyor belt. Sensors may be coupled to a programmable controller. The tension mechanism may include a lock-out feature. The lock-out feature of the tension mechanism may function to release tension on the conveyor belt to, for example, allow maintenance. FIG. 28 depicts an embodiment of drive mechanism 124c of a conveyor belt elevation system. FIG. 28 depicts how a conveyor belt may thread through a drive mechanism. The embodiment depicted in FIG. 28 is adapted for an upper end of a conveyor belt system to launch a participant carrier into a downhill portion of an amusement ride (e.g., a downhill slide). The embodiment depicted in FIG. 28 may require a separate tension mechanism as depicted in FIG. 25 and FIG. 27. FIG. 29 depicts an embodiment of exit portion 124b of a conveyor belt elevation system. Exit portion 124b depicted in FIG. 29 may provide a relatively safe interface between an end of a conveyor belt elevation system and another portion of an amusement ride. A conveyor belt interface with the exit portion may include a mating comb, such as provided from Intralox. The exit portion may include a section of roller belt (e.g., Intralox's Series 400 Roller Top). The section of roller belt may ease a participant off of the belt conveyor. In some embodiments, both a comb and a roller belt may be pre-assembled to a tray. The tray may be formed from stainless steel. The tray may couple directly inside a cavity of the floor of an amusement ride. FIG. 30 depicts an embodiment of conveyor belt elevation system 124. Conveyor belt elevation system 124 may include entry portions 124a′, entry portion 124a, exit portion 124b, drive mechanism 124c, gate mechanism 124d, and tension mechanism 124e. FIG. 31 depicts an embodiment of entry portion 124a′ of a conveyor belt elevation system. It should be noted that the embodiment depicted in FIG. 31 may be used at either an exit or entry point as may many of the embodiments described herein. The beginning of the entry portion may be set below water level during use to ease participants on the conveyor belt. The entry portion may be located at the end of floating queue system 160 as depicted in FIG. 30. Entry portion 124a′ may bring floating participants up out of the floating queue channel and into a subsequent portion of an amusement ride. Entry portion 124a′ may be combined with exit portion 124b and drive mechanism 124c as depicted in FIG. 30. The entry portion may include sensors to detect when participants actually enter the portion. In some embodiments, floating queue system 160 may include fluid jets. Floating queue system 160 may be designed as depicted in FIG. 39. A floating queue system may be coupled/positioned at a beginning point and/or ending point of an elevation system (e.g., conveyor belt elevation system 124) and/or amusement park ride. Fluid jets of a floating queue line may be used to assist in pushing participants and/or vehicles onto conveyor belts. In doing this, fluid jets will decrease the effort expended by a participant and increase a participant's amusement factor. Fluid jets within a floating queue system may assist in controlling the flow of participants onto a conveyor system and/or amusement park ride. Control systems may be coupled to the fluid jets to control the velocity of fluids exiting the jets to control the flow of participants onto a conveyor system and/or amusement park ride. In some embodiments, control systems may be at least partially automated. For example, control systems may include sensors coupled to the control system. Sensors may assist the control system in keeping track of participant flow rate through a floating queue system such that a control system may adjust the participant flow rate accordingly. In some embodiments, a floating queue system may assist in controlling the flow of participants off a conveyor system and/or amusement park ride. In some embodiments, an amusement park system may include portions of a body of water (e.g., channels, pools, etc.) wherein the portions are shallower than the rest of the body of water. Shallower portions of a body of water may allow participants to more easily enter the amusement park system at this point. Shallower portions may allow a participant to more easily enter a water amusement ride and/or more easily mount/access a vehicle (e.g., an inflatable vehicle such as an inner tube). Shallower portions of a body of water may also be referred to as participant/vehicle access or entrance points. These shallower portions may be shallow enough to facilitate participants entrance into a ride/vehicle while still allowing the participant/vehicle to float. In some embodiments, shallower portions of a body of water may range from 1 to 4 feet in depth. In some embodiments, shallower portions of a body of water may range from 1 to 3 feet in depth. In some embodiments, shallower portions of a body of water may range from 1 to 2 feet in depth. In some embodiments, shallower portions of a body of water may range from 2 to 3 feet in depth. In some embodiments, shallower portions of a body of water may be positioned adjacent a beginning point and/or end point of an elevation system (e.g., a conveyor belt elevation system). Shallower portions may be positioned in conjunction with or instead of floating queue system 160 as depicted in FIG. 30 allowing participants to join the water amusement system at this point. As depicted in FIG. 30 multiple conveyor belt elevation systems may be joined together. Multiply branched elevation/channel systems as depicted in FIG. 26A may be introduced as part of a water amusement ride system and in specific embodiments may be positioned after floating queue system 160 as depicted in FIG. 30. In some embodiments, shallower portions of a body of water may be positioned before/adjacent a beginning point of a conveyor belt elevation system. The shallower portion may be used in combination with means for conveying water from a beginning of a conveyor belt elevation system to the end of the conveyor belt elevation system, described more fully in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/952,036 (Publication No. US-2002-0082097-A1). Water conveyed from a beginning point of a conveyor belt elevation system to an end point of a conveyor belt elevation system may be used to create a hydraulic gradient to assist in pushing a participant onto the conveyor belt and/or assist in pulling a participant off of the conveyor belt. The hydraulic gradient used in such a manner may assist in regulating the flow of participants through a conveyor belt elevation system as well as any water amusement park system to which the conveyor belt elevation system is a part of. FIG. 32 depicts an embodiment of a portion of path system 116 of an amusement ride. Path system 116 may include several access points. An access point may include an entry/exit point of conveyor belt elevation system 124. Path system 116 may include access point 126. Access point 126 may include a point accessible by walking (e.g., stairs). Path system 116 may include path 116a and path 116b. FIG. 32 depicts how a path system may diverge and split allowing participants to choose different paths. Access points may include a mechanism to stabilize participant carriers In some embodiments, path 116a and/or path 116b may include a queue line which funnel participants in a controlled manner to conveyor belt elevation system 124. Using two or more queue lines to funnel participants to an elevation system (especially an elevation system which may handle several participants at a time (e.g., wide enough to handle two participants next to each other)) may increase the loading efficiency of an amusement ride. FIG. 33 depicts an embodiment of fluid enhanced elevation system 124. Fluid enhanced elevation system 124 may include opening 110a. Fluid 132 may pass through the opening at an increased pressure. Fluids may include liquids (e.g., water) and/or gases (e.g., air). Pressure of the fluid exiting the opening may be sufficient to elevate participant 106/rollable carrier 100 to a predetermined height (dependent upon the pressure of the fluid used as well as the weight of the rollable carrier and any participants). In some embodiments, a high velocity low volume jet 136 as depicted in FIG. 33 may be used to push participant 106/rollable carrier 100 off of activated fluid enhanced horizontally to better push the rollable carrier participant off of the fluid enhanced elevation system. Examples of systems which may be modified for use to elevate and/or move a participant and/or rollable carrier with fluids (e.g., air) are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,083,110 to Kitchen et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Fluid enhanced elevation systems, in some embodiments, may include “wind tunnels.” FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of an amusement park ride including fluid enhanced elevation system 124b. The specific embodiment depicted in FIG. 13 includes a wind tunnel 124b. Large fans, for example, may be used to generate blasts of high velocity winds. These high velocity winds may be directed into portions of an amusement ride. Blasts of high velocity winds may assist in propelling a rollable carrier along a portion of the amusement ride. The portion of the amusement ride may include an enclosed conduit through which the rollable carrier travels. An enclosed conduit may assist in funneling generated high velocity winds such that the energy generated is used to a maximum effect. FIG. 34 depicts an embodiment of a portion of amusement ride 120 including an amusement element 128. Amusement element 128 depicted in FIG. 34 includes a 360° loop to further enhance the enjoyment of participants. FIG. 34 also depicts path system 116 along which rollable carriers 100 are conveyed. Path system 116 may include open portions of the path system designated 116a in FIG. 34. Path system 116 may include enclosed portions of the path system designated 116b in FIG. 34. Enclosed portions 116b may function to ensure the rollable carriers stay within the path system. Enclosed portions 116b may also work in combination with elevation systems which benefit from an enclosed path system (e.g., pressure based elevation systems). FIG. 35 depicts an embodiment of a portion of amusement ride 120 including an elevation system 124. Amusement ride 120 may include enclosed path system 116 through which rollable carriers 100 are conveyed. Elevation system 124 may include a large fan 124a which may provide high velocity winds functioning to propel the rollable carriers through the path system (e.g., from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation). Elevation system 124 may include restraints 114. Restraints 114 may function to inhibit rollable carriers and/or participants from contacting/interfering with fan 124a. Rollable carrier may be blown through a portion of a path system in some embodiments. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may pulled through a portion of a path system using a reduced pressure system. Reducing the air pressure in one end of an enclosed conduit may pull a rollable carrier through the conduit towards the end of the enclosed conduit. A reduced pressure system may function as an elevation system. The reduced pressure system may pull one or more rollable carriers through a portion of a path system which includes going from a lower elevation to a relatively higher elevation. A wind tunnel and a reduced pressure system may be designed based on similar mechanical systems and principals. One or more motorized fans may be used to generate winds up to 200 mph to push and/or pull a rollable carrier through a path system. Either embodiment may function more efficiently if a portion of the path system through which a rollable carrier is conveyed using air pressure includes a substantially enclosed conduit. An enclosed conduit (one or more ends of the conduit may be open) may assist in more efficiently channeling the energy produced from a pressure controlling system (e.g., motorized fans). FIG. 36 depicts an embodiment of a portion of amusement ride 120 including an elevation system 124. Amusement ride 120 may include enclosed path system 116 through which rollable carriers 100 convey. Elevation system 124 may include a large fan 124a which may reduce pressure within a portion of the enclosed path system functioning to “pull” the rollable carriers through the path system (e.g., from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation). Elevation system 124 may include restraints 114. Restraints 114 may function to inhibit rollable carriers and/or participants from contacting/interfering with fan 124a. Elevation system 124 may include one or more gates 124b. Gates 124b along with a rollable carrier may function to create a fully enclosed space from which it is easier for fan 124a to evacuate air from. As air is evacuated from the fully enclosed space, pressure within the space will be reduced drawing the rollable carrier through the space. Fan 124a may draw the rollable carrier past the highest elevation of the portion of the amusement ride, after which gravity may take over as the conveying force for the rollable carrier. Gates 124b may be hinged. The hinges may allow the gates to only move one way, allowing rollable carriers to though the gates in only one direction. In some embodiments, a cross section of a conduit forming a portion of a path system may substantially correspond to a cross section of a portion of a rollable carrier. A shape and/or size of the cross section of a portion of the rollable carrier may correspond to a cross section of a conduit forming a portion of a path system. Cross sections of a rollable carrier and a portion of a path system may correspond such that when the rollable carrier enters the portion of the path system (e.g., a conduit) the rollable carrier substantially forms a seal between the rollable carrier and the portion of the path system. Advantages of corresponding cross sections of a rollable carrier and a portion of a path system sealing off at least one end of the portion of the path system such that airflow between the outer surface of the rollable carrier and the inner surface of the portion of the path system is reduced. It is not necessary for airflow between the rollable carrier and the portion of the path system to be eliminated. Reducing the airflow may increase the efficiency of a pressure based elevation system. It may be counterproductive to manufacture the portion of the path system with an inner cross section which so closely matches the outer cross section of the rollable carrier such that airflow between the two is substantially eliminated. Such an embodiment may lead to increased friction between the surfaces of the rollable carrier and the path system. Friction may increase to a point such that the disadvantages of the increasing friction over the advantages of restricting airflow between the surfaces of the rollable carrier and the path system. Airflow between the inner surface of a portion of the path system and the outer surface of a rollable carrier may decrease the efficiency of a pressure based elevation system. Airflow may be inhibited between the inner surface of a portion of the path system and the outer surface of a rollable carrier while still allowing a rollable carrier sufficient room to roll through the path system. It should be noted that although amusement ride embodiments described herein are designed with a rollable carrier in mind, the rollable carrier may in some instances not roll along portions of the path system. For example, the rollable carrier may not roll while being conveyed from a lowerelevation to a relatively higher elevation using an elevation system. In one example, a pressure based elevation system may effectively pull/push a rollable carrier through a portion of a path system in such a manner so that the rollable carrier may actually slide along a surface of the path system at least for portions of the amusement ride. This phenomenon may not be attributed so much to the particular design of the rollable carrier but to particular conveying force applied to the rollable carrier used to propel the rollable carrier. For example, a rollable carrier may be pulled or pushed through a portion of the path system using a pressure based elevation system with enough force such that at times the rollable carrier does not actually roll end over end. In some embodiments, a motorized fan may be coupled to a path system. The motorized fan may be oriented with respect to the path system such that the fan blows air through at least a portion of the path system. One or more fans may combine to blow gusts of wind which may reach up to 200 mph through a portion of the path system. The speed of the fan blades and consequently the winds generated may be controlled by remote systems. Systems used to control motorized fans may be at least partially or fully automated. In some embodiments, only one rollable carrier may be allowed to travel through a portion of a path system using a pressure based elevation system. Allowing more than one rollable carrier to enter the portion of the path system may inhibit winds generated from a fan from applying pressure to a first rollable carrier already traveling through the portion. In a system where a fan generates winds to push rollable carriers through the portion of the path system, more than one rollable carrier may be pushed through at a time, however attempting to push more than one rollable carrier through the portion of the path system may greatly increase the load requirements of the fans powering the system. In some embodiments, a pressure based elevation system may “pull” a rollable carrier through a portion of a path system. In such an embodiment pressure ahead of the rollable carrier may be reduced along the path system in order to pull the rollable carrier through the path system. The portion of the path which incorporates the pressure based elevation system may be substantially enclosed to increase the efficiency of the pressure based elevation system. In some embodiments, a motorized fan may be coupled to at least one end of a portion of a path system. The fan may remove air from the portion of the path system in order to reduce pressure within the portion of the path system. As a rollable carrier enters a beginning of the portion of the path system the rollable carrier may substantially seal the beginning of the portion of the path system increasing the vacuum created by the fan. A “gate” may temporarily seal an end of the portion of the path system. Sealing the end of the portion of the path system may increase the force of the vacuum created by the fan within the portion of the path system. When a rollable carrier enters the beginning of the portion of the path system it creates a substantially sealed chamber when used in combination with a gate system. The chamber is sealed except for an opening coupled to the fan which is removing air and reducing pressure within the created “chamber.” In some embodiments, an elevation system may include a system based on an Archimedes screw. The “screw conveyor” is a direct descendant of the Archimedes screw. However, while the Archimedes screw lifts fluids trapped within cavities formed by its inclined blades, the screw conveyor propels dry bulk materials (powders, pellets, flakes, crystals, granules, grains, etc.) through the pushing action of its rotating blades. Also, most screw conveyers in use today have a single blade, while modern Archimedes screws typically have two or three blades. Greek mathematician and physicist Archimedes is acknowledged as the inventor of the screw conveyor in 235-240 B.C., and essentially his design has not changed since then. Screw conveyors are one of the oldest and simplest methods for moving bulk materials and consist primarily of a conveyor screw rotating in a stationary trough. Material placed in the trough is moved along its length by rotation of the screw which is supported by hanger bearings. Inlets, outlets, gates, and other accessories control the material and its disposition. Screw conveyors are compact, easily adapted to congested locations and can be mounted horizontal, vertical, and in inclined configurations. Their supports are simple and easily installed. When an Archimedes screw is tilted, “buckets” that can trap water are formed between the blades. These buckets appear to move upward when the screw is rotated, carrying the water within them. The screw collects water from the lower reservoir, where the buckets are formed, and empties it into the upper reservoir, where the buckets are unformed. When operated manually it is rotated by a crank or by a man walking around the circumference of the outer cylinder in a treadmill manner. In modern industrial screws, the outer cylinder is usually fixed and the blades attached to the inner cylinder are rotated within it. This allows the top half of the outer cylinder to be eliminated so that a stationary trough is formed from the bottom half of the outer cylinder. Such a construction permits easy access to the interior of the screw, in order to remove debris and for routine maintenance. In addition, the stationary outer cylinder relieves the moving blades and inner cylinder of some of the weight of the water. A disadvantage of this design is that water can leak down through the small gap between the moving blades and the stationary trough. However, this leakage can be considered an advantage in that it allows the screw to drain when it stops rotating. The Archimedes screw has had a resurgence in recent years because of its proven trouble-free design and its ability to lift wastewater and debris-laden water effectively. It has also proved valuable in installations where damage to aquatic life must be minimized. The amount of water lifted per unit time can also be increased by increasing the rotational velocity of the screw. However, there is a practical limit to how fast one can rotate the screw. A handbook on the design and operation of Archimedes screws states that, based on field experience, the rotational velocity of a screw in revolutions per minute should be no larger than 50/D2/3 where D is the diameter of the outer cylinder in meters. Thus a screw with an outside diameter of 1 m should have a maximum rotational velocity of 50 rpm. If the screw is rotated much faster, turbulence and sloshing prevent the buckets from being filled and the screw simply churns the water in the lower reservoir rather than lifting it. A discussion of ways in which to optimize the design of an Archimedes screw may be found in Rorres; “The Turn of the Screw: Optimal Design of an Archimedes Screw”; January, 2000; Journal of Hyrdraulic Engineering, pgs. 72-80, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Examples of hydraulic screw pumps are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 5,073,082 to Radlik, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Within the context of amusement rides screw conveyors may be used to convey participant carriers (e.g., rollable carriers) from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation. Within the context of water based amusement rides screw conveyors may be used to convey participant carriers (e.g., rollable carriers) and/or water from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation. In some embodiments, a screw conveyor may transport participant carriers and not transport water. Advantages of not transporting water along with participant carriers may at least include increased safety for a participant within the participant carrier. Water transported with a participant carrier could increase drowning risks, especially if an outer casing or enclosure is not transparent allowing amusement park workers to observe participants. Another advantage is that an inner screw of the screw conveyor would not need to provide a watertight seal if water were not being transported. Not requiring a watertight seal within a screw conveyor elevation system may reduce construction costs of the system. “Blades” of the screw may be formed of a porous material including grids formed from rods or bands of material (e.g., much like a rigid, semi-rigid, or flexible net). This would decrease construction materials and cost, as well as decreasing the weight of inner screw of the elevations system. Decreasing the weight of the inner screw of the system would concurrently decrease energy required by the system to turn the inner screw of the elevation system. Forming the blades of the screw from porous materials may facilitate airflow through the elevation system. Increasing airflow may increase the comfort and safety of participants. In some embodiments, a screw conveyor elevation system may convey participant carriers and water. In this way an elevation system may provide a dual function. Conveying water from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation within a water amusement ride is a major concern with water amusement parks. An elevation system capable of conveying participants as well as water is advantageous. In some embodiments, a screw conveyor elevation system may include blades where the outer portion of the blades is non porous and forms a substantially watertight seal with an outer cylinder of the elevation system. FIG. 37 depicts an embodiment of screw conveyor elevation system 124 for an amusement ride. Elevation system 124 may include discharge end 164 elongated member 108, and restraints 114. Elevation system 124 may convey rotatable carriers 100 from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation. Restraints 114 may be coupled to elongated member 108. Restraints 114 may include one or more continuous sheets or “blades” which wind around the elongated member forming something akin to an Archimedes screw. Rotatable carriers 100 may be discharged from discharge end 164 into path system 116. Elongated member 108 may turn or rotate about an axis. Rotating the elongated member may rotate restraints 114. Rotating restraints 114 may convey rotatable carriers 100 to discharge end 164. In some embodiments, an elevation system may include a water-lock system. These systems may be used to increase elevation and/or decrease elevation. In certain embodiments, an exit point of a first water ride of a continuous water ride may have an elevation below an entry point of a second water ride of the continuous water ride. In some embodiments, the water lock system includes a chamber for holding water coupled to the exit point of the first water ride and the entry point of the second water ride. A chamber is herein defined as an at least partially enclosed space. The chamber includes at least one outer wall, or a series of outer walls that together define the outer perimeter of the chamber. The chamber may also be at least partially defined by natural features such as the side of a hill or mountain. The walls may be substantially watertight. The outer wall of the chamber, in certain embodiments, extends below an upper surface of the first water ride and above the upper surface of the second water ride. The chamber may have a shape that resembles a figure selected from the group consisting of a square, a rectangle, a circle, a star, a regular polyhedron, a trapezoid, an ellipse, a U-shape, an L-shape, a Y-shape or a figure eight, when seen from an overhead view. A first movable member may be formed in the outer wall of the chamber. The first movable member may be positioned to allow participants and water to move between the exit point of the first water ride and the chamber when the first movable member is open during use. A second movable member may be formed in the wall of the chamber. The second movable member may be positioned to allow participants and water to move between the entry point of the second water ride and the chamber when the second movable member is open during use. The second movable member may be formed in the wall at an elevation that differs from that of the first movable member. In certain embodiments, the first and second movable members may be configured to swing away from the chamber wall when moving from a closed position to an open position during use. In certain embodiments, the first and second movable members may be configured to move vertically into a portion of the wall when moving from a closed position to an open position. In certain embodiments, the first and second movable members may be configured to move horizontally along a portion of the wall when moving from a closed position to an open position. A bottom member may also be positioned within the chamber. The bottom member may be configured to float below the upper surface of water within the chamber during use. The bottom member may be configured to rise when the water in the chamber rises during use. In certain embodiments, the bottom member is substantially water permeable such that water in the chamber moves freely through the bottom member as the bottom member is moved within the chamber during use. The bottom member may be configured to remain at a substantially constant distance from the upper surface of the water in the chamber during use. The bottom member may include a wall extending from the bottom member to a position above the upper surface of the water. The wall may be configured to prevent participants from moving to a position below the bottom member. A floatation member may be positioned upon the wall at a location proximate the upper surface of the water. A ratcheted locking system may couple the bottom member to the inner surface of the chamber wall. The ratcheted locking system may be configured to inhibit the bottom member from sinking when water is suddenly released from the chamber. The ratcheted locking system may also include a motor to allow the bottom member to be moved vertically within the chamber. There may be one or more bottom members positioned within a single chamber. The bottom member may incorporate fluid jets to direct and/or propel participants in or out of the chamber. The lock system may also include a substantially vertical first ladder coupled to the wall of the bottom member and a substantially vertical second ladder coupled to a wall of the chamber. The first and second ladders, in certain embodiments, are positioned such that the ladders remain substantially aligned as the bottom member moves vertically within the chamber. The second ladder may extend to the top of the outer wall of the chamber. The ladders may allow participants to exit from the chamber if the lock system is not working properly. In certain embodiments, water may be transferred into and out of the water lock system via the movable members formed within the chamber wall. Opening of the movable members may allow water to flow into the chamber from the second water ride or out of the chamber into the first water ride. The lock system may also include a controller for operating the system. The automatic controller may be a computer, programmable logic controller, or any other control device. The controller may be coupled to the first movable member, the second movable member, and the first water control system. The controller may allow manual, semi-automatic, or automatic control of the lock system. The automatic controller may be connected to sensors positioned to detect if people are in the lock or not, blocking the gate, or if the gate is fully opened or fully closed or the water levels within the chambers. In certain embodiments, the participants may be floating in water during the entire transfer from the first water ride to the second water ride. The participants may be swimming in the water or floating upon a floatation device. Preferably, the participants are floating on an inner tube, a floatation board, raft, or other floatation devices used by participants on water rides. In certain embodiments, the lock system may include multiple movable members formed within the outer wall of the chamber. These movable members may lead to multiple water rides and/or continuous water ride systems coupled to the chamber. The additional movable members may be formed at the same elevational level or at different elevations. In some embodiments, a first and second movable members formed in the outer wall of a chamber of a lock system may be configured to move vertically into a portion of the wall when moving from a closed position to an open position. The members may be substantially hollow, and have holes in the bottom configured to allow fluid flow in and out of the member. In an open position, the hollow member may be substantially filled with water. To move the member to a closed position, compressed air from a compressed air source may be introduced into the top of the hollow member through a valve, forcing water out of the holes in the bottom of the member. As the water is forced out and air enters the member, the buoyancy of the member may increase and the member may float up until it reaches a closed position. In this closed position, the holes in the bottom of the member may remain submerged, thereby preventing the air from escaping through the holes. To move the member back to an open position, a valve in the top of the member may be opened, allowing the compressed air to escape and allowing water to enter through the holes in the bottom. As water enters and compressed air escapes, the gate may lose buoyancy and sink until it reaches the open position, when the air valve may be closed again. An advantage to the pneumatic gate system may be that water may be easily transferred from a higher lock to a lower one over the top of the gate. This system greatly simplifies and reduces the cost of valves and pumping systems between lock levels. The water that progressively spills over the top of the gate as it is lowered is at low, near-surface pressures in contrast to water pouring forth at various pressures in a swinging gate lock system. This advantage makes it feasible to eliminate some of the valves and piping required to move water from a higher lock to a lower lock. In certain embodiments a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder may be used to vertically move a gate system. An advantage to this system may be that the operator has much more control over the gate than with a gate system operating on a principle of increasing and decreasing the buoyancy. More control of the gate system may allow the gates to be operated in concert with one another, as well as increasing the safety associated with the system. The gate may be essentially hollow and filled with air or other floatation material such as Styrofoam, decreasing the power needed to move the gate. While described as having only a single chamber coupled to two water rides forming an amusement ride, it should be understood that multiple chambers may be interlocked to couple two or more water rides of a first amusement ride and/or a second amusement ride. By using multiple chambers, a series of smaller chambers may be built rather than a single large chamber. In some situations it may be easier to build a series of chambers rather than a single chamber. For example, use of a series of smaller chambers may better match the slope of an existing hill. Another example is to reduce water depths and pressures operating in each chamber so as to improve safety and reduce structural considerations resulting from increased water pressure differentials. Another example is the use of multiple chambers to increase aesthetics or ride excitement. Another is the use of multiple chambers to increase overall speed and participant throughput of the lock. The participants may be transferred from the first water ride to the second water ride by entering the chamber and altering the level of water within the chamber. The first movable member, coupled to the first water ride is opened to allow the participants to move into the chamber. The participants may propel themselves by pulling themselves along by use of rope or other accessible handles or be pushed directly with fluid jets or be propelled by a current moving from the lower water ride toward the chamber. The current may be generated using fluid jets positioned along the inner surface of the chamber. Alternatively, a current may be generated by altering the level of water in the first water ride. For example, by raising the level of water in the first water ride a flow of water from the first water ride into the chamber may occur. After the participants have entered the chamber, the first movable member is closed and the level of water in the chamber is altered. The level may be raised or lowered, depending on the elevation level of the second water ride with respect to the first water ride. If the second water ride is higher than the first water ride, the water level is raised. If the first water ride is at a higher elevation than the second water ride, the water level is lowered. As the water level in the chamber is altered, the participants are moved to a level commensurate with the upper surface of the second water ride. While the water level is altered within the chamber, the participants remain floating proximate the surface of the water. A bottom member preferably moves with the upper surface of the water in the chamber to maintain a relatively constant and safe depth of water beneath the participants. The water level in the chamber, in certain embodiments, is altered until the water level in the chamber is substantially equal to the water level of the second water ride. The second movable member may now be opened, allowing the participants to move from the chamber to the second water ride. In certain embodiments, a current may be generated by filling the chamber with additional water after the level of water in the chamber is substantially equal to the level of water outside the chamber. As the water is pumped in the chamber, the resulting increase in water volume within the chamber may cause a current to be formed flowing from the chamber to the water ride. When the movable member is open, the formed current may be used to propel the participants from the chamber to a water ride. Thus, the participants may be transferred from a first water ride to a second water ride without having to leave the water forming an amusement ride. The participants are thus relieved of having to walk up a hill. The participants may also be relieved from carrying any floatation devices necessary for the amusement ride. FIG. 38 depicts a water lock system for conveying a person or a group of people (i.e., the participants) from a lower body of water 138 to an upper body of water 140. It should be understood that while a system and method of transferring the participants from the lower body of water to the upper body of water is herein described, the lock system may also be used to transfer participants from an upper body to a lower body, by reversing the operation of the lock system. The upper and lower bodies of water may be receiving pools (i.e., pools positioned at the end of a water ride), entry pools (i.e., pools positioned to at the entrance of a water ride), another chamber of a water lock system, or a natural body of water (e.g., a lake, river, reservoir, pond, etc.). The water lock system, in certain embodiments, includes at least one chamber 142 coupled to the upper and lower bodies of water. First movable member 144 and second movable member 146 may be formed in an outer wall 148 of the chamber. First movable member 144 may be coupled to lower body of water 138 such that the participants may enter chamber 142 from the lower body of water while the water 150 in the chamber is at level 152 substantially equal to upper surface 154 of the lower body of water. After the participants have entered chamber 142, the level of water within the chamber may be raised to a height 156 substantially equal to upper surface 158 of upper body of water 140. Second movable member 146 may be coupled to upper body of water 140 such that the participants may move from chamber 142 to the upper body of water after the level of water in the chamber is raised to the appropriate height. Outer wall 148 of chamber 142 may be coupled to both lower body of water 138 and upper body of water 140. Outer wall 148 may extend from a point below upper surface 154 of lower body of water 138 to a point above upper surface 158 of upper body of water 140. Water lock systems may be more fully described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/952,036 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,095 which are all incorporated by reference herein. In some embodiments, elevation systems may be designed to be entertaining and an enjoyable part of the water ride as well as the water rides of the amusement ride which the elevation system is connecting. For example, when the elevation system includes an uphill water slide, the entertainment value may be no less for the elevation system of the continuous water ride than for the connected water rides. In some embodiments, an exit point of a second water ride of an amusement ride may be coupled to an entry point of a first water ride. Coupling the exit point of the second water ride to the entry point of the first water ride may form a true continuous water ride loop. The continuous water ride may include a second elevation system coupling the exit point of the second water ride to the entry point of the first water ride. The second elevation system may include any of the elevation systems described for use in coupling an exit point of the first water ride to the entry point of the second water ride. The second elevation system may be a different elevation system than the first elevation system. For example, the first elevation system may be an uphill water slide and the second water elevation system may be a conveyor belt system. In some embodiments, a continuous water ride may include one or more floating queue lines. Floating queue lines may be more fully described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 20020082097. Floating queue lines may assist in coupling different portions of a continuous water ride. Floating queue line systems may be used for positioning participants in an orderly fashion and delivering them to the start of a ride at a desired time. In certain embodiments, this system may include a channel (horizontal or otherwise) coupled to a ride on one end and an elevation system on the other end. It should be noted, however, that any of the previously described elevation systems may be coupled to the water ride by the floating queue line system. Alternatively, a floating queue line system may be used to control the flow of participants into the continuous water ride from a dry position within a station. In use, participants desiring to participate on a water ride may leave the body of water and enter the floating queue line. The floating queue line may include pump inlets and outlets similar to those in a horizontal channel but configured to operate intermittently to propel participants along the queue line, or the inlet and outlet may be used solely to keep a desired amount of water in the queue line. In the latter case, the channel may be configured with high velocity low volume jets that operate intermittently to deliver participants to the end of the queue line at the desired time. In certain embodiments, the water moves participants along the floating queue line down a hydraulic gradient or bottom slope gradient. The hydraulic gradient may be produced by out-flowing the water over a weir at one end of the queue after the participant enters the ride to which the queue line delivers them, or by out-flowing the water down a bottom slope that starts after the point that the participant enters the ride. In certain embodiments, the water moves through the queue channel by means of a sloping floor. The water from the outflow of the queue line in any method can reenter the main channel, another ride or water feature/s, or return to the system sump. Preferably the water level and width of the queue line are minimized for water depth safety, participant control and water velocity. These factors combined deliver the participants to the ride in an orderly and safe fashion, at the preferred speed, with minimal water volume usage. The preferred water depth, channel width and velocity would be set by adjustable parameters depending on the type of riding rollable carrier, participant comfort and safety, and water usage. Decreased water depth may also be influenced by local ordinances that determine level of operator or lifeguard assistance, the preferred being a need for minimal operator assistance consistent with safety. In some embodiments, amusement rides may include exits or entry points at different portion of the amusement ride. Floating queue lines coupling different portions and/or rides forming an amusement ride may include exit and/or entry points onto the continuous water ride. Exit/entry points may be used for emergency purposes in case of, for example, an unscheduled shutdown of the amusement water ride. Exit/entry points may allow participants to enter/exit the amusement water ride at various designated points along the ride during normal use of the amusement water ride. Participants entering/exiting the continuous water ride during normal use of the ride may not disrupt the normal flow of the ride depending on where the entry/exit points are situated along the course of the ride. Embodiments disclosed herein provide an interactive control system for an amusement ride and/or portions of the amusement ride. In certain embodiments, the control system may include a programmable logic controller. The control system may be coupled to one or more activation points, participant detectors, and/or flow control devices. In addition, one or more other sensors may be coupled to the control system. The control system may be utilized to provide a wide variety of interactive and/or automated water features. In some embodiments, participants may apply a participant signal to one or more activation points. The activation points may send activation signals to the control system in response to the participant signals. The control system may be configured to send control signals to a water system, a light system, and/or a sound system in response to a received activation signal from an activation point. A water system may include, for example, a water effect generator, a conduit for providing water to the water effect generator, and a flow control device. The control system may send different control signals depending on which activation point sent an activation signal. The participant signal may be applied to the activation point by the application of pressure, moving a movable activating device, a gesture (e.g., waving a hand), interrupting a light beam, a participant identifier and/or by voice activation. Examples of activation points include, but are not limited to, hand wheels, push buttons, optical touch buttons, pull ropes, paddle wheel spinners, motion detectors, sound detectors, and levers. The control system may be coupled to sensors to detect the presence of a participant proximate to the activation point. The control system may be configured to produce one or more control systems to active a water system, sound system, and/or light system in response to a detection signal indicating that a participant is proximate to an activation point. The control system may also be coupled to flow control devices, such as, but not limited to: valves and pumps. Valves may includes air valves and water valves configured to control the flow air or water, respectively, through a water feature. The control system may also be coupled to one or more indicators located proximate to one or more activation points. The control system may be configured to generate and send indicator control signals to turn an indicator on or off. The indicators may signal a participant to apply a participant signal to an activation point associated with each indicator. An indicator may signal a participant via a visual, audible, and/or tactile signal. For example, an indicator may include an image projected onto a screen. In some embodiments, the control system may be configured to generate and send one or more activation signals in the absence of an activation signal. For example, if no activation signal is received for a predetermined amount of time, the control system may produce one or more control signals to activate a water system, sound system, and/or light system. Throughout the system electronic signs or monitors may be positioned to notify participants or operators of various aspect of the system including, but not limited to: operational status of any part of the system described herein above; estimated waiting time for a particular ride; and possible detours around non operational rides or areas of high participant density. In some embodiments, a water amusement park may include a cover or a screen. Screens may be used to substantially envelope or cover a portion of a water amusement park. Portions of the screen may be positionable. Positionable screen portions may allow portions of the park to be covered or uncovered. The decision to cover or uncover a portion of the water amusement park may be based on the weather. Inclement weather may prompt operators to cover portions of the water park with the positionable screens. While clear warm weather may allow operators to move the positionable screen so portions of the water amusement park remain uncovered. In some embodiments, amusement rides using rollable carriers may employ moveable screens even when there are clear skies if there exists a threat of high winds. In some embodiments, positionable screens may be formed from substantially translucent materials. Translucent materials may allow a portion of the visible light spectrum to pass through the positionable screens. Translucent materials may inhibit transmittance of certain potentially harmful portions of the light spectrum (e.g., ultraviolet light). Filtering out a potentially harmful portion of the light spectrum may provide added health benefits to the water amusement park relative to uncovered water amusement parks. A non-limiting example of possible screen material may include Foiltech. Foiltech has an R protective value of about 2.5. A non-limiting example of possible screen material may include polycarbonates. Polycarbonates may have an R protective value of about 2. In some embodiments, multiple layers of screen material (e.g., polycarbonate) may be used. Using multiple layers of screen material may increase a screen materials natural thermal insulating abilities among other things. Portions of the screening system described herein may be purchased commercially at Arqualand in the United Kingdom. In some embodiments, portions of the positionable screen may assist in collecting solar radiation. Solar radiation collected by portions of the positionable screen may be used to increase the ambient temperature in the area enclosed by the screen. Increasing the ambient temperature in enclosed portions of the water amusement park using collected solar radiation may allow the water amusement park to remain open to the public even when the outside temperature is uncomfortably cold and unconducive to typical outside activities. In some embodiments, positionable screens may be used to enclose portions of a water amusement park. Enclosed areas of the water amusement park may function as a heat sink. Heat emanating from bodies of water within the enclosed area of the water amusement park may be captured within the area between the body of water and the positionable screens. Heat captured under the positionable screens may be recirculated back into the water. Captured heat may be recirculated back into the water using heat pumps and/or other common methods known to one skilled in the art. In some embodiments, screens may be mounted on wheels and/or rollers. Screen may be formed from relatively light but strong materials. For example, panels may be formed from polycarbonate for other reasons described herein, while structural frameworks supporting these panels may be formed from, for example, aluminum. Lightweight, well-balanced, support structures on wheels/rollers might allow screens to be moved manually by only a few operators. Operators might simply push screens into position. Mechanisms may installed to assist operators in manually positioning screens (e.g., tracks, pulley mechanisms). Examples of systems which facilitate movement of screens over bodies of water and/or channels (e.g., track based systems) are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,686 to Ozdemir and U.S. Pat. No. 5,950,253 to Last, each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. In some embodiments, some water amusement park areas may include immovable screens substantially enclosing the water amusement area (e.g., a dome structure). While other water amusement areas may remain uncovered year round. Channels may connect different water amusement areas. Channels may include portions of a natural river. Channels may include portions of man-made rivers or reservoirs. Channels may include portions of a natural or man-made body of water (e.g., a lake). The portions of the natural or man-made body of water may include artificial or natural barriers to form a portion of the channel in the body of water. Channels may include positionable screens as described herein. In some embodiments, an entire waterpark may include permanent and/or positionable screens covering the waterpark. In some embodiments, only portions of a waterpark may include permanent and/or positionable screens. There are advantages to covering the channels and/or portions of the park connected by the channels as opposed to covering the entire park in, for example, one large dome. One advantage may be financial, wherein enclosing small portions and/or channels of a park is far easier from an engineering standpoint and subsequently much cheaper than building a large dome. Channels that extend for relatively long distances may be covered far more easily than a large dome structure extending over the same distance which covers the channel and much of the surrounding area. It is also far easier to retract portions of the screens described herein to selectively expose portions of a waterpark than it is to selectively retract portions of a dome. Screen systems may be more fully described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,654 to Henry et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. In some embodiments, water amusement parks may include participant identifiers. Participant identifiers may be used to locate and/or identify one or more participants at least inside the confines of the water amusement park. Participant identifiers may assist control systems in the water amusement park. Participant identifiers may be considered as one portion of a water amusement park control system in some embodiments. Participant identifiers may be used for a variety of functions in the water amusement park. In some embodiments, a plurality of personal identifiers may be used in combination with a water amusement park. Personal identifiers may be provided to each individual participant of the water amusement park. Personal identifiers may be provided for each member of staff working at the water amusement park. Within the context of this application the term “participant” may include anyone located in the confines of the water amusement park including, but not limited to, staff and/or patrons. A plurality of sensors may be used in combination with the personal identifiers. Personal identifiers may function as personal transmitters. Sensors may function as receiver units. Sensors may be positioned throughout the water amusement park. Sensor may be positioned, for example, at particular junctions (i.e., coupling points) along, for example, a continuous water ride. Sensors may be placed along, for example, floating queue lines, channels, entry/exit points along water rides, and/or entry/exit points between portions of the water amusement park. Personal identifiers working in combination with sensors may be used to locate and/or identify participants. In some embodiments, personal identifiers and/or sensors may be adapted for ultrasonic, or alternatively, for radio frequency transmission. Personal identifiers and/or sensors may operate on the same frequency. Identification of individual personal identifiers may be achieved by a pulse timing technique whereby discrete time slots are assigned for pulsing by individual units on a recurring basis. Pulses received from sensors may be transmitted to decoder logic which identifies the locations of the various transmitter units in accordance with the time interval in which pulses are received from various sensors throughout the water amusement park. A status board or other display device may display the location and/or identity of the participant in the water amusement park. Status of a participant may be displayed in a number of ways. Status of a participant may be displayed as some type of icon on a multi-dimensional map. Status of a participant may be displayed as part of a chart displaying throughput for a portion of the water amusement park. In some embodiments, programming means may be provided for a participant identifier. Participant identifiers may be substantially identical in construction and electronic adjustment. Participant identifiers may be programmed to predetermined pulse timing slots by the programming means. Any participant may use any participant identifier. The particular pulse timing slot may be identified as corresponding with a particular participant using a programmer. Participant identifiers may be associated with a particular participant by positioning the participant identifier in a receptacle. The receptacle may be coupled to the programmer. Receptacles may function to recharge a power source powering the participant identifier. In some embodiments, a receptacle may not be necessary and the personal identifier may be associated in the water amusement park with a particular participant via wireless communication between the personal identifier and a programmer. In some embodiments, participant identifiers may be removably coupled to a participant. The participant identifier may be band which may be coupled around an appendage of a participant. The band may be attached around, for example, an arm and/or leg of a participant. In some embodiments, identifiers may include any shape. Identifiers may be worn around the neck of a participant much like a medallion. In some embodiments, an identifier may be substantially attached directly to the skin of a participant using an appropriate adhesive. In some embodiments, an identifier may be coupled to an article of clothing worn by a participant. The identifier may be coupled to the article of clothing using, for example, a “safety pin”, a plastic clip, a spring clip, and/or a magnetic based clip. In some embodiments, identifiers may be essentially “locked” after coupling the identifier to a participant. A lock may inhibit the identifier from being removed from the participant by anyone other than a staff member except under emergency circumstances. Locking the identifier to the participant may inhibit loss of identifiers during normal use of identifiers. In some embodiments, a participant identifier may be designed to detach from a participant under certain conditions. Conditions may include, for example, when abnormal forces are exerted on the participant identifier. Abnormal forces may result from the participant identifier becoming caught on a protrusion, which could potentially endanger the participant. In some embodiments, circuitry and/or a power source may be positioned substantially in the personal identifiers. Positioning any delicate electronics in the personal identifier, such that material forming the personal identifier substantially envelopes the electronics, may protect sensitive portions of the personal identifier from water and/or corrosive chemicals typically associated with a water amusement park. Participant identifiers may be formed from any appropriate material. Appropriate materials may include materials that are resistant to water and corrosive chemicals typically associated with a water amusement park. Participant identifiers may be at least partially formed from materials which are not typically thought of as resistant to water and/or chemicals, however, in some embodiments materials such as these may be treated with anticorrosive coatings. In certain embodiments, participant identifiers may be formed at least partially from polymers. In some embodiments, a personal identifier may be brightly colored. Bright colors may allow the identifier to be more readily identified and/or spotted. For example, if the identifier becomes decoupled from a participant the identifier may be more easily spotted if the identifier is several feet or more under water. In some embodiments, a personal identifier may include a fluorescent dye. The dye may be embedded in a portion of the personal identifier. The dye may further assist in spotting a lost personal identifier under water and/or under low light level conditions (e.g., in a covered water slide). Personal identifiers which may be adapted to be used with the systems and methods described herein are more fully described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,654 to Henry et al which is incorporated by reference herein. Other components which may be incorporated into a participant identifier system are disclosed in the following U.S. Patents, herein incorporated by reference: a personal locator and display system as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,225,953; a personal locator system for determining the location of a locator unit as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,362,778; a low power child locator system as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,075,442; a radio frequency identification device as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,265,977; and a remote monitoring system as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,553,336. In some embodiments, participant identifiers may be used as part of an automated safety control system. Participant identifiers may be used to assist in determining and/or assessing whether a participant has been separated from their rollable carrier. Sensors may be positioned along portions of a water amusement park. For example sensors may be placed at different intervals along a water amusement ride. Intervals at which sensors are placed may be regular or irregular. Placement of sensors may be based on possible risk of a portion of a water amusement ride. For example, sensors may be placed with more frequency along faster moving portions of a water amusement ride where the danger for a participant to be separated from their rollable carrier is more prevalent. In some embodiments, rollable carrier identifiers may be used to identify a rollable carrier in a water amusement park. The rollable carrier identifier may be used to identify the location of the rollable carrier. The rollable carrier identifier may be used to identify the type of rollable carrier. For example, the rollable carrier identifier may be used to identify how many people may safely ride in the rollable carrier. In some embodiments, sensors near an entry point of a portion of a water amusement ride may automatically assess a number of participant identifiers/participants associated with a particular rollable carrier. Data such as this may be used to assess whether a participant has been separated from their rollable carrier in another portion of the water amusement ride. In some embodiments, an operator may manually input data into a control system. Data input may include associating particular participant identifier(s) and/or the number of participants with a rollable carrier. In some embodiments, a combination of automated and manual operation of a safety control system may be used to initially assess a number of participants associated with a rollable carrier. For example, an operator may provide input to initiate a sensor or a series of sensors to assess the number of participants associated with the rollable carrier. The assessment may be conducted at an entry point of a water amusement ride. In certain embodiments, personal identifiers may be used in combination with a recording device. The recording device may be positioned in a water amusement park. One or more recording devices may be used throughout the water amusement park. The participant identifier may be used to activate the recording device. The participant identifier may be used to remotely activate the recording device. The recording device may include a sensor as described herein. The identifier may automatically activate the recording device upon detection by the sensor coupled to the recording device. The participant may activate the recording device by activating the personal identifier using participant input (e.g., a mechanical button, a touch screen). The participant identifier may activate one or more recording devices at one or more different times and/or timing sequences. For example several recording devices may be positioned along a length of a downhill slide. A participant wearing a personal identifier may activate (automatically or upon activation with user input) a first recording device positioned adjacent an entry point of the slide. Activating the first recording device may then activate one or more additional recording devices located along the length of the downhill water slide. Recording devices may be activated in a particular sequence so as to record the participant progress through the water slide. In some embodiments, a recording device may record images and/or sound. The recording device may record other data associated with recorded images and/or sound. Other data may include time, date, and/or information associated with a participant wearing a participant identifier. The recording device may record still images and/or moving (i.e., short movie clips). Examples of recording devices include, but are not limited to, cameras and video recorders. In some embodiments, a recording device may be based on digital technology. The recording device may record digital images and/or sound. Digital recording may facilitate storage of recorded events, allowing recorded events to be stored on magnetic media (e.g., hard drives, floppy disks, etc. . . . ). Digital recordings may be easier to transfer as well. Digital recordings may be transferred electronically from the recording device to a control system and/or processing device. Digital recordings may be transferred to the control system via a hard-wired connection and/or a wireless connection. Upon recording an event, the recording device may transfer the digital recording to the control system. The participant may purchase a copy of the recording as a souvenir. The participant may purchase a copy while still in a water amusement park, upon exiting the water amusement park, and/or at a later date. The control system may print a hard copy of the digital recording. The control system may transfer an electronic copy of the recorded event to some other type of media that may be purchased by the participant to take home with them. The control system may be connected to the Internet. Connecting the control system to the Internet may allow a participant to purchase a recorded event through the Internet at a later time. A participant may be able to download the recorded event at home upon arranging for payment. In some embodiments, personal identifiers may be used in combination with sensors to locate a position of a participant in a water amusement park. Sensors may be positioned throughout the water park. The sensors may be connected to a control system. Locations of sensors throughout the water park may be programmed into the control system. The participant identifier may activate one of the sensors automatically when it comes within a certain proximity of the sensor. The sensor may transfer data concerning the participant (e.g., time, location, and/or identity) to the control system. In some embodiments, participant identifiers may be used to assist a participant to locate a second participant. For example, identifiers may assist a parent or guardian to locate a lost child. The participant may consult an information kiosk or automated interactive information display. The interactive display may allow the participant to enter a code, name, and/or other predetermined designation for the second participant. The interactive display may then display the location of the second participant to the participant. The location of the second participant may be displayed, for example, as an icon on a map of the park. Security measures may be taken to ensure only authorized personnel are allowed access to the location of participants. For example, only authorized personnel (e.g., water park staff) may be allowed access to interactive displays and/or any system allowing access to identity and/or location data for a participant. Interactive displays may only allow participants from a predetermined group access to participant data from their own group. In some embodiments, participant identifier may be used to assist in regulating throughput of participants through portions of a water amusement park. Participant identifiers may be used in combination with sensors to track a number of participants through a portion of the water amusement park. Keeping track of numbers of participants throughout the water park may allow adjustments to be made to portions of the water park. Adjustments made to portions of the water park may allow the portions to run more efficiently. Adjustments may be at least partially automated and carried out by a central control system. Increasing efficiency in portions of the water park may decrease waiting times for rides. In some embodiments, sensors may be positioned along one or both sides of a floating queue line. Sensors in floating queue lines may be able to assist in detecting participants wearing participant identifiers. Data including about participants in the floating queue lines may be transferred to a control system. Data may include number of participants, identity of the participants, and/or speed of the participants through the floating queue lines. Based on data collected from the sensors, a control system may try to impede or accelerate the speed and/or throughput of participants through the floating queue line as described herein. Adjustment of the throughput of participants through the floating queue lines may be fully or partially automated. As numbers of participants in a particular ride increase throughput may decrease. In response to data from sensors the control system may increase the flow rate of participants to compensate. The control system may automatically notify water park staff if the control system is not able to compensate for increased flow rate of participants. In certain embodiments (an example of which is depicted in FIG. 39), floating queue system 160 includes a queue channel 162 coupled to a water ride at a discharge end 164 and coupled to a transportation channel on the input end 166. The channel 162 contains enough water to allow participants to float in the channel 162. The channel 162 additionally comprises high velocity low volume jets 136 located along the length of the channel 162. The jets are coupled to a source of pressurized fluid (not shown). Participants enter the input end 166 of the queue channel 162 from the coupled transportation channel, and the jets 136 are operated intermittently to propel the participant along the channel at a desired rate to the discharge end 164. This rate may be chosen to match the minimum safe entry interval into the ride, or to prevent buildup of participants in the queue channel 162. The participants are then transferred from the queue channel 162 to the water ride, either by a sheet flow lift station (as described previously) or by a conveyor system (also described previously) without the need for the participants to leave the water and/or walk to the ride. Alternatively, propulsion of the participants along the channel 162 may be by the same method as with horizontal hydraulic head channels; that is, by introducing water into the input end 166 of the channel 162 and removing water from the discharge end 164 of the channel 162 to create a hydraulic gradient in the channel 162 that the participants float down. In this case, the introduction and removal of water from the channel 162 may also be intermittent, depending on the desired participant speed. In some embodiments, a queue system may not include water or may not include water deep enough to substantially float otherwise buoyant rollable carriers. The queue system may include fluid jets located along the length of a path system forming the queue system. The fluid jets may include high velocity low volume fluid jets. The jets may use pressurized or high velocity fluids directed at participants/rollable carriers to propel them along a surface. The surface may include an incline, a decline, or be substantially level. Fluids may include liquids (e.g., water) and/or gases (e.g., air). Jets may be set at an appropriate angle to provide propulsive power for a rollable carrier. Jets may automatically orient themselves to a proper angle when connected to an automated control system. Jets may be positioned along floors, walls, and/or ceilings. Fluid jets using liquids to propel participant carriers along a portion of a water path system may be used in combination with dewatering systems. Dewatering systems may be especially useful when fluid jets using liquids are used to propel participant carriers up an incline. Dewatering systems may be used to remove liquid running down an inclined surface, such that the momentum of the liquid does not detract from the momentum of fluid expelled from fluid jets used to propel participants. Dewatering systems may be more fully described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,011,134 which is incorporated by reference herein. Fluid jet systems used for rollable carrier propulsion in amusement rides may be more fully described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,213,547 to Lochtefeld and U.S. Pat. No. 5,503,597 to Lochtefeld et al. which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. In some embodiments, participant identifiers may be used with interactive games. Interactive games may include interactive water games. Interactive games may be positioned anywhere in a water amusement park. Interactive games may be positioned along a floating queue line, an elevation system, and/or a water ride. Interactive games positioned along portions of the water amusement park where delays are expected may make waiting more tolerable or even pleasurable for participants. An interactive water game including a control system as described above may include a water effect generator; and a water target coupled to the control system. In some embodiments, the water effect generator may include a water cannon, a nozzle, and/or a tipping bucket feature. The water effect generator may be coupled to a play structure. During use a participant may direct the water effect generator toward the water target to strike the water target with water. A participant may direct the water effect using a participant identifier to activate the water effect generator. Upon being hit with water, the water target may send an activation signal to the control system. Upon receiving an activation signal from the water target, the control system may send one or more control signals to initiate or cease predetermined processes. The water target may include a water retention area, and an associated liquid sensor. In some embodiments, the liquid sensor may be a capacitive liquid sensor. The water target may further include a target area and one or more drains. The water target may be coupled to a play structure. In some embodiments, the interactive water game may include one or more additional water effect generators coupled to the control system. Upon receiving an activation signal from the water target, the control system may send one or more control signals to the additional water effect generator. The additional water effect generator may be configured to create one or more water effects upon receiving the one or more control signals from the control system. For example, the one or more water effects created by the additional water effect generator may be directed toward a participant. The additional water effect generator may include, but is not limited to: a tipping bucket feature, a water cannon, and/or a nozzle. The additional water effect generator may be coupled to a play structure. A method of operating an interactive water game may include applying a participant signal to an activation point associated with a water system. The participant signal may be fully automated and originate from a participant identifier. The participant signal may be activated when a participant wearing the participant identifier positions themselves in predetermined proximity of the activation point. Participant input may activate the participant signal using the participant identifier. An activation signal may be produced in response to the applied participant signal. The activation signal may be sent to a control system. A water system control signal may be produced in the control system in response to the received activation signal. The water system control signal may be sent from the control system to the water system. The water system may include a water effect generator. The water effect generator may produce a water effect in response to the water system control signal. The water effect generator may be directed toward a water target to strike the water target with water. An activation signal may be produced in the water target, if the water target is hit with water. The water target may send the activation signal to the control system. A control signal may be produced in the control system in response to the received water target activation signal. In some embodiments, the interactive water game may include an additional water effect generator. The control system may direct a control signal to the additional water effect generator if the water target is struck by water. The additional water effect generator may include, but is not limited to: a water cannon, a nozzle, or a tipping bucket feature. The additional water effect generator may produce a water effect in response to a received control signal. The water effect may be directed toward a participant. In some embodiments, amusement rides, rollable carriers, and/or interactive water games may be combined into one amusement format. An example of this type of combination may include life sized water pinball rides. Rollable carriers may function as pinballs in a relatively sized water based pinball machine. Water based effects may be used in the pinball game. Effects of the amusement ride may be controlled by participants, programmable control systems, observers, and/or participants. Another object of the invention is to give such observers control over certain elements of the water ride. A pinball amusement ride may allow two-dimensional movement across the area and not simply movement from an upper area to a lower area. To enable these objects, a water ride constructed includes a field area having a plurality of water effects and control systems for controlling those devices located outside of the field area for selective activation by observers watching participants within the field area. The field area may be laid out like a giant pinball machine in which participants are placed in groups or individually within rollable carriers representing the balls of the pinball machine. Movement of the rollable carriers along the field area plane may be influenced by movement inducing devices (e.g., flippers, spinners, stationary bumpers, and guides). The field area may include water devices (e.g., geysers, shower sprayers) that may either be on continuously or be selectively activated (e.g., by participants, observers, and/or programmable control systems) to drench participants within the field area with water. Once positioned within rollable carriers, participants are launched from an upper end of the field area and proceed generally downward toward a receptacle (e.g., splash pool) at a lower end of the field area. Some of the movement inducing devices may be selectively actuated by observers located outside of the field area to propel the rollable carriers of the participants in a direction desired by the observer. Thus, for example, a observer can choose to selectively activate a flipper at the proper moment to thus propel a rollable carrier toward, for instance, a water shower whereupon another observer can activate the water shower at the proper moment to drench the participant(s) and/or rollable carrier. There are multiple advantages to such a system. First, observers are entertained as well as the participants by allowing observers to affect the outcome of the water ride for the participants within. Second, such a ride may be simpler to operate since the observers themselves could activate the effects at the proper time rather than requiring extra staff or precisely timed automation. It is understood that such effects may be operated under a programmable control system if the effect has not been activated by an observer after a certain preset time period. Third, a pinball-type layout, including movement inducing devices and water devices, would allow movement in two dimensions or more thus increasing the novelty of the water ride even after multiple uses. FIG. 40 and FIG. 41 depicts an embodiment of amusement ride 120 including interactive elements 128 for participants and observers. Amusement ride 120 may include a sloped field, which slopes at a downward angle towards body of water 122. The sloping field of amusement ride 120 may facilitate (e.g., gravity) rollable carriers 100 movement toward body of water 122. Rollable carriers 100 may their way down the sloping field of amusement ride 120 toward one or more openings 110. Along the way towards openings 110, rollable carriers 100 may interact with amusement elements 128. Amusement elements 128 may include amusement elements which are reactive, static, and/or interactive. For example, amusement elements 128 may include amusement elements 128a, which may be commonly referred to as bumpers. Bumpers 128a may be static. Static bumpers 128a may simply act as obstacles to rollable carriers 100 natural progress toward openings 110. Bumpers 128a may be reactive. Reactive bumpers 128a may react to contact from a force of impact with rollable carriers 100. Rollable carriers 100 which impact reactive bumpers 128a may initiate a mechanism in the reactive bumper causing a portion of the bumper to spring outward in reaction to the impact of the rollable carrier, imparting momentum to the rollable carrier. For example, amusement elements 128 may include amusement elements 128b, which may be commonly referred to as water cannons. Water cannons 128b may be static. Static water cannons 128b may simply run continuously as long as the amusement ride is active and turned on, the water cannons acting as obstacles to rollable carriers 100 natural progress toward openings 110. Water cannons 128b may be reactive. Reactive water cannons 128b may react to the presence of rollable carriers 100 within a predetermined range or vicinity of the water cannons. A programmable control system including sensors capable of detecting the rollable carriers may trigger the reactive water cannons. Water cannons 128b may be interactive. Interactive water cannons 128b may be controlled by observers not located in rollable carriers. Observers may control interactive water cannons 128b in order to work with or against participants by pushing them away or towards openings 110. For example, amusement elements 128 may include amusement elements 128c, which may be commonly referred to as flippers. Flippers 128c may be reactive. Flippers 128c may act as obstacles to rollable carriers 100 natural progress toward openings 110. Flippers 128c may react to the presence of rollable carriers 100 within a predetermined range or vicinity of the flippers. A programmable control system including sensors capable of detecting the rollable carriers may trigger the flippers. Flippers 128c may be interactive. Interactive flippers 128c may be controlled by observers not located in rollable carriers. Observers may control interactive flippers 128c in order to work with or against participants by pushing them away or towards openings 110. Amusement elements such as water cannons 128b and flippers 128c may alternate between reactive and interactive. Amusement elements may include sensors which detect the presence of an observer at the controls of the amusement element, the amusement element automatically relinquishing control over to the observer. When an observer is not present at the controls the amusement element may automatically switch to a reactive mode. In some embodiments, amusement elements may include a control which switches the amusement element from reactive to interactive for a predetermined period of time. Amusement ride 120 may include elevation system 124. In the embodiments depicted in FIG. 40 and FIG. 41, elevation system 124 may include a conveyor belt system. Elevation system 124 may include any system described herein or known to one skilled in the art for elevating participants, carriers, and/or rollable carriers from a first lower elevation to a second higher elevation. FIG. 41 may include an embodiment of amusement ride 120, where the amusement ride include multiple openings 110 to body of water 122. The different openings may be worth different points for a participant able to maneuver their rollable carrier through a particular opening. The fact that participants enclosed in rollable carriers 100 may alter their trajectory and/or momentum add to the enjoyment factor of the participants as well as the observers. In this way it is possible for participants and observers to work with and/or against one another adding another dimension to the ride. Examples of amusement rides based on pinball games which may be adapted for the herein described purposes are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,045,449 to Aragona et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Amusement rides including water channels (e.g., artificial rivers) may include adjustable mechanisms or devices capable of changing the course of a river. Adjustable mechanisms such as these may be described as adjustable weirs. Weirs are generally defined as a dam placed across a river or canal to raise or divert the water, or to regulate or measure the flow of water. A mechanism is described that controls the flow of water for an artificial river, in the context of water park, and in the setting of participants and participant carriers within the controlled river. Adjustable weirs may be optimally producible, easily installed, and/or readily maintained. Safety to both participants and personnel may be a requirement. Adjustable weirs may function to alter flow characteristics of water in a channel, produce downstream rapids of varying degree, and/or undulations to such in dynamic fashion. Adjustable weirs may function to fully dam up the upstream body of water (with only moderate leakage), whether in off-duty mode and/or in the event of power failure, such that, for example, upper water volumes may not overflow lower regions of the same river system. Adjustable weirs may include safety fail-safes. For example an adjustable weir may include a loss of power mode, where the weir reverts to/maintains an upward (water-retaining) position. Adjustable weir fail-safes may include keeping gaps between static and moving features to a safe minimum, and/or inherently precluding access. Adjustable weir fail-safes may include ensuring no serviceable equipment (except for fundamental overhaul, coinciding with river drainage) may be located behind or beneath the primary mechanism. Advantages of ensuring no serviceable equipment is located behind or beneath the primary mechanism may ensure accessibility to serviceable equipment (e.g., when in the failsafe position, a huge body of water may be under retention). Serviceable equipment and/or motive components may be located outboard of the main channel, whether below grade (e.g., in pits), and/or above (e.g., in enclosures). Adjustable weirs may include serviceable equipment and components which may be removed/exchanged with comparative rapidity and minimal disruption/removal of other components. Adjustable weirs may require minimal maintenance. Adjustable weirs may include drive mechanisms which are chemically benign (e.g., electrical or pneumatic). Chemically benign drive mechanisms are advantageous when river systems (natural or artificial) are used so as to inhibit introduction of chemicals (e.g., hydraulic fluid) into the environment. Non-engineered parts may be used whenever possible for the construction of adjustable weirs, chosen at least for durability and ready availability. Adjustable weirs may include lock-out features, such that the weir table may be redundantly secured into either of its extreme positions, regardless of hydraulic conditions in the river. Positioning of an adjustable weir may be capable of dynamic operation, taking into account the changing hydraulic forces of the moving volume of water. FIG. 42 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of adjustable weir 168 in a powered down state in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. In general, a “relaxed” state of a channel (e.g., river) may be in fact the fully powered-down state of weir 168. In this position, water is flowed over the minimal profile, causing downstream turbulence. Participants, float at some distance above, having minimal or no contact with the surfaces portrayed in FIG. 42. Closing the gaps are fixed upstream plate 170 (secured to the concrete riverbed), and side shrouds 172. Both elements may continuously fit to rotatable contour 174, regardless of its position. The rotatable contour depicted in the associated figures is in the shape of an “hourglass,” however it should be noted this is just one example of many possible shapes the rotatable contour may assume. FIG. 43 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of adjustable weir 168 in a 50% retracted state in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. With an adjustable weir 50% retracted, serious downstream turbulence may be introduced. Participants may be shot over a raised stream, from a body of water made more pacific by the weir, into a high-velocity condition. To prevent water and/or participants from being sucked down behind adjustable weir 168, trailing plates 176 may be attached to the pivoting weir table. An upstream leaf is hinged directly thereto; a horizontal plate may be dragged behind. Together, a benign (though moving) riverbed is presented, with close proximity to the concrete walls (and minimal gaps). FIG. 44 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of adjustable weir 168 in a fully retracted state in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. When the weir is fully retracted, for off-hours, maintenance duty, or power failure, its de-energized position is fully vertical. Water flow is prevented, with the weir effectively being a dam. FIG. 45 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of adjustable weir 168 in a portion of a water channel of an amusement ride. FIG. 46 depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of adjustable weir 168. Note, in adjustable weir embodiments including counterweight mechanisms, that the outboard (adjustable) counterweights are, in the fully retracted position, fully dropped. Note also outboard pits may be covered—though size, shape, theming, etc., of such will be determined on an application basis. FIG. 45 and FIG. 46 depict an embodiment of adjustable weir 168 including a counterweight mechanism system. With FRP/trim pieces removed, the mechanism includes a main structural frame 178, tilting weir table-shaft 180, and counterweight system 182. As a variety of drive means may be applied, none are presented in the FIGS. FIG. 45 and FIG. 46. Drive means may be installed in the outboard pit areas. Any drive means known to one skilled in the art may be used. In this patent, certain U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, and other materials (e.g., articles) have been incorporated by reference. The text of such U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, and other materials is, however, only incorporated by reference to the extent that no conflict exists between such text and the other statements and drawings set forth herein. In the event of such conflict, then any such conflicting text in such incorporated by reference U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, and other materials is specifically not incorporated by reference in this patent. Further modifications and alternative embodiments of various aspects of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of this description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed as illustrative only and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled in the art the general manner of carrying out the invention. It is to be understood that the forms of the invention shown and described herein are to be taken as the presently preferred embodiments. Elements and materials may be substituted for those illustrated and described herein, parts and processes may be reversed, and certain features of the invention may be utilized independently, all as would be apparent to one skilled in the art after having the benefit of this description of the invention. Changes may be made in the elements described herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as described in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present disclosure generally relates to amusement attractions and rides. More particularly, the disclosure generally relates to a system and method for an amusement ride. Further, the disclosure generally relates to amusement rides featuring systems and methods for conveying participants between different areas of an amusement park in a safe and efficient manner. The amusement ride may include water features and/or elements. 2. Description of the Relevant Art The 80's decade has witnessed phenomenal growth in the participatory family water recreation facility, i.e., the waterpark, and in water oriented ride attractions in the traditional themed amusement parks. The main current genre of water ride attractions, e.g., waterslides, river rapid rides, and log flumes, and others, require participants to walk or be mechanically lifted to a high point, wherein, gravity enables water, participant(s), and riding vehicle (if appropriate) to slide down a chute or incline to a lower elevation splash pool, whereafter the cycle repeats. Generally speaking, the traditional downhill water rides are short in duration (normally measured in seconds of ride time) and have limited throughput capacity. The combination of these two factors quickly leads to a situation in which patrons of the parks typically have long queue line waits of up to two or three hours for a ride that, although exciting, lasts only a few seconds. Additional problems like hot and sunny weather, wet patrons, and other difficulties combine to create a very poor overall customer feeling of satisfaction or perceived entertainment value in the waterpark experience. Poor entertainment value in waterparks as well as other amusement parks is rated as the biggest problem of the waterpark industry and is substantially contributing to the failure of many waterparks and threatens the entire industry. Water parks also suffer intermittent closures due to inclement weather. Depending on the geographic location of a water park, the water park may be open less than half of the year. Water parks may be closed due to uncomfortably low temperatures associated with winter. Water parks may be closed due to inclement weather such as rain, wind storms, and/or any other type of weather conditions which might limit participant enjoyment and/or participant safety. Severely limiting the number of days a water park may be open naturally limits the profitability of that water park. The phenomenal growth of water parks in the past few decades has witnessed an evolution in water-based attractions. In the '70s and early '80s, these water attractions took the form of slides from which a participant started at an upper pool and slid by way of gravity passage down a serpentine slide upon recycled water to a lower landing pool. U.S. Pat. No. 3,923,301 to Meyers discloses such a slide dug into the side of a hill. U.S. Pat. No. 4,198,043 to Timbes and U.S. Pat. No. 4,196,900 to Becker et al. disclose such slides supported on a structure. Each of these slides only allowed essentially one-dimensional movement from the upper pool, down the slide to the lower pool. Consequently, the path taken down the slide always remained the same thus limiting the sense of novelty and the unexpected for the participant after multiple uses. Cognizant of this limitation in traditional water slides, new water attractions were developed which inserted a little more of the element of chance during the ride. One such attraction has up to twelve people seated within a circular floating ring being propelled down a flume comprising a series of man-made rapids, water falls and timed water spouts. As the floating ring moves down the path of the water attraction, contact with the sides of the flume cause the ring to rotate thus moving certain people in closer proximity to the “down-river” side of the rapids, the water falls and the spouts. Those people who were closest to such features of the water ride tended to get the most wet. Since such movement was determined mostly by chance, each participant had an equal chance of getting drenched throughout the ride by any one of the many water ride features. This later type of ride, though an improvement over the traditional water slide, was still essentially a one-dimensional travel from an upper start area down to a lower start area where all features came into play. Furthermore, each of these features were either continuously active (such as the water fall) or automatically activated by the proximity of the floating ring to the feature. The popularity of these types of rides has resulted in very long lines at such water parks. Observers, such as those waiting in line for the water ride, could not interact (except verbally) with those participants on the ride. Consequently, the lasting memory at such parks may not be about the rides at the park, but the long lines and waiting required to use the rides. Traditional floatation devices used in amusement/water parks include such vehicles as inner tubes, floating boards, and/or other floatation devices upon which one or more riders may float. Unfortunately the traditional floatation devices do not translate well to rides or portions of rides, which do not incorporate water as a means for propelling a vehicle and/or at least decreasing the coefficient of friction between the vehicle and the track. It would be advantageous to incorporate a vehicle into amusement rides which moved equally as well along tracks/courses incorporating water as well as tracks/courses which do not incorporate water. This might reduce costs associated with using water in amusement park rides as well as add additional dimensions to the enjoyment of the ride. Vehicles typically used for amusements rides and especially water-based amusement rides are typically mere modes of transportation. The track (e.g., channel) typically provides the preponderance of enjoyment or amusement associated with a ride. The shape and/or design of the vehicle itself do not typically add any aspect of enjoyment to the ride. Vehicles which allowed, and even encouraged, participants within the vehicle to interact with the amusement ride environment would add another dimension to amusement rides in general and water amusement ride specifically. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>For the reasons stated above and more, it is desirable to create a natural and exciting amusement ride system to transport participants between rides as well as between parks that will interconnect many of the presently diverse and stand-alone water park rides. An amusement ride system and method are described. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may be generally related to water amusement attractions and rides. Further, the disclosure generally relates to water-powered rides and to a system and method in which participants may be more involved in a water attraction. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a rollable carrier. The rollable carrier may include an exterior rollable surface and an inner area. The inner area may include a participant container. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a path system. The path system may function to substantially contain the rollable carrier such that the rollable carrier will remain in the path system while rolling. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may function to roll in a path system while containing a participant in the participant container. In some embodiments, a rollable carrier may be inflatable. The rollable carrier may include an inflatable area positioned between a participant container and an exterior rollable surface. The inflatable area may at least partially protect a participant. The rollable carrier may be freely rollable. The rollable carrier may allow water from a water path system to contact a participant. The rollable carrier may roll over while in a water path system, thereby causing the participant container to also roll over. The rollable carrier may be substantially transparent. The rollable carrier may include at least one restraint positioned in the participant container and coupled to the rollable carrier. The restraint may inhibit movement of the participant relative to the participant container. Generally restraints are used herein to describe any system or mechanism which inhibits movement of one body relative to another body. The rollable carrier may include an opening allowing the participant to access the inside of the participant container. The rollable carrier may include a positionable stop configured to close the opening. The rollable carrier may be formed at least in part from a flexible material. In some embodiments, a path system may include a first elevation and a second elevation, wherein the first elevation and the second elevation are different. The path system may include a continuous loop. At least one portion of the path system may include a loop that allows the rollable carrier to traverse a full vertical circle. The path system may include a waterfall configured to allow the rollable carrier to drop from a first higher elevation to a second lower elevation. The difference between the elevations may be between about 2 ft. to about 12 ft. In some embodiments, a portion of a path system may include special effects. The special effects may include visual effects (e.g., lighting displays). Path systems may include a conduit through which a rollable carrier may be conveyed. A portion of the conduit may be enclosed and pressurized fluids may assist conveying the rollable carrier the enclosed conduit. The path system may inhibit the rollable carrier from exiting a portion of the path system. An amusement ride system may include an elevation system to convey a rollable carrier from a first elevation to a second elevation. The elevation system may include, for example, a fluid jet, a conveyor belt system, an uphill water slide, a wind tunnel or a vertical jet to elevate the rollable carrier to a predetermined height. A horizontal fluid jet may be coupled to a vertical jet to move the rollable carrier off of the vertical jet. Wind tunnels and fluid jets may fall under a broad category of elevation systems referred to as fluid assisted elevation systems. Wind tunnels may use reduced air pressure within a conduit to pull a rollable carrier through the conduit. Wind tunnels may use increased air pressure within a conduit to push a rollable carrier through the conduit. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a floating queue line. The floating queue line may be coupled to a portion of a path system. The floating queue line may include a channel. The channel may hold water at a depth sufficient to allow a rollable carrier and/or a participant to float within the channel. The floating queue line may be coupled to a water ride such that a participant remains in the water while being transferred from the channel along the floating queue line to the water ride. A portion of a water path system may include a substantially horizontal channel segment including a first portion and a second portion. The portion may include a water inlet positioned at the first portion and a water outlet positioned at the second portion. Water may be transferred into the channel at the first portion and transferred out of the channel at the second portion in sufficient quantities to create a hydraulic gradient between the first portion and the second portion. A portion of a path system may include a substantially angled channel segment including a high elevation end and a low elevation end. The angled channel segment may function such that a participant moves in a direction from the upper elevation end toward the lower elevation end. The path system may include a water inlet at the high elevation end. A predetermined amount of water may be transferred into the angled channel segment at the high elevation end such that friction between a rollable carrier and the angled channel segment is reduced. A flowing body of water may have a depth sufficient to allow a participant and/or a rollable carrier to float within the channel during use In some embodiments, a path system may include a plurality of fluid jets spaced apart. The fluid jets may be positioned along the path system at predetermined locations. The fluid jets may be oriented tangentially with respect to the path system surface so as to contact a participant and/or rollable carrier as a participant and/or rollable carrier passes by each of the locations. Each of the fluid jets may produce a fluid stream having a predetermined velocity that is selectively greater, less than, or the same as the velocity of the participant and/or rollable carrier at each of the fluid jet locations. A portion of a path system may be coupled to a walkway. A segment of the portion of the path system is at substantially the same height as a portion of the walkway such that a participant walks from the walkway into the water within the path system. A portion of a path system may be coupled to a stairway. The stairway may function such that a participant walks along the stairway into the water within the path system. A path system may include a docking station coupled to at least a portion of the path system. The docking station may receive and inhibit movement of rollable carriers to allow participants to exit or enter the rollable carriers. An amusement ride system may include at least one overflow pool coupled to a path system. The overflow pool may collect water overflowing from the path system. In some embodiments, an amusement ride may form a portion of a transportation system. The transportation system would itself be a main attraction with water and situational effects while incorporating into itself other specialized or traditional water rides and events. The system, though referred to herein as a transportation system, would be an entertaining and enjoyable part of the waterpark experience. In certain embodiments, an amusement ride system may include a continuous water ride. Amusement ride systems may include a system of individual water rides connected together. The system may include two or more water rides connected together. Water rides may include downhill water slides, uphill water slides, single tube slides, multiple participant tube slides, space bowls, sidewinders, interactive water slides, water rides with falling water, themed water slides, dark water rides, and accelerator sections in water slides. Connecting water rides may reduce long queue lines normally associated with individual water rides. Connecting water rides may allow participants to remain in the water and/or a vehicle (e.g., a floatation device) during transportation from a first portion of the continuous water ride to a second portion of the continuous water ride. In some embodiments, an amusement ride system may include an elevation system to transport a participant and/or rollable carrier from a first elevation to a second elevation. The first elevation may be at a different elevational level than a second elevation. The first elevation may include an exit point of a first water amusement ride. The second elevation may include an entry point of a second water amusement ride. In some embodiments, a first and second elevation may include an exit and entry points of a single water amusement ride. Elevation systems may include any number of water and non-water based systems capable of safely increasing the elevation of a participant and/or vehicle. Elevation systems may include, but are not limited to, spiral transports, water wheels, ferris locks, conveyor belt systems, water lock systems, uphill water slides, and/or tube transports. In some embodiments, an elevation system may include a system based on an Archimedes screw. However, while the Archimedes screw lifts fluids trapped within cavities formed by its inclined blades, the screw conveyor propels dry bulk materials (powders, pellets, flakes, crystals, granules, grains, etc.) through the pushing action of its rotating blades. A screw conveyor system may be used to convey one or more rollable carriers from a first elevation to a second elevation. In some embodiments, a water amusement ride may include an angled field area. The angled field area may include a high elevation end and a low elevation end. A water amusement ride may include at least one rollable carrier comprising an exterior rollable surface and an inner area. The inner area may include a participant container. The angled field area may be configured to substantially contain the rollable carrier such that the rollable carrier will remain in the angled field area while rolling. The rollable carrier may function to roll in the angled field area from the high elevation end of the angled field area to the low elevation end of the field area while containing a participant in the participant container. In some embodiments, a water amusement ride may include a plurality of amusement elements associated with the angled field area. The amusement elements may function to affect the movement of the rollable carrier. A water amusement ride may include an elevation system which functions to convey at least one of the rollable carriers from the low elevation end of the angled field to the high elevation end of the angled field. In some embodiments, an amusement ride conveyor may include a path system. A portion of the path system may include a conduit. A pressure adjustment mechanism coupled to the conduit may function to adjust the pressure in at least a portion of the conduit. The pressure adjustment mechanism may adjust the pressure such that at least one rollable carrier is conveyed through at least a portion of the conduit in response to the change in pressure. The rollable carrier may include an exterior rollable surface and an inner area. The inner area may include a participant container which functions to contain a participant. In some embodiments, an amusement ride conveyor may include an elevation system. The elevation system may function to elevate at least one participant from a lower first elevation to a higher second elevation. The elevation system may include a vertical fluid jet which functions to elevate the participant to the higher second elevation. The elevation system may include a horizontal fluid jet which functions to move the participant off of the vertical fluid jet when the participant has reached the higher second elevation. An amusement ride conveyor may include a water path system coupled to the elevation system. The water path system may function to receive the participant from the elevation system. The water path system may function such that water flows in the water path system. In some embodiments, a system for conveying a participant from a first source of water to a second source of water may include a belt; wherein the belt is coupled to the first source of water and to the second source of water. The system may include a belt movement system which functions to move the belt in a loop during use. The system may include one or more fluid jets functioning to produce a fluid stream having a predetermined velocity which is selectively greater, less than, or the same as a velocity of a participant at each of the fluid jet locations. At least some of the fluid jets may be positioned along a portion of the first source of water and/or a portion of the second source of water substantially adjacent to a portion of the belt. The fluid jets may be oriented tangentially with respect to the surface of the source of water so as to contact a participant and/or participant vehicle as a participant and/or participant vehicle passes by each of the locations. In some embodiments, a system for controlling a participant flow rate through a multi path water amusement ride system may include a first belt; wherein the first belt is coupled to a first source of water and to a second source of water. The system may include a second belt; wherein the second belt is coupled to the first source of water and to a third source of water. A first portion of the first and second belts may be positioned substantially adjacent to each other. The system may include a first belt movement system, which functions to move at least the first belt in a loop. The system may include a second belt movement system, which functions to move at least the second belt in a loop. The system may include at least one gate mechanism positioned substantially adjacent the first portions of the first and second belts. At least one of the gate mechanisms may function upon activation, to inhibit a participant from entering the first or second belt. In some embodiments, a system for facilitating entry of a participant on a floatation device may include a belt; wherein the belt is coupled to a first source of water and to a second source of water. The system may include a belt movement system which functions to move the belt in a loop. The first source of water and/or the second source of water may include a portion substantially adjacent the belt, wherein the portion of the first and/or second source of water comprises a depth of water which allows a participant to more easily enter a floatation device. Depending on a water amusement parks geographic location, the waterpark may only be open for less than half of the year due to inclement weather (e.g., cold weather, rain, etc.). What is needed is a way to enclose portions or substantially all of the waterpark when weather threatens to shut down the park. However, it would be beneficial to have some type of enclosure that may be at least partially removed or retracted to open up at least a portion of the waterpark to the environment during good weather. Positionable screens may be used to substantially enclose a portion of a waterpark during inclement weather. A multitude of positionable screens may be retractable/extendable within one another. The screens may also serve other functions in addition to protecting participants from uncomfortable weather conditions. The screens may be used to trap and recirculate heat lost from, for example, the water enclosed within the screens. The positioning of the screens may be automated, manual, or a combination of both. The screens may be formed from materials that allow most of the visible light spectrum through while inhibiting transmission of potentially harmful radiation. Other components which may be incorporated into the system are disclosed in the following U.S. Patents, herein incorporated by reference: an appliance for practicing aquatic sports as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,564,190; a tunnel-wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,792,260; a low rise water ride as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,805,896; a water sports apparatus as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,905,987; a surfing-wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,954,014; a waterslide with uphill run and floatation device therefore as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,011,134; a coupleable floatation apparatus forming lines and arrays as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,020,465; a surfing-wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,171,101; a method and apparatus for improved water rides by water injection and flume design as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,213,547; an endoskeletal or exoskeletal participatory water play structure whereupon participants can manipulate valves to cause controllable changes in water effects that issue from various water forming devices as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,194,048; a waterslide with uphill run and floatation device therefore as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,230,662; a method and apparatus for improving sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,236,280; a method and apparatus for a sheet flow water ride in a single container as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,271,692; a method and apparatus for improving sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,393,170; a method and apparatus for containerless sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,401,117; an action river water attraction as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,421,782; a controllable waterslide weir as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,453,054; a non-slip, non-abrasive coated surface as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,494,729; a method and apparatus for injected water corridor attractions as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,503,597; a method and apparatus for improving sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,564,859; a method and apparatus for containerless sheet flow water rides as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,628,584; a boat activated wave generator as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,664,910; a jet river rapids water attraction as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,667,445; a method and apparatus for a sheet flow water ride in a single container as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,738,590; a wave river water attraction as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,766,082; a water amusement ride as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,433,671; and, a waterslide with uphill runs and progressive gravity feed as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,779,553. The system is not, however, limited to only these components. All of the above devices may be equipped with controller mechanisms to be operated remotely and/or automatically. For large water transportation systems measuring miles in length, a programmable logic control system may be used to allow park owners to operate the system effectively and cope with changing conditions in the system. During normal operating conditions, the control system may coordinate various elements of the system to control water flow. A pump shutdown will have ramifications both for water handling and guest handling throughout the system and will require automated control systems to manage efficiently. The control system may have remote sensors to report problems and diagnostic programs designed to identify problems and signal various pumps, gates, or other devices to deal with the problem as needed. | 20041124 | 20091006 | 20060525 | 74020.0 | A63G3100 | 0 | NGUYEN, KIEN T | WATER AMUSEMENT PARK CONVEYORS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A63G | 2,004 |
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10,998,073 | ACCEPTED | Front suspension tuning apparatus | The present invention provides a suspension tuning device for vehicles with struts. More specifically, the suspension tuning device generally comprises a pair of plates constructed to mount juxtaposed to the strut/spindle mounting flange of a standard MacPherson strut, each plate includes an inset sub-plate having an offset aperture which cooperates with one of the spindle attachment bolts to control wheel camber. | 1. In a front vehicle suspension, wherein said suspension includes a left and a right strut, each said strut including an upper end, a bottom end and a longitudinal centerline, said longitudinal centerline defining a strut axis, a left and a right structural strut tower, said left and said right strut towers each including a mounting member oriented in a plane substantially orthogonal with said respective left and said right strut axes, said mounting members each including a central aperture, wherein said upper end of said left strut attaches to said left strut tower mounting member via said central aperture, wherein said upper end of said right strut attaches to said right strut tower mounting member via said central aperture, wherein said bottom end of said left and said right strut includes and a flange, said flange including an upper bore and a lower bore for attachment of a spindle via an upper threaded fastener and a lower threaded fastener, a suspension tuning kit comprising: a pair of camber plates, each having an inner surface, an outer surface, a top end, a bottom end, a contoured perimeter, and a longitudinal centerline, wherein said longitudinal centerline extends from said top end to said bottom end, said top end including a first transverse bore positioned generally along said longitudinal centerline, said first transverse bore constructed and arranged to cooperate with a top spindle attachment fastener, said bottom end including a second transverse bore, said second transverse bore positioned offset a predetermined amount with respect to said longitudinal centerline, said second transverse bore constructed and arranged to cooperate with a bottom spindle attachment fastener, wherein said inner surfaces of said camber plates are positioned juxtaposed to an outer surface of said flange; wherein said kit may be secured to said left or said right strut flange, whereby said first and said second bores align with said upper and said lower bores in said strut flange and wherein said upper and lower threaded fasteners extend through said camber plates, said flange and said spindle, wherein said threaded fasteners cooperate with threaded nuts to secure said suspension tuning kit to said front vehicle suspension, wherein spindle camber angle is adjustable throughout an extended range, whereby said strut axis remains unchanged. 2. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 1 wherein said outer surface of each said camber plate includes a cavity therein, wherein said cavity is constructed and arranged to secure and locate an offset-plate, said cavity including a contoured perimeter wall and a bottom surface, said perimeter wall surrounding at least one of said first or said second transverse bores, wherein said offset-plate includes an outer contoured perimeter conjugately shaped with respect to said contoured perimeter wall of said cavity so that said offset plate fits snugly into said cavity, wherein said offset-plate includes an aperture therethrough, said aperture offset a predetermined amount with respect to said camber plate longitudinal centerline. 3. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 2 including a plurality of pairs of said offset-plates, wherein each of said pair of offset-plates include apertures offset a predetermined amount to facilitate adjusting wheel camber up to about nine degrees. 4. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 3, wherein each of said pairs of offset-plates include apertures offset a predetermined amount to facilitate adjusting wheel camber from about negative three degrees to about positive six degrees. 5. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 3, wherein said apertures in each of said pairs of offset-plates are provided in one fourth degree increments. 6. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 3, wherein said apertures in each of said pairs of offset-plates are provided in one half degree increments. 7. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 3, wherein said apertures in each of said pairs of offset-plates are provided in one degree increments. 8. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 1, wherein said camber plate includes at least one rounded edge extending between said inner surface and said contoured edge, wherein said rounded corner is constructed and arranged to abut a depending lip extending at least partially around the perimeter of said strut flange. 9. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 1, wherein said camber plate is constructed from metal. 10. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 1, wherein said camber plate is constructed from steel. 11. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 1, wherein said camber plate is constructed from aluminum. 12. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 1, wherein said camber plate is constructed from titanium. 13. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 2, wherein said offset-plate is constructed from metal. 14. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 2, wherein said offset-plate is constructed from steel. 15. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 2, wherein said offset-plate is constructed from aluminum. 16. The suspension tuning kit as set forth in claim 2, wherein said offset-plate is constructed from titanium. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a device for quickly and easily adjusting camber of a vehicle front suspension across a broader than normal range to tune the vehicle's suspension for racing and/or high performance street applications. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The versatility and performance of newer muscle cars such as the FORD MUSTANG permit owners to use one vehicle for multiple purposes. Often the same vehicle used to carry groceries home from the supermarket is used for racing applications on the weekend. Owners will often modify their vehicle to make it more competitive in their chosen form of racing. One of the most modified areas of a vehicle for racing applications is the suspension. Front suspension tuning can be one of the most critical aspects of getting a vehicle to handle properly for either street or racing applications. Unfortunately, front suspensions that are modified exclusively for racing typically will not work properly for street driving, and street suspensions typically do not work well for racing. One of the biggest challenges for a muscle car owner who races his vehicle has been to balance the vehicle for both uses. The front wheel of a vehicle has three main alignment angles: camber, caster, and toe. Camber is the angle at which the top of the tire is tilted inwardly or outwardly, as viewed from the front of the car. If the top of the tires lean toward the center of the car you have negative camber. If the top of the tires are tilted outward you have positive camber. Typically, as the tires are turned left and right, the camber changes slightly because the pivoting points for the tires are not vertical as viewed from the side. Adjusting camber can have a dramatic affect on the cornering characteristics of a vehicle. For example, an oval track racer will often race with negative camber on the right side of the vehicle and positive camber on the left side of the vehicle. A drag racer will often race with neutral or slightly negative camber on both sides of the vehicle and a street vehicle will typically have camber set at zero or perpendicular to the street surface. Caster is the angle at which the pivot points for tires are tilted, as viewed from the side. Caster is best understood by imagining an axis running through the uppermost wheel pivot and extending through the lowermost pivot. From the side, if the top of the axis tilts toward the back of the car you have positive caster, if the axis line tilts toward the front of the car you have negative caster. If a vehicle has positive caster, the uppermost pivot is behind the lower pivot and this causes the tire to tilt in more at the top as the tire is steered inward (camber gain). Changing caster primarily affects four things: high speed stability, camber gain, bump steer characteristics, and relative corner weights (wedge). Increasing caster generally increases straight line directional stability. This is good for an application such as drag racing, however, other parameters such as bump steer and wedge may be adversely affected making handling for applications such as street driving or road racing unacceptable. Excessive caster settings will increase required steering effort, cause excessive tire wear and reduce braking ability. Negative caster requires less steering effort, but directional stability is adversely affected. Some racing applications may require different caster settings on each side of the vehicle. For example, oval track racers often run more positive caster on the right side wheel than the left. The caster split helps pull the car down into the turn, helps the car turn in the center of the turn, and helps the car maintain traction exiting the turn. Accordingly, what is lacking in the art is a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts. The suspension tuning kit should achieve objectives such as providing: quick adjustment, increased suspension rigidity, increased range of adjustability and reliable performance. The suspension tuning kit should include packaging flexibility for installation on various vehicle configurations including retrofitting existing vehicles with minimal modification of the original suspension system. The suspension tuning kit should facilitate independent caster and camber adjustment of each front wheel across the extended range. The suspension tuning kit should facilitate quick suspension changes to allow a vehicle to be driven to a racetrack, converted to a race setup, and thereafter quickly converted back to a street driving setup for the trip home. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART A number of prior art systems exist for adjusting the caster and/or camber of a vehicle which utilizes struts. Most of the systems utilize a combination of thin stamped metal plates and rubber bushings, while others use eccentric cams or jack bolts. U.S. Pat. No. 4,372,575 discloses a vehicle wheel suspension including a strut member provided at its lower end with a wheel spindle and a connection with a lateral lower control arm. The device further includes mounting apparatus for attaching the upper end of the strut to a stamped sheet metal tower portion of the vehicle and provisions for adjustment of either wheel caster or wheel camber via a stamped sheet metal adjuster attached to the upper end of the strut. U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,188 discloses an adjustment mechanism for a MacPherson strut of an automobile. The adjustment is provided by modifying the top bearing retainer to provide an inward circular lip. Two plates are clamped to this lip. Before clamping, the plates are rotatable relative to the bearing retainer so that the center of an eccentric hole therein moves along a circle which is concentric to the bearing retainer and thus the bearing. The upper end of the piston rod of the strut is mounted in the eccentric hole so that the position of the upper end of the strut can be moved relative to the body and also within the bearing and helical spring. U.S. Pat. No. 5,484,161 discloses an adjustable mount for the upper end of a motor vehicle suspension strut, wherein a flange is located between a clamping plate and a face plate with studs passing from the clamping plate through enlarged apertures in the flange. Holes in the face plate and aligned holes in the top of the vehicle chassis suspension tower are securable by nuts. Before the nuts are tightened, the flange may be moved in a sliding fashion between the clamping plate and face plate to locate the bushing and upper end of the strut into the desired location for correct caster and camber settings. Reference is also made to the provision of screwdriver slots to permit the flange to be levered into the desired location using a screwdriver when the suspension is under load. U.S. Pat. No. 5,931,485 discloses a support arrangement for a steered vehicle wheel mounted on a wheel carrier which is supported by a transverse link by way of a ball joint with a flange pivotally supported and mounted on the transverse link by clamping screws extending through spaced mounting holes in the transverse link and the mounting flange. The mounting holes in one of the transverse link and mounting flange is formed by at least three different receiving bores disposed at different distances from the pivot point of the flange for receiving the clamping screws and the mounting holes. In the other are holes elongated along a line extending through the pivot point between the transverse link and the flange and forming jointly with the screws stops which provide for positive engagement between the transverse link and the flange in each of the different relative pivot positions between the two. U.S. Pat. No. 6,224,075 discloses a caster adjuster for a motor vehicle suspension, typically having a wishbone. The device is made adjustable by mounting the suspension upright ball joint in a housing having an offset spigot rotatable by an Allen key engaged in the spigot to move the ball joint backward and forward while the spigot is restrained by a slot in a location bracket engaged with the wishbone. Camber is adjusted by a threaded adjuster operable between the location bracket and the housing while allowing rotation of the housing relative to the bracket. U.S. Pat. No. 6,257,601 discloses an adjustable strut mounting plate for correcting at least one alignment parameter of a motor vehicle wheel assembly, with the adjustable strut mounting plate comprising an annular body adapted for secure attachment to the original strut mounting plate of the motor vehicle. The adjustable strut mounting plate includes a plurality of elongated ribbed adjustment bores through which bolts pass to secure the original strut mounting plate to the adjustable mounting plate. In addition, right hand and left hand tower mounting bores are provided in the adjustable strut mounting plate to accommodate attachment of the combined adjustable strut plate with the original strut plate to the vehicle tower. U.S. Pat. No. 6,328,321 discloses an adjustable mount for the upper end of a vehicle suspension strut which allows the strut to be relocated relative to a vehicle chassis member. The mount comprises a bushing adapted to receive and secure the upper end of the strut, a flange extending radially outwardly from the bushing, and a clamping plate adapted to abut the lower face of the flange. The flange has upper and lower faces, and the clamping plate has an opening therethrough larger than the perimeter of the bushing such that the clamping plate can relatively slide over the lower face of the flange over a limited area. A plurality of studs extend upwardly from the clamping plate. The studs are located outside the periphery of the flange and restrict the sliding movement of the flange relative to the clamping plate by engagement with the periphery of the flange. U.S. Pat. No. 6,485,223 discloses a caster-camber plate assembly which includes a base plate, a main plate and a strut top mounting plate. The base plate includes four spaced apart main plate fastening members attached thereto. The main plate includes four spaced apart strut top mounting plate fastening members attached thereto. The main plate has the main plate fastening members extending therethrough for attaching the base plate adjacent to a first side of the main plate and is capable of being moved with respect to the base plate along a first translation axis. The strut top mounting plate is positioned adjacent to the main plate with the four strut top mounting plate fastening members extending therethrough. The strut top mounting plate is capable of being moved with respect to the main plate along a second translation axis. The second translation axis extends approximately perpendicular to the first translation axis. A central axis of the strut top mounting plate is positioned within an area defined between the main plate fastening members and within an area defined between said strut top mounting plate fastening members. The construction of this device places the strut mount plate on top of the main plate, whereby a catastrophic fastener failure will result in the strut being thrust through the vehicle hood and loss of vehicle control. Moreover, the strut mounting position (height) within this device prevents the strut from being positioned at the original equipment manufacturers (OEM) suggested height. Still yet, this construction requires spacers between the main plate and the strut tower to accommodate the heads of the fasteners. The spacers reduce the contact area between the main plate and the strut tower thereby reducing rigidity of the vehicle front suspension. As disclosed, the above devices fail to teach or suggest a suspension tuning mechanism capable of the large range of camber adjustments required for high performance applications. The prior art is also deficient in teaching a suspension tuning mechanism capable of providing the camber travel required to properly align the front wheels of vehicles having lowered ride heights. Further, the prior art devices do not provide the suspension rigidity and stability required by high performance and/or racing vehicles. Still further, the prior art devices do not provide a suspension tuning mechanism which cooperates with the lower portion of a strut member to provide wheel camber adjustments without alteration of the vehicle's roll center. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a suspension tuning device for vehicles with struts. More specifically, the suspension tuning device generally comprises a pair of plates constructed to mount juxtaposed to the strut/spindle mounting flange of a standard MacPherson strut, each plate includes an inset sub-plate having an offset aperture which cooperates with one of the spindle attachment bolts to control wheel camber. The cooperating plates and sub-plates permit front suspension camber alterations throughout an increased range when compared to the prior art. The pre-existing vehicle strut tower includes a thin sheet metal mounting member constructed for attaching the upper portion of a strut member via a stamped metal plate. The mounting member typically includes three elongated slots arranged to cooperate with the stamped metal plate to permit the upper portion of the strut member to be pivoted inward for a small amount of camber adjustment. When the upper portion of the strut is pivoted inwardly or outwardly the roll center of the vehicle is altered and vehicle handling and stability may be detrimentally affected. The instant invention provides a suspension tuning kit which operates in conjunction with, or replaces, the stamped metal strut attachment plate of the prior art. The instant invention is constructed of billet aluminum and includes a pair of camber plates. Each of the camber plates includes an inner surface and an outer surface, an upper aperture and a lower elongated aperture. The upper aperture and the lower elongated aperture are arranged to align with the pre-existing strut/spindle mounting apertures located in the OEM strut/spindle mounting flange. The camber plates include an outer contoured perimeter and a rounded lower edge which allow the plates to be snugly fit into the pre-existing strut/spindle mounting flange without interference. The plates fit within the flange sufficiently to allow the inner surfaces of the camber plates to lay juxtaposed to the outer surfaces of the strut/spindle mounting flange for a sandwich type assembly. The outer surface of each camber plate includes a generally rectangular cavity extending inwardly for accepting one of a plurality of offset-plates. The offset-plates have an outer perimeter shaped to conjugately match and fit into the camber plate cavity. Offset-plates are supplied in pairs and are constructed to include apertures positioned offset from the longitudinal centerline of the camber plates in predetermined increments for establishing the desired amount of wheel camber. In use, the bottom surface of a camber plate is positioned juxtaposed to the outer surfaces of the strut/spindle mounting flange. Matching offset-plates are inserted into the camber plate pockets. Fasteners extend through the camber plates, the offset-plates, and the strut/spindle mounting flanges to secure the spindle in a predetermined position with respect to the strut. The offset-plates are constructed and arranged to cooperate with the existing spindle attachment bolts to control the camber angle of the spindle and thus the respective wheel. This allows the user to select a pair of offset-plates constructed to establish a desired wheel camber setting. Further alterations of camber settings merely require selecting and changing the offset-plates to a new desired set-up. Wheel camber can thus be altered throughout an increased range without changing the strut angle or the roll center of the vehicle. In addition, the sandwich construction of the strut/spindle mounting flange and the camber plates assembly significantly increases rigidity and stability of the front suspension assembly. For further increased rigidity and stability, the kit may also include an upper strut mount adapted to replace the OEM stamped camber plate. The upper strut mount secures the upper end of the strut in a predetermined position with respect to the strut tower. The upper strut mount includes a centrally located bore constructed to cooperate with the top portion of the strut, and the outer portion of the upper strut mount includes a resilient, preferably urethane, element for isolating vibration. The upper mount is generally annular shaped with an enlarged head and preferably includes a threaded portion which extends upwardly through the mounting member of the vehicle's strut tower. A resilient element is placed on each side of the mounting member and a threaded nut cooperates with the threaded portion extending through the mounting member of the vehicle's strut tower to allow the upper portion of the strut to be secured in a selected position with respect to the strut tower. The suspension tuning kit may be installed on either one or both sides of the front suspension of the vehicle and the camber angle of each spindle may be independently adjusted to suit the drivers needs. Accordingly, it is an objective of the present invention to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts. An additional objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts which allows wheel camber changes without alteration of the vehicle's roll center. It is a further objective of the present invention to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts that allows spindle angle alterations with respect to the strut to control wheel camber angle. A still further objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts which includes sandwich construction to provide additional rigidity and support to the vehicle suspension system. Another objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts which is simple to install and is ideally suited for original equipment and aftermarket installations. Yet another objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts that can be inexpensively manufactured, and is simple and reliable in operation. Other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein are set forth, by way of illustration and example, certain embodiments of this invention. The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments of the present invention and illustrate various objects and features thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is a perspective view illustrating the front portion of a vehicle equipped with strut front suspension; FIG. 2 is a perspective exploded view of the instant invention and a portion of the strut tower mounting member of the vehicle illustrated in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a top view of the camber plate of the instant invention; FIG. 4 is a section view of the camber plate taken along lines 1-1 of FIG. 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Although the invention is described in terms of a preferred specific embodiment, it will be readily apparent to those skilled in this art that various modifications, rearrangements and substitutions can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the claims appended hereto. Referring to FIG. 1, the front portion of a vehicle 10 equipped with a strut suspension is shown. The strut suspension 12 includes a pair of strut towers 14. The strut towers are typically formed from sheet metal by methods well known in the art and are secured to the inner fender wall structure 18 on both the left side 20 and right side 22 of the vehicle. Each strut tower includes a mounting member 24 oriented in a plane substantially orthogonal with respect to the longitudinal axis 32 of the corresponding strut 16. The mounting member 24 generally includes a strut aperture 26 and three elongated camber adjustment slots 28. The elongated camber adjustment slots are arranged generally parallel with respect to each other and spaced around the strut axis 32. The upper end of a strut member 16 is secured to the mounting member via a stamped sheet metal member 30. The sheet metal member 30 cooperates with the three camber adjustment slots 28 to permit the upper end of the strut member to be pivoted inward toward the center of the car for a small amount of camber adjustment. Referring to FIG. 2, an exploded view of the instant invention is illustrated in conjunction with a standard strut member 16, the spring member is omitted for clarity. The instant invention provides a suspension tuning kit 100 which replaces the stamped metal strut attachment plate 30 (FIG. 1) of the prior art. The suspension tuning kit 100 comprises a pair of camber plates 102 and at least one pair of offset-plates 104. Referring to FIGS. 2-4, the camber plate 102 includes an inner surface 106, an outer surface 108, a top end 110, a bottom end 111, a contoured perimeter 112, a rounded bottom edge 114, and a longitudinal centerline 116. The top end 110 includes a first transverse bore 118 positioned generally along the longitudinal centerline 116. The first transverse bore 118 is generally positioned to align with the top spindle attachment fastener 120 and the top strut/spindle flange aperture 122. The bottom end 111 includes a second elongated transverse bore 124. The second transverse bore 124 is positioned to align with a bottom spindle attachment fastener 126 and the bottom strut/spindle flange aperture 128. While the bottom strut/spindle flange aperture 128 is generally provided from the OEM supplier as a round aperture, the instant invention preferably utilizes an elongated arcuate shaped aperture. The OEM aperture may be modified by means well known in the art such as die grinders, files, milling machines and the like. When the inner surfaces 106 of the camber plates 102 are positioned juxtaposed to an outer surface 130 of the strut/spindle flange 134 the rounded bottom edge 114 allows the camber plate 102 to abut the depending support lip 132 without interference. The camber plate 102 also includes a contoured cavity 135 which extends inward into the camber plate 102 from the outer surface 108 and the second transverse bore 124 is centrally located within the contoured cavity. The cavity 135 is generally constructed and arranged to secure and locate an offset-plate 136. The offset-plate 136 includes an outer perimeter 138 conjugately shaped with respect to the cavity 135 so that the offset plate 136 fits snugly into the cavity. Located in the offset-plate is an offset aperture 140. The aperture 140 is offset a predetermined amount with respect to the camber plate longitudinal centerline 116. In a most preferred embodiment the kit 100 is supplied with a plurality of pairs of offset-plates 136 with each pair having apertures 140 offset in predetermined increments. In this embodiment, each set of offset-plates are constructed to result in a different amount of wheel camber when assembled. For example, the offset plates 136 could include apertures 140 that allow camber adjustment from negative three degrees to positive six degrees. The apertures in the offset-plates are preferably positioned for one half degree increments in camber angle, however, the plates may be constructed to include any desired offset increment without departing from the scope of the invention. It should be appreciated that the cavity 135 and the cooperating offset-plates 136 could also be utilized at the top end 110 of the camber plates 102 without departing from the scope of the invention. In a most preferred and non-limiting embodiment, the camber plates 102 are constructed of billet aluminum and are about 0.350 of an inch thick and the cavity depth is about 0.120. It should be appreciated that the camber plate 102 may be made thinner or thicker, and the cavity 135 depth may be varied as the space requirements, materials and wheel loads require. In the most preferred embodiment, the offset-plates 102 are constructed of steel and are about one eighth of an inch thick. It should also be appreciated that to accommodate space, material and wheel load requirements the camber plate 102 and/or the offset-plates 136 may alternatively be made from other ferrous or non-ferrous metals which may include, but should not be limited to, steel, titanium, brass, bronze or suitable combinations thereof. In use, the camber plates 102 are positioned parallel and juxtaposed to the outer surface of the strut/spindle flange and offset-plates are selected for the desired wheel camber and are thereafter inserted into the cavities. Threaded fasteners 120 and 126 extend through the first and second transverse bores 118, 124, offset apertures 140, strut/spindle bores 122, 128, and spindle bores 142, 144 to cooperate with threaded nuts 146. The thickness and contour of the camber plates cooperate with the strut/spindle mounting flange 134 and its depending lip 132 to create a sandwich type of construction that has substantially increased rigidity and strength when compared to the OEM configuration. In this manner, the front wheel camber of a vehicle may be selectively adjusted throughout an extended range. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, the upper strut mount 148 is illustrated. In general, the upper strut mount is constructed and arranged to replace the stamped sheet metal OEM upper strut mount 30 (FIG. 1). The upper strut mount 148 includes a head portion 150, an annular portion 152, a pair of resilient members 154, and a threaded nut member 156. The annular portion 152 includes a central bore 158 sized to fit over the upper portion of the strut member 16. The outer surface of the annular portion 152 includes integrally formed threads which cooperate with an internal threaded surface in nut member 156. In use, the central bore 158 is placed over the upper end of the strut member and the annular portion 152 is extended upwardly through the mounting member 24 of the vehicle's strut tower 14. A resilient element 154 is placed on each side of the mounting member 24 and the threaded nut cooperates with the external threads extending through the mounting member of the vehicle's strut tower to allow the upper portion of the strut to be secured in a selected position with respect to the strut tower. In a most preferred and non-limiting embodiment, the upper mount is constructed of billet aluminum; however, it should be noted that other metals well known in the art which may include but should not be limited to steel, titanium and the like may also be utilized. All patents and publications mentioned in this specification are indicative of the levels of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. All patents and publications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. It is to be understood that while a certain form of the invention is illustrated, it is not to be limited to the specific form or arrangement herein described and shown. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various changes may be made without departing from the scope of the invention and the invention is not to be considered limited to what is shown and described in the specification. One skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the present invention is well adapted to carry out the objectives and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as those inherent therein. The embodiments, methods, procedures and techniques described herein are presently representative of the preferred embodiments, are intended to be exemplary and are not intended as limitations on the scope. Changes therein and other uses will occur to those skilled in the art which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention and are defined by the scope of the appended claims. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention which are obvious to those skilled in the art are intended to be within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The versatility and performance of newer muscle cars such as the FORD MUSTANG permit owners to use one vehicle for multiple purposes. Often the same vehicle used to carry groceries home from the supermarket is used for racing applications on the weekend. Owners will often modify their vehicle to make it more competitive in their chosen form of racing. One of the most modified areas of a vehicle for racing applications is the suspension. Front suspension tuning can be one of the most critical aspects of getting a vehicle to handle properly for either street or racing applications. Unfortunately, front suspensions that are modified exclusively for racing typically will not work properly for street driving, and street suspensions typically do not work well for racing. One of the biggest challenges for a muscle car owner who races his vehicle has been to balance the vehicle for both uses. The front wheel of a vehicle has three main alignment angles: camber, caster, and toe. Camber is the angle at which the top of the tire is tilted inwardly or outwardly, as viewed from the front of the car. If the top of the tires lean toward the center of the car you have negative camber. If the top of the tires are tilted outward you have positive camber. Typically, as the tires are turned left and right, the camber changes slightly because the pivoting points for the tires are not vertical as viewed from the side. Adjusting camber can have a dramatic affect on the cornering characteristics of a vehicle. For example, an oval track racer will often race with negative camber on the right side of the vehicle and positive camber on the left side of the vehicle. A drag racer will often race with neutral or slightly negative camber on both sides of the vehicle and a street vehicle will typically have camber set at zero or perpendicular to the street surface. Caster is the angle at which the pivot points for tires are tilted, as viewed from the side. Caster is best understood by imagining an axis running through the uppermost wheel pivot and extending through the lowermost pivot. From the side, if the top of the axis tilts toward the back of the car you have positive caster, if the axis line tilts toward the front of the car you have negative caster. If a vehicle has positive caster, the uppermost pivot is behind the lower pivot and this causes the tire to tilt in more at the top as the tire is steered inward (camber gain). Changing caster primarily affects four things: high speed stability, camber gain, bump steer characteristics, and relative corner weights (wedge). Increasing caster generally increases straight line directional stability. This is good for an application such as drag racing, however, other parameters such as bump steer and wedge may be adversely affected making handling for applications such as street driving or road racing unacceptable. Excessive caster settings will increase required steering effort, cause excessive tire wear and reduce braking ability. Negative caster requires less steering effort, but directional stability is adversely affected. Some racing applications may require different caster settings on each side of the vehicle. For example, oval track racers often run more positive caster on the right side wheel than the left. The caster split helps pull the car down into the turn, helps the car turn in the center of the turn, and helps the car maintain traction exiting the turn. Accordingly, what is lacking in the art is a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts. The suspension tuning kit should achieve objectives such as providing: quick adjustment, increased suspension rigidity, increased range of adjustability and reliable performance. The suspension tuning kit should include packaging flexibility for installation on various vehicle configurations including retrofitting existing vehicles with minimal modification of the original suspension system. The suspension tuning kit should facilitate independent caster and camber adjustment of each front wheel across the extended range. The suspension tuning kit should facilitate quick suspension changes to allow a vehicle to be driven to a racetrack, converted to a race setup, and thereafter quickly converted back to a street driving setup for the trip home. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a suspension tuning device for vehicles with struts. More specifically, the suspension tuning device generally comprises a pair of plates constructed to mount juxtaposed to the strut/spindle mounting flange of a standard MacPherson strut, each plate includes an inset sub-plate having an offset aperture which cooperates with one of the spindle attachment bolts to control wheel camber. The cooperating plates and sub-plates permit front suspension camber alterations throughout an increased range when compared to the prior art. The pre-existing vehicle strut tower includes a thin sheet metal mounting member constructed for attaching the upper portion of a strut member via a stamped metal plate. The mounting member typically includes three elongated slots arranged to cooperate with the stamped metal plate to permit the upper portion of the strut member to be pivoted inward for a small amount of camber adjustment. When the upper portion of the strut is pivoted inwardly or outwardly the roll center of the vehicle is altered and vehicle handling and stability may be detrimentally affected. The instant invention provides a suspension tuning kit which operates in conjunction with, or replaces, the stamped metal strut attachment plate of the prior art. The instant invention is constructed of billet aluminum and includes a pair of camber plates. Each of the camber plates includes an inner surface and an outer surface, an upper aperture and a lower elongated aperture. The upper aperture and the lower elongated aperture are arranged to align with the pre-existing strut/spindle mounting apertures located in the OEM strut/spindle mounting flange. The camber plates include an outer contoured perimeter and a rounded lower edge which allow the plates to be snugly fit into the pre-existing strut/spindle mounting flange without interference. The plates fit within the flange sufficiently to allow the inner surfaces of the camber plates to lay juxtaposed to the outer surfaces of the strut/spindle mounting flange for a sandwich type assembly. The outer surface of each camber plate includes a generally rectangular cavity extending inwardly for accepting one of a plurality of offset-plates. The offset-plates have an outer perimeter shaped to conjugately match and fit into the camber plate cavity. Offset-plates are supplied in pairs and are constructed to include apertures positioned offset from the longitudinal centerline of the camber plates in predetermined increments for establishing the desired amount of wheel camber. In use, the bottom surface of a camber plate is positioned juxtaposed to the outer surfaces of the strut/spindle mounting flange. Matching offset-plates are inserted into the camber plate pockets. Fasteners extend through the camber plates, the offset-plates, and the strut/spindle mounting flanges to secure the spindle in a predetermined position with respect to the strut. The offset-plates are constructed and arranged to cooperate with the existing spindle attachment bolts to control the camber angle of the spindle and thus the respective wheel. This allows the user to select a pair of offset-plates constructed to establish a desired wheel camber setting. Further alterations of camber settings merely require selecting and changing the offset-plates to a new desired set-up. Wheel camber can thus be altered throughout an increased range without changing the strut angle or the roll center of the vehicle. In addition, the sandwich construction of the strut/spindle mounting flange and the camber plates assembly significantly increases rigidity and stability of the front suspension assembly. For further increased rigidity and stability, the kit may also include an upper strut mount adapted to replace the OEM stamped camber plate. The upper strut mount secures the upper end of the strut in a predetermined position with respect to the strut tower. The upper strut mount includes a centrally located bore constructed to cooperate with the top portion of the strut, and the outer portion of the upper strut mount includes a resilient, preferably urethane, element for isolating vibration. The upper mount is generally annular shaped with an enlarged head and preferably includes a threaded portion which extends upwardly through the mounting member of the vehicle's strut tower. A resilient element is placed on each side of the mounting member and a threaded nut cooperates with the threaded portion extending through the mounting member of the vehicle's strut tower to allow the upper portion of the strut to be secured in a selected position with respect to the strut tower. The suspension tuning kit may be installed on either one or both sides of the front suspension of the vehicle and the camber angle of each spindle may be independently adjusted to suit the drivers needs. Accordingly, it is an objective of the present invention to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts. An additional objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts which allows wheel camber changes without alteration of the vehicle's roll center. It is a further objective of the present invention to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts that allows spindle angle alterations with respect to the strut to control wheel camber angle. A still further objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts which includes sandwich construction to provide additional rigidity and support to the vehicle suspension system. Another objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts which is simple to install and is ideally suited for original equipment and aftermarket installations. Yet another objective of the present invention is to provide a suspension tuning kit for vehicles with struts that can be inexpensively manufactured, and is simple and reliable in operation. Other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein are set forth, by way of illustration and example, certain embodiments of this invention. The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments of the present invention and illustrate various objects and features thereof. | 20041126 | 20070116 | 20050407 | 85763.0 | 1 | GOODEN JR, BARRY J | FRONT SUSPENSION TUNING APPARATUS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,311 | ACCEPTED | Image encoding using reordering and blocking of wavelet coefficients combined with adaptive encoding | An encoder reorders quantized wavelet coefficients to cluster large and small wavelet coefficients into separate groups without requiring the use of data-dependent data structures. The coefficients are then adaptively encoded based on a run-length code which continuously modifies a parameter that controls the codewords uses to represent strings of quantized coefficients, seeking to minimize the number of bits spent in the codewords. A matrix of indices contains the coarsest coefficients in the upper left corner, and filling in low high and high low sub bands in larger and larger blocks in an alternating manner, such that low high sub bands comprise the top of the matrix and the high low sub bands comprise the left side of the matrix. The shortest codewords are assigned to represent a run of the most likely character having length of 2k, where k is a parameter. k is adjusted based on successive characters being encountered. k is increased when the character is the same, and decreased when the character is different. A decoder applies the above in reverse order. Decoding of the encoded coefficients is first performed, followed by an unshuffling of the coefficients. The unshuffled coefficients are then subjected to an inverse wavelet transform to recover the transformed and compressed data, such as image pixels. | 1-30. (canceled) 31. A method of encoding image data comprising: a generating step for generating coefficients via a wavelet transformation; a reordering step for reordering the coefficients to increase the likelihood of groupings of similar data in a data independent manner; and an encoding step for encoding the reordered coefficients using an adaptive run-length encoder. 32. The method of claim 31 wherein the encoding step comprises encoding of the reordered coefficients is an adaptive run-length Golomb-Rice encoder controlled by a parameter k, which determines the maximum run lengths. 33. The method of claim 32 wherein the encoding parameter k increases each time the most frequent character is encountered. 34. The method of claim 32 wherein the encoding parameter k decreases each time the most frequent character is not encountered. 35. The method of claim 34 wherein the image has a size of M by N with a corresponding number of wavelet coefficients. 36. The method of claim 35 wherein the block size is M/2j by N/2J, where J is selected such that a zero level block contains all wavelet coefficients at the coarsest resolution. 37. The method of claim 31 wherein the reordering step comprises arranging the coefficients in blocks, and wherein the blocks are grouped to ensure that pairs of blocks from a low-high and high-low subband corresponding to a same spatial location are proximate each other. 38. A method of encoding wavelet coefficients corresponding to image data comprising: a reordering step for reordering the coefficients to increase the likelihood of groupings of similar data in a data independent manner; and an encoding step for performing arithmetic encoding of the reordered coefficients to provide an encoded bit stream. 39. A method of decoding compressed pixel image data comprising: a receiving step for receiving a bit stream compressed using an adaptive run-length Golomb Rice encoding scheme; a decoding step for decoding the received bit stream to produce wavelet transform coefficients which have been reordered to increase the likelihood of groupings of similar data in a data independent manner; and a reordering step for changing the order of the coefficients back to an original order resulting from the wavelet transform of pixel data. 40. A method of encoding image data comprising: a generating step for generating coefficients via a wavelet transformation; a reordering step for reordering the coefficients to increase the likelihood of groupings of similar data in a data independent manner; an initializing step for initializing a maximum string length for an adaptive run-length encoder; a modifying step for modifying the maximum string length based on the occurrence of the most frequent symbol; and an encoding step for run-length encoding the symbols to provide a compressed output bit stream. 41. The method of claim 40 wherein the encoding step comprises encoding the symbols on a bit plane basis. 42. The method of claim 41 wherein the encoding step further comprises encoding the least significant bit planes using binary encoding. | REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to co-pending applications having Ser. No. ______ attorney docket numbers 777.265US1 entitled Reordering Wavelet Coefficients For Improved Encoding and Ser. No. ______ 777.266US1 entitled Lossless Adaptive Encoding of Finite Alphabet Data assigned to the same assignee as the present application and filed on the same day herewith and incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to the field of image compression and in particular to an improved wavelet coefficient ordering combined with an adaptive run-length encoding mechanism for encoding and decoding image data. COPYRIGHT NOTICE/PERMISSION A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. The following notice applies to the software and data as described below and in the drawing hereto: Copyright© 1999, Microsoft Corporation, All Rights Reserved. BACKGROUND Digital pictures are used in many applications, such as Web pages, CD-ROM encyclopedias, digital cameras, and others. In most cases is necessary to compress the pictures, in order for them to fit into a small amount of storage or to be downloaded in a short amount of time. For example, in a typical digital camera, pictures are taken at a resolution of 1024×768 picture elements (pixels), with a resolution of 12 to 24 bits per pixel. The raw data in each image is therefore around 1.2 to 2.5 megabytes. In order to fit several pictures in a computer diskette, for example, it is necessary to reduce the amount of data used by each picture. The larger the compression ration that is achieved, the more pictures will fit into a diskette or memory card and the faster they can be transferred via bandwidth limited transmission medium such as telephone lines. Image compression has been extensively studied over the past twenty years. The JPEG standard, defined by the JPEG (joint photographic experts group) committee of ISO (International Standards Organization), was defined in 1992 and is the most popular method of compressing digital pictures. In JPEG, small square blocks of pixels (of dimensions 8×8) are mapped into the frequency domain by means of a discrete cosine transform (DCT). The DCT coefficients are quantized (divided by a scale factor and rounded to the nearest integer) and mapped to a one-dimensional vector via a fixed zigzag scan pattern. That vector is encoded via a combination of run-length and Huffman encoding. The independent processing of small 8×8 blocks in JPEG is an advantage from an implementation viewpoint, especially in low-cost hardware. However, it also leads to the main problem with JPEG: blocking artifacts. Because the quantization errors from adjacent blocks are uncorrelated among blocks but correlated within the blocks, the boundaries of the 8×8 blocks becomes visible in the reconstructed image due to the potential difference in encoding between adjacent blocks. Such artifacts are referred to as tiling or blocking artifacts which can be reduced (but not completely eliminated) by using transforms with overlapping basis functions. An efficient way to remove the blocking artifacts is to replace the block DCT by a wavelet decomposition, which provides an efficient time-frequency representation. Very good compression performance can be obtained by quantizing and encoding wavelet coefficients. Many wavelet-based image compression systems have been reported in the technical literature in the past few years. With wavelets it is possible to achieve compression ratios that typically range from 20% to 50% better than JPEG. More importantly, wavelet transforms lead to pictures that do not have the disturbing blocking artifacts of JPEG. Therefore, wavelet-based transforms are becoming increasingly popular. In fact, in the next revision of JPEG, named JPEG2000, all proposals under consideration use wavelets. Some prior wavelet transforms decompose images into coefficients corresponding to 16 subbands. This results in a four by four matrix of subbands, referred to as a big block format, representing spectral decomposition and ordering of channels. The letters L and H are used to identifying low pass filtering and high pass filtering respectively for each subband. The first subband comprises LL and HL coefficients, where the first letter in each set correspond to horizontal filtering and the second corresponds to vertical filtering. Two stages are used in each subband filtering combination. The ordering corresponds to frequencies increasing from left to right and from bottom to top. This ordering is fixed to allow both encoding and decoding to function in a fixed manner. Quantization of the coefficients is then performed, followed by some form of compressive encoding of the coefficients, including adaptive Huffman encoding or arithmetic encoding to further compress the image. These forms of encoding can be quite complex, including zero tree structures, which depend on the data types. These encoders are fairly complex, and many need to be modified for different images to be compressed, making them difficult to implement in hardware. While wavelet compression eliminates the blocking and ghost or mosquito effects of JPEG compression, there is a need for alternative ways to transform images to the frequency domain and compress such transformations, including methods that are simple to implement, and may be implemented in either hardware or software. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Reordering of quantized wavelet coefficients is performed to cluster large and small wavelet coefficients into separate groups without requiring the use of data-dependent data structures. The coefficients are then adaptively encoded based on a run-length code which continuously modifies a parameter that controls the codewords uses to represent strings of quantized coefficients, seeking to minimize the number of bits spent in the codewords. Since the ordering pattern is fixed, and the coefficient encoding does not require a modified table for each image, the invention lends itself to easier hardware or software implementations. Further advantages include the elimination of blocking artifacts, and single pass encoding for any desired compression ratio. A decoder applies the above in reverse order. Decoding of the encoded coefficients is first performed, followed by an unshuffling of the coefficients. The unshuffled coefficients are then subjected to an inverse wavelet transform to recover the transformed and compressed data, such as image pixels. In one aspect of the invention, the quantized wavelet coefficients are reordered into blocks such that a matrix of indices contains the coarsest coefficients in the upper left corner, and filling in low high and high low sub bands in larger and larger blocks in an alternating manner, such that low high sub bands comprise the top of the matrix and the high low sub bands comprise the left side of the matrix. To decode at a lower resolution, one simply drops finer sub bands. This type of clustering produces coefficients that have probability distributions that are approximately Laplacian (long runs of zeros for example). The encoding of the coefficients is based on a new adaptive kind of run-length encoding. The shortest codeword is assigned to represent a run of the most likely character having length of 2k, where k is a parameter. k is adjusted based on successive characters being encountered. k is increased when the character is the same, and decreased when the character is different. In addition to a run-length encoder, adaptive arithmetic coding may also be used. In one aspect of the invention, the coefficients are encoded as bit planes. This further increases the likelihood that long strings of zeros will be encountered, and further increases the compression ratios which may be achieved. By not requiring the use of data-dependent data structures such as zerotrees, or a separate list for set partitions in trees, hardware implementations are easier to build and software implementations may run faster. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a computer system on which the present invention may be implemented. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an encoder that reorders wavelet coefficients and encodes then in a lossless adaptive manner. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a decoder that decodes and unshuffles the encoded coefficients produced by the encoder of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of the reordered wavelet coefficients produced by the encoder of FIG. 2. FIG. 5 is a flow chart showing high level operation of the coefficient encoder of FIG. 2, separating the coefficients into bit planes. FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing further detail of the operation of the run-length adaptive encoder of FIG. 2. FIG. 7 is a flow chart showing the writing of a matrix of coefficients in a reordered manner consistent with that shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 8 is a block diagram showing the use of the encoder of FIG. 2 and the decoder of FIG. 3 in a software application suite which handles image data. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments of the invention, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific exemplary embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that logical, mechanical, electrical and other changes may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims. The detailed description is divided into multiple sections. A first section describes the operation of a computer system that implements the current invention. This is followed by a high level description of a fixed reordering of quantized wavelet coefficients and adaptive run-length encoding of them. A decoder for such encoded data is also described. Further detail of selected blocks of the high level description is then described by use of flowcharts. This is followed by a general description of the use of such encoders and decoders in an office suite of software applications. A conclusion describes some potential benefits and describes further alternative embodiments. Hardware and Operating Environment FIG. 1 provides a brief, general description of a suitable computing environment in which the invention may be implemented. The invention will hereinafter be described in the general context of computer-executable program modules containing instructions executed by a personal computer (PC). Program modules include routines, programs, objects, components, data structures, etc. that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention may be practiced with other computer-system configurations, including hand-held devices, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and the like which have multimedia capabilities. The invention may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks are performed by remote processing devices linked through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices. FIG. 1 shows a general-purpose computing device in the form of a conventional personal computer 20, which includes processing unit 21, system memory 22, and system bus 23 that couples the system memory and other system components to processing unit 21. System bus 23 may be any of several types, including a memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus, and a local bus, and may use any of a variety of bus structures. System memory 22 includes read-only memory (ROM) 24 and random-access memory (RAM) 25. A basic input/output system (BIOS) 26, stored in ROM 24, contains the basic routines that transfer information between components of personal computer 20. BIOS 26 also contains start-up routines for the system. Personal computer 20 further includes hard disk drive 27 for reading from and writing to a hard disk (not shown), magnetic disk drive 28 for reading from and writing to a removable magnetic disk 29, and optical disk drive 30 for reading from and writing to a removable optical disk 31 such as a CD-ROM or other optical medium. Hard disk drive 27, magnetic disk drive 28, and optical disk drive 30 are connected to system bus 23 by a hard-disk drive interface 32, a magnetic-disk drive interface 33, and an optical-drive interface 34, respectively. The drives and their associated computer-readable media provide nonvolatile storage of computer-readable instructions, data structures, program modules and other data for personal computer 20. Although the exemplary environment described herein employs a hard disk, a removable magnetic disk 29 and a removable optical disk 31, those skilled in the art will appreciate that other types of computer-readable media which can store data accessible by a computer may also be used in the exemplary operating environment. Such media may include magnetic cassettes, flash-memory cards, digital versatile disks, Bernoulli cartridges, RAMs, ROMs, and the like. Program modules may be stored on the hard disk, magnetic disk 29, optical disk 31, ROM 24 and RAM 25. Program modules may include operating system 35, one or more application programs 36, other program modules 37, and program data 38. A user may enter commands and information into personal computer 20 through input devices such as a keyboard 40 and a pointing device 42. Other input devices (not shown) may include a microphone, joystick, game pad, satellite dish, scanner, or the like. These and other input devices are often connected to the processing unit 21 through a serial-port interface 46 coupled to system bus 23; but they may be connected through other interfaces not shown in FIG. 1, such as a parallel port, a game port, or a universal serial bus (USB). A monitor 47 or other display device also connects to system bus 23 via an interface such as a video adapter 48. In addition to the monitor, personal computers typically include other peripheral output devices (not shown) such as speakers and printers. Personal computer 20 may operate in a networked environment using logical connections to one or more remote computers such as remote computer 49. Remote computer 49 may be another personal computer, a server, a router, a network PC, a peer device, or other common network node. It typically includes many or all of the components described above in connection with personal computer 20; however, only a storage device 50 is illustrated in FIG. 1. The logical connections depicted in FIG. 1 include local-area network (LAN) 51 and a wide-area network (WAN) 52. Such networking environments are commonplace in offices, enterprise-wide computer networks, intranets and the Internet. When placed in a LAN networking environment, PC 20 connects to local network 51 through a network interface or adapter 53. When used in a WAN networking environment such as the Internet, PC 20 typically includes modem 54 or other means for establishing communications over network 52. Modem 54 may be internal or external to PC 20, and connects to system bus 23 via serial-port interface 46. In a networked environment, program modules, such as those comprising Microsoft® Word which are depicted as residing within 20 or portions thereof may be stored in remote storage device 50. Of course, the network connections shown are illustrative, and other means of establishing a communications link between the computers may be substituted. Software may be designed using many different methods, including object oriented programming methods. C++ and Java are two examples of common object oriented computer programming languages that provide functionality associated with object oriented programming. Object oriented programming methods provide a means to encapsulate data members (variables) and member functions (methods) that operate on that data into a single entity called a class. Object oriented programming methods also provide a means to create new classes based on existing classes. An object is an instance of a class. The data members of an object are attributes that are stored inside the computer memory, and the methods are executable computer code that act upon this data, along with potentially providing other services. The notion of an object is exploited in the present invention in that certain aspects of the invention are implemented as objects in one embodiment. An interface is a group of related functions that are organized into a named unit. Each interface may be uniquely identified by some identifier. Interfaces have no instantiation, that is, an interface is a definition only without the executable code needed to implement the methods which are specified by the interface. An object may support an interface by providing executable code for the methods specified by the interface. The executable code supplied by the object must comply with the definitions specified by the interface. The object may also provide additional methods. Those skilled in the art will recognize that interfaces are not limited to use in or by an object oriented programming environment. High Level Encoder and Decoder Description A simplified block diagram of a wavelet transform based image pixel encoder is shown in FIG. 2, with a corresponding decoder shown in FIG. 3. While the encoder and decoder are described with respect to image pixel data as the respective input and output, other data can also be transformed as desired. In the embodiment shown, image pixel data is provided to a wavelet transform block 210, which operates in a known manner to provide wavelet coefficients to a quantization block 220. The wavelet coefficients are in a big block format as described in the background section. Quantization is performed by means of a uniform quantizer, which is controlled by a quantization step defining threshold T. This results in the representation of each coefficient falling between the steps by the value in the middle of the step. The smaller T, the less loss is incurred in the quantization. Thus, the output of block 220 is a series of integer numbers, which are quantized wavelet coefficients. As in many other applications, the quantizer may be based on normal rounding, or in rounding towards zero (also known as a quantizer with a “dead zone”). A reordering and blocking function or block 230 groups wavelet coefficients into clusters of like values. It results in a clustering or grouping together of the blocks of frequency coefficients which are most likely to be zero. The reordering increases the likelihood of groupings of similar data, in the sense that the data tends to have a monotonically decaying distribution of amplitudes. The first blocks tend to have data of larger amplitude, whereas in subsequent blocks the amplitudes of the wavelet coefficients tend to decay. The grouping is done by fixing a scanning order, which is data independent. One set of such grouping is shown in FIG. 4, for an example with 64 blocks of wavelet coefficients. In FIG. 4, low frequency components are placed toward the upper left corner of the grouping with an alternation of blocks of coefficients from low-high and high-low subbands at each level. Reordering and blocking block 230 provides a sequence of macroblocks in the scanning order indicated. The first block, 0, contains all coefficients of level 0 of the wavelet tree. This corresponds to the coarsest resolution. Blocks 0 to 3 comprise all the coefficients of level 1. Blocks 0 to 15 comprise all coefficients of level 2, while level 3 comprises blocks 0 to 63. Note that the blocks alternate from low-high and high-low subbands at each level, with low-high being the top of the sequence. In the Mathematical Description section below we will discuss the advantages of that particular ordering. Other orderings are possible as will be seen by one skilled in the art, but the above ordering appears to work better than others. The bits are then encoded sequentially, starting at the most significant bit. An adaptive encoding block 240 receives the macroblocks and encodes them in a lossless manner. The clustering of the blocks provide data to compress which has large clusters of zeros. Further reordering the data by encoding on a bit plane basis increases the likelihood of finding large strings of zeros. Starting with the most significant bit for the first bit plane leads to a higher likelihood of a long string of zeros. Further, this also ensures that the most relevant data is encoded first. By the time the third or fourth bit planes are encoded, the odds are about equal for a zero as opposed to a one, and straight binary encoding may be effectively used. The encoder is an adaptation of a Golomb-Rice encoder with adaptive run-length modifications. In simple terms, a string of 2k zeros is represented by the codeword consisting of a single bit equal to zero. The length of the string of zeros represented by the zero codeword is controlled by the parameter k, which is varied as data is encountered, based on the observed frequency of zeros. When a zero value is encoded, it is assumed that zeros are more likely, and so the value of the parameter k is increased. When a nonzero value is encountered, k is decreased. By controlling the amount of such increase and decrease appropriately, the encoder can track well a string of bits with a varying probability of zero, without the need of the overhead of actually estimating that probability. A feedback loop 245 is used to represent the backwards adaptive nature of the encoder 240. This encoding provides for efficient compression and fast adaptation to changes in the statistics of the incoming data. Encoder 240 provides a bit stream out which is effectively progressive in that the most relevant information is provided at the beginning of the bit stream. Since the least significant bits are encoded in the last bit plane, for lower resolution bit streams, they may effectively be discarded or not encoded, as represented at a resolution fidelity block 250. This is useful for lower bandwidth transmissions of data. Decoding, as shown in block form in FIG. 3 is essentially the reverse of the encoding and data transformations. A bit stream of encoded data, such as that produced by the encoder of FIG. 2 is received at a lossless adaptive decoding block 310. The bit stream may be received directly from the decoder, from local storage, or from a remote decoder or storage via one of many viable transmission media such as by satellite transmission, cable transmission or other network. Decoding block 310 receives the rules developed during encoding via a feed forward line 315. Block 310 essentially receives the string length to be used, and reconstructs the data in accordance with the rules. Again, it operates on a block level, but this is not a requirement of the invention. It simply makes it more convenient than working with an entire representation of an image or other data all at the same time, which would require a larger amount of memory, or paging if such memory was not available. One form of fidelity reduction may be performed at block 310 just by not decoding the last bit in the bit plane. This effectively doubles the step size controlled by the parameter T. It is a simple way to reduce the fidelity of the data. The data out of block 310 should be identical to the integer data coming out of block 230. However, higher resolution layers of the image at 320 may be removed at this point as indicated at block 320, just by effectively not using the higher frequency wavelet coefficients. This would be useful if the window used to display an image or set of images is small. Block 330 then is used to unshuffle or reorder the blocks back to the original positions. The output of the reorder block 330 is the integer numbers that need to be remultiplied back at block 340 by using the step size which is provided by a header in the received bit stream. This provides reconstructed wavelet coefficients. The header also provides information about how big the image size is, and other standard image format data. An inverse wavelet transform is then performed in a known manner at 350. It should be noted that the only losses, other than selected desired fidelity or resolution reductions, are incurred in the quantization steps, which is controllable by modification of the T parameter. The resolution reduction option block 320 may operate in a few different ways. One way to remove the data is by zeroing the integers involved. A further way to reduce the resolution is to modify the operation of unshuffle block 330, which may be instructed to zero the values at a desired point. By telling both unshuffle block 330, and inverse wavelet transform block 350 where the zeros start, they may be easily modified to eliminate unneeded processing of actual data at such points. The adaptive encoding and decoding of the present invention operates very well on data that has clustered zeros with statistics that change. This type of data may also be characterized as having a high probability of data with near exponential decay of the probability on either side of the zeros. Multimedia data, such as static image data and video has this characteristic. Further, the transformation of many types of physical data also has this type of characteristic. When capturing physical data, the information normally occurs in just a few places, which means that most of the other data is zero. Symmetry of the data is also a desired characteristic for this type of encoding to work best. In other words, an exponential fall off of both negative and positive values on either side of an information spike is beneficial. Examples of such physical data include ECGs and other biometric type of data. Mathematical Description of Encoding A mathematical description of the transformations and encoding and decoding discussed above with respect to FIGS. 2 and 3 is now provided. The following steps define the encoding algorithm: 1. Given an image array x(m, n), m=0, 1, . . . , M−1, n=0, 1, . . . , N−1, compute its wavelet transform coefficients X(r, s), r=0, 1, . . . , M−1, s=0, 1, . . . ,N−1. 2. Each coefficient X(r, s) is quantized according to q(r,s)=sgn(X(r,s))└|X(r,s)|/T┘ (1) where sgn(·) is the usual signum function and T is a quantization threshold. This step maps the continuous wavelet coefficients X(r, s) into a sequence of integers q(r, s). This is the only step that introduces information loss. 3. The quantized coefficients are reordered and grouped into blocks according to uk(l)=q(rk+mod(l,MB),sk+└l/MB┘) (2) for l=0, 1, . . . , L−1 and k=0, 1, . . . ,K−1, where L=MBNB is the block size, K=MN/L is the total number of blocks, and MB and NB are defined by MB=M/2J and NB=N/2J. The parameter J controls the size of the rectangular blocks of quantized coefficients that are grouped in uk (l), and hence the block size. For each k, the top left corner indices (rk, sk) are defined according to the scan order previously described. 4. The blocks are grouped into macroblocks Ui of fixed size LKB, in the form Ui={uk(l)}, with k=iKB, iKB+1, . . . , iKB+KB−1. For each macroblock, its bit planes are successively quantized according to the adaptive Run-length/Rice (RLR) coder. The binary encoding of the number of bits used by the RLR code for Ui followed by the actual RLR output bits is appended to the output bitstream. The following steps are then used to decode the PWC bitstream: 1. Decode the RLR-coded bits in macroblocks Ui, for i=0, 1, . . . , Imax−1. If Imax<K, a lower resolution version of the wavelet coefficients is recovered. Note that within each macroblock just the first few bit planes are decoded, given the desired reconstruction accuracy. All bits in the bit planes of q(r, s) that are chosen not to decode are set to zero. Resolution scalability is achieved by choosing Imax<K, whereas fidelity scalability is achieved by decoding only a subset of the bit planes for each macroblock. 2. After recovering the q(r, s), the wavelet coefficients are reconstructed by X ^ ( r , s ) = { 0 , q ( r , s ) = 0 T [ q ( r , s ) + 1 / 2 ] , q ( r , s ) > 0 T [ q ( r , s ) - 1 / 2 ] , q ( r , s ) < 0 ( 3 ) It should be noted that the quantization rule in (2) combined with the reconstruction rule in (3) comprise a uniform quantizer with a dead zone around the origin, which is close to being optimal for minimal-entropy scalar quantization of random variables with Laplacian (double-sided exponential) probability distributions. To reorder the wavelet coefficients, as described in Step 3 of the PWC encoder, the sequence of top left corner indices (rk, sk) is defined. The scanning order depicted in FIG. 4, where MB=M/2J and NB=N/2J control the size of each block is used. The parameter J should be chosen such that block zero contains precisely all wavelet coefficients at the coarsest resolution, e.g. all scaling function coefficients. Therefore, J should be equal to the number of resolution levels (the tree depth) used in the wavelet transform. It is easy to infer from FIG. 4 the sequence of all top left corner indices (rk, sk). It is clear from FIG. 4 that in order to decode a complete set of coefficients at any desired level resolution, it is desirable to use all blocks from index 0 up to Kmax−1, where Kmax is a power of four. Therefore, in Step 1 of the PWC decoder, Imax−1 is chosen such that Kmax is a power of four. The reason for the alternate scanning of the low-high (LH) and high-low (HL) wavelet coefficients within the same resolution level is simple. Assuming the original image has a particular feature (or no feature) at some spatial location, it is likely that clusters of both the LH and HL subbands, corresponding to that location, will have large (or small) values. Therefore, by ensuring that pairs of blocks from the LH and HL subbands corresponding to the same spatial location appear contiguously in a macroblock or at least proximate or close to each other, we're more likely to create clusters of large and small values. That increases the probability of long runs of zeros in the bit planes of the quantized coefficients. A flowchart in FIG. 7 describes an algorithm used to write the blocks of coefficients in the order shown in FIG. 4. The algorithm may be implemented in computer program instructions, or in hardware, firmware or a combination of all as desired. The algorithm is entered at start block 710. An input matrix Q containing M×N quantized wavelet coefficients is read at 715. The coefficients are such as those provided by quantization block 220. A number of wavelet levels is defined at 720 in a known manner as JW. At block 725, a block size is defined as NH×NV, with NH equal to M/(2JW) and NV equal to N/(2JW). The first output block is then written at 730, and IH and IV are initialized as NH and NV respectively for use in defining loops for writing of further blocks, which are larger in size. For a simplified example, assume that in FIG. 4, the matrix Q is 16 by 16, with 4 levels, and a block size of 1. This provides an initial IH and IV of 1. In further examples, the block size is larger, such as 8×8 or 16×16, or even higher. A decision block 740 is used to determine if the entire matrix of coefficients has been written by checking to see if IH is less than M. If IH is still less than M, more coefficients need to be written. As seen in FIG. 4, the first blocks of coefficients are of dimension 1 by 1, and then they increase to 2 by 2 and 4 by 4 etc. The next sets of flowchart blocks are used to write the succeeding blocks by looping from one to a block size parameter NBLK which is set at block 745 as IH/NH. A nested loop defined at 750 using I and 755 using J is used to control the order of writing of the output blocks LH and HL at 760. J is incremented at NEXT statement 762, while I is incremented at NEXT statement 764. This results in rows of the blocks being written first in this particular implementation. Columns may also be written first if desired, or any other order of writing may be used. For the first time through the loop, given a matrix of size 16 by 16 and 4 levels, NBLK is also 1, so only blocks 430 and 440 are written. Following the writing of the next LH and HL blocks, a second set of nested loops is set up at 770 and 775, again using I and J to define positions in which to write an output block at 780. This output block corresponds to HH blocks at the same level, which is block 450 for the first time through. NEXT J and NEXT I statements complete the nested loop at 782 and 784 respectively. It should be noted that the HH block could also have been written at the same time as the LH and HL blocks above since the nested loops are identical. After all the blocks at this level have been written, IH and IV are incremented as exponents of 2 at 790, and then compared at 740 to see if IH is still less than M. If IH is not less than M, the algorithm is exited at 795, after having provided at complete reordered set of wavelet coefficients in accordance with the present invention. The second time through the nested loops, blocks 455, 460 and 470 are written, followed by blocks 480, 475 and 490 the third time through the nested loops. Larger matrix sizes with higher levels are also contemplated. To recover the original order for decoding purposes, one can simply read the output of the reordering algorithm in the same manner in which it was written. All that is required is knowledge of the size of the original matrix, and the number of levels that were written. Then the writing order is simply reversed to provide the coefficients in the original order. A direct mapping may also be used, but would require significant additional bandwidth to provide. Details of Bit-Plane Encoding The process performed by encoding block 240 can be easily understood with the help of the diagram in Table 1. The bit planes are just the sequences of bits of a particular index in the binary representation (magnitude+sign) of the incoming quantized wavelet coefficients or other data. For example Table 1 shows the bit planes for the sequence of values {9, −6, 1, 0, −2, 3, −4, −1, 2}. In the table, bit plane 4 is the sequence {100000000}, bit plane 3 is the sequence {010000100}, bit plane 2 is the sequence {010011001}, and bit plane 1 is the sequence {101001010}. TABLE 1 Bit plane decomposition of integer data DATA VALUES → 9 −6 1 0 −2 3 −4 −1 2 SIGN BIT → 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 BIT PLANE 4 → 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BIT PLANE 3 → 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 BIT PLANE 2 → 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 BIT PLANE 1 → 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 In the input data in Table 1, values of smaller magnitude seem to be more likely to occur, which is also typical of quantized wavelet data and finite alphabet data. One can see from the patterns above that the higher bit planes tend to show a higher frequency of zeros, because input values of higher magnitude are less likely. Bit plane 1 (the least significant bit) and the sign bit plane typically have zeros and ones with approximately equal frequency. The flow chart in FIG. 5 describes the algorithm for efficiently encoding the incoming data through bit planes starting at 505. The bit planes are first read from an input buffer x at 510 which contains N numbers. The number of bits planes, bmax, is computed at 515, and a significance flag vector sflg is set to all zeros at 520. At 525, the bit plane index variable bit is set equal to bmax, so encoding starts with the most significant bit plane. The values of the bits pointed to by the index “bit” form the bit plane vector bp at 530. For each plane bp, the bits are divided into two subsets as indicated at blocks 535 and 540. x1 correspond to positions for which a “1” entry has not been seen in the higher planes—those are called significant bits. x2 corresponds to positions for which a “1” has already been seen in the higher planes—those are called refinement bits. At block 545, x1 is encoded with the adaptive run-length Golomb-Rice (ARLGR) encoder which will benefit from the higher frequency of zeros in x1. For every bit equal to 1 in x1, the sign bit is also encoded and appended at the end of the output code. At block 550, x2 is encoded with straight binary encoding. This is done by appending the x2 bits to the output stream. Minimal loss in encoding efficiency is encountered because zeros and ones are usually equally likely in x2. Note that the sign bits are not referred to as a bit plane because they are not processed as a bit plane. The sign bits are sent in the process of coding the x1 vectors of each bit plane. Thus, we can also think of the vector x1 as being drawn from the alphabet {0, +1, −1}, i.e. bit plus sign. An important property of the flow chart in FIG. 5 is that the information on which are the bits that belong to x1 and which are the bits that belong to x2 does not need to be explicitly encoded. The vector sflg controls the allocation of bits to x1, and sflg is first initialized to all zeros, and then updated after each bit plane is encoded at 555. Therefore, the decoder can easily track the changes to sflg. To continue to the next bit plane, bit is decremented at 560 and checked to see if the last plane has been decoded at 565. If not, control goes to block 530 for encoding of the next bit plane. If bit was equal to zero, or a higher number if a lower resolution coding is desired, an output buffer containing outputs of all x1 and x2 encodings is written at 570 and the process ends at 575. The adaptive Run-length+Golomb-Rice (ARLGR) coder is where the encoding gain resides. It maps long vectors x1 with lots of zeros in a more compact code, with fewer zeros. The ARLGR encoder can be used to encoding binary sequences with or without associated sign bits, as shown below. In order to understand the ARGLR encoder, first consider the basics of the run-length encoding and Golomb-Rice coding. In its general form, the basic idea behind run-length (RL) coding is to replace long strings of the same value in an input data vector by a code that specifies the value to be repeated and how many times the values should be repeated. If such repetitive strings are long enough and frequent enough, RL coding leads to a significant reduction in the number of bits needed to represent the data vector. RL coding can be applied to the encoding of binary data in which either 0 or 1 is significantly more likely to occur. One example is in graphics files, for example, a digitized black drawing on a white background. If white picture elements (pixels) are represented by a bit equal to 0 and black dots by a bit equal to 1, it's clear that zeros are much more likely to occur. In fact, many standard graphics file formats use RL coding. In 1966 Golomb proposed a simple code for the representation of positive numbers. It was later shown that the Golomb code is indeed optimal (minimum expected length) if the numbers are drawn from a source with geometric probability distribution, i.e. if Prob{x=n}=abn, where a and b are parameters. A few years later Rice independently derived a subset of the Golomb code that is very easy to implement in practice. These codes became known as Golomb-Rice codes. In the present invention the Golomb-Rice codes for a source of binary digits are combined with RL codes. The resulting Run-Length=Golomb-Rice code is shown in Table 2. The code is characterized by a parameter k, which controls the length of the run associated to the codeword 0; this maximum run length is equal to 2k. TABLE 2 Run-Length + Golomb-Rice encoding of a source generating symbols ∈ {0, 1} OUTPUT INPUT BINARY K STRING CODE 0 0 0 1 1 1 00 0 1 10 01 11 2 0000 0 1 100 01 101 001 110 0001 111 3 00000000 0 1 10000 01 10010 001 10011 0001 10101 00001 10111 000001 11000 0000001 11010 00000001 11100 For encoding of the x1 vector in the bit-plane encoder described earlier, we need to append the sign to the codeword of each nonzero bit. For that, a simple extension of the RLGR code is used as shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 Run-Length + Golomb-Rice encoding of a source generating symbols ∈ {0, +1, −1} OUTPUT OUTPUT INPUT BINARY INPUT BINARY K STRING CODE k STRING CODE 0 0 0 3 00000000 0 +1 10 +1 10000 −1 11 −1 10001 1 00 0 0+1 10010 +1 100 0−1 10011 −1 101 00+1 10100 0+1 110 00−1 10101 0−1 111 000+1 10110 2 0000 0 000−1 10111 +1 1000 0000+1 11000 −1 1001 0000−1 11001 0+1 1010 00000+1 11010 0−1 1011 00000−1 11011 00+1 1100 000000+1 11100 00−1 1101 000000−1 11101 000+1 1110 0000000+1 11110 000−1 1111 0000000−1 11111 For a given source of input vectors, using either the {0,1} or the {0,+1,−1} alphabets, the parameter k should be chosen in order to minimize the expected code length. If the source has no memory, has constant statistics over time, and is characterized by P0=Prob {symbol=0}, then it is easy to compute the optimal value of k as a function of P0. In practice, however, binary (or binary+sign) vectors are not stationary. Typical examples include data obtained from the physical world, such as quantized wavelet coefficients of pictures or scanned documents. Therefore, we need to adjust the RLGR parameter k over time, to best match the local statistics of the data. Many strategies have been considered, mostly involving dividing the input data in blocks of appropriate length. For each block, P0 is estimated and then the optimal value of k is computed. An additional code is then sent at the beginning of each block to indicate the value of k that should be used by the decoder. The encoder 240 takes a new approach. A backward-adaptive strategy is used for changing the RLGR parameter k. By backward-adaptive, it is meant that variations in k are computed based on encoded symbols, not directly on the input data. The basic strategy is that the value of k to be used in encoding the next symbol should depend only on previously encoded data. Therefore, all the decoder needs to do to recover the changing values of k is to apply the same adaptation rule as the encoder. Therefore, to simplify decoding it is important that such a rule be as simple as possible to compute. The new adaptive Run-Length+Golomb-Rice (ARLGR) encoder 240 uses the following rules for changing the parameter k. Several parameters are first defined at block 604. A scale factor L is first defined and is used to define kp as L*k. kp is an auxiliary parameter whose value moves up or down by an amount Up or Dn respectively to permit fractional moves of k without the use of floating-point arithmetic. Finally, Uq is defined and used to move kp up if the output code was zero and k was equal to zero. An input buffer x is read at 606, and contains M numbers. At 608, k is set to k0, kp is set to L*k and run is set to 0. The process is started with a value of k that is a good choice for the long-term statistics of the incoming data, e.g. k=2. Starting with the first symbol, xindex=1 at 610, symbol is set to x(xindex) and runmax is set to 2k. As an overview of the encoding process, after encoding a source symbol, kp is adjusted based on the emitted output code. If the output code was 0 and k ≠0, kp is incremented by a predefined increment step Up, i.e. set kp=kp+Up. If the output code was 0 and k=0, kp is incremented by a predefined increment step Uq, i.e. set kp=kp+Uq. If the output code started with a 1 (corresponding to a nonzero input), kp is decremented by a predefined decrement step Dn, i.e. set kp=kp−Dn. The value of k for encoding the next input symbol is set to k=└kp/L┘ (i.e. truncate kp/L down to the nearest integer. The algorithm is based in a simple strategy. If a run of zeros is encountered, k is increased to allow for longer sequences of zeros to be captured by a single output bit=0. If a nonzero symbol is encountered, k is reduced to avoid excessively long output codes. The use of the auxiliary parameter kp and the scale factor L above allows adjustment of k in fractional steps without having to use floating-point arithmetic as indicated above. For most of the data tested in the ARLGR encoder, the performance was quite good (encoded rates very close to source entropies), for the following typical choice of parameters: L=4, Up=4, Dn=5, and Uq=2. In some cases, adjustments on these parameters can lead to slightly better performance. Returning to the description of the flowchart in FIG. 6, following initialization and defining of parameters as described above with reference to blocks 602, 604, 606, 608, 610 and 612, k is first checked at 614 to see if it is equal to zero. If it is, and if symbol is zero, Uq is added to kp at 618. A zero is appended to the output buffer at 620 and if kp is out of range—above kpmax—at 622, it is clipped. At 624, k is set to the largest integer less than kp/L, the scale factor. Xindex is then incremented, and if less than M as determined at 628, the next symbol is selected at 612. If greater than M, the output bit buffer is written to at 630 and the process ends at 640. Referring back to decision block 616, if symbol was not equal to zero, a 1 is appended to the output bit buffer at 642, and a sign bit of symbol is appended to the output bit buffer at 644 if the data has a sign bit, and processing continues at 622 to check to see if kp is within range. If k is not equal to 1 at block 614, a further check of symbol is performed at 650. If the symbol is not equal to zero, a 1 is appended to the output bit buffer at 652 and a k-bit value of run is appended to the output bit buffer at 654. At 656, Dn is subtracted from kp, and processing continues at 644, where an optional sign bit is appended. If symbol is found to be zero at 650, run is checked at 622 to see if it is equal to runmax. If not, kp is clipped to not exceed kpmax at 622. If run was equal to runmax at 662, a zero is appended to the output bit buffer at 664, and run is set to zero at 666. Finally, Up is added to kp, and processing again reverts to block 622 for clipping of kp, setting of k at 624, incrementing xindex at 626 and checking to see if the last symbol has been processed at 628. If so, the information is written to the ouput bit buffer at 630 and the process is ended at 640. In Table 4 results of using the bit plane encoder on quantized wavelet coefficients are shown. Note that the simple bit-plane encoder performs better than the adaptive arithmetic encoders (which are considered the state-of-the-art), in spite of being computationally simpler. TABLE 4 Output code length in bytes for quantized and reordered wavelet coefficients as input. Bit-plane Adaptive Adaptive Data Set encoder of arithmetic ELS (length = 30,000 values) this invention encoder encoder Wavelet data, low 8,359 12,748 12,129 frequency, Wavelet data, medium 4,906 5,608 5,022 frequency A major advantage of the encoder, not shared by the arithmetic encoders, is scalability. With the described bit-plane encoding, a lower fidelity version of the signal can be easily obtained by stopping the decoding process at a bit plane higher than plane 1. That allows for progressive transmission and reconstruction of the information, and important feature for communication channels such as the Internet. Another application of scalability is in digital cameras, for example. If the user wants to take more pictures and is willing to sacrifice quality of pictures already stored, lower bit planes of existing images can be removed to release storage for new pictures. Although the ARLGR encoder is described in conjunction with its use in a bit plane encoder, it can be quite useful as a general-purpose encoder for binary data in which the value 0 is much more probably than the value 1. This is especially true in cases where the probability distribution is constantly changing. For example, consider the problem of encoding a black-and-white drawing scanned at a resolution of 480×640 pixels. Assuming the mapping white=0 and black=1, the ARLGR encoder may be applied directly to the data. However, encoder 240 does not handle runs of 1 s very well, and so a difference operator is first applied across all rows of pixels. Starting with the second row and moving down, each pixel value is replaced by 0 if it has the same color as the same pixel in the row above, or 1 if it has a different color. This is repeated across columns. The resulting bits are encoded with the ARLGR encoder 240. This provides a mapping of runs of either white or black into runs of zeros, without any loss of information. That makes the data more suitable for ARLGR encoding. Table 5 shows a comparison of the performance of such a simple encoder with other approaches. TABLE 5 Output code length in bytes for encoding typical black-and white picture data. ARLGR encoder CCITT fax Adaptive ELS Adaptive described standard encoder arithmetic encoder 3,294 5,926 5,331 3,393 The ARLGR encoder 240 algorithm outperforms the standard fax encoding algorithm by almost a factor of two. It uses only 55% of the bytes used by the fax algorithm. In fact, the new ARLGR-based encoder even surpassed the state-of-the-art adaptive arithmetic encoder by a small margin for this particular image. In addition, it had the lowest computational complexity. It should be noted that this is just one example, and that the results may vary depending on the image used and tuning of parameters. In FIG. 8, a block diagram of a suite of office programs is shown generally at 810. One particular office suite comprises a plurality of high level applications indicated at 812, including such applications as word processing, email, spreadsheet, presentation tools, photo manipulation programs, and browsers. Supporting these applications are at least two lower level software, hardware or a combination thereof functions at 826 and 818. The functions shown include a video in/out function 826 and a fax/scanner function 818. Many other functions may also reside at this level. In particular, the video function provides the ability to both display video and receive video and image data from external sources. The video land fax/scanner functions make use of the encoder and decoder described herein and indicated at block 832 to provide encoding and decoding functions as previously described. If raw image or other suitable data is captured in pixel or other form, the encoder 832 is used to encode it. Further, if encoded data is obtained from any source employing the type of encoding described here, the decoder at 832 is called by the application receiving it to transform or decode it to a displayable or useable format. It should be noted that many of the applications which may comprise such an integrated office suite, such as Microsoft Office or follow-on products that may integrate even more applications are more and more likely to deal with data that needs to be compressed or decompressed. The present invention provides an alternative to other forms of coding which removes the blocking artifacts present in JPEG, and is less complex to implement in either software, hardware or hybrid forms as desired. The encoder/decoder at 832 is also easy to integrate into such an office suite. Conclusion Reordering of quantized wavelet coefficients is performed to cluster large and small wavelet coefficients into separate groups without requiring the use of data-dependent data structures. The coefficients are then adaptively encoded based on a run-length code which continuously modifies a parameter that controls the codewords used to represent strings of quantized coefficients, seeking to minimize the number of bits spent in the codewords. Since the ordering pattern is fixed, and the coefficient encoding does not require a modified table for each image, the invention lends itself to easier hardware or software implementations. Further advantages include the elimination of blocking artifacts, and single pass encoding for any desired compression ratio for image data. A decoder is described which applies the above encoding and blocking in reverse order. Decoding of the encoded coefficients is first performed, followed by an unshuffling of the coefficients. The unshuffled coefficients are then subjected to an inverse wavelet transform to recover the transformed and compressed data, such as image pixels. Adaptive arithmetic coding may also be used in conjunction with the reordering to obtain similar compression benefits, but with slightly higher complexity. By not requiring the use of data-dependent data structures such as zero trees, or a separate list for set partitions in trees, hardware implementations are easier to build. This application is intended to cover any adaptations or variations of the present invention. It is manifestly intended that this invention be limited only by the claims and equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Digital pictures are used in many applications, such as Web pages, CD-ROM encyclopedias, digital cameras, and others. In most cases is necessary to compress the pictures, in order for them to fit into a small amount of storage or to be downloaded in a short amount of time. For example, in a typical digital camera, pictures are taken at a resolution of 1024×768 picture elements (pixels), with a resolution of 12 to 24 bits per pixel. The raw data in each image is therefore around 1.2 to 2.5 megabytes. In order to fit several pictures in a computer diskette, for example, it is necessary to reduce the amount of data used by each picture. The larger the compression ration that is achieved, the more pictures will fit into a diskette or memory card and the faster they can be transferred via bandwidth limited transmission medium such as telephone lines. Image compression has been extensively studied over the past twenty years. The JPEG standard, defined by the JPEG (joint photographic experts group) committee of ISO (International Standards Organization), was defined in 1992 and is the most popular method of compressing digital pictures. In JPEG, small square blocks of pixels (of dimensions 8×8) are mapped into the frequency domain by means of a discrete cosine transform (DCT). The DCT coefficients are quantized (divided by a scale factor and rounded to the nearest integer) and mapped to a one-dimensional vector via a fixed zigzag scan pattern. That vector is encoded via a combination of run-length and Huffman encoding. The independent processing of small 8×8 blocks in JPEG is an advantage from an implementation viewpoint, especially in low-cost hardware. However, it also leads to the main problem with JPEG: blocking artifacts. Because the quantization errors from adjacent blocks are uncorrelated among blocks but correlated within the blocks, the boundaries of the 8×8 blocks becomes visible in the reconstructed image due to the potential difference in encoding between adjacent blocks. Such artifacts are referred to as tiling or blocking artifacts which can be reduced (but not completely eliminated) by using transforms with overlapping basis functions. An efficient way to remove the blocking artifacts is to replace the block DCT by a wavelet decomposition, which provides an efficient time-frequency representation. Very good compression performance can be obtained by quantizing and encoding wavelet coefficients. Many wavelet-based image compression systems have been reported in the technical literature in the past few years. With wavelets it is possible to achieve compression ratios that typically range from 20% to 50% better than JPEG. More importantly, wavelet transforms lead to pictures that do not have the disturbing blocking artifacts of JPEG. Therefore, wavelet-based transforms are becoming increasingly popular. In fact, in the next revision of JPEG, named JPEG2000, all proposals under consideration use wavelets. Some prior wavelet transforms decompose images into coefficients corresponding to 16 subbands. This results in a four by four matrix of subbands, referred to as a big block format, representing spectral decomposition and ordering of channels. The letters L and H are used to identifying low pass filtering and high pass filtering respectively for each subband. The first subband comprises LL and HL coefficients, where the first letter in each set correspond to horizontal filtering and the second corresponds to vertical filtering. Two stages are used in each subband filtering combination. The ordering corresponds to frequencies increasing from left to right and from bottom to top. This ordering is fixed to allow both encoding and decoding to function in a fixed manner. Quantization of the coefficients is then performed, followed by some form of compressive encoding of the coefficients, including adaptive Huffman encoding or arithmetic encoding to further compress the image. These forms of encoding can be quite complex, including zero tree structures, which depend on the data types. These encoders are fairly complex, and many need to be modified for different images to be compressed, making them difficult to implement in hardware. While wavelet compression eliminates the blocking and ghost or mosquito effects of JPEG compression, there is a need for alternative ways to transform images to the frequency domain and compress such transformations, including methods that are simple to implement, and may be implemented in either hardware or software. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Reordering of quantized wavelet coefficients is performed to cluster large and small wavelet coefficients into separate groups without requiring the use of data-dependent data structures. The coefficients are then adaptively encoded based on a run-length code which continuously modifies a parameter that controls the codewords uses to represent strings of quantized coefficients, seeking to minimize the number of bits spent in the codewords. Since the ordering pattern is fixed, and the coefficient encoding does not require a modified table for each image, the invention lends itself to easier hardware or software implementations. Further advantages include the elimination of blocking artifacts, and single pass encoding for any desired compression ratio. A decoder applies the above in reverse order. Decoding of the encoded coefficients is first performed, followed by an unshuffling of the coefficients. The unshuffled coefficients are then subjected to an inverse wavelet transform to recover the transformed and compressed data, such as image pixels. In one aspect of the invention, the quantized wavelet coefficients are reordered into blocks such that a matrix of indices contains the coarsest coefficients in the upper left corner, and filling in low high and high low sub bands in larger and larger blocks in an alternating manner, such that low high sub bands comprise the top of the matrix and the high low sub bands comprise the left side of the matrix. To decode at a lower resolution, one simply drops finer sub bands. This type of clustering produces coefficients that have probability distributions that are approximately Laplacian (long runs of zeros for example). The encoding of the coefficients is based on a new adaptive kind of run-length encoding. The shortest codeword is assigned to represent a run of the most likely character having length of 2 k , where k is a parameter. k is adjusted based on successive characters being encountered. k is increased when the character is the same, and decreased when the character is different. In addition to a run-length encoder, adaptive arithmetic coding may also be used. In one aspect of the invention, the coefficients are encoded as bit planes. This further increases the likelihood that long strings of zeros will be encountered, and further increases the compression ratios which may be achieved. By not requiring the use of data-dependent data structures such as zerotrees, or a separate list for set partitions in trees, hardware implementations are easier to build and software implementations may run faster. | 20041126 | 20061010 | 20050505 | 94435.0 | 3 | TRAN, PHUOC | IMAGE ENCODING USING REORDERING AND BLOCKING OF WAVELET COEFFICIENTS COMBINED WITH ADAPTIVE ENCODING | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,320 | ACCEPTED | Method for dental restoration and kit | Methods and kits of materials and supplies for forming a dental prosthesis by an injection molding process in situ in a patient's mouth so as to correct the imperfect teeth of the patient's dentition. The imperfect teeth are corrected by injection molding the dental prosthesis in situ in the patient's mouth using a mold of a corrected model of the patient's dentition placed over the imperfect teeth. Adjacent teeth are covered with a polymer release material prior to injection molding of teeth to be corrected, such that the teeth to be corrected have at least one tooth between them draped with the polymer release material to provide a space adjacent to each of the corrected teeth. The corrected teeth are then covered with the polymer release material in a second round of treatment to complete the procedure on the remaining teeth. | 1. In a method for restoring teeth in need of restoration in a patient by providing a fluid dental restoration polymer composition which is curable on prepared teeth to be restored and curing the composition to provide the composition bonded to the prepared teeth in providing restored teeth, the improvement which comprises: (a) preparing selected teeth to be restored for bonding with the fluid polymer composition; (b) covering teeth which are not to be restored with a polymer release material; (c) fitting a clear polymer composition mold over the teeth to be restored and the teeth not to be restored, which mold provides a closed space to be filled between the teeth to be restored and the mold which defines a shape of the restored teeth, wherein the mold has an inlet port for injection of the fluid polymer composition and an outlet port for removing any excess air and excess fluid polymer resulting from the injection; (d) injection molding the fluid polymer composition into the mold to fill the space in the mold with the covered teeth and the teeth to be restored; (e) curing the fluid polymer composition onto the teeth to be restored in the clear polymer composition mold; (f) removing the mold from the teeth and the tape from the covered teeth to provide the restored teeth in the patient; and (g) optionally finishing exposed surfaces of the restored teeth, if necessary. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the polymer release material is polytetrafluoroethylene. 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the polymer release material is in tape which is about 1.5 cm wide and about 0.2 mm thick. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the clear polymer composition mold comprises a clear plastic tray filled with a cured clear plastic polymer composition and which is derived from a prepared model with the teeth as they will be restored in the patient, and wherein the inlet and outlet ports are drilled into the mold. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein a dental cast is prepared from an impression of the teeth to be restored, then a dental stone model is prepared, and then the stone model is modified to simulate the restored teeth as they will be restored. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the fluid polymer composition is cured with light. 7. The method of claim 6 wherein the fluid polymer composition is cured with ultraviolet light of about 465 nm to about 480 nm. 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the dental restoration fluid polymer composition is a particle filled and pigmented poly(acrylicacid)polymer containing a curing agent activated by light. 9. The method of claim 5 wherein the dental stone model is modified with a wax shaped to simulate the restored teeth. 10. The method of claim 1 wherein in step (a) prepared teeth are etched with an acid and then coated with a primer and bonding agent for bonding the dental restoration fluid polymer composition to the prepared teeth. 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. 12. The method of claim 1 wherein alternate of the teeth to be restored are restored in two or more repetitions of the steps (a) to (e). 13. A kit for restoring teeth by injection molding and curing a dental restoration fluid polymer composition onto teeth in need of restoration in a patient which comprises: (a) mold forming means for providing a clear polymer mold which mold provides a closed space to be filled with the fluid polymer composition between the teeth to be restored and the mold and which defines a shape of the restored teeth, wherein the mold has an inlet port for injection of the fluid composition polymer and an outlet port for any excess air and excess fluid polymer composition; (b) a polymer release material for covering teeth which are not to be restored in the clear polymer mold; and (c) a fluid dental restoration polymer composition curable by light for bonding to the teeth to be restored. 14. The kit of claim 13 wherein the fluid polymer composition comprises particles and pigment in a poly(acrylicacid) polymer composition containing a curing agent activated by light. 15. The kit of claim 14 wherein the kit contains in addition an acid etchant for the teeth to be restored, a primer for these teeth and a bonding agent for bonding the fluid polymer composition to these teeth. 16. The kit of claim 15 wherein the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. 17. The kit of claim 15 wherein the kit in addition contains a ceramic powder for forming a dental stone impression model of the prepared teeth of the patient and a modeling material for modifying the dental stone model to simulate the restored teeth in the patient. 18. The kit of claim 13 or 14 wherein the polymer release material is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape. 19. The kit of claim 13 or 14 wherein the polymer release material is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape which is about 1.5 cm wide and about 0.2 mm thick. 20. The kit of claim 16 containing the clear plastic tray, a curable clear polymer composition to provide an impression of a dental impression of the teeth to be restored to provide the mold. 21. The kit of claim 13 comprising in addition instructions for performing the method steps of claim 1. 22. The kit of claim 13 comprising in addition instructions for performing the method steps of claim 1 and wherein the instructions call for restoration of alternate teeth to be restored in two or more of steps (a) to (e). | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Not Applicable STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not Applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION (1) Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to dental prosthesis, and more particularly to methods of forming dental prosthesis. Specifically, the present invention relates to methods of forming dental prosthesis in situ in a patient's mouth by injection molding using a mold of a corrected model of the patient's dentition. (2) Description of the Related Art U.S. Pat. No. 3,808,687 to Millet teaches pontics with a rigid core formed of a plastic material such as acrylic, lucite, plexiglass or other hard material, and detachable cap formed of a flexible plastic such as polyethylene which have the external contours of a natural tooth. The external configuration of the cap is substantially the same as the porcelainized portion of the restoration to be formed. The pontics are used for creating an investment mold for casting a metal frame of gold or other suitable materials to which porcelain is applied. The dental restoration is then fit into the patient's mouth. U.S. Pat. No. 3,987,545 to Kennedy teaches methods for forming a temporary dental prosthesis as a bridge in situ in a patient's mouth for restoration of missing or broken teeth. The method utilizes a positive model of the patient's mouth which is corrected to the desired size and shape of the teeth to be restored. An elastomeric mold is formed using the model as a pattern which is fitted over the patient's jaw. A self-curing liquid resin is drawn into the cavity by vacuum across the bridge to form the dental prosthesis which is removed and then cemented in place. This requires that a good seal be provided between the jaw and the mold. U.S. Pat. No. 4,080,736 also to Kennedy teaches a method and apparatus for forming a dental prosthesis for restoration of a patient's teeth. An elastomeric mold and a hard model are secured together to form an assembly with a mold cavity within. The assembly is placed in a vacuum chamber to produce a vacuum inside the chamber and the mold. When a connection between a source and the assembly is opened a liquid material is pushed into the mold cavity to form the prosthesis, which is then installed in the patient. U.S. Pat. No. 4,129,946 to Kennedy teaches hollow dental crown forms, preferably co-polyester plastics, having the shape of a natural tooth for holding and shaping composite resin material applied to a tooth which requires restoration. A tab which provides a gripping handle is formed at the base of the crown form, and a flange is formed around the base of the crown form. The crown is then installed in the patient. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,192,207 and 5,332,390 to Rosellini teach crowns or replacement teeth and methods of production thereof. The crown or replacement teeth are formed by filling a transparent shell tooth with a light setting resin and disposing the filled transparent shell tooth onto a prepared tooth of a patient. The filled shell tooth is illuminated to set the resin and bond it to the shell tooth form. Polishing and shaping are then done in situ to form the crown. U.S. Pat. No. 5,775,913 to Updyke et al. teach a method of making caps of eight different sizes for each of a persons teeth. The caps are preferably prepared from quartz or silicon dioxide filled acrylic materials. The caps can be placed over a prepared tooth and exposed to ultraviolet light to form the solid capped tooth. U.S. Pat. No. 5,984,682 to Carlson teaches permanent composite dental bridges constructed either in situ or ex situ. The material is applied in the in situ process between abutment teeth and wings formed from the composite material are attached to surfaces of the abutment teeth before curing. These steps are successively repeated until a dental bridge is form within the patient's mouth. A gingival stent is used as a platform upon which the composite laminations are formed, and is removed after the formation of the bridge prior to contouring and finishing of the bridge. U.S. Pat. No. 6,769,913 to Hurson discloses an impression cap and methods of taking dental impressions in a patient's mouth by injecting an impression material into an inner cavity of the impression cap. The impression cap is then removed from the patient's mouth for the fabrication of a dental restoration. While the related art teach various methods of forming dental prosthesis in situ, there still exists a need for an improved method of forming injection molded dental prosthesis in situ in a patient's mouth. OBJECTS Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide an improved method of forming dental prosthesis in situ in a patient's mouth by injection molding. It is further an object of the present invention to provide a kit of materials, supplies and instructions for correcting the teeth of a patient by the provided methods. These and other objects will become increasingly apparent by reference to the following description. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a method for restoring teeth in need of restoration in a patient by providing a fluid dental restoration polymer composition which is curable on prepared teeth to be restored and curing the composition to provide the composition bonded to the prepared teeth in providing restored teeth, the improvement which comprises: (a) preparing selected teeth to be restored for bonding with the fluid polymer composition; (b) covering teeth which are not to be restored with a polymer release material; (c) fitting a clear polymer composition mold over the teeth to be restored and the teeth not to be restored, which mold provides a closed space to be filled between the teeth to be restored and the mold which defines a shape of the restored teeth, wherein the mold has an inlet port for injection of the fluid polymer composition and an outlet port for removing any excess air and/or excess fluid polymer resulting from the injection; (d) injection molding the fluid polymer composition into the mold to fill the space in the mold with the covered teeth and the teeth to be restored; (e) curing the fluid polymer composition onto the teeth to be restored in the clear polymer composition mold; (f) removing the mold from the teeth and the tape from the covered teeth to provide the restored teeth in the patient; and (g) optionally finishing exposed surfaces of the restored teeth, if necessary. In further embodiments of the method, the polymer release material is polytetrafluoroethylene. In still further embodiments the polymer release material is in tape which is preferably about 1.5 cm wide and about 0.2 mm thick. In still further embodiments the clear polymer composition mold comprises a clear plastic tray filled with a cured clear plastic polymer composition and which is derived from a prepared model with the teeth as they will be restored in the patient, and wherein the inlet and outlet ports are drilled into the mold. In further embodiments a dental cast is prepared from an impression of the teeth to be restored, then a dental stone model is prepared, and then the stone model is modified to simulate the restored teeth as they will be restored. In further embodiments the fluid polymer composition is cured with light. In still further embodiments the fluid polymer composition is cured with ultraviolet light of about 465 nm to about 480 nm. The activating ultraviolet light of 465 nm to 480 nm is directed throught the clear, light-transmitting mold for the purpose of hardening or curing the light-sensitive fluid polymer composition for the dental restoration. In further embodiments of the method, the dental restoration fluid polymer composition is a particle filled and pigmented poly(acrylicacid)polymer containing a curing agent activated by light. In still further embodiments the dental stone model is modified with a wax shaped to simulate the restored teeth. In further embodiments of the method, in step (a) prepared teeth are etched with an acid and then coated with a primer and bonding agent for bonding the dental restoration fluid polymer composition to the prepared teeth. In preferred embodiments the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. In further embodiments of the method alternate of the teeth to be restored are restored in two or more repetitions of the steps (a) to (e). The present invention provides a kit for restoring teeth by injection molding and curing a dental restoration fluid polymer composition onto teeth in need of restoration in a patient which comprises: (a) mold forming means for providing a clear polymer mold which mold provides a closed space to be filled with the fluid polymer composition between the teeth to be restored and the mold and which defines a shape of the restored teeth, wherein the mold has an inlet port for injection of the fluid composition polymer and an outlet port for any excess air and/or excess fluid polymer; (b) a polymer release material for covering teeth which are not to be restored in the clear polymer mold; and (c) a fluid dental restoration polymer composition curable by light for bonding to the teeth to be restored. In further embodiments of the kit the fluid polymer composition comprises particles and pigment in a poly(acrylicacid) polymer composition containing a curing agent activated by light. In still further embodiments, the kit contains in addition an acid etchant for the teeth to be restored, a primer for these teeth and a bonding agent for bonding the fluid polymer composition to these teeth. In preferred embodiments the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. In still further embodiments, the kit in addition can optionally contain a ceramic powder for forming a dental stone impression model of the prepared teeth of the patient and a modeling material such as a dental wax for modifying the dental stone model to simulate the restored teeth in the patient. In still further embodiments the polymer release material is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape. In preferred embodiments, the polymer release material is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape which is about 1.5 cm wide and about 0.2 mm thick. In further embodiments of the kit containing the clear plastic tray, a curable clear polymer composition to provide an impression of a dental cast or model of the teeth to be restored to provide the mold. In further embodiments of the kit, comprising in addition instructions for performing the method steps of Claim 1. In still further embodiments of the kit, comprising in addition instructions for performing the method steps of Claim 1 and wherein the instructions call for restoration of alternate teeth to be restored in two or more of steps (a) to (e). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a patient's teeth 10 to be restored. FIG. 2 shows an impression 14 being taken of the current condition of the patient's teeth 10 to be restored. FIG. 3 shows a cross-section of a tooth 12 taken along line 3-3 of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 shows a plaster model 16 cast from the impression 14 taken of the current condition of the patient's teeth. FIG. 5 shows a waxed-up model 20 which is constructed from the plaster model 16 having desired changes made with the addition of dental wax 18. FIG. 6 shows clear impression material 22 which remains over the waxed-up model 20 after removal of the impression tray. FIG. 7 is a cross-section of the waxed-up model 20 taken along line 7-7 of FIG. 6 showing the mold 24 having desired changes over the plaster model 16 with the dental wax 18 corrections. FIG. 8 is a cross-section of the mold 24 taken along line 7-7 of FIG. 6 after removal of the clear impression material 22 from the waxed-up plaster model. FIG. 9 is the mold 24 having desired changes after removal from the waxed-up model and cutting of the ingress holes 40 and vent holes 42 adjacent to each of the teeth. FIG. 10 shows preparation of the patient's teeth 10 by roughening the teeth with a fine diamond bur 44 and covering the teeth with a polymer release material 48. FIG. 11 shows application of a bonding resin primer after teeth have been etched. FIG. 12 shows light curing of a bonding agent applied after the bonding resin primer. FIG. 13 shows injection of the flowable composite resin 54 with a syringe 56 having a narrow tip. FIG. 14 shows curing of the flowable composite resin using a curing light 52. FIG. 15 shows removal of the tray and mold 24, polymer release material 48, and excess resin 60 prior to smoothing and polishing the restored teeth 10. FIG. 16 shows the restored teeth 10 wrapped polymer release material 48 in preparation for a second round of restoration. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION All patents, patent applications, government publications, government regulations, and literature references cited in this specification are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present description, including definitions, will control. The term “polymer release material” as used herein refers to a material such as a tape for wrapping or draping untreated teeth. The material acts as a parting agent, preventing the molded composite from sticking to a surface covered with the material. The term refers to a material including, but not limited to tape such as a pipe thread tape including polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) pipe thread tapes. One example of the polymer release material is TEFLON® pipe thread tape (DuPont, Wilmington, Del.). The term “model” refers to a dental cast commonly referred to as a plaster model or a dental stone model which reflects the current condition of the patient's teeth. Preferably, the model comprises a gypsum die stone. More preferably, the gypsum die stone further comprises a resin including but not limited to acrylic, polyester, urethane or epoxy resins. Most preferably, the gypsum die stone material for the dental model is AMERICAN DIEROCK® resin die stone marketed by American Diversified Dental Systems of Anaheim, Calif. The term “modeling material” as used herein refers to any material used for the modification of dental models such as dental waxes. The term “fluid polymer composition” as used herein refers to a flowable material which can be cured to harden the material, including dental composite resins. The fluid polymer composition is preferably curable by exposure to light, however chemical curing is within the scope of the invention. Most preferably, the composition is cured with ultraviolet light of about 465 nanometers (nm) to about 480 nm. One example of a composite resin is HELIOMOLAR® Flow composite (Ivoclar Vivadent, Amherst, N.Y.) which is a monomer matrix of 2,2-bis-4-(3-methacryloxy-2-hydroxypropoxy)-phenylpropane (Bis-GMA), urethane dimethacrylate and decandiol dimethacrylate (40.5 wt %) with highly dispersed silicon dioxide, ytterbiumtrifluoride and copolymer (59 wt %) fillers and additionally catalysts, stabilizers and pigments (0.5 wt %). The methods of the present invention use common dental materials and supplies in a completely unique and helpful way. This invention will have a profound impact on the way dental restoratives are delivered to patients. Utilizing the methods of the present invention, common dental problems, from simple to complex, can be diagnosed and treated rapidly, and accurately, often at fees lower than comparative options. The present invention further provides a kit which provides all necessary materials and supplies in a plastic carrying case. The case can be moved from operatory to operatory as needed. The kit also contains all necessary educational materials, including written, video, and CD form for delivery of instruction. The kit provides all necessary contact information for reorder of needed products, and also contacts for technical support. The present invention enables a dentist to reproduce a diagnostic wax-up, in an exacting manner, directly in a patient's mouth. This enables the performance of complex, comprehensive and sometimes extensive treatment, with superb accuracy and in an exacting manner, at one sitting. Diagnostic wax-ups have been used for decades, to study ways of restoring damaged or mal-aligned dentitions. Once solutions are arrived at using the wax-up, a treatment plan is formed. The work in the mouth is made to approximate the wax-up, using various conventional methods. These methods include bonding (applying the restoratives directly in the mouth using a sculpting technique, or “free-hand” technique), crown and bridge preps and placement, or applying orthodontic appliances. These various methods can only approximate the diagnostic wax-up, because the work subsequently provided is subject to the dentist's, and/or dental lab technician's interpretations or hands-on manipulations. Prior to the present invention, no way existed to quickly and accurately transfer the exact contours of the wax-up directly to the patient's mouth. The object of this invention is improving a patient's current dental condition or acquired bite. The current condition, or wants or needs, described by the patient are referred to as the chief complaint. Current condition, or acquired bite may present as one or more of the following: worn tooth surfaces (when areas which are ideally or normally sharp and pointed are flattened or worn down); fractured teeth; severely decayed teeth; discolored or stained teeth; teeth which are too small for the arches and therefore have excess space between them; and mal-positioned or mal-aligned teeth. Therefore, the desired changes, or restoration of the teeth can be as follows: re-addition of worn surface (which may involve many teeth, and allows the option of “opening the bite”); repair and restoration of fractured teeth; repair and restoration of decayed teeth; covering up of unsightly stains or discolorations; widening of small teeth to close spaces or gaps; and additive or subtractive coronoplasty to improve symmetry and alignment (masking of malposed teeth-giving impression of “instant orthodontics”). The following discussion details the procedural steps of the methods of the present invention: A plaster model 16, commonly referred to as a dental stone model, of the patient's teeth 10, exhibiting the current condition is acquired as shown in the sequence of FIGS. 1-4. Preferably, the plaster model comprises a gypsum die stone. More preferably, the gypsum die stone further comprises a resin such as a urethane or an epoxy resin. Most preferably the gypsum die stone material for the plaster model is AMERICAN DIEROCK® resin die stone marketed by American Diversified Dental Systems of Anaheim, Calif. The model is an accurate reproduction of the patient's acquired bite, and demonstrates the chief complaint, which can then be studied carefully. Desired changes are made to the plaster model 16 by addition of dental wax 18 as shown in FIG. 5. The dental wax 18 is heated till flowable, and then “daubed” onto the plaster model 16, with a metal waxing instrument. When the dental wax 18 has cooled, it can be shaped with carving instruments, and polished. A variety of conditions can be improved using the present invention. Examples include fractures, gaps, wear, and rotations and/or malpositions. Care must be taken to ensure that the desired changes are performed on the tooth models in an exacting manner. The transfer technique is highly accurate, and any changes represented by the wax 18 contours, on the plaster model 16, will be reproduced on the teeth in the patient's mouth. Next, clear plastic impression trays are measured and selected to fit the modified dental plaster model 16. The surface of the trays must be smooth, with no retention holes. Clear polyvinyl siloxane impression material 22 is then injected into the clear trays. A product such as RSVP® polyvinyl siloxane (Cosmodent, Chicago, Ill.) is a good choice of clear impression material. The tray full of impression material 22 is inverted over the waxed-up dental stone model 20, and pressed down to entirely cover the tooth and tissue surfaces as shown in FIGS. 6 and 7, thus recording an impression which defines a space 58 reflecting the desired dentition. Prior to the setting, or hardening of the impression material 22, while it remains viscous or plastic, the tray is maneuvered so that a thickness a of approximately two millimeters (mm) of material remains over the buccal surfaces 30 of the teeth, and a thickness P of approximately two millimeters (mm) of clear impression material 22 remains over the incisal surfaces 28 of the teeth. It is fine to have excess material to the lingual or palatal side 34 of the teeth 10. The excess impression material 22 is desired for stiffness and rigidity of the set material 22. The set material 22 will henceforth be referred to as a mold 24. FIG. 6 shows the clear impression material which remains over the waxed-up plaster model after removal of the impression tray which is the mold having the desired changes to the patient's teeth After three minutes, the impression material 22 will be set, or hardened to form the mold 24. The hard, clear impression tray is carefully flexed, and removed from the mold 24. The mold 24 will remain firmly attached to the waxed-up stone model 20. Using a sharp lab knife, for example an exacto-knife, the excess clear impression material 22 is cut away from the waxed-up model 20 at the height of contour (gingival crest) or the buccal mucosa, and lingual and palatal tissues. Allowing the molded edges to extend beyond the teeth and rest on the gingival tissues is desirable and necessary, both for stability of the mold 24 during placement, and the accuracy of the restorative changes near the gum-line. Using fingers and thumbs, the edges of the clear mold 24 are carefully peeled from the waxed-up stone model 20. If caution is exercised, the clear mold 24 can be lifted from the waxed-up stone model 20 with no damage to either the wax 18 or mold 24. The dentist now possesses a clear, see-through mold 24, which is a negative, or impression mold, of the idealized waxed-up model 20. When this mold is placed over the patient's teeth 10, it will snap into place with precision, and fit securely. The patient's teeth 10 will fill the space 58 in the mold 24 exactly, except where wax 18 was placed on the stone model 16. Where wax 18 was placed, a space 58 will exist, either between, over, or around a tooth 12, defined by the inner contours of the mold 24. It is into this space 58 the restorative material, specifically the composite resin 54, will be injected to make the desired changes to the teeth 10. FIG. 8 shows the mold which has been cut to ensure proper thickness on the buccal and incisal aspects of the teeth showing the ingress holes and vent holes which have been cut with a diamond bur. An ingress hole 40 must be placed in the mold 24 to allow access for the composite 54 to be injected. A vent 42 must also be placed in the mold 24, to allow air to escape as the restorative is forced into the space 58 through the access of the ingress hole 40. With the tray off the model, the ingress holes 40 for injection and the vents 42 are placed using an air rotor drill motor handpiece and a bur preferably a BRASSELER® #849L 009 diamond bur (Savannah, Ga). One injection ingress hole 40 and vent 42 are required for each tooth 12 to be restored. Any dust or debris from the venting procedure is removed with water rinse and compressed air. The mold 24, as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, is now ready for use. Patient Treatment Procedures: The patient is prepared according to normal custom. Anti-anxiety agents, and anesthetics are used as needed. The enamel and dentin tooth surfaces must be prepared for composite bonding according to standard procedures. A typical procedure is as follows: The teeth 10 are lightly scuffed 46, or roughened with a fine diamond bur as shown in FIG. 10. These surfaces of the teeth 10 are etched, with a twenty second application of 35% phosphoric acid gel, then rinsed with water. The teeth will appear a frosty white color when etched. Thin, non-viscous bonding resin primer is then brushed onto the tooth using brush 50 as shown in FIG. 11. Next, a bonding agent (which is a slightly more viscous resin) is applied and is light 52 cured as shown in FIG. 12. In preferred embodiments the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. Preferably, the primer and bonding agent are OPTIBOND FL® primer and adhesive marketed by Kerr Corporation, Orange, Calif. The best way to restore multiple teeth 10 in a row, is to do every other tooth 12 in two separate applications. That way, the teeth 10 are not fused together by the bonding resins. Teeth not to be bonded in the first application are “draped”, or isolated by. covering with a polymer release material 48 such as a pipe thread tape. Preferably, the polymer release material 48 is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape. As such, every other tooth will be covered with a wrap of polymer release material 48. The first teeth to be restored will be not covered. Place the mold 24 over the arch, and snap firmly into place. Prior to injection, verify that the tray is seated firmly. Flowable composite resin 54 is now injected, with moderate pressure from the thumb on the composite syringe 56 plunger. FIG. 13 shows injection of the flowable composite resin 54 with the syringe 56 having a narrow tip into the ingress hole 40 over a tooth to be treated after the mold 24 has been seated firmly over the arch in the patient's mouth. It is preferable to use a flowable composite resin 54 to restore with this technique. Many such materials are available for use. Some examples of composite resins are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,479,592 to Rheinberger et al., U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2004/0167246 to Subelka et al., and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2003/0069326 to Stangel et al. hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. One preferred material is HELIOMOLAR® Flow composite (Ivoclar Vivadent, Amherst, N.Y.). The diameter of the tubing closely approximates the diameter of the BRASSELER® #849L 009 diamond bur used to make the injection ingress holes 40 in the clear mold 34. The syringe 56 tip is placed in a ingress hole 40 directly over a tooth 12 not covered by with polymer release material 48. The composite resin 54 is flowed, or injected by pushing on the plunger with the thumb. The dentist can monitor the progress of the composite resin 54 flow, and stop applying pressure when the composite resin 54 begins to escape from the vent 42. After injection, cure, or harden the resin with electromagnetic energy such as light emitted from a curing light 52 (465-480 nm) for thirty seconds as shown in FIG. 14. Finally, repeat the injection steps of FIGS. 10-15 for each tooth not covered by with the polymer release material 48 in the first application. First, remove the mold. Next, remove the polymer release material 48 and then remove any excess resin, such as flash 60, as shown in FIG. 15. Next, smooth and polish restored teeth. Now, place polymer release material 48 over the restored teeth. FIG. 16 shows the restored teeth wrapped polymer release material 48 in preparation for a second round of restoration similar to the first round shown in FIG. 10 through FIG. 15. The unrestored teeth covered with the polymer release material 48 in FIG. 10 are treated in the second round. Every other remaining tooth will be uncovered, and non-restored. Etch, prime and bond non-restored teeth. Next, place the mold 24 back over dental arch and snap into place. Inject composite resin 54 into remaining non-restored tooth spaces and light cure. Then remove the mold 24 and the polymer release material 48. Afterwards, finish and polish the remaining restorations. Finally, check the occlusion (i.e. the bite) and adjust if needed. While the present invention is described herein with reference to illustrated embodiments, it should be understood that the invention is not limited hereto. Those having ordinary skill in the art and access to the teachings herein will recognize additional modifications and embodiments within the scope thereof. Therefore, the present invention is limited only by the Claims attached herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>(1) Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to dental prosthesis, and more particularly to methods of forming dental prosthesis. Specifically, the present invention relates to methods of forming dental prosthesis in situ in a patient's mouth by injection molding using a mold of a corrected model of the patient's dentition. (2) Description of the Related Art U.S. Pat. No. 3,808,687 to Millet teaches pontics with a rigid core formed of a plastic material such as acrylic, lucite, plexiglass or other hard material, and detachable cap formed of a flexible plastic such as polyethylene which have the external contours of a natural tooth. The external configuration of the cap is substantially the same as the porcelainized portion of the restoration to be formed. The pontics are used for creating an investment mold for casting a metal frame of gold or other suitable materials to which porcelain is applied. The dental restoration is then fit into the patient's mouth. U.S. Pat. No. 3,987,545 to Kennedy teaches methods for forming a temporary dental prosthesis as a bridge in situ in a patient's mouth for restoration of missing or broken teeth. The method utilizes a positive model of the patient's mouth which is corrected to the desired size and shape of the teeth to be restored. An elastomeric mold is formed using the model as a pattern which is fitted over the patient's jaw. A self-curing liquid resin is drawn into the cavity by vacuum across the bridge to form the dental prosthesis which is removed and then cemented in place. This requires that a good seal be provided between the jaw and the mold. U.S. Pat. No. 4,080,736 also to Kennedy teaches a method and apparatus for forming a dental prosthesis for restoration of a patient's teeth. An elastomeric mold and a hard model are secured together to form an assembly with a mold cavity within. The assembly is placed in a vacuum chamber to produce a vacuum inside the chamber and the mold. When a connection between a source and the assembly is opened a liquid material is pushed into the mold cavity to form the prosthesis, which is then installed in the patient. U.S. Pat. No. 4,129,946 to Kennedy teaches hollow dental crown forms, preferably co-polyester plastics, having the shape of a natural tooth for holding and shaping composite resin material applied to a tooth which requires restoration. A tab which provides a gripping handle is formed at the base of the crown form, and a flange is formed around the base of the crown form. The crown is then installed in the patient. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,192,207 and 5,332,390 to Rosellini teach crowns or replacement teeth and methods of production thereof. The crown or replacement teeth are formed by filling a transparent shell tooth with a light setting resin and disposing the filled transparent shell tooth onto a prepared tooth of a patient. The filled shell tooth is illuminated to set the resin and bond it to the shell tooth form. Polishing and shaping are then done in situ to form the crown. U.S. Pat. No. 5,775,913 to Updyke et al. teach a method of making caps of eight different sizes for each of a persons teeth. The caps are preferably prepared from quartz or silicon dioxide filled acrylic materials. The caps can be placed over a prepared tooth and exposed to ultraviolet light to form the solid capped tooth. U.S. Pat. No. 5,984,682 to Carlson teaches permanent composite dental bridges constructed either in situ or ex situ. The material is applied in the in situ process between abutment teeth and wings formed from the composite material are attached to surfaces of the abutment teeth before curing. These steps are successively repeated until a dental bridge is form within the patient's mouth. A gingival stent is used as a platform upon which the composite laminations are formed, and is removed after the formation of the bridge prior to contouring and finishing of the bridge. U.S. Pat. No. 6,769,913 to Hurson discloses an impression cap and methods of taking dental impressions in a patient's mouth by injecting an impression material into an inner cavity of the impression cap. The impression cap is then removed from the patient's mouth for the fabrication of a dental restoration. While the related art teach various methods of forming dental prosthesis in situ, there still exists a need for an improved method of forming injection molded dental prosthesis in situ in a patient's mouth. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a method for restoring teeth in need of restoration in a patient by providing a fluid dental restoration polymer composition which is curable on prepared teeth to be restored and curing the composition to provide the composition bonded to the prepared teeth in providing restored teeth, the improvement which comprises: (a) preparing selected teeth to be restored for bonding with the fluid polymer composition; (b) covering teeth which are not to be restored with a polymer release material; (c) fitting a clear polymer composition mold over the teeth to be restored and the teeth not to be restored, which mold provides a closed space to be filled between the teeth to be restored and the mold which defines a shape of the restored teeth, wherein the mold has an inlet port for injection of the fluid polymer composition and an outlet port for removing any excess air and/or excess fluid polymer resulting from the injection; (d) injection molding the fluid polymer composition into the mold to fill the space in the mold with the covered teeth and the teeth to be restored; (e) curing the fluid polymer composition onto the teeth to be restored in the clear polymer composition mold; (f) removing the mold from the teeth and the tape from the covered teeth to provide the restored teeth in the patient; and (g) optionally finishing exposed surfaces of the restored teeth, if necessary. In further embodiments of the method, the polymer release material is polytetrafluoroethylene. In still further embodiments the polymer release material is in tape which is preferably about 1.5 cm wide and about 0.2 mm thick. In still further embodiments the clear polymer composition mold comprises a clear plastic tray filled with a cured clear plastic polymer composition and which is derived from a prepared model with the teeth as they will be restored in the patient, and wherein the inlet and outlet ports are drilled into the mold. In further embodiments a dental cast is prepared from an impression of the teeth to be restored, then a dental stone model is prepared, and then the stone model is modified to simulate the restored teeth as they will be restored. In further embodiments the fluid polymer composition is cured with light. In still further embodiments the fluid polymer composition is cured with ultraviolet light of about 465 nm to about 480 nm. The activating ultraviolet light of 465 nm to 480 nm is directed throught the clear, light-transmitting mold for the purpose of hardening or curing the light-sensitive fluid polymer composition for the dental restoration. In further embodiments of the method, the dental restoration fluid polymer composition is a particle filled and pigmented poly(acrylicacid)polymer containing a curing agent activated by light. In still further embodiments the dental stone model is modified with a wax shaped to simulate the restored teeth. In further embodiments of the method, in step (a) prepared teeth are etched with an acid and then coated with a primer and bonding agent for bonding the dental restoration fluid polymer composition to the prepared teeth. In preferred embodiments the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. In further embodiments of the method alternate of the teeth to be restored are restored in two or more repetitions of the steps (a) to (e). The present invention provides a kit for restoring teeth by injection molding and curing a dental restoration fluid polymer composition onto teeth in need of restoration in a patient which comprises: (a) mold forming means for providing a clear polymer mold which mold provides a closed space to be filled with the fluid polymer composition between the teeth to be restored and the mold and which defines a shape of the restored teeth, wherein the mold has an inlet port for injection of the fluid composition polymer and an outlet port for any excess air and/or excess fluid polymer; (b) a polymer release material for covering teeth which are not to be restored in the clear polymer mold; and (c) a fluid dental restoration polymer composition curable by light for bonding to the teeth to be restored. In further embodiments of the kit the fluid polymer composition comprises particles and pigment in a poly(acrylicacid) polymer composition containing a curing agent activated by light. In still further embodiments, the kit contains in addition an acid etchant for the teeth to be restored, a primer for these teeth and a bonding agent for bonding the fluid polymer composition to these teeth. In preferred embodiments the bonding agent comprises methacrylate ester monomers and the primer comprises alkyl dimethacrylate resins. In still further embodiments, the kit in addition can optionally contain a ceramic powder for forming a dental stone impression model of the prepared teeth of the patient and a modeling material such as a dental wax for modifying the dental stone model to simulate the restored teeth in the patient. In still further embodiments the polymer release material is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape. In preferred embodiments, the polymer release material is a polytetrafluoroethylene tape which is about 1.5 cm wide and about 0.2 mm thick. In further embodiments of the kit containing the clear plastic tray, a curable clear polymer composition to provide an impression of a dental cast or model of the teeth to be restored to provide the mold. In further embodiments of the kit, comprising in addition instructions for performing the method steps of Claim 1 . In still further embodiments of the kit, comprising in addition instructions for performing the method steps of Claim 1 and wherein the instructions call for restoration of alternate teeth to be restored in two or more of steps (a) to (e). | 20041126 | 20070515 | 20060601 | 69815.0 | A61C500 | 2 | LEWIS, RALPH A | METHOD FOR DENTAL RESTORATION AND KIT | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61C | 2,004 |
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10,998,329 | ACCEPTED | Patient support apparatus having a motorized wheel | A patient support apparatus includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel movable relative to the frame between a first position engaging the floor and a second position spaced from the floor, a drive assembly coupled to the wheel and operable to drive the wheel to propel the patient support apparatus along the floor, a controller associated with the drive assembly, a push handle coupled to the frame, a control coupled to the push handle and movable to provide a signal to the controller via at least one wire routed from the control through the push handle. | 1. A patient support apparatus for transporting a patient along a floor, the patient support apparatus comprising: a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel movable relative to the frame between a first position engaging the floor and a second position spaced from the floor, a drive assembly coupled to the wheel and operable to drive the wheel to propel the patient support apparatus along the floor, a controller associated with the drive assembly, a push handle coupled to the frame, a control coupled to the push handle and movable to provide a signal to the controller via at least one wire routed from the control through the push handle. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the push handle includes a hollow tube portion and the wire is routed through the hollow tube portion. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the push handle includes a bend at a region defining an intersection of a first portion and a second portion, and the wire is routed through the bend. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the push handle includes a bottom portion, and the wires exits the push handle through the bottom portion. 5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein the wire is routed to the controller along portions of the frame. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the push handle is grippable to maneuver the patient support apparatus along the floor. 7. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein the push handle is movable relative to the frame. 8. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein the push handle is pivotable relative to the frame. 9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the push handle includes a bend at a region defining an intersection of a generally vertically-extending portion and a generally horizontally-extending portion, and the wire is routed through the bend. 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the generally horizontally-extending portion extends generally perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the frame. 11. A patient support apparatus for transporting a patient along a floor, the patient support apparatus comprising: a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel movable relative to the frame between a first position engaging the floor and a second position spaced from the floor, a drive assembly coupled to the wheel and operable to drive the wheel to propel the patient support apparatus along the floor, and a rotary switch having a rotatable member that is rotatable from a neutral position in a forward direction to provide a first signal associated with propelling the patient support apparatus forwardly and that is rotatable from the neutral position in a rearward direction to provide a second signal associated with propelling the patient support apparatus rearwardly, and a spring to bias the rotatable member toward the neutral position. 12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the spring is spaced from the rotatable member. 13. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the rotatable member is rotatable about an axis extending generally perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the frame. 14. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein a speed at which the patient support apparatus is propelled depends upon an amount that the rotatable member is rotated away from the neutral position. 15. The apparatus of claim 11, further comprising a user-engageable piece that is moved by a user to rotate the rotatable member. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the user-engageable piece is pivoted by the user to rotate the rotatable member. 17. A patient support apparatus for transporting a patient along a floor, the apparatus comprising a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel supported relative to the frame and engaging the floor, a drive assembly that is operable to drive the wheel and propel the patient support apparatus along the floor, and a foot pedal coupled to the frame and movable between a first position and a second position, the wheel being in the raised position when the foot pedal is in the first position, movement of the foot pedal from the first position to the second position resulting in movement of the wheel from the raised position to the lowered position, the drive assembly being disabled from driving the wheel when the foot pedal is in the first position. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the foot pedal is situated adjacent to an end of the frame. 19. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the foot pedal is coupled to a shaft extending along a longitudinal axis of the frame. 20. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the foot pedal is a butterfly pedal. 21. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the foot pedal moves a linkage that interacts with a switch that provides a signal indicative of a position of the wheel. 22. A patient support apparatus for transporting a patient along a floor comprising: a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel movable relative to the frame between a first position engaging the floor and a second position spaced from the floor, and a drive motor having an output shaft, the wheel being directly mounted on the output shaft of the drive motor. 23. The apparatus of claim 22, further comprising a wheel-mounting bracket coupled to the frame, wherein the drive motor is coupled to the wheel-mounting bracket. 24. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein the motor includes at least one wire that is routed to a controller along the wheel-mounting bracket. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/431,205, filed May 7, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. ______ . U.S. Ser. No. 10/431,205 is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/022,552, filed Dec. 17, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,588,523. U.S. Ser. No. 10/022,552 is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/434,948, filed Nov. 5, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,330,926. U.S. Ser. No. 09/434,948 claims the benefit of U.S. Prov. Pat. Appl. Ser. No. 60/154,089, filed Sep. 15, 1999. All of the foregoing applications and issued patents are hereby expressly incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a stretcher such as a wheeled stretcher for use in a hospital, and particularly to a wheeled stretcher having a wheel that can be deployed to contact a floor along which the stretcher is being pushed. More particularly, the present invention relates to a wheeled stretcher having a motorized wheel. It is known to provide hospital stretchers with four casters, one at each corner, that rotate and swivel, as well as a center wheel that can be lowered to engage the floor. See, for example, U.S. patent application, Ser. No. 09/150,890, filed on Sep. 10, 1998, entitled “STRETCHER CENTER WHEEL MECHANISM”, for Heimbrock et al., which patent application is assigned to the assignee of the present invention and incorporated herein by reference. Other examples of wheeled stretchers are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,806,111 to Heimbrock et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,348,326 to Fullenkamp et al., both of which are assigned to the assignee of the present invention, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,083,625 to Bleicher; U.S. Pat. No. 4,164,355 to Eaton et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 3,304,116 to Stryker; and U.S. Pat. No. 2,599,717 to Menzies. The center wheel is typically free to rotate but is constrained from swiveling in order to facilitate turning the stretcher around corners. The center wheel may be yieldably biased downwardly against the floor to permit the center wheel to track differences in the elevation of the floor. The present invention comprises improvements to such wheeled stretchers. According to the present invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along a floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel supported relative to the frame and engaging the floor, and a drive assembly drivingly couplable to the wheel. The drive assembly has a first mode of operation decoupled from the wheel so that the wheel is free to rotate when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive assembly. The drive assembly has a second mode of operation coupled to the wheel to drive the wheel and propel the stretcher along the floor. According to still another aspect of the present invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along the floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel coupled to the frame and engaging the floor, a push handle coupled to the frame to maneuver the stretcher along the floor, a drive assembly selectively couplable to the wheel and being operable to drive the wheel and propel the stretcher along the floor, and a hand control coupled to a distal end of the push handle to operate the drive assembly. In accordance with a further aspect, the drive assembly includes a motor having a rotatable output shaft, a belt coupled to the output shaft and the wheel, and a belt tensioner movable to tension the belt so that the belt transfers rotation from the output shaft to the wheel. According to a still further aspect, the belt tensioner includes a bracket, an idler coupled to the bracket, and an actuator coupled to the idler bracket. Illustratively, the actuator has a first orientation in which the idler is spaced apart from or lightly contacting the belt, and a second orientation in which the idler engages the belt to tension the belt to transfer rotation from the drive motor to the wheel. In accordance with another embodiment of the drive assembly, the wheel is mounted directly on an output shaft of a drive motor. In accordance with still another embodiment of the drive assembly, the wheel is mounted directly on a rim portion of a rotor of a drive motor. In accordance with another aspect, the stretcher further includes a battery supported on the frame and an on/off switch coupled to the drive motor and the actuator. The on/off switch has an “on” position in which the drive motor and the actuator are supplied with electrical power, and an “off” position in which the drive motor and the idler bracket actuator are prevented from receiving electrical power. In accordance with still another aspect, the second mode of operation of the drive assembly includes a forward mode in which the drive assembly is configured so that the wheel is driven in a forward direction, and a reverse mode in which the drive assembly is configured so that the wheel is driven in a reverse direction. Illustratively, movement of a control to a forward position configures the drive assembly in the forward mode, and to a reverse position configures the drive assembly in the reverse mode. In one embodiment, the control includes a rotatable switch coupled to a distal end of a push handle, and which is biased to a neutral position between the forward position and the reverse position. In another embodiment, the control includes a push-type switch coupled to a distal end of a push handle to control the speed of the drive motor, and a forward/reverse switch located on the stretcher to control the direction of rotation of the drive motor. According to another aspect of the invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along a floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a first assembly coupled to the frame for rotatably supporting a wheel between a first position spaced apart from the floor and a second position engaging the floor, a selectively engagable clutch configured to selectively couple a drive motor to the wheel when the clutch is engaged. Illustratively, the clutch allows the wheel to rotate freely when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive motor when the wheel is engaging the floor and the clutch is disengaged. On the other hand, the drive motor drives the wheel to propel the stretcher along the floor when the wheel is engaging the floor and the clutch is engaged. Additional features of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon a consideration of the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the invention as presently perceived. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The detailed description particularly refers to the accompanying figures in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing a wheeled stretcher incorporating a drive assembly including a floor-engaging wheel for propelling the stretcher along a floor in accordance with the present invention, FIG. 1a is a perspective view of a portion of the stretcher of FIG. 1, showing a rechargeable battery, a recessed battery compartment in a lower frame configured for receiving the battery and a main power switch mounted on the lower frame adjacent to the battery compartment, FIG. 2 is a partial perspective view, with portions broken away, showing a linkage assembly for lifting and lowering the wheel, and a drive assembly drivingly couplable to the wheel for propelling the stretcher along the floor, the linkage assembly having a neutral position (shown in FIGS. 3 and 7) in which the wheel is spaced apart from the floor and a steer position (shown in FIGS. 5 and 8) in which the wheel is engaging the floor, and the drive assembly having a first mode of operation (shown in FIGS. 5 and 8) decoupled from the wheel so that the wheel is free to rotate when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive assembly and a second mode of operation (shown in FIGS. 9 and 10) coupled to the wheel to drive the wheel to propel the stretcher along the floor, FIG. 3 is a side elevation view showing the linkage and drive assemblies of FIG. 2, the linkage assembly being shown in the neutral position with the wheel spaced apart from the floor, and further showing the drive assembly in the first mode of operation decoupled from the wheel, the drive assembly including a belt coupling a drive motor to the wheel and a belt tensioner to selectively tension the belt, the belt tensioner including a support bracket, an idler pulley (hereinafter idler) coupled to the support bracket, and an actuator having a first orientation (shown in FIGS. 3, 5, 7 and 8) in which the idler is spaced apart from the belt to decouple the drive motor from the wheel, and a second orientation (shown in FIGS. 9 and 10) in which the idler engages the belt to tension the belt to couple the drive motor to the wheel to propel the stretcher along the floor when the wheel is engaging the floor, FIG. 4 is a sectional view taken along line 4-4 in FIG. 3, and showing the linkage assembly in the neutral position in which the wheel spaced apart from the floor, FIG. 5 is a view similar to FIG. 3, showing the linkage assembly in the steer position with the wheel engaging the floor, and further showing the actuator in the first orientation with the idler spaced apart from the belt to decouple the drive motor from the wheel so that the wheel is free to rotate when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive assembly, FIG. 6 is a sectional view similar to FIG. 4 taken along line 6-6 in FIG. 5, and showing the linkage assembly in the steer position in which the wheel engaging the floor, FIG. 7 is a side elevation view corresponding to FIG. 3, showing the linkage assembly in the neutral position with the wheel spaced apart from the floor, and the actuator in the first orientation with the idler spaced apart from the belt to decouple the drive motor from the wheel, and further showing the drive motor mounted on the lower frame, a wheel-mounting bracket supporting the wheel, the belt loosely coupled to the drive motor and the wheel, the idler support bracket carrying the idler pivotally coupled to the wheel-mounting bracket, and the actuator coupled to the idler support bracket, FIG. 8 is a side elevation view corresponding to FIG. 5, showing the linkage assembly in the steer position with the wheel engaging the floor, and the actuator in the first orientation with the idler spaced apart from the belt to decouple the drive motor from the wheel so that the wheel is free to rotate when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive motor, FIG. 9 is a view similar to FIG. 8, showing the linkage assembly in the steer position with the wheel engaging the floor, and the actuator in the second orientation with the idler engaging the belt to tension the belt to propel the stretcher along the floor, FIG. 10 is a sectional end view taken along line 10-10 in FIG. 9, showing the linkage assembly in the steer position with the wheel engaging the floor and the actuator in the second orientation to couple the drive motor to the wheel to propel the stretcher along the floor, FIG. 11 is an end elevation view of the stretcher of FIG. 1, showing the head end of a patient support deck mounted on the lower frame, a first push bar locked in an upward push position and having a handle post extending generally horizontally above the patient support deck, a second push bar locked in a down-out-of-the-way position having a handle post below the patient support deck, and a rotary switch coupled to a distal end of the handle post of the first push bar for operating the drive assembly, FIG. 12 is an exploded perspective view of the rotary switch of FIG. 11 coupled to the distal end of the handle post of the first push bar, FIG. 13 is a sectional view of the rotary switch of FIGS. 11 and 12, FIG. 14 is a block diagram, schematically showing the electrical components of the drive assembly, FIG. 15 is an exploded perspective view of an alternative push-type switch assembly configured to be coupled to the distal end of the handle post of the first push bar for operating the drive assembly, the push-type switch assembly including a pressure sensitive switch configured to be positioned inside the handle post and a flexible dome-shaped cap configured to be coupled to an input shaft of the pressure sensitive switch, FIG. 15a is a view showing a forward/reverse switch configured to be coupled to a distal end of the handle post of the second push bar, FIG. 16 is a sectional view of the push-type switch assembly of FIG. 15 coupled to the distal end of the handle post of the first push bar, FIG. 17 is a sectional view similar to FIG. 16, showing the flexible dome-shaped cap of the push-type switch assembly pressed to push the input shaft of the pressure sensitive switch, FIG. 18 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of the drive assembly drivingly couplable to a floor-engaging wheel for propelling the stretcher along the floor, and showing the wheel mounted directly on an output shaft of a drive motor coupled to the wheel-mounting bracket, FIG. 19 is a sectional view of the drive motor and the wheel of FIG. 18 through the central axis of the motor output shaft, FIG. 20 is a perspective view of another alternative embodiment of the drive assembly drivingly couplable to a floor-engaging wheel for propelling the stretcher along the floor, showing the wheel mounted directly on a rim portion of a rotor of a drive motor, and further showing a stationary shaft of a stator of the drive motor fixed to the wheel-mounting bracket, and FIG. 21 is a sectional view of the drive motor and the wheel of FIG. 20 through the central axis of the stationary stator shaft. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be described in conjunction with a hospital stretcher, but it will be understood that the same may be used in conjunction with any patient support apparatus, such as an ambulatory chair. Referring to FIG. 1, a stretcher 20 in accordance with the present invention includes a frame 22, comprising an upper frame 24 and a lower frame 26, a shroud 28 covering the lower frame 26, a head end 30, a foot end 32, an elongated first side 34, and an elongated second side 36. As used in this description, the phrase “head end 30” will be used to denote the end of any referred-to object that is positioned to lie nearest the head end 30 of the stretcher 20, and the phrase “foot end 32” will be used to denote the end of any referred-to object that is positioned to lie nearest the foot end 32 of the stretcher 20. Likewise, the phrase “first side 34” will be used to denote the side of any referred-to object that is positioned to lie nearest the first side 34 of the stretcher 20 and the phrase “second side 36” will be used to denote the side of any referred-to object that is positioned to lie nearest the second side 36 of the stretcher 20. The upper frame 24 is movably supported above the lower frame 26 by a lifting mechanism 38 for raising, lowering, and tilting the upper frame 24 relative to the lower frame 26. Illustratively, the lifting mechanism 38 includes head end and foot end hydraulic cylinders 40 and 42, which are covered by flexible rubber boots 44. The head end hydraulic cylinder 40 controls the vertical position of the head end 30 of the upper frame 24 relative to the lower frame 26, and the foot end hydraulic cylinder 42 controls the vertical position of the foot end 32 of the upper frame 24 relative to the lower frame 26. It is well known in the hospital equipment art to use various types of mechanical, electro-mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices, such as electric drive motors, linear actuators, lead screws, mechanical linkages and cam and follower assemblies, to effect motion. It will be understood that the terms “drive assembly” and “linkage assembly” in the specification and in the claims are used for convenience only, and are intended to cover all types of mechanical, electro-mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms and combinations thereof, without limiting the scope of the invention. A patient support deck 50 is carried by the upper frame 24 and has a head end 30, a foot end 32, a first elongated side 34, and a second elongated side 36. A mattress 52 having an upwardly-facing patient support surface 54 is supported by the patient support deck 50. A pair of collapsible side rails 56 are mounted to the upper frame 24 adjacent to the first and second elongated sides 34, 36 of the patient support deck 50. An IV pole 58 for holding solution containers or other objects at a position elevated above the patient support surface 54 is pivotably attached to the upper frame 24, and can be pivoted between a lowered horizontal position alongside the patient support deck 50 and a generally vertical raised position shown in FIG. 1. Casters 60 are mounted to the lower frame 26, one at each corner, so that the stretcher 20 can be rolled over a floor 62 across which a patient is being transported. Several foot pedals 70 are pivotably coupled to the lower frame 26 and are coupled to the lifting mechanism 38 to control the vertical movement of the head end 30 and the foot end 32 of the upper frame 24 relative to the lower frame 26. In addition, a brake pedal 72 is coupled to the lower frame 26 near the foot end 32 thereof to control the braking of the casters 60. A brake-steer butterfly pedal 74 is coupled to the lower frame 26 near the head end 30 thereof to control both the braking of the casters 60, and the release of the braked casters 60. Each of the foot pedals 70, brake pedal 72, and brake-steer pedal 74 extends outwardly from the lower frame 26. As shown in FIG. 11, a first push bar 80 is pivotally mounted to the head end 30 of the upper frame 24 below the patient support deck 50 adjacent to the first elongated side 34 of the patient support deck 50. Likewise, a second push bar 82 is pivotally mounted to the head end 30 of the upper frame 24 below the patient support deck 50 adjacent to the second elongated side 36 of the patient support deck 50. Each of the first and second push bars 80, 82 is independently movable between a raised push position shown in FIGS. 1 and 11, and a lowered down-out-of-the-way position shown in FIG. 11. The first and second push bars 80, 82 each include a handle post 84 that is grasped by the caregiver when the first and second push bars 80, 82 are in the raised push position to manually push the stretcher 20 over the floor 62. When the push bars 80, 82 are in the down-out-of-the-way position, the push bars 80, 82 are below and out of the way of the patient support surface 54, thus maximizing the caregiver's access to a patient on the patient support surface 54. As previously described, the stretcher 20 includes the brake pedal 72 positioned at the foot end 32 of the stretcher 20, and the brake-steer pedal 74 positioned at the head end 30 of the stretcher 20. A brake-steer shaft 88 extends longitudinally along the length of the stretcher 20 on the first side 34 thereof underneath the shroud 28, and is connected to both the brake pedal 72 at the foot end 32 and the brake-steer pedal 74 at the head end 30. Movement of either the brake pedal 72 or the brake-steer pedal 74 by a caregiver causes the brake-steer shaft 88 to rotate about a longitudinal pivot axis 90. When the brake-steer shaft 88 is in a neutral position shown in solid lines in FIG. 4, the brake-steer pedal 74 is generally horizontal as shown in FIG. 1, and the casters 60 are free to swivel and rotate. From the generally horizontal neutral position, the caregiver can depress the brake pedal 72 or a braking portion 92 of the brake-steer pedal 74 to rotate the brake-steer shaft 88 in an anticlockwise, braking direction indicated by arrow 94 in FIG. 4 to a brake position shown in phantom in FIG. 4. In the braking position, the braking portion 92 of the brake-steer pedal 74 is angled downwardly toward the first side 34 of the stretcher 20, and a steering portion 96 of the brake-steer pedal 74 is angled upwardly. Rotation of the brake-steer shaft 88 to the brake position moves brake shoes into engagement with the casters 60 to stop rotation and swiveling movement of the casters 60. From the brake position shown in phantom in FIG. 4, the caregiver can depress a steering portion 96 of the brake-steer pedal 74 to rotate the brake-steer shaft 88 in a clockwise direction back to the neutral position shown in solid lines in FIG. 4. When the brake-steer shaft 88 is in the neutral position, the caregiver can depress the steering portion 96 of the brake-steer pedal 74 to rotate the brake-steer shaft 88 in a clockwise, steering direction indicated by arrow 98 shown in FIG. 6 to a steer position shown in FIG. 6. In the steer position, the braking portion 92 of the brake-steer pedal 74 is angled upwardly, and the steering portion 96 of the brake-steer pedal 74 is angled downwardly toward the second side 36 of the stretcher 20. A linkage assembly 100 is provided for lifting and lowering a wheel 110. The linkage assembly 100 has (i) a neutral position (shown in FIGS. 3 and 7) in which the wheel 110 is raised above the floor 62 a first distance, (ii) a brake position (shown in phantom in FIG. 4) in which the wheel 110 is raised above the floor 62 a second higher distance, and (iii) steer position (shown in FIGS. 5 and 8-10) in which the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62. The floor-engaging wheel 110 serves a dual purpose—(a) it facilitates steering of the stretcher 20, and (b) it drives the stretcher 20 along the floor 62 in a power drive mode. Referring to FIGS. 2-6, the wheel 110 is mounted on an axle 112 coupled to the lower frame 26 by a wheel-mounting bracket 114. The wheel-mounting bracket 114 is, in turn, coupled to the brake-steer shaft 88. Rotation of the brake-steer shaft 88 changes the position of the wheel 110 relative to the floor 62. For example, when the brake-steer pedal 74 and the brake-steer shaft 88 are in the neutral position, the wheel-mounting bracket 114 holds the wheel 110 above the floor 62 a first distance (approximately 0.5 inches (1.3 cm)) as shown in FIG. 3. When the brake-steer shaft 88 rotates in the braking direction 94 (shown in FIG. 4), the linkage assembly 100 pivots the wheel-mounting bracket 114 upwardly to further lift the wheel 110 above the floor 62 a second higher distance (approximately 3.5 inches (8.9 cm)) to allow equipment, such as the base of an overbed table (not shown), to be positioned underneath the wheel 110. When the brake-steer shaft 88 rotates in the steering direction 98 (shown in FIG. 6), the linkage assembly 100 pivots the wheel-mounting bracket 114 downwardly to lower the wheel 110 to engage the floor 62 as shown in FIG. 5 and 8-10. The wheel-mounting bracket 114 includes a first outer fork 120, and a second inner fork 122. A foot end 32 of the first fork 120, that is the end of the first fork 120 closer to the foot end 32 of the stretcher 20, is pivotably coupled to the lower frame 26 for pivoting movement about a first transverse pivot axis 124. A head end of the first fork 120, that is the end of the first fork 120 closer to the head end 30 of the stretcher 20, is pivotably coupled to the second fork 122 for rotation about a second transverse pivot axis 126. A head end portion 130 of the second fork 122 extends from the second transverse pivot axis 126 toward the head end 30 of the stretcher 20. The wheel 110 is coupled to the head end portion 130 of the second fork 122 for rotation about an axis of rotation 128. A foot end portion 132 of the second fork 122 extends from the second transverse pivot axis 126 toward the foot end 32 of the stretcher 20, and is received by a space formed by two spaced-apart prongs of the first fork 120. An end plate 134 is fixed to the foot end portion 132 of the second fork 122. A vertically oriented spring 136 connects the end plate 134 to a frame bracket 138 mounted to the lower frame 26. When the wheel 110 is in the neutral position (raised approximately 0.5 inches (1.3 cm)), the brake position (raised approximately 3.5 inches (8.9 cm)), and the steer position (engaging the floor 62), the spring 136 yieldably biases the end plate 134 and the foot end portion 132 of the second fork 122 upwardly, so that the head end portion 130 of the second fork 122 and the wheel 110 are yieldably biased downwardly. The end plate 134 has a pair of transversely extending barbs 140 shown in FIGS. 3 and 5 that are appended to a lower end of the end plate 134 and that are positioned to engage the bottom of the first fork 120 when the first and second forks 120, 122 are in an “in-line” configuration defining a straight bracket as shown in FIG. 3. Thus, the barbs 140 stop the upward movement of the end plate 134 at the in-line configuration to limit the downward movement of the head end portion 130 of the second fork 122 and the wheel 110 relative to the first fork 120 as the spring 136 biases the end plate 134 of the second fork 122 upwardly. When the brake-steer shaft 88 pivots the wheel-mounting bracket 114 downwardly to the steer position shown in FIGS. 5 and 8-10, the wheel 110 is lowered to a position engaging the floor 62. Continued downward movement of the wheel-mounting bracket 114 pivots the second fork 122 relative to the first fork 120 about the second transverse pivot axis 126 in the direction indicated by arrow 142 shown in FIG. 5, moving the first and second forks 120, 122 into an “angled” configuration as shown in FIG. 5. The end plate 134 is yieldably biased upwardly by the spring 136 to yieldably bias the wheel 110 downwardly against the floor 62. Preferably, the downward force urging the wheel 110 against the floor 62 should be sufficient to prevent the wheel 110 from sliding sideways when the stretcher 20 is turned. A spring force of approximately 40 pounds (about 18 kilograms) has been found to be adequate. As can be seen, the spring 136 biases the second fork 122 away from the angled configuration and toward the in-line configuration, so that the wheel 110 is biased to a position past the plane defined by the bottoms of the casters 60 when the wheel 110 is lowered for engaging the floor 62. Of course, the floor 62 limits the downward movement of deployed wheel 110. However, if the floor 62 has a surface that is not planar or that is not coincident with the plane defined by the casters 60, the spring 136 cooperates with the first and second forks 120, 122 to maintain contact between the wheel 110 and the floor 62. Illustratively, the spring 136 can maintain engagement between the deployed wheel 110 and the floor 62 when the floor 62 beneath the wheel 110 is spaced approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) below the plane defined by the casters 60. Also, the spring 136 allows the deployed wheel 110 to pass over a threshold that is approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) above the plane defined by the casters 60 without causing the wheel 110 to move out of the steer position into the neutral position. The linkage assembly 100 includes an upper bent-cross bracket 144 coupled to the frame bracket 138, and supporting an upper pivot pin 146. Likewise, the linkage assembly 100 includes a lower bent-cross bracket 148 coupled to the wheel-mounting bracket 114, and supporting a lower pivot pin 150. In addition, the linkage assembly 100 includes (i) a pivot link 152 fixed to the brake-steer shaft 88, (ii) a connecting link 154 extending from the pivot link 152 to a common pivot pin 156, (iii) a frame link 158 extending from the common pivot pin 156 to the upper pivot pin 146 of the upper bent-cross bracket 144, and (iv) a bracket link 160 extending from the common pivot pin 156 to the lower pivot pin 150 of the lower bent-cross bracket 148. The frame link 158 and the bracket link 160 form a scissors-like arrangement as shown in FIGS. 2, 4 and 6. When the caregiver depresses brake pedal 72 (or the braking portion 92 of the brake-steer pedal 74) and rotates the brake-steer shaft 88 in the counter-clockwise direction 94 toward the brake position, the pivot link 152 pivots away from the wheel-mounting bracket 114, pulling the connecting link 154 and the common pivot pin 156 toward the brake-steer shaft 88 in the direction indicated by arrow 162 shown in FIG. 4. The upper bent-cross bracket 144 is vertically fixed relative to the lower frame 26 and the lower bent-cross bracket 148 is fixed to the wheel-mounting bracket 114, which is pivotably mounted to the lower frame 26 for upward and downward pivoting movement relative to the lower frame 26. Movement of the common pivot pin 156 in the direction 162 closes the scissors arrangement formed by the frame link 158 and the bracket link 160 as shown in phantom in FIG. 4, pulling the bracket link 160 upwardly. Pulling the bracket link 160 upwardly pivots the wheel-mounting bracket 114 in the direction of arrow 164 shown in FIG. 3, and further lifts the wheel 110 off of the floor 62. When the caregiver depresses the steering portion 96 of the brake-steer pedal 74 and rotates the brake-steer shaft 88 in the clockwise direction 98 (shown in FIG. 6) toward the steer position, the pivot link 152 pivots toward the wheel-mounting bracket 114 pushing the connecting link 154 and the common pivot pin 156 away from the brake-steer shaft 88 in the direction of arrow 166 shown in FIG. 6. Movement of the common pivot pin 156 in the direction indicated by arrow 166 opens the scissors arrangement formed by the frame link 158 and the bracket link 160, and pushes the bracket link 160 downwardly. Pushing the bracket link 160 downwardly pivots the wheel-mounting bracket 114 in the direction of arrow 168 shown in FIG. 5, thus deploying the wheel 110 into engagement with the floor 62. When the brake-steer shaft 88 is in the steer position, the pivot link 152 contacts a frame member 170 coupled to the lower frame 26, stopping the brake-steer shaft 88 from further rotation in the clockwise direction as shown in FIG. 6. When the pivot link 152 contacts the frame member 170, the common pivot pin 156 is in an “over-the-center position” away from the brake-steer shaft 88 and beyond a vertical plane 172 (shown in FIG. 6) defined by the upper and lower pivot pins 146 and 150, so that the scissors arrangement formed by the frame link 158 and bracket link 160 is in a generally fully-opened position. The upward tension of spring 136 in conjunction with the over-the-center position of the common pivot pin 156 biases the pivot link 152 against the frame member 170 and biases the common pivot pin 156 away from the brake-steer shaft 88, to lock the wheel 110 and the brake-steer shaft 88 in the steer position shown in FIGS. 5 and 8-10. Thus, the stretcher 20 includes the brake pedal 72 and the brake-steer pedal 74 connected to the longitudinally extending brake-steer shaft 88. Actuation of the brake pedal 72 or the brake-steer pedal 74 by the caregiver simultaneously controls the position of wheel 110 and the braking of casters 60. The brake-steer pedal 74 has a horizontal neutral position where the wheel 110 is at the first distance above the floor 62 and the casters 60 are free to rotate and swivel. From the neutral position, the caregiver can push the brake pedal 72 or the braking portion 92 of the brake-steer pedal 74 down to rotate the brake-steer shaft 88 by about 30 degrees to the brake position to brake the casters 60. In addition, when the brake-steer shaft 88 rotates to the brake position, the pivot link 152 pivots away from the wheel-mounting bracket 114 pulling the connecting link 154 and the common pivot pin 156 in the direction 162 (shown in FIG. 4) and closing the scissors arrangement of the frame link 158 and the bracket link 160 to lift the wheel 110 to the second higher distance above the floor 62. The caregiver can also push the steering portion 96 of the brake-steer pedal 74 down to rotate the brake-steer shaft 88 by about 30 degrees past the neutral position to the steer position in which the casters 60 are free to rotate and swivel. In addition, when the brake-steer shaft 88 rotates to the steer position, the pivot link 152 pivots toward the wheel-mounting bracket 114 pushing the connecting link 154 and the common pivot pin 156 in the direction 166 (shown in FIG. 6) and opening the scissors arrangement formed by the frame link 158 and the bracket link 160 to deploy the wheel 110 to engage floor 62 with enough pressure to facilitate steering of the stretcher 20. In the steer position, the second fork 122 of the wheel-mounting bracket 114 pivots relative to the first fork 120 and relative to the lower frame 26. The wheel 110 is spring-biased into engagement with the floor 62 with sufficient force to permit the wheel 110 to track differences in elevation of the floor 62. Reference may be made to the above-mentioned U.S. patent application, Ser. No. 09/150,890, entitled “STRETCHER CENTER WHEEL MECHANISM”, for further description of the linkage assembly 100 for lifting and lowering the wheel 110. The construction and operation of a first embodiment of a drive assembly 200 of the present invention will now be described with reference to FIGS. 7-10. The drive assembly 200 includes a variable speed, bidirectional drive motor 202 having a rotatable output shaft 204, and a selectively engagable clutch 206 to selectively couple the drive motor 202 to the wheel 110 when the clutch 206 is engaged. As previously described, the wheel 110 has three positions—(i) a neutral position in which the wheel 110 is raised the first distance above the floor 62 as shown in FIGS. 3 and 7, (ii) a brake position in which the wheel 110 is raised the second higher distance above the floor 62, and (iii) a steer position in which the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62 as shown in FIGS. 5 and 8-10. When the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62, the drive assembly 200 has (a) a first, manual drive mode of operation decoupled from the wheel 110 (when the clutch is disengaged as shown in FIGS. 5 and 8) so that the wheel 110 is free to rotate when the stretcher 20 is manually pushed along the floor 62 without hindrance from the drive motor 202, and (b) a second, power drive mode of operation coupled to the wheel 110 (when the clutch is engaged as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10) to drive the wheel 110 to propel the stretcher 20 along the floor 62. The selectively engagable clutch 206 includes a drive pulley 208 mounted on the rotatable output shaft 204 of the drive motor 202, a driven pulley 210 coaxially mounted on the axle 112 and coupled to the wheel 110, a slipbelt 212 (also referred to herein as belt 212) extending loosely between and around the drive pulley 208 and the driven pulley 210, an idler 214 having a first position (shown in FIGS. 5 and 8) spaced apart from or lightly contacting the belt 212 and a second position (shown in FIGS. 9 and 10) pressed against the belt 212 to put tension in the belt 212, a support bracket 216 pivotally mounted to the head end portion 130 of the wheel-mounting bracket 114 about a pivot pin 218, an actuator 220 mounted to the lower frame 26, and a gas spring 222 having its ends 224 and 226 pivotally coupled to the support bracket 216 and an output member 228 threadably engaging a rotatable output shaft 230 of the actuator 220. The support bracket 216, the actuator 220 and the gas spring 222 are sometimes referred to herein as a second assembly or second linkage assembly. In the specification and claims, the language “idler 214 is spaced apart from the slipbelt 212” or “idler 214 is lightly contacting the slipbelt 212” is used for convenience only to connote that the slipbelt 212 is not in tension and the drive motor 202 is decoupled from the wheel 110 as shown in FIGS. 5 and 8. Thus, the language “idler 214 is spaced apart from the slipbelt 212” or “idler 214 is lightly contacting the slipbelt 212” is to be construed to mean that the drive motor 202 is decoupled from the wheel 110, and not to be construed to limit the scope of the invention. In the manual drive mode, when the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62 and the clutch 206 is disengaged as shown in FIGS. 5 and 8, the support bracket 216 has a first orientation in which the idler 214 is spaced apart from or lightly contacting the belt 212 so that the wheel 110 is free to rotate when the stretcher 20 is manually pushed along the floor 62 without hindrance from the drive motor 202. In the power drive mode, when the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62 and the clutch 206 is engaged as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10, the support bracket 216 has a second orientation in which the idler 214 is pressed against the belt 212 to transfer rotation from the drive motor 202 to the wheel 110 to propel the stretcher 20 along the floor 62. A power source, such as a rechargeable battery 242, is inserted into a recessed battery compartment 244 formed in the lower frame 26 as shown in FIG. 1a for supplying power to the drive motor 202 and the actuator 220. The battery compartment 244 has terminals 246 for engagement with corresponding terminals 248 on the rechargeable battery 242 when the battery 242 is inserted in the battery compartment 244. A main, on/off power switch 250 is mounted on the lower frame 26 away from the patient support deck 50 for connecting and disconnecting the drive motor 202 and the actuator 220 to and from the battery 242. A limit switch 252 is mounted on the lower frame 26 next to the linkage assembly 100, as shown in FIGS. 4 and 6, for sensing when the wheel 110 is lowered for engaging the floor 62. A rotary switch assembly 254 is coupled to a distal end 86 of the handle post 84 of the first push bar 80 as shown in FIGS. 1 and 11 for controlling the speed and direction of the variable speed, bidirectional drive motor 202. The stretcher 20 is in the manual drive mode when the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62, but the main power switch 250 on the lower frame 26 is switched off as shown in FIGS. 5 and 8. In the manual drive mode, the actuator 220 remains inactivated allowing the belt 212 to ride loosely over the drive and driven pulleys 208 and 210 to permit the wheel 110 to rotate freely when the stretcher 20 is manually pushed along the floor 62 without interference from the drive assembly 200. The stretcher 20 is in the power drive mode when the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62, and the main power switch 250 on the lower frame 26 is turned on as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. In the power drive mode, the actuator 220 is activated to press the idler 214 against the belt 212 to couple the drive motor 202 to the wheel 110 to propel the stretcher 20 along the floor 62 in response to the operation of the rotary switch assembly 254 on the handle post 84. A generally vertically oriented spring 232 (FIGS. 3, 5 and 7) coupled between a head end 30 of the idler support bracket 216 and the lower frame 26 helps to fully lift the linkage assembly 100 off the floor 62 when in neutral or brake positions. Alternatively, the vertically oriented spring 232 may be coupled between a head end 30 of the wheel-mounting bracket 114 and the lower frame 26. Guide rollers (not shown) are provided to prevent the belt 212 from slipping off the drive and driven pulleys 208 and 210. When the actuator 220 is activated to press the idler 214 against the belt 212, the gas spring 222 is compressed as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10 to provide additional downward biasing force between the wheel 110 and the floor 62. Illustratively, the additional downward biasing force exerted by the compressed gas spring 222 is between seventy five pounds and one hundred pounds. FIG. 14 schematically shows the electrical system 240 for the drive assembly 200. The limit switch 252 senses when the wheel 110 is lowered for engaging the floor 62, and provides an input signal to a controller 256. The controller 256 activates the actuator 220 when the main power switch 250 is turned on and the limit switch 252 senses that the wheel 110 is engaging the floor 62. When the actuator 220 is turned on, the output member 228 of the actuator 220 is translated in the direction of arrow 258 (shown in FIG. 8) to cause the support bracket 216 to pivot clockwise about the pivot pin 218 to press the idler 214 against the belt 212 as shown in FIG. 9 to transfer rotation from the drive motor 202 to the wheel 110. The drive motor 202 then propels the stretcher 20 along the floor 62 in response to the operation of the rotary switch assembly 254. The rotary switch assembly 254 is rotated to a forward position for forward motion of the stretcher 20 and is rotated to a reverse position for reverse motion of the stretcher 20. The speed of the variable speed drive motor 202 is determined by the extent of rotation of the rotary switch assembly 254. The rotary switch assembly 254 coupled to the distal end 86 of the handle post 84 will now be described with reference to FIGS. 12 and 13. FIG. 12 is an exploded perspective view of the rotary switch assembly 254, and FIG. 13 is a sectional view of the rotary switch assembly 254. The distal end 86 of the handle post 84 includes a generally cylindrical hollow tube 260 defining an axis 262. The rotary switch assembly 254 includes a bidirectional rotary switch 264 positioned inside the hollow tube 260 to rotate about the axis 262. Control wires 266 of the rotary switch 264 are routed through the hollow tube 260 for connection to the controller 256. The rotary switch 264 includes an input shaft 268 which is configured to be inserted into a chuck 270 coupled to an inner end of a control shaft 272. A thumb wheel 274 is coupled to an outer end of the chuck 270 by a set screw 276. The control shaft 272 is inserted into an outer sleeve 278 through an outer end thereof. The rotary switch 264 includes a threaded portion 280 that is screwed into a flange portion 282 formed at an inner end of the outer sleeve 278. The outer sleeve 278 is configured to be press fitted into the hollow tube 260 formed at the distal end 86 of the handle post 84 as shown in FIG. 13. The rotary switch assembly 254 is biased toward a neutral position between the forward and reverse positions thereof. To this end, the control shaft 272 is formed to include wedge-shaped camming surfaces 284 which are configured to cooperate with corresponding, notch-shaped camming surfaces 286 formed in an inner sleeve 288 slidably received in the outer sleeve 278. The inside surface of the outer sleeve 278 is formed to include raised guide portions 290 which are configured to be received in corresponding guide grooves 292 formed on the outer surface of the inner sleeve 288. The reception of the guide portions 290 of the outer sleeve 278 in the corresponding guide grooves 292 in the inner sleeve 288 allows the inner sleeve 288 to slide inside the outer sleeve 278, while preventing rotation of the inner sleeve 288 relative to the outer sleeve 278. A spring 294 is disposed between the inner sleeve 288 and the flange portion 282 of the outer sleeve 278. The spring 294 biases the camming surfaces 286 of the inner sleeve 288 into engagement with the camming surfaces 284 of the control shaft 272 to, in turn, bias the thumb wheel 274 to automatically return to a neutral position thereof when released. Thus, the thumb wheel 274 is movable to a forward position in which the drive assembly 200 operates to drive the wheel 110 in a forward direction to propel the stretcher 20 in the forward direction, and the thumb wheel 274 is movable to a reverse position in which the drive assembly 200 operates to drive the wheel 110 in a reverse direction to propel the stretcher 20 in the reverse direction. The handle post 84 may be marked with an indicia to provide a visual indication of the neutral position of the thumb wheel 274. Illustratively, the drive motor 202 is Model No. M6030/G33, manufactured by Rae Corporation, the linear actuator 220 is Model No. LA22.1-130-24-01, manufactured by Linak Corporation, and the rotary switch 264 is Model No. RV6N502C-ND, manufactured by Precision Corporation. FIGS. 15-17 show an alternative push-type switch assembly 300 for operating the drive motor 202. The push-type switch assembly 300 is coupled to the distal end 86 of the handle post 84 of the first push bar 80. The push-type switch assembly 300 includes a pressure sensitive, push-type switch 302 positioned inside the hollow tube 260 formed at the distal end 86 of the handle post 84. Control cables 304 of the push-type switch 302 are routed through the hollow tube 260 for connection to the controller 256. The push-type switch 302 includes a threaded portion 306 that is screwed into a threaded portion 308 formed on the inside surface of an outer sleeve 310. The outer sleeve 310 is configured to be press fitted into the hollow tube 260 of the handle post 84 as shown in FIGS. 16 and 17. The push-type switch 302 includes an input shaft 312 which is configured to be in engagement with a flexible dome-shaped cap 314. The flexible dome-shaped cap 314 is snap fitted over a flange portion 316 of the outer sleeve 310. The farther the input shaft 312 on the push-type switch 302 is pushed, the faster the drive motor 202 runs. A forward/reverse toggle switch 318 is mounted near a distal end 86 of the second push bar 82 to change the direction of the drive motor 202 as shown in FIG. 15a. Alternatively, the forward/reverse toggle switch 318 may be located at some other location—for example, the lower frame 26. Thus, the forward/reverse toggle switch 318 is moved to a forward position in which the drive motor 202 operates to drive the wheel 110 in a forward direction to propel the stretcher 20 in the forward direction, and the forward/reverse toggle switch 318 is moved to a reverse position in which the drive motor 202 operates to drive the wheel 110 in a reverse direction to propel the stretcher 20 in the reverse direction. The speed of the drive motor 202, on the other hand, is determined by the extent to which the push-type switch 302 is pushed. Illustratively, the push-type switch 302 is of the type sold by Duncan Corporation. FIGS. 18 and 19 show an alternative configuration of the drive assembly 350 drivingly couplable to the wheel 110 for propelling the stretcher 20 along the floor 62. As shown therein, the wheel 110 is mounted directly on an output shaft 352 of a drive motor 354. The drive motor 354 is, in turn, mounted to a bracket 356 coupled to the wheel-mounting bracket 114. Control cables 358 of the drive motor 354 are routed to the controller 256 along the wheel-mounting bracket 114. Illustratively, the drive motor 354 is of the type sold by Rockland Corporation. FIGS. 19 and 20 show another alternative configuration of the drive assembly 400 drivingly couplable to the wheel 110 for propelling the stretcher 20 along the floor 62. As shown therein, the wheel 110 is mounted directly on a rim portion 402 of a rotor 404 of a hub-type drive motor 406. The stationary stator shaft 408 of the hub-type drive motor 406 is coupled to the wheel-mounting bracket 114. Control cables 410 of the drive motor 406 are routed to the controller 256 along the wheel-mounting bracket 114. Illustratively, the hub-type drive motor 406 is Model No. 80-200-48-850, manufactured by PML Manufacturing Company. Although the invention has been described in detail with reference to a certain preferred embodiment, variations and modifications exist within the scope and spirit of the invention as described and as defined in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a stretcher such as a wheeled stretcher for use in a hospital, and particularly to a wheeled stretcher having a wheel that can be deployed to contact a floor along which the stretcher is being pushed. More particularly, the present invention relates to a wheeled stretcher having a motorized wheel. It is known to provide hospital stretchers with four casters, one at each corner, that rotate and swivel, as well as a center wheel that can be lowered to engage the floor. See, for example, U.S. patent application, Ser. No. 09/150,890, filed on Sep. 10, 1998, entitled “STRETCHER CENTER WHEEL MECHANISM”, for Heimbrock et al., which patent application is assigned to the assignee of the present invention and incorporated herein by reference. Other examples of wheeled stretchers are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,806,111 to Heimbrock et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,348,326 to Fullenkamp et al., both of which are assigned to the assignee of the present invention, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,083,625 to Bleicher; U.S. Pat. No. 4,164,355 to Eaton et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 3,304,116 to Stryker; and U.S. Pat. No. 2,599,717 to Menzies. The center wheel is typically free to rotate but is constrained from swiveling in order to facilitate turning the stretcher around corners. The center wheel may be yieldably biased downwardly against the floor to permit the center wheel to track differences in the elevation of the floor. The present invention comprises improvements to such wheeled stretchers. According to the present invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along a floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel supported relative to the frame and engaging the floor, and a drive assembly drivingly couplable to the wheel. The drive assembly has a first mode of operation decoupled from the wheel so that the wheel is free to rotate when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive assembly. The drive assembly has a second mode of operation coupled to the wheel to drive the wheel and propel the stretcher along the floor. According to still another aspect of the present invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along the floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel coupled to the frame and engaging the floor, a push handle coupled to the frame to maneuver the stretcher along the floor, a drive assembly selectively couplable to the wheel and being operable to drive the wheel and propel the stretcher along the floor, and a hand control coupled to a distal end of the push handle to operate the drive assembly. In accordance with a further aspect, the drive assembly includes a motor having a rotatable output shaft, a belt coupled to the output shaft and the wheel, and a belt tensioner movable to tension the belt so that the belt transfers rotation from the output shaft to the wheel. According to a still further aspect, the belt tensioner includes a bracket, an idler coupled to the bracket, and an actuator coupled to the idler bracket. Illustratively, the actuator has a first orientation in which the idler is spaced apart from or lightly contacting the belt, and a second orientation in which the idler engages the belt to tension the belt to transfer rotation from the drive motor to the wheel. In accordance with another embodiment of the drive assembly, the wheel is mounted directly on an output shaft of a drive motor. In accordance with still another embodiment of the drive assembly, the wheel is mounted directly on a rim portion of a rotor of a drive motor. In accordance with another aspect, the stretcher further includes a battery supported on the frame and an on/off switch coupled to the drive motor and the actuator. The on/off switch has an “on” position in which the drive motor and the actuator are supplied with electrical power, and an “off” position in which the drive motor and the idler bracket actuator are prevented from receiving electrical power. In accordance with still another aspect, the second mode of operation of the drive assembly includes a forward mode in which the drive assembly is configured so that the wheel is driven in a forward direction, and a reverse mode in which the drive assembly is configured so that the wheel is driven in a reverse direction. Illustratively, movement of a control to a forward position configures the drive assembly in the forward mode, and to a reverse position configures the drive assembly in the reverse mode. In one embodiment, the control includes a rotatable switch coupled to a distal end of a push handle, and which is biased to a neutral position between the forward position and the reverse position. In another embodiment, the control includes a push-type switch coupled to a distal end of a push handle to control the speed of the drive motor, and a forward/reverse switch located on the stretcher to control the direction of rotation of the drive motor. According to another aspect of the invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along a floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a first assembly coupled to the frame for rotatably supporting a wheel between a first position spaced apart from the floor and a second position engaging the floor, a selectively engagable clutch configured to selectively couple a drive motor to the wheel when the clutch is engaged. Illustratively, the clutch allows the wheel to rotate freely when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive motor when the wheel is engaging the floor and the clutch is disengaged. On the other hand, the drive motor drives the wheel to propel the stretcher along the floor when the wheel is engaging the floor and the clutch is engaged. Additional features of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon a consideration of the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the invention as presently perceived. | <SOH> BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a stretcher such as a wheeled stretcher for use in a hospital, and particularly to a wheeled stretcher having a wheel that can be deployed to contact a floor along which the stretcher is being pushed. More particularly, the present invention relates to a wheeled stretcher having a motorized wheel. It is known to provide hospital stretchers with four casters, one at each corner, that rotate and swivel, as well as a center wheel that can be lowered to engage the floor. See, for example, U.S. patent application, Ser. No. 09/150,890, filed on Sep. 10, 1998, entitled “STRETCHER CENTER WHEEL MECHANISM”, for Heimbrock et al., which patent application is assigned to the assignee of the present invention and incorporated herein by reference. Other examples of wheeled stretchers are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,806,111 to Heimbrock et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,348,326 to Fullenkamp et al., both of which are assigned to the assignee of the present invention, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,083,625 to Bleicher; U.S. Pat. No. 4,164,355 to Eaton et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 3,304,116 to Stryker; and U.S. Pat. No. 2,599,717 to Menzies. The center wheel is typically free to rotate but is constrained from swiveling in order to facilitate turning the stretcher around corners. The center wheel may be yieldably biased downwardly against the floor to permit the center wheel to track differences in the elevation of the floor. The present invention comprises improvements to such wheeled stretchers. According to the present invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along a floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel supported relative to the frame and engaging the floor, and a drive assembly drivingly couplable to the wheel. The drive assembly has a first mode of operation decoupled from the wheel so that the wheel is free to rotate when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive assembly. The drive assembly has a second mode of operation coupled to the wheel to drive the wheel and propel the stretcher along the floor. According to still another aspect of the present invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along the floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a wheel coupled to the frame and engaging the floor, a push handle coupled to the frame to maneuver the stretcher along the floor, a drive assembly selectively couplable to the wheel and being operable to drive the wheel and propel the stretcher along the floor, and a hand control coupled to a distal end of the push handle to operate the drive assembly. In accordance with a further aspect, the drive assembly includes a motor having a rotatable output shaft, a belt coupled to the output shaft and the wheel, and a belt tensioner movable to tension the belt so that the belt transfers rotation from the output shaft to the wheel. According to a still further aspect, the belt tensioner includes a bracket, an idler coupled to the bracket, and an actuator coupled to the idler bracket. Illustratively, the actuator has a first orientation in which the idler is spaced apart from or lightly contacting the belt, and a second orientation in which the idler engages the belt to tension the belt to transfer rotation from the drive motor to the wheel. In accordance with another embodiment of the drive assembly, the wheel is mounted directly on an output shaft of a drive motor. In accordance with still another embodiment of the drive assembly, the wheel is mounted directly on a rim portion of a rotor of a drive motor. In accordance with another aspect, the stretcher further includes a battery supported on the frame and an on/off switch coupled to the drive motor and the actuator. The on/off switch has an “on” position in which the drive motor and the actuator are supplied with electrical power, and an “off” position in which the drive motor and the idler bracket actuator are prevented from receiving electrical power. In accordance with still another aspect, the second mode of operation of the drive assembly includes a forward mode in which the drive assembly is configured so that the wheel is driven in a forward direction, and a reverse mode in which the drive assembly is configured so that the wheel is driven in a reverse direction. Illustratively, movement of a control to a forward position configures the drive assembly in the forward mode, and to a reverse position configures the drive assembly in the reverse mode. In one embodiment, the control includes a rotatable switch coupled to a distal end of a push handle, and which is biased to a neutral position between the forward position and the reverse position. In another embodiment, the control includes a push-type switch coupled to a distal end of a push handle to control the speed of the drive motor, and a forward/reverse switch located on the stretcher to control the direction of rotation of the drive motor. According to another aspect of the invention, a stretcher for transporting a patient along a floor includes a frame, a plurality of casters coupled to the frame, a first assembly coupled to the frame for rotatably supporting a wheel between a first position spaced apart from the floor and a second position engaging the floor, a selectively engagable clutch configured to selectively couple a drive motor to the wheel when the clutch is engaged. Illustratively, the clutch allows the wheel to rotate freely when the stretcher is manually pushed along the floor without hindrance from the drive motor when the wheel is engaging the floor and the clutch is disengaged. On the other hand, the drive motor drives the wheel to propel the stretcher along the floor when the wheel is engaging the floor and the clutch is engaged. Additional features of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon a consideration of the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the invention as presently perceived. | 20041123 | 20060314 | 20050407 | 67930.0 | 1 | LUM VANNUCCI, LEE SIN YEE | PATIENT SUPPORT APPARATUS HAVING A MOTORIZED WHEEL | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,370 | ACCEPTED | Upright vacuum cleaner with cyclonic airflow | A vacuum cleaner includes a first housing defining a cyclonic airflow chamber and a second housing defining a main suction opening that is in communication with an inlet of the cyclonic chamber. A suction source has a suction airstream inlet in communication with an outlet of the cyclonic chamber, and establishes a suction airstream that enters said main suction opening, passes through said cyclonic chamber, and passes to an outlet of said suction source. A substantial portion of particulates entrained in the suction airstream are separated therefrom when said suction airstream moves in a cyclonic fashion through the cyclonic chamber. A main filter assembly, preferably including filter medium comprising polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), is located in the cyclonic chamber so that a suction airstream moving from the main suction opening to the inlet of said suction source by way of the cyclonic airflow chamber passes through the filter medium thereof after said airstream moves in a cyclonic fashion within the cyclonic airflow chamber to remove residual particulates from the suction airstream before it leaves the cyclonic chamber. A HEPA filter can be provided to filter the suction airstream exhausted through the outlet of the suction source prior to the airstream being discharged from the vacuum. | 1-21. (canceled) 22. A vacuum cleaner comprising: a housing including a cyclonic airflow chamber adapted for separating dust and dirt from an airstream, wherein a suction opening is in fluid communication with an inlet of said cyclonic airflow chamber; a handle for manipulating said housing over a surface to be cleaned; an airflow source located in said housing and having an airflow inlet in fluid communication with an outlet of said cyclonic airflow chamber and an airflow outlet; a main filter located at a downstream end of said cyclonic airflow chamber for filtering dust and dirt from the airstream that passes through said cyclonic airflow chamber, wherein said main filter comprises a pleated planar material, said main filter being selectively removeable from said housing; and, a dust cup mounted to said housing and defining at least a portion of said cyclonic airflow chamber for receiving and retaining dirt and dust separated from the airstream, said dust cup being selectively detachable from said housing for emptying. 23. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22 further comprising: a final filter in fluid communication with said airflow outlet of said airflow source and adapted for filtering the airstream exhausted by said airflow source prior to the airstream being dispersed into the atmosphere. 24. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22 wherein said suction opening communicates with said cyclonic airflow chamber whereby, upon activation of said airflow source, dust and dirt from a surface being cleaned are entrained in the airstream, the airstream traveling: (a) from said suction opening into said cyclonic airflow chamber through said inlet; (b) in a cyclonic fashion within said cyclonic airflow chamber so that at least a portion of the entrained dust and dirt is separated from the suction airstream and deposited in said dust cup; (c) through said main filter assembly; and, (d) to said airflow source. 25. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 23 wherein one of said main filter and said final filter includes a filter element that comprises a thermoplastic material. 26. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22 wherein said main filter element comprises a filter medium for blocking at least 99% of particles having a size of at least 0.3 μ.m. 27. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22 wherein said dust cup is detachable from said housing to allow emptying of said dust cup. 28. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22 wherein said main filter extends along a longitudinal axis of said dust cup. 29. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22, wherein said main filter is approximately cylindrical in shape. 30. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 22 further comprising: an auxiliary filter element positioned between said main filter and said airflow source and adapted to filter the airstream before the airstream passes to said airflow source. 31. A vacuum cleaner comprising: a housing comprising a cyclonic airflow chamber adapted for separating entrained dirt and dust from a circulating airstream; an airstream source located in said housing and having an airstream inlet and an airstream outlet, said air stream source generating and maintaining an airstream flowing from said airstream inlet to said airstream outlet; a handle mounted to said housing to allow manipulation of said housing over a surface meant to be cleaned; a filter including a filter medium, said filter being located at an outlet end of said cyclonic airflow chamber so that the airstream passes through said filter medium after the airstream moves in a cyclonic fashion within said cyclonic airflow chamber, said filter being detachably mounted in said housing and being removable therefrom for cleaning; and, a dust cup mounted to said housing and defining at least a portion of said cyclonic airflow chamber for receiving and retaining dirt and dust separated from the air stream, said dust cup being selectively detachable from said housing for emptying, said dust cup communicating with a main suction opening of the vacuum cleaner. 32. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31 wherein said filter is approximately cylindrical in shape. 33. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31 wherein said filter medium of said filter comprises a pleated planar material. 34. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31 wherein said filter medium of said filter is supported on a support structure. 35. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31 wherein said filter is arranged to be approximately coaxial with a central longitudinal axis of said cyclonic airflow chamber. 36. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31 wherein said inlet of said cyclonic airflow chamber is arranged so that the airstream entering said cyclonic airflow chamber through said inlet of said cyclonic chamber moves cyclonically about said filter. 37. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31, wherein said filter medium of said filter blocks passage of at least 99% of particulates that have a size of at least 0.3 μ.m. 38. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 31 further comprising: an auxiliary filter for filtering particulates from the airstream exiting said cyclonic airflow chamber. 39. A vacuum cleaner comprising; a housing comprising a socket for holding a selectively removable dirt cup that at least partially defines a cyclonic dirt separation chamber for separating contaminants from an airstream, said housing further defining an airstream inlet to said dirt separation chamber and an airstream outlet from said dirt separation chamber and a main suction opening fluidically connected with said chamber inlet; an airstream source, located in said housing for selectively establishing and maintaining a flow of the airstream; and, a main filter element positioned in said housing to cover said outlet of said dirt separation chamber, said main filter element comprising a pleated planar material for filtering residual contaminants from said airstream prior to said airstream exiting said chamber. 40. The vacuum cleaner of claim 39 further comprising a support element for releasably connecting said main filter element to said dirt cup. 41. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 39 further comprising: a final filter element in fluid communication with said airstream source and positioned adjacent an outlet from which said airstream is exhausted from said housing into the atmosphere. 42. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 39 wherein said main filter element includes a cleanable filter material. 43. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 42, wherein said cleanable filter material comprises a thermoplastic material. 44. A vacuum cleaner apparatus comprising: a housing including a suction source in fluid communication with a suction opening and an airflow chamber in fluid communication with said suction source for imparting a cyclonic flow pattern to an airstream that flows from said suction opening through said airflow chamber, whereby a portion of particulates entrained in the airstream is separated from the airstream leaving residual particulates entrained in the airstream; a handle mounted to said housing to enable manipulation of said housing over a surface meant to be cleaned; a filter assembly located in said airflow chamber and including a filter member placed in covering relation with an outlet of said airflow chamber whereby at least some of the residual particulates entrained in the airstream are blocked from exiting said airflow chamber, said filter member being selectively removable from said housing; and, a dirt cup selectively mounted to said housing, wherein said dirt cup collects the portion of particulates separated from the airstream, and is removable from said housing for emptying. 45. The vacuum cleaner apparatus as set forth in claim 44, wherein said filter member comprises a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) material. 46. The vacuum cleaner apparatus as set forth in claim 44, wherein said filter member comprises a porous thermoplastic material. 47. The vacuum cleaner apparatus as set forth in claim 44, wherein said filter assembly further comprises: a filter support located in said airflow chamber and adapted to releasably support said filter member in covering relation with said outlet of said airflow chamber. 48. The vacuum cleaner apparatus as set forth in claim 44, wherein said filter member is approximately cylindrical in shape. 49. A vacuum cleaner comprising: a housing in fluid communication with a nozzle; a handle mounted to said housing to enable manipulation of said housing over a surface meant to be cleaned; a dirt cup removably mounted to said housing, said dirt cup comprising a cyclonic dirt separation chamber for separating dirt and dust from an airstream that flows therethrough; a suction source for the airstream, said suction source being located in said housing; a filter construction located in said dirt separation chamber and comprising: (i) a filter holder; and, (ii) a filter element held by said filter holder adjacent an outlet of said dirt separation chamber for filtering the airstream before it exits said dirt separation chamber, said filter element comprising a pleated planar material and being selectively detachable from said filter holder for cleaning. 50. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 49, wherein said filter construction is located in said dirt cup. 51. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 50, further comprising a latch for selectively fixedly securing said dirt cup to said housing. 52. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 49, wherein said filter holder comprises an open frame structure. 53. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 49, wherein said filter construction is disposed relative to the dirt separation chamber such that the airstream is partially filtered by the dirt separation chamber before said airstream contacts said filter element. 54. A vacuum cleaner comprising: a housing comprising a dirt separation chamber at least partially defined by a removable dirt cup, said dirt separation chamber separating dirt from an airstream flowing through said chamber by imparting a cyclonic flow pattern to said airstream, and said dirt cup receiving and retaining dirt separated from said airstream in said dirt separation chamber; a handle mounted to said housing to enable manipulation of said housing over a surface to be cleaned; a suction source, held by said housing and located downstream from said dirt separation chamber, for establishing and maintaining the airstream that flows from a nozzle into said dirt separation chamber, and out of said dirt separation chamber; a filter support located in said dirt separation chamber; a filter element releasably secured to said filter support and positioned to filter the airstream as the airstream exits said dirt separation chamber, said filter element comprising a pleated planar material. 55. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 54, wherein said housing defines a region for receiving and supporting said removable dirt cup and a latch for selectively fixedly securing said dirt cup to said housing. 56. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 54, wherein said filter element has a longitudinal axis which is parallel to a longitudinal axis of said dirt cup. 57. A vacuum cleaner comprising: a housing including a handle, a suction source, a cyclonic dirt separation chamber and a nozzle communicating with said cyclonic dirt separation chamber; a dirt cup removably mounted to said housing, said dirt cup defining at least a portion of said cyclonic dirt separation chamber; and a filter mounted to said housing for filtering an associated airstream passing through said cyclonic dirt separation chamber, said filter comprising a pleated planar material and being selectively removable from said housing for cleaning. 58. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 57, wherein said filter is releasably secured to said dirt cup and wherein said dirt cup and filter are movable as a unit relative to said housing. 59. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 57 wherein said filter is approximately cylindrical in shape. 60. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 57 wherein said filter includes a longitudinal axis which is parallel to a longitudinal axis of said housing. 61. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 57 wherein said filter comprises a thermoplastic material. 62. The vacuum cleaner as set forth in claim 57 further comprising a support on which said filter is mounted to said housing. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to vacuum cleaners. More particularly, the present invention relates to upright vacuum cleaners used for suctioning dirt and debris from carpets and floors. Upright vacuum cleaners are ubiquitous. They are known to include an upper portion having a handle, by which an operator of the vacuum cleaner may grasp and maneuver the cleaner, and a lower cleaning nozzle portion which travels across a floor, carpet, or other surface being cleaned. The upper portion is often formed as a rigid plastic housing which encloses a dirt and dust collecting filter bag, although the upper portion may simply be an elongated handle with the filter bag, and an external cloth bag, being hung therefrom. The cleaning nozzle is hingedly connected to the upper handle portion such that the upper portion is pivotable between a generally vertical upright storage position and an inclined operative position. The underside of the nozzle includes a suction opening formed therein which is in fluid communication with the filter bag. A vacuum or suction source such as a motor and fan assembly is enclosed either within the nozzle portion or the upper portion of the cleaner. The vacuum source generates the suction required to pull dirt from the carpet or floor being vacuumed through the suction opening and into the filter bag. A rotating brush assembly is typically provided in proximity with the suction opening to loosen dirt and debris from the surface being vacuumed. To avoid the need for vacuum filter bags, and the associated expense and inconvenience of replacing the bag, another type of upright vacuum cleaner utilizes cyclonic airflow, rather than a filter bag, to separate a majority of the dirt and other particulates from the suction airstream. The air is then filtered to remove residual particulates, returned to the motor, and exhausted. Such prior cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaners have not been found to be entirely effective and convenient to use. For example, with these prior cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaners, the process of emptying dust and dirt from the cyclonic chamber dirt collection container has been found to be inconvenient, and often resulted in the spillage of the cup contents. Likewise, with these prior units, replacement of the filter element has not been convenient. Other cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaners have been found to exhaust air which is not free of residual contaminants. For example, one prior unit filters the airstream after it passes through the cyclonic chamber, but thereafter passes the airstream through the motor assembly where it is potentially recontaminated by the motor assembly, itself, prior to its being exhausted into the atmosphere. Because the cyclonic action of such vacuum cleaners does not completely remove all dust, dirt, and other contaminants from the suction airstream, it is necessary to include a filter downstream from the cyclonic chamber. As such, prior cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaners have heretofore included conventional, non-washable filter elements including a conventional filtering medium to filter the airstream after it passes through the cyclonic chamber. These prior filter elements have caused considerable difficulties. A conventional filter that is sufficiently fine to filter the airstream effectively unduly restricts airflow and decreases the effectiveness of the cyclonic action. On the other hand, a coarse filter does not effectively filter the airstream of residual contaminants. Further, conventional filter media, such as paper or fibrous media, has been found to clog readily, thereby unduly decreasing airflow rates over time. Thus, a need has been found for a cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaner with an effective filter positioned in the cyclonic chamber for effectively filtering the airstream without clogging. Further, a need has been found for such a vacuum cleaner including a washable, re-usable filter element from which dirt is easily extracted. Accordingly, it has been deemed desirable to develop a new and improved upright vacuum cleaner that would overcome the foregoing difficulties and others while providing better and more advantageous overall results. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, an upright vacuum cleaner includes an upright housing and a nozzle base hingedly interconnected with the upright housing. The nozzle base includes a main suction opening in its underside. A cyclonic airflow chamber is defined in the upright housing and is adapted for separating dust and dirt from a cyclonically circulating suction airstream. The main suction opening is in fluid communication with the cyclonic airflow chamber. A suction source is located in the upright housing or nozzle base and has a suction airflow inlet in fluid communication with the cyclonic chamber, and also includes a suction airflow outlet. A main filter assembly is located in the cyclonic chamber upstream from the suction source for filtering dust and dirt from a suction airstream that passes through the cyclonic airflow chamber. The main filter element extends upwardly within the cyclonic airflow chamber from a floor of a dirt container portion of said housing that defines a lower portion of the cyclonic airflow chamber and that is adapted for receiving and retaining dirt and dust separated from the suction airstream. A conduit depends into the cyclonic airflow chamber from an upper wall of the housing, and the conduit is axially aligned and mates with an upper end of the main filter assembly whereby the main filter assembly and the conduit together define a hollow column structure in the cyclonic airflow chamber. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a vacuum cleaner comprises a first housing member defining a cyclonic airflow chamber adapted for separating entrained dirt and dust from a circulating airstream, and a second housing member defining a main suction opening. A first conduit fluidically connects the main suction opening to an inlet of the cyclonic airflow chamber. A suction source has a suction airstream inlet and a suction airstream outlet, and it is adapted for generating and maintaining a suction airstream flowing from the inlet downstream to the outlet. A second conduit fluidically connects an outlet of the cyclonic airflow chamber to the suction airstream inlet of the suction source. A main filter assembly includes a filter medium comprising a selectively permeable plastic material, and the main filter assembly is located in the cyclonic chamber so that a suction airstream moving from the main suction opening to the inlet of the suction source by way of the cyclonic airflow chamber passes through the filter medium after the airstream moves in a cyclonic fashion within the cyclonic airflow chamber. In accordance with still another aspect of the present invention, a vacuum cleaner apparatus includes a nozzle defining a main suction opening, and a main suction source in communication with the main suction opening. The main suction source is adapted for establishing a suction airstream that moves into the main suction opening and downstream into the suction source. A cyclonic chamber is placed in communication with and between the main suction opening and the suction source, and the cyclonic chamber is adapted for imparting a cyclonic flow to the suction airstream whereby a portion of particulates entrained in the suction airstream are separated therefrom, leaving residual particulates entrained in the suction airstream. A filter assembly is located in the cyclonic chamber and includes a filter membrane placed in covering relation with an outlet of the cyclonic chamber. Residual particulates entrained in the suction airstream are blocked from exiting the cyclonic chamber by the filter membrane, and the filter assembly adapted for being selectively removed from the cyclonic chamber, washed to remove particulates from the membrane, and replaced in the cyclonic chamber for further filtering operations. In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, a vacuum cleaner comprises a housing defining a cyclonic airflow chamber for separating contaminants from a suction airstream. The housing further defines a suction airstream inlet and a suction airstream outlet in fluid communication with the cyclonic airflow chamber. A nozzle base includes a main suction opening fluidically connected with the cyclonic airflow chamber inlet. An airstream suction source has an inlet fluidically connected to the cyclonic airflow chamber outlet and a suction source exhaust outlet. The suction source selectively establishes and maintains a suction airstream from the nozzle main suction opening to the suction source exhaust outlet. A main filter assembly is positioned in fluid communication between the cyclonic airflow chamber and the suction source and is adapted for filtering residual contaminants from the suction airstream downstream relative to the cyclonic airflow chamber. The main filter assembly comprising a polymeric filter membrane. One advantage of the present invention is the provision of a new and improved vacuum cleaner. Another advantage of the invention is found in the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a cyclonic airflow chamber through which the suction airstream flows for separating dust and dirt from the airstream and for depositing the separated dust and dirt into an easily and conveniently emptied dirt cup. Still another advantage of the present invention resides in the provision of a cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaner with a main filter that effectively filters residual contaminants from the suction airstream between the cyclonic airflow chamber and the motor assembly without unduly restricting airflow and without premature clogging. Yet another advantage of the invention is the provision of a cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaner with a final filter located downstream from the suction motor assembly for filtering the suction airstream immediately prior to its exhaustion into the atmosphere. A further advantage of the invention is the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a main filter, an auxiliary filter, and a final filter wherein the main, auxiliary, final filters are easily removable and replaceable. A still further advantage of the present invention is the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a cyclonic airflow chamber and main filter element, wherein the main filter element is positioned in a removable dirt cup partially defining the cyclonic airflow chamber for ease of emptying the dirt cup and cleaning the filter. A yet further advantage of the present invention resides in the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a cyclonic airflow chamber and a main filter assembly situated in the cyclonic airflow chamber, wherein the main filter assembly includes a re-usable filter element that is easily and repeatedly cleanable by washing. Still other benefits and advantages of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading and understanding the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention may take form in certain components and structures, preferred embodiments of which will be illustrated in the accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view illustrating a cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaner in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a front elevational view of the vacuum cleaner illustrated in FIG. 1; FIGS. 3 and 4 are left and right side elevational views, respectively, of the vacuum cleaner shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a rear elevational view of the vacuum cleaner of FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a bottom plan view of the vacuum cleaner of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is a front elevational view of the upright housing portion of the vacuum cleaner of FIG. 1; FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the final filter assembly in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 9 is a side elevational view in cross-section of a vacuum cleaner with cyclonic airflow in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention showing suction airflow through the cyclonic airflow dust and dirt separating chamber; FIG. 10 is an exploded perspective view of an upper housing member and associated depending upper conduit of the vacuum cleaner of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of the assembled upper housing member and conduit of FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is a perspective view of the upper conduit of FIG. 10; FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of a dirt cup, main filter assembly, and filter mount means as employed in the vacuum cleaner of FIG. 9; FIG. 14 is a rear elevational view of the dirt cup, main filter assembly, and filter mount means of FIG. 13 in an assembled condition; FIG. 15 is a rear elevational view of a preferred main filter assembly formed in accordance with the present invention; and, FIG. 16 is a view taken along line A-A of FIG. 15. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the FIGURES, wherein the showings are for purposes of illustrating a preferred embodiment of the invention only and not for purposes of limiting the same, FIGS. 1-6 illustrate an upright vacuum cleaner A including an upright housing section B and a nozzle base section C. The sections B,C are pivotally or hingedly connected through the use of trunnions or another suitable hinge assembly D so that the upright housing section B pivots between a generally vertical storage position (as shown) and an inclined, operative position. Both the upright and nozzle sections B,C are preferably made from conventional materials such as molded plastics and the like. The upright section B includes a handle 20 extending upward therefrom by which an operator of the vacuum A is able to grasp and maneuver the vacuum. During vacuuming operations, the nozzle base C travels across the floor, carpet, or other subjacent surface being cleaned. The underside 24 (FIG. 6) of the nozzle base includes a main suction opening 26 formed therein that extends substantially across the width of the nozzle base C at the front end thereof. The main suction opening 26 is in fluid communication with the vacuum upright body section B through a passage 30 and a connector hose assembly 34 (see also FIG. 5) or a like conduit. A rotating brush assembly 36 is positioned in the region of the nozzle main suction opening 26 for contacting and scrubbing the surface being vacuumed to loosen embedded dirt and dust. A plurality of wheels 38 support the nozzle base on the surface being cleaned and facilitate its movement thereacross. The upright vacuum cleaner A includes a vacuum or suction source for generating the required suction airflow for cleaning operations. With reference particularly to FIGS. 5 and 9, a suitable suction source, such as an electric motor and fan assembly E, generates a suction force in a suction inlet 40 and an exhaust force in an exhaust outlet 42. The exhaust outlet 42 of the motor assembly is in fluid communication with a downstream final filter assembly F for filtering residual contaminants from the airstream exhausted by the motor assembly immediately prior to discharge of the exhaust airstream into the atmosphere. The suction inlet 40 of the motor assembly E is in fluid communication with an upstream elongated suction conduit 46 that extends upwardly from the motor/fan assembly E to an upper region of the upright section B where it communicates with the cyclonic suction airflow dust and dirt separating region G of the vacuum A to generate a suction force therein. With reference now particularly to FIGS. 7 and 9, the cyclonic suction airflow dust and dirt separating region G housed in the upright section B includes and is defined by an upper housing assembly 50 and a mating dust and dirt cup or container 52. These sections 50,52 together define a generally cylindrical cyclonic airflow chamber 54. The upper housing section 50 includes a suction airflow outlet passage 60 that communicates with the cyclonic chamber 54 through an aperture 62. The outlet passage 60 also communicates with the motor/fan assembly E by way of the elongated suction conduit 46. FIG. 9 shows that the elongated suction conduit 46 extends from the motor/fan assembly E upward to communicate with the upper housing suction outlet passage 60 so that the suction inlet of the motor/fan assembly E is able to fluidically communicate with the cyclonic chamber 54. It is preferred that the aperture 62 be centrally located in the cyclonic chamber 54. The dirt cup or container 52 defining the lower portion of the cyclonic airflow dust and dirt separating chamber 54 is constructed for large capacity and ease of emptying the contents as necessary. The dirt container 52 defines over half the total volume of the cyclonic chamber 54. The capacity of the container 52 is maximized to lengthen the operational time before the dirt container 52 must be emptied. Furthermore, the dirt container 52 is preferably at least partially transparent so that an operator of the vacuum is able to view the level of dirt and dust L accumulated therein for purposes of determining when the container should be emptied. The dirt container 52 is connected to the vacuum upright section B through use of a hinge assembly 90 that allows the dirt container 52 to pivot (as indicated by the arrow P) between the illustrated closed, operative position and an open forwardly tilted position. Once the dirt container 52 is pivoted into its open position, it may be pulled upward and away from the section B and separated therefrom for ease of emptying the dirt container. A handle 96 is provided on the exterior of the container 52 to facilitate operator movement of the container between the open and closed positions, and a resiliently biased latch 98 retains the dirt container in the closed position for vacuuming operations. The dirt container upper edge 100 defining an open upper end of the container 52 is preferably inclined downwardly in the direction away from the handle 96 or front of the container 52. The upper housing section 50 is formed with a complimentary mating inclined lower edge 102, and a seal such as a gasket or other structure (not shown) is preferably provided between the edges 100,102 to prevent air leakage into the cyclonic airflow chamber 54. The inclined upper edge 100 of the dirt container 52 also ensures that, when the container is pivoted to the open position, the upper edge 100 lies in a substantially horizontal plane. Therefore, the contents of the container are much less likely to spill when the container is opened during emptying operations. Preferably, the angle at which the upper edge 100 is inclined from horizontal is selected, in combination with the maximum distance the container is able to be pivoted on the arc P when opened, such that when the container is fully opened, the upper edge lies in a substantially horizontal plane. The dirt cup 52 is shown in further detail in FIGS. 13 and 14. It includes a main filter support such as a post, stem, or like structure 150 projecting upwardly from a floor or base 152. The floor 152 of the filter support also defines the floor of the dirt cup 52 when the main filter support is seated and suitably secured in the dirt cup. When the main filter support is operatively positioned in the dirt cup 52, the post 150 is centrally positioned in the cyclonic airflow chamber 54 defined by the upper housing member 50 and the dirt cup 52 on a central axis 81. A hollow, cylindrical main filter assembly K is positioned over the main filter support 150. The filter assembly K is engaged in an interference fit with vanes 154 and/or a disc-like plateau or boss 156 located on the floor 152 of the filter support so that the filter assembly K is releasably, yet securely, retained in its operative position as shown herein, even when the dirt cup 52 is removed from the vacuum cleaner and inverted for purposes of emptying the contents thereof. An upper filter ring 158, accommodating a gasket 159, is provided along the uppermost edge of a main filter medium membrane 180, and the main filter assembly K extends upwardly from the floor 152 to a level approximately equal to an upper edge 100 of the dirt cup 52. Most preferably, the uppermost edge of the main filter assembly K as defined by the ring 158 is also sloped in the same manner as is the dirt cup upper edge 100. Over the entire height of the dirt cup 52, an annular cyctonic airflow passage is defined between the main filter assembly K and the surrounding portion of the dirt cup 52. A preferred embodiment of the main filter assembly K is illustrated in further detail in FIGS. 15 and 16. The main filter medium membrane 180 is defined in a hollow, tubular, cylindrical form from a planar, pleated filter membrane. An upper end of the pleated membrane 180 is seated in an annular groove 184 defined by the upper filter ring 158. Likewise, a lower end of the pleated filter membrane 180 is seated in an annular groove 186 defined by a lower filter ring 157. The rings 157,158 are preferably defined from molded plastic, and the lower ring 157 defines an aperture 188 that closely receives the boss 156 projecting from the filter support floor 152 with a tight, friction fit. The upper filter ring 158 is conformed in a manner so that, when the dirt cup 52 is in its closed position, the gasket 159 mates in a fluid-tight manner with the entire peripheral extent of the lowermost edge 166 of an upper conduit 160 (FIG. 9) depending into the cyclonic chamber 54 from the upper housing member 50 so as to prevent undesired airflow through an axial space between the depending conduit 160 and the filter assembly K. The pleated filter membrane 180 is internally supported on an open frame structure 182 that extends axially between and interconnects the lower and upper filter rings 157,158. The open frame structure 182 does not impede airflow through the pleated filter element 180, but ensures that the filter element will not collapse under the force of the suction airstream J. A preferred medium for the filter membrane 180 comprises polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a polymeric, plastic material commonly referred to by the registered trademark TEFLON®. The low coefficient of friction of a filter medium comprising PTFE facilitates cleaning of the filter element by washing. Most preferably, the pleated filter medium 180 is defined substantially or entirely from GORE-TEX®, a PTFE-based material commercially available from W.L. GORE & ASSOCIATES, Elkton, Md. 21921. The preferred GORE-TEX® filter medium, also sold under the trademark CLEANSTREAM® by W.L. GORE & ASSOCIATES, is an expanded PTFE membrane defined from billions of continuous, tiny fibrils. The filter blocks the passage of at least 99% of particles 0.3 μm in size or larger. Although not visible in the drawings, the inwardly and/or outwardly facing surface of the CLEANSTREAM® filter membrane 180 is preferably coated with a mesh backing material of plastic or the like for durability since it enhances the abrasion-resistance characteristics of the plastic filter material. The mesh may also enhance the strength of the plastic filter material somewhat. Referring now also to FIGS. 10-12, the relationship of the upper housing member 50 and the depending upper conduit 160 is described. The conduit 160 projects centrally downwardly into the chamber 54 from a top wall 162 of the housing member 50. The upper conduit 160 is preferably a hollow cylindrical member with a passage 164 extending therethrough. The passage 164 is in fluid communication with the suction airstream outlet passage 60 through which the suction airflow J exits the cyclonic airflow chamber 54. The conduit 160 projects downwardly from the housing top wall 162 so that the lowermost edge 166 thereof is approximately equal to the level of the lower edge 102 of the housing member 50. Also, the lower edge 166 is sloped in a manner that corresponds to the slope of the housing member lower edge 102. The upper conduit 160 is connected to the upper housing member 50 by any suitable means such as fasteners engaged in aligned bores 168a,168b (FIG. 10) respectively formed in the housing member 50 and conduit 160. As mentioned, the gasket 159 is provided along the joint between the lowermost edge 166 of the upper conduit 160 and the upper edge of the filter assembly K. With reference now specifically to FIG. 12, an auxiliary filter support grid or framework 170 is provided and extends across the bore 164, preferably in the region of the conduit lower edge 166. The open filter support 170 provides a backing member for a foam, paper, or similar conventional auxiliary filter element 174 that removes any residual dust and dirt from the suction airstream J prior to its exit from the cyclonic airflow chamber 54 through the bore 164 and outlet passage 60. In case there is a break in the seal between the filter assembly K and the conduit 160, the auxiliary filter 174 will prevent dirt or dust from being sucked into the motor/fan assembly E of the vacuum cleaner A. One or more tabs or teeth 176 project radially inwardly from the conduit 160 in the region of the framework 170 to engage the auxiliary filter element 174 so that the filter element is secured adjacent the framework 170 and will not be dislodged from its operative position by the force of gravity. As is most readily apparent in FIG. 9, the main filter assembly K and the upper conduit 160 together define a hollow cylindrical column extending through the center of the cyclonic airflow chamber 54 entirely between the floor 152 and top wall 162. This preferred cylindrical columnar shape also results from the main filter assembly K and the upper conduit 160 having substantially the same outside diameter. The suction airstream J established and maintained by the motor/fan assembly E enters an upper portion of the cyclonic dust and dirt separation chamber 54 through a generally tangential or offset suction airstream inlet 80 that is preferably horizontally oriented. In the preferred embodiment, as may be seen most clearly with reference to FIGS. 10 and 11, the cyclonic chamber airstream inlet 80 is formed in the upper housing member 50, and it is noted that the inlet 80 is disposed entirely on one side of a centerline 81 of the upper housing section so as to induce a swirling flow in the chamber 54. As shown in FIG. 5, the suction airstream inlet 80 is in fluid communication with a suction airstream hose 82 through a fitting 84, and the airstream hose 82 is, itself, fluidically connected with the main suction opening 26 formed in the underside of the nozzle base C by way of the conduit 34 and a fitting 86. As such, the main suction opening 26 is in fluid communication with the cyclonic chamber 54 through the passage 30, the hoses 34,82, and the cyclonic chamber suction inlet 80. The vacuum A also comprises a final filter assembly F (see e.g., FIGS. 1-3 and 5) adapted for filtering the suction airstream downstream from the motor/fan assembly and immediately prior to its exhaustion into the atmosphere. A preferred structure of the final filter assembly F is illustrated most clearly in FIG. 8 and comprises a suction airstream inlet 120 which is connected downstream and in fluid communication with the exhaust outlet 42 of the motor and fan assembly E. The inlet 120 communicates with an elongated plenum 122 that opens to the atmosphere and houses a filter medium. A protective grid or grate structure is snap-fit or otherwise effectively secured over the plenum 122 to secure the filter medium in place. The filter medium is preferably a high efficiency particulate arrest (HEPA) filter element in a sheet or block form. The filter medium is retained in position in the plenum by the grid 124, but is easily replaced by removing the grid. As such, those skilled in the art will recognize that even if the motor/fan assembly causes contaminants to be introduced into the suction airstream downstream from the main filter element H, the final filter assembly F will remove the same such that only contaminant-free air is discharged into the atmosphere. Referring now primarily to FIGS. 5 and 9, the operation of the vacuum cleaning apparatus A is illustrated, with the flow of the suction airstream indicated by use of arrows J. The motor/fan assembly E or other suction generator establishes a suction force at its suction inlet 40, in the elongated suction conduit 46, and thus in the cyclonic separation chamber 54. This suction force or negative pressure in the chamber 54 is communicated to the main suction opening 26 formed in the nozzle underside 24 through the hoses 82,34 and associated fittings. This, then, in combination with the scrubbing action of the rotating brush assembly 36 causes dust and dirt from the surface being cleaned to be entrained in the suction airflow J and pulled into the upper portion of the chamber 54 through the generally tangential inlet 80. As the suction airstream J enters the cyclonic chamber 54 through the inlet 80, it travels downwardly in a cyclonic fashion so that a portion of the dust and dirt entrained in the suction airstream are separated therefrom and collected in the dirt cup 52 (as indicated at L). The suction airstream J then passes through the main filter assembly K to remove residual contaminants therefrom, and moves upwardly through the main filter element K, through the auxiliary filter element 174, and into the bore 164 of the depending conduit 160. The airstream J is prevented from bypassing the main filter element K by the gasket 159 positioned axially between the filter assembly K and the conduit 160. The airstream J then exits the cyclonic airflow chamber 54 through the outlet passage 60 and moves downwardly through the conduit 46 to the inlet 40 of the motor/fan assembly E and is then exhausted through the motor exhaust outlet 42 to the final filter assembly F where it is filtered again by the HEPA filter to remove any contaminants that passed through the chamber 54, the main filter assembly K, the auxiliary filter 174, and also any contaminants introduced into the airstream by the motor/fan assembly E, itself. The position of the main filter assembly K, extending upwardly from the floor 152, is highly desirable given that, as dust and dirt L are collected, at least a portion M of the suction airstream passes through the accumulated dust and dirt L. The accumulation of dust and dirt L seems to act as yet another filter element which filters more dust and dirt from the airstream M. Also, the flow of the suction airstream M downwardly through the accumulated dust and dirt L acts to compact the dust and dirt L downwardly toward the floor 152 so that the capacity of the dirt cup 52 is efficiently utilized to extend the time before the dirt cup must be emptied. As noted, a main advantage of the present invention is that the main filter assembly K can be cleaned by washing it, either manually or in a dishwasher—since it is dishwasher-safe—to remove dust or dirt particles adhering to the filter element. The orientation of the inlet 80 will affect the direction of cyclonic airflow, and the invention is not meant to be limited to a particular direction, i.e, clockwise or counterclockwise. Those skilled in the art will certainly recognize that the term “cyclonic” as used herein is not meant to be limited to a particular direction of airflow rotation. This cyclonic action separates a substantial portion of the entrained dust and dirt from the suction airstream and causes the dust and dirt to be deposited in the dirt cup or container. The invention has been described with reference to the preferred embodiments. Obviously, modifications and alterations will occur to others upon reading and understanding the preceding detailed description. It is intended that the invention be construed as including all such modifications and alterations insofar as they come within the scope of the appended claims or the equivalents thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to vacuum cleaners. More particularly, the present invention relates to upright vacuum cleaners used for suctioning dirt and debris from carpets and floors. Upright vacuum cleaners are ubiquitous. They are known to include an upper portion having a handle, by which an operator of the vacuum cleaner may grasp and maneuver the cleaner, and a lower cleaning nozzle portion which travels across a floor, carpet, or other surface being cleaned. The upper portion is often formed as a rigid plastic housing which encloses a dirt and dust collecting filter bag, although the upper portion may simply be an elongated handle with the filter bag, and an external cloth bag, being hung therefrom. The cleaning nozzle is hingedly connected to the upper handle portion such that the upper portion is pivotable between a generally vertical upright storage position and an inclined operative position. The underside of the nozzle includes a suction opening formed therein which is in fluid communication with the filter bag. A vacuum or suction source such as a motor and fan assembly is enclosed either within the nozzle portion or the upper portion of the cleaner. The vacuum source generates the suction required to pull dirt from the carpet or floor being vacuumed through the suction opening and into the filter bag. A rotating brush assembly is typically provided in proximity with the suction opening to loosen dirt and debris from the surface being vacuumed. To avoid the need for vacuum filter bags, and the associated expense and inconvenience of replacing the bag, another type of upright vacuum cleaner utilizes cyclonic airflow, rather than a filter bag, to separate a majority of the dirt and other particulates from the suction airstream. The air is then filtered to remove residual particulates, returned to the motor, and exhausted. Such prior cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaners have not been found to be entirely effective and convenient to use. For example, with these prior cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaners, the process of emptying dust and dirt from the cyclonic chamber dirt collection container has been found to be inconvenient, and often resulted in the spillage of the cup contents. Likewise, with these prior units, replacement of the filter element has not been convenient. Other cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaners have been found to exhaust air which is not free of residual contaminants. For example, one prior unit filters the airstream after it passes through the cyclonic chamber, but thereafter passes the airstream through the motor assembly where it is potentially recontaminated by the motor assembly, itself, prior to its being exhausted into the atmosphere. Because the cyclonic action of such vacuum cleaners does not completely remove all dust, dirt, and other contaminants from the suction airstream, it is necessary to include a filter downstream from the cyclonic chamber. As such, prior cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaners have heretofore included conventional, non-washable filter elements including a conventional filtering medium to filter the airstream after it passes through the cyclonic chamber. These prior filter elements have caused considerable difficulties. A conventional filter that is sufficiently fine to filter the airstream effectively unduly restricts airflow and decreases the effectiveness of the cyclonic action. On the other hand, a coarse filter does not effectively filter the airstream of residual contaminants. Further, conventional filter media, such as paper or fibrous media, has been found to clog readily, thereby unduly decreasing airflow rates over time. Thus, a need has been found for a cyclonic airflow vacuum cleaner with an effective filter positioned in the cyclonic chamber for effectively filtering the airstream without clogging. Further, a need has been found for such a vacuum cleaner including a washable, re-usable filter element from which dirt is easily extracted. Accordingly, it has been deemed desirable to develop a new and improved upright vacuum cleaner that would overcome the foregoing difficulties and others while providing better and more advantageous overall results. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, an upright vacuum cleaner includes an upright housing and a nozzle base hingedly interconnected with the upright housing. The nozzle base includes a main suction opening in its underside. A cyclonic airflow chamber is defined in the upright housing and is adapted for separating dust and dirt from a cyclonically circulating suction airstream. The main suction opening is in fluid communication with the cyclonic airflow chamber. A suction source is located in the upright housing or nozzle base and has a suction airflow inlet in fluid communication with the cyclonic chamber, and also includes a suction airflow outlet. A main filter assembly is located in the cyclonic chamber upstream from the suction source for filtering dust and dirt from a suction airstream that passes through the cyclonic airflow chamber. The main filter element extends upwardly within the cyclonic airflow chamber from a floor of a dirt container portion of said housing that defines a lower portion of the cyclonic airflow chamber and that is adapted for receiving and retaining dirt and dust separated from the suction airstream. A conduit depends into the cyclonic airflow chamber from an upper wall of the housing, and the conduit is axially aligned and mates with an upper end of the main filter assembly whereby the main filter assembly and the conduit together define a hollow column structure in the cyclonic airflow chamber. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a vacuum cleaner comprises a first housing member defining a cyclonic airflow chamber adapted for separating entrained dirt and dust from a circulating airstream, and a second housing member defining a main suction opening. A first conduit fluidically connects the main suction opening to an inlet of the cyclonic airflow chamber. A suction source has a suction airstream inlet and a suction airstream outlet, and it is adapted for generating and maintaining a suction airstream flowing from the inlet downstream to the outlet. A second conduit fluidically connects an outlet of the cyclonic airflow chamber to the suction airstream inlet of the suction source. A main filter assembly includes a filter medium comprising a selectively permeable plastic material, and the main filter assembly is located in the cyclonic chamber so that a suction airstream moving from the main suction opening to the inlet of the suction source by way of the cyclonic airflow chamber passes through the filter medium after the airstream moves in a cyclonic fashion within the cyclonic airflow chamber. In accordance with still another aspect of the present invention, a vacuum cleaner apparatus includes a nozzle defining a main suction opening, and a main suction source in communication with the main suction opening. The main suction source is adapted for establishing a suction airstream that moves into the main suction opening and downstream into the suction source. A cyclonic chamber is placed in communication with and between the main suction opening and the suction source, and the cyclonic chamber is adapted for imparting a cyclonic flow to the suction airstream whereby a portion of particulates entrained in the suction airstream are separated therefrom, leaving residual particulates entrained in the suction airstream. A filter assembly is located in the cyclonic chamber and includes a filter membrane placed in covering relation with an outlet of the cyclonic chamber. Residual particulates entrained in the suction airstream are blocked from exiting the cyclonic chamber by the filter membrane, and the filter assembly adapted for being selectively removed from the cyclonic chamber, washed to remove particulates from the membrane, and replaced in the cyclonic chamber for further filtering operations. In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, a vacuum cleaner comprises a housing defining a cyclonic airflow chamber for separating contaminants from a suction airstream. The housing further defines a suction airstream inlet and a suction airstream outlet in fluid communication with the cyclonic airflow chamber. A nozzle base includes a main suction opening fluidically connected with the cyclonic airflow chamber inlet. An airstream suction source has an inlet fluidically connected to the cyclonic airflow chamber outlet and a suction source exhaust outlet. The suction source selectively establishes and maintains a suction airstream from the nozzle main suction opening to the suction source exhaust outlet. A main filter assembly is positioned in fluid communication between the cyclonic airflow chamber and the suction source and is adapted for filtering residual contaminants from the suction airstream downstream relative to the cyclonic airflow chamber. The main filter assembly comprising a polymeric filter membrane. One advantage of the present invention is the provision of a new and improved vacuum cleaner. Another advantage of the invention is found in the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a cyclonic airflow chamber through which the suction airstream flows for separating dust and dirt from the airstream and for depositing the separated dust and dirt into an easily and conveniently emptied dirt cup. Still another advantage of the present invention resides in the provision of a cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaner with a main filter that effectively filters residual contaminants from the suction airstream between the cyclonic airflow chamber and the motor assembly without unduly restricting airflow and without premature clogging. Yet another advantage of the invention is the provision of a cyclonic airflow upright vacuum cleaner with a final filter located downstream from the suction motor assembly for filtering the suction airstream immediately prior to its exhaustion into the atmosphere. A further advantage of the invention is the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a main filter, an auxiliary filter, and a final filter wherein the main, auxiliary, final filters are easily removable and replaceable. A still further advantage of the present invention is the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a cyclonic airflow chamber and main filter element, wherein the main filter element is positioned in a removable dirt cup partially defining the cyclonic airflow chamber for ease of emptying the dirt cup and cleaning the filter. A yet further advantage of the present invention resides in the provision of a vacuum cleaner with a cyclonic airflow chamber and a main filter assembly situated in the cyclonic airflow chamber, wherein the main filter assembly includes a re-usable filter element that is easily and repeatedly cleanable by washing. Still other benefits and advantages of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading and understanding the following detailed description. | 20041129 | 20061212 | 20050505 | 95067.0 | 1 | TILL, TERRENCE R | UPRIGHT VACUUM CLEANER WITH CYCLONIC AIRFLOW | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,400 | ACCEPTED | Methods for inhibiting sterol absorption | The present invention provides compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods including: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone or substituted β-lactam sterol absorption inhibitor which can be useful for treating vascular conditions, diabetes, obesity and lowering plasma levels of sterols. | 1-213. (canceled) 214. A method of treating a vascular condition, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting of: Weight percent of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 215. The method according to claim 214, wherein the vascular condition is atherosclerosis. 216. A method of treating diabetes in a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting of: Weight percent of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 217. A method of treating obesity in a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting of: Weight percent of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 218. A method of lowering a plasma sterol concentration of a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting of: Weight percent of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 219. A method of treating a vascular condition, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting essentially of: milligrams of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 220. The method according to claim 219, wherein the vascular condition is atherosclerosis. 221. A method of treating diabetes in a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting essentially of: milligrams of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 222. A method of treating obesity in a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting essentially of: milligrams of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: 223. A method of lowering a plasma sterol concentration of a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a pharmaceutical composition consisting essentially of: milligrams of Ingredient ingredient Compound of Formula (II) 10 Lactose monohydrate 55 Microcrystalline cellulose 20 Povidone 4 Croscarmellose sodium 8 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 Magnesium stearate 1 Total 100 wherein the compound represented by Formula (II) below is: | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/264,396 filed Jan. 26, 2001 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/323,839 filed Sep. 21, 2001, each incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to compositions and therapeutic combinations comprising peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) activator(s) and certain sterol absorption inhibitor(s) for treating vascular and lipidemic conditions such as are associated with atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia and other vascular conditions in mammals. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Atherosclerotic coronary heart disease (CHD) represents the major cause for death and vascular morbidity in the western world. Risk factors for atherosclerotic coronary heart disease include hypertension, diabetes mellitus, family history, male gender, cigarette smoke and serum cholesterol. A total cholesterol level in excess of 225-250 mg/dl is associated with significant elevation of risk of CHD. Cholesteryl esters are a major component of atherosclerotic lesions and the major storage form of cholesterol in arterial wall cells. Formation of cholesteryl esters is also a step in the intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol. Thus, inhibition of cholesteryl ester formation and reduction of serum cholesterol can inhibit the progression of atherosclerotic lesion formation, decrease the accumulation of cholesteryl esters in the arterial wall, and block the intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol. The regulation of whole-body cholesterol homeostasis in mammals and animals involves the regulation of dietary cholesterol and modulation of cholesterol biosynthesis, bile acid biosynthesis and the catabolism of the cholesterol-containing plasma lipoproteins. The liver is the major organ responsible for cholesterol biosynthesis and catabolism and, for this reason, it is a prime determinant of plasma cholesterol levels. The liver is the site of synthesis and secretion of very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) which are subsequently metabolized to low density lipoproteins (LDL) in the circulation. LDL are the predominant cholesterol-carrying lipoproteins in the plasma and an increase in their concentration is correlated with increased atherosclerosis. When intestinal cholesterol absorption is reduced, by whatever means, less cholesterol is delivered to the liver. The consequence of this action is decreased hepatic lipoprotein (VLDL) production and an increase in the hepatic clearance of plasma cholesterol, mostly as LDL. Thus, the net effect of inhibiting intestinal cholesterol absorption is a decrease in plasma cholesterol levels. Fibric acid derivatives (“fibrates”), such as fenofibrate, gemfibrozil and clofibrate, have been used to lower triglycerides, moderately lower LDL levels and increase HDL levels. Fibric acid derivatives are also known to be peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha activators. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,767,115, 5,624,920, 5,668,990, 5,656,624 and 5,688,787, respectively, disclose hydroxy-substituted azetidinone compounds and substituted β-lactam compounds useful for lowering cholesterol and/or in inhibiting the formation of cholesterol-containing lesions in mammalian arterial walls. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,846,966 and 5,661,145, respectively, disclose hydroxy-substituted azetidinone compounds or substituted β-lactam compounds in combination with HMG CoA reductase inhibitors for preventing or treating atherosclerosis and reducing plasma cholesterol levels. PCT Patent Application No. WO 00/38725 discloses cardiovascular therapeutic combinations including an ileal bile acid transport inhibitor or cholesteryl ester transport protein inhibitor in combination with a fibric acid derivative, nicotinic acid derivative, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitor, cholesterol absorption antagonist, phytosterol, stanol, antihypertensive agent or bile acid sequestrant. U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,527 discloses ergostanone derivatives substituted with disaccharides as cholesterol absorption inhibitors, employed alone or in combination with certain other cholesterol lowering agents, which are useful in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and related disorders. Despite recent improvements in the treatment of vascular disease, there remains a need in the art for improved compositions and treatments for hyperlipidaemia, atherosclerosis and other vascular conditions. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (I): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (I) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (I) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein in Formula (I) above: Ar1 and Ar2 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl and R4-substituted aryl; Ar3 is aryl or R5-substituted aryl; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; R and R2 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7; R1 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl and aryl; q is 0 or 1; r is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; provided that at least one of q and r is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, q and r is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; and provided that when p is 0 and r is 1, the sum of m, q and n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; R4 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6 (CO)R7, —NR6 (CO)OR9, —NR6 (CO)NR7R8, —NR6 SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, -(lower alkylene)COOR6, —CH═CH—COOR6, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; R5 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, -(lower alkylene)COOR6 and —CH═CH—COOR6; R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl. In another embodiment, there is provided a composition comprising: (a) at least one fibric acid derivative; and (b) a compound represented by Formula (II) below: or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or prodrug of the compound of Formula (II) or of the salt or solvate thereof. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (III): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (III) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (III) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (III) above: Ar1 is R3-substituted aryl; Ar2 is R4-substituted aryl; Ar3 is R5-substituted aryl; Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; A is selected from —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O)2—; R1 is selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7; R2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl and aryl; or R1 and R2 together are ═O; q is 1, 2 or 3; p is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; R5 is 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR9, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2-lower alkyl, —NR6SO2-aryl, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2-alkyl, S(O)0-2-aryl, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, o-halogeno, m-halogeno, o-lower alkyl, m-lower alkyl, -(lower alkylene)-COOR6, and —CH═CH—COOR6; R3 and R4 are independently 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of R5, hydrogen, p-lower alkyl, aryl, —NO2, —CF3 and p-halogeno; R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (IV): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IV) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (IV) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (IV) above: A is selected from the group consisting of R2-substituted heterocycloalkyl, R2-substituted heteroaryl, R2-substituted benzofused heterocycloalkyl, and R2-substituted benzofused heteroaryl; Ar1 is aryl or R3-substituted aryl; Ar2 is aryl or R4-substituted aryl; Q is a bond or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R1 is selected from the group consisting of: —(CH2)q—, wherein q is 2-6, provided that when Q forms a spiro ring, q can also be zero or 1; —(CH2)e-G-(CH2)r—, wherein G is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —NR8— or —S(O)0-2, e is 0-5 and r is 0-5, provided that the sum of e and r is 1-6; —(C2-C6 alkenylene)-; and —(CH2)f—V—(CH2)g—, wherein V is C3-C6 cycloalkylene, f is 1-5 and g is 0-5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1-6; R5 is selected from: R6 and R7 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—; or R5 together with an adjacent R6, or R5 together with an adjacent R7, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C1-C6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R6 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R7 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R6's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R7's can be the same or different; and when Q is a bond, R1 also can be selected from: where M is —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O)2—; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)- and —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl); R10 and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR14, —O(CO)R14, —O(CO)OR16 and —O(CO)NR14R15; R11 and R13 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl and aryl; or R10 and R11 together are ═O, or R12 and R13 together are ═O; d is 1, 2 or 3; h is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; s is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently 0-4; provided that at least one of s and t is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, s and t is 1-6; provided that when p is 0 and t is 1, the sum of m, s and n is 1-5; and provided that when p is 0 and s is 1, the sum of m, t and n is 1-5; v is 0 or 1; j and k are independently 1-5, provided that the sum of j, k and v is 1-5; R2 is 1-3 substituents on the ring carbon atoms selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C10)alkyl, (C2-C10)alkenyl, (C2-C10)alkynyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkenyl, R17-substituted aryl, R17-substituted benzyl, R17-substituted benzyloxy, R17-substituted aryloxy, halogeno, —NR14R15, NR14R15(C1-C6 alkylene)-, NR14R15C(O)(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —NHC(O)R16, OH, C1-C6 alkoxy, —OC(O)R16, —COR14, hydroxy(C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)alkyl, NO2, —S(O)0-2R16, —SO2NR14R15 and —(C1-C6 alkylene)COOR14; when R2 is a substituent on a heterocycloalkyl ring, R2 is as defined, or is ═O or and, where R2 is a substituent on a substitutable ring nitrogen, it is hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, aryloxy, (C1-C6)alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, hydroxy, —(CH2)1-6CONR18R18, wherein J is —O—, —NH—, —NR18— or —CH2—; R3 and R4 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C1-C6)alkyl, —OR14, —O(CO)R14, —O(CO)OR16, —O(CH2)1-5OR14, —O(CO)NR14R15, —NR14R15, —NR14(CO)R15, —NR14(CO)OR16, —NR14(CO)NR15R19, —NR14SO2R16, —COOR14, —CONR14R15, COR14, SO2NR14R15, S(O)0-2R16, O(CH2)1-10—COOR14, —O(CH2)1-10CONR14R15, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-COOR14, —CH═CH—COOR14, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; R8 is hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)R14 or —COOR14; R9 and R17 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —NR14R15, OH and halogeno; R14 and R15 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C1-C6)alkyl; R16 is (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl or R17-substituted aryl; R18 is hydrogen or (C1-C6)alkyl; and R19 is hydrogen, hydroxy or (C1-C6)alkoxy. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (V): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (V) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (V) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (V) above: Ar1 is aryl, R10-substituted aryl or heteroaryl; Ar2 is aryl or R4-substituted aryl; Ar3 is aryl or R5-substituted aryl; X and Y are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; R is —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 or —O(CO)NR6R7; R1 is hydrogen, lower alkyl or aryl; or R and R1 together are ═O; q is 0 or 1; r is 0, 1 or 2; m and n are independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; provided that the sum of m, n and q is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; R4 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6 (CO)OR9, —NR6 (CO)NR7R8, —NR6 SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, -(lower alkylene)COOR6 and —CH═CH—COOR6; R5 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6 (CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, —CF3, —CN, —NO2, halogen, -(lower alkylene)COOR6 and —CH═CH—COOR6; R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; R9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R10 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, —S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (VI): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VI) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VI) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein in Formula (VI) above: R1 is R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of: —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)-, —C(di-lower alkyl)-, —CH═CH— and —C(lower alkyl)═CH—; or R1 together with an adjacent R2, or R1 together with an adjacent R3, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(lower alkyl)-group; u and v are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R2 is —CH═CH— or —C(lower alkyl)═CH—, v is 1; provided that when R3 is CH═CH— or —C(lower alkyl)═CH—, u is 1; provided that when v is 2 or 3, the R2's can be the same or different; and provided that when u is 2 or 3, the R3's can be the same or different; R4 is selected from B—(CH2)mC(O)—, wherein m is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; B—(CH2)q—, wherein q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)e-Z-(CH2)r—, wherein Z is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —N(R8)— or —S(O)0-2—, e is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, provided that the sum of e and r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(C2-C6 alkenylene)-; B—(C4-C6 alkadienylene)-; B—(CH2)t-Z-(C2-C6 alkenylene)-, wherein Z is as defined above, and wherein t is 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided that the sum of t and the number of carbon atoms in the alkenylene chain is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)f—V—(CH2)g—, wherein V is C3-C6 cycloalkylene, f is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and g is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)t—V—(C2-C6 alkenylene)- or B—(C2-C6 alkenylene)-V—(CH2)t—, wherein V and t are as defined above, provided that the sum of t and the number of carbon atoms in the alkenylene chain is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)a-Z-(CH2)b—V—(CH2)d-, wherein Z and V are as defined above and a, b and d are independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6, provided that the sum of a, b and d is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; or T-(CH2)s—, wherein T is cycloalkyl of 3-6 carbon atoms and s is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; or R1 and R4 together form the group B—CH═C—; B is selected from indanyl, indenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, heteroaryl or W-substituted heteroaryl, wherein heteroaryl is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolyl, pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, triazinyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazolyl, thienyl, oxazolyl and furanyl, and for nitrogen-containing heteroaryls, the N-oxides thereof, or W is 1 to 3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, hydroxy lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, alkoxyalkyl, alkoxyalkoxy, alkoxycarbonylalkoxy, (lower alkoxyimino)-lower alkyl, lower alkanedioyl, lower alkyl lower alkanedioyl, allyloxy, —CF3, —OCF3, benzyl, R7-benzyl, benzyloxy, R7-benzyloxy, phenoxy, R7-phenoxy, dioxolanyl, NO2, —N(R8)(R9), N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylene-, N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylenyloxy-, OH, halogeno, —CN, —N3, —NHC(O)OR10, —NHC(O)R10, R11O2SNH—, (R11O2S)2N—, —S(O)2NH2, —S(O)0-2R8, tert-butyldimethyl-silyloxymethyl, —C(O)R12, —COOR19, —CON(R8)(R9), —CH═CHC(O)R12, -lower alkylene-C(O)R12, R10C(O)(lower alkylenyloxy)-, N(R8)(R9)C(O)(lower alkylenyloxy)- and for substitution on ring carbon atoms, and the substituents on the substituted heteroaryl ring nitrogen atoms, when present, are selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —C(O)OR10, —C(O)R10, OH, N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylene-, N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylenyloxy, —S(O)2NH2 and 2-(trimethylsilyl)-ethoxymethyl; R7 is 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —N(8)(R9), OH, and halogeno; R8 and R9 are independently selected from H or lower alkyl; R10 is selected from lower alkyl, phenyl, R7-phenyl, benzyl or R7-benzyl; R11 is selected from OH, lower alkyl, phenyl, benzyl, R7-phenyl or R7-benzyl; R12 is selected from H, OH, alkoxy, phenoxy, benzyloxy, —N(R8)(R9), lower alkyl, phenyl or R7-phenyl; R13 is selected from —O—, —CH2—, —NH—, —N(lower alkyl)- or —NC(O)R19; R15, R16 and R17 are independently selected from the group consisting of H and the groups defined for W; or R15 is hydrogen and R16 and R17, together with adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form a dioxolanyl ring; R19 is H, lower alkyl, phenyl or phenyl lower alkyl; and R20 and R21 are independently selected from the group consisting of phenyl, W-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, W-substituted naphthyl, indanyl, indenyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, benzodioxolyl, heteroaryl, W-substituted heteroaryl, benzofused heteroaryl, W-substituted benzofused heteroaryl and cyclopropyl, wherein heteroaryl is as defined above. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and(b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (VII): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VII) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VII) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein in Formula (VII) above: A is —CH≡CH—, —C═C— or —(CH2)p— wherein p is 0, 1 or 2; B is E is C10 to C20 alkyl or —C(O)—(C9 to C19)-alkyl, wherein the alkyl is straight or branched, saturated or containing one or more double bonds; R is hydrogen, C1-C15 alkyl, straight or branched, saturated or containing one or more double bonds, or B—(CH2)r—, wherein r is 0, 1, 2, or 3; R1, R2, and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, carboxy, NO2, NH2, OH, halogeno, lower alkylamino, dilower alkylamino, —NHC(O)OR5, R6O2SNH— and —S(O)2NH2; R4 is wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; R5 is lower alkyl; and R6 is OH, lower alkyl, phenyl, benzyl or substituted phenyl wherein the substituents are 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, carboxy, NO2, NH2, OH, halogeno, lower alkylamino and dilower alkylamino. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (VIII): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VIII) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VIII) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (VIII) above, R26 is H or OG1; G and G1 are independently selected from the group consisting of provided that when R26 is H or OH, G is not H; R, Ra and Rb are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH2, azido, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)-alkoxy or —W—R30; W is independently selected from the group consisting of —NH—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—N(R31)—, —NH—C(O)—N(R31)— and —O—C(S)—N(R31)—; R2 and R6 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl(C1-C6)alkyl; R3, R4, R5, R7, R3a and R4a are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl(C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)(C1-C6)alkyl and —C(O)aryl; R30 is selected from the group consisting of R32-substituted T, R32-substituted-T-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C2-C4)alkenyl, R32-substituted-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl and R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl(C1-C6)alkyl; R31 is selected from the group consisting of H and (C1-C4)alkyl; T is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, iosthiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl and pyridyl; R32 is independently selected from 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogeno, (C1-C4)alkyl, —OH, phenoxy, —CF3, —NO2, (C1-C4)alkoxy, methylenedioxy, oxo, (C1-C4)alkylsulfanyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfonyl, —N(CH3)2, —C(O)—NH(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—N((C1-C4)alkyl)2, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkoxy and pyrrolidinylcarbonyl; or R32 is a covalent bond and R31, the nitrogen to which it is attached and R32 form a pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methyl-piperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group, or a (C1-C4)alkoxycarbonyl-substituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl. N-methylpiperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group; Ar1 is aryl or R10-substituted aryl; Ar2 is aryl or R11-substituted aryl; Q is a bond or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R1 is selected from the group consisting of —(CH2)q—, wherein q is 2-6, provided that when Q forms a spiro ring, q can also be zero or 1; —(CH2)e-E-(CH2)r—, wherein E is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —NR22— or —S(O)0-2—, e is 0-5 and r is 0-5, provided that the sum of e and r is 1-6; —(C2-C6)alkenylene-; and —(CH2)f—V—(CH2)g—, wherein V is C3-C6 cycloalkylene, f is 1-5 and g is 0-5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1-6; R12 is R13 and R14 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—; or R12 together with an adjacent R13, or R12 together with an adjacent R14, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C1-C6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R13 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R14 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R13's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R14's can be the same or different; and when Q is a bond, R1 also can be: M is —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O)2—; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6)alkyl- and —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl); R10 and R1 1 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C1-C6)alkyl, —OR19, —O(CO)R19, —O(CO)OR21, —O(CH2)1-5OR19, —O(CO)NR19R20, —NR19R20, —NR19(CO)R20, —NR19(CO)OR21, —NR19(CO)NR20R25, —NR19SO2R21, —COOR19, —CONR19R20, —COR19, —SO2NR19R20, S(O)0-2R21, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR19, —O(CH2)1-10CONR19R20, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-COOR19, —CH═CH—COOR19, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; R15 and R17 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR19, —O(CO)R19, —O(CO)OR21 and —O(CO)NR19R20; R16 and R18 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl and aryl; or R15 and R16 together are ═0, or R17 and R18 together are ═O; d is 1, 2 or 3; h is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; s is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently 0-4; provided that at least one of s and t is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, s and t is 1-6; provided that when p is 0 and t is 1, the sum of m, s and n is 1-5; and provided that when p is 0 and s is 1, the sum of m, t and n is 1-5; v is 0 or 1; j and k are independently 1-5, provided that the sum of j, k and v is 1-5; and when Q is a bond and R1 is Ar1 can also be pyridyl, isoxazolyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl or pyridazinyl; R19 and R20 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C1-C6)alkyl; R21 is (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl or R24-substituted aryl; R22 is H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)R19 or —COOR19; R23 and R24 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —NR19R20, —OH and halogeno; and R25 is H, —OH or (C1-C6)alkoxy. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (IX): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IX) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (IX) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (IX) above, R26 is selected from the group consisting of: a) OH; b) OCH3; c) fluorine and d) chlorine. R1 is selected from the group consisting of SO3H; natural and unnatural amino acids. R, Ra and Rb are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH2, azido, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)-alkoxy and —W—R30; W is independently selected from the group consisting of —NH—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—N(R31)—, —NH—C(O)—N(R31)— and —O—C(S)—N(R31)—; R2 and R6 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl(C1-C6)alkyl; R3, R4, R5, R7, R3a and R4a are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl(C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)(C1-C6)alkyl and —C(O)aryl; R30 is independently selected form the group consisting of R32-substituted T, R32-substituted-T-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C2-C4)alkenyl, R32-substituted-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl and R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl(C1-C6)alkyl; R31 is independently selected from the group consisting of H and (C1-C4)alkyl; T is independently selected from the group consisting of phenyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, iosthiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl and pyridyl; R32 is independently selected from 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogeno, (C1-C4)alkyl, —OH, phenoxy, —CF3, —NO2, (C1-C4)alkoxy, methylenedioxy, oxo, (C1-C4)alkylsulfanyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfonyl, —N(CH3)2, —C(O)—NH(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—N((C1-C4)alkyl)2, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkoxy and pyrrolidinylcarbonyl; or R32 is a covalent bond and R31, the nitrogen to which it is attached and R32 form a pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methyl-piperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group, or a (C1-C4)alkoxycarbonyl-substituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methylpiperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group; Ar1 is aryl or R10-substituted aryl; Ar2 is aryl or R11-substituted aryl; Q is —(CH2)q—, wherein q is 2-6, or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R12 is R13 and R14 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—; or R12 together with an adjacent R13, or R12 together with an adjacent R14, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C1-C6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R13 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R14 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R13's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R14's can be the same or different; R10 and R11 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C1-C6)alkyl, —OR19, —O(CO)R19, —O(CO)OR21, —O(CH2)1-5OR19, —O(CO)NR19R20, —NR19R20, —NR19(CO)R20NR19(CO)OR21, —NR19(CO)NR20R25, —NR19SO2R21, —COOR19, —CONR19R20, —COR19, —SO2NR19R20, S(O)0-2R21—O(CH2)1-10—COOR19, —O(CH2)1-10CONR19R20, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-COOR19, —CH═CH—COOR19, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; Ar1 can also be pyridyl, isoxazolyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl or pyridazinyl; R19 and R20 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C1-C6)alkyl; R21 is (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl or R24-substituted aryl; R22 is H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)R19 or —COOR19; R23 and R24 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —NR19R20, —OH and halogeno; and R25 is H, —OH or (C1-C6)alkoxy. Therapeutic combinations also are provided comprising: (a) a first amount of at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) a second amount of at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formulae (I-XI) above or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (I-XI) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (I-XI) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein the first amount and the second amount together comprise a therapeutically effective amount for the treatment or prevention of a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal. Pharmaceutical compositions for the treatment or prevention of a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the above compositions or therapeutic combinations and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier also are provided. Methods of treating or preventing a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment an effective amount of the above compositions or therapeutic combinations also are provided. Other than in the operating examples, or where otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” DETAILED DESCRIPTION The compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention comprise at least one (one or more) activators for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR). These activators act as agonists for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Three subtypes of PPAR have been identified, and these are designated as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ). It should be noted that PPARδ is also referred to in the literature as PPARβ and as NUC1, and each of these names refers to the same receptor. PPARα regulates the metabolism of lipids. PPARα is activated by fibrates and a number of medium and long-chain fatty acids, and it is involved in stimulating β-oxidation of fatty acids. The PPARγ receptor subtypes are involved in activating the program of adipocyte differentiation and are not involved in stimulating peroxisome proliferation in the liver. PPARδ has been identified as being useful in increasing high density lipoprotein (HDL) levels in humans. See, e.g., WO 97/28149. PPARα activator compounds are useful for, among other things, lowering triglycerides, moderately lowering LDL levels and increasing HDL levels. Examples of PPARα activators useful in the compositions of the present invention include fibrates. Non-limiting examples of suitable fibric acid derivatives (“fibrates”) include clofibrate (such as ethyl 2-(p-chlorophenoxy)-2-methyl-propionate, for example ATROMID-S® Capsules which are commercially available from Wyeth-Ayerst); gemfibrozil (such as 5-(2,5-dimethylphenoxy)-2,2-dimethylpentanoic acid, for example LOPID® tablets which are commercially available from Parke Davis); ciprofibrate (C.A.S. Registry No. 52214-84-3, see U.S. Pat. No. 3,948,973 which is incorporated herein by reference); bezafibrate (C.A.S. Registry No. 41859-67-0, see U.S. Pat. No. 3,781,328 which is incorporated herein by reference); clinofibrate (C.A.S. Registry No. 30299-08-2, see U.S. Pat. No. 3,716,583 which is incorporated herein by reference); binifibrate (C.A.S. Registry No. 69047-39-8, see BE 884722 which is incorporated herein by reference); lifibrol (C.A.S. Registry No. 96609-16-4); fenofibrate (such as TRICOR® micronized fenofibrate (2-[4-(4-chlorobenzoyl) phenoxy]-2-methyl-propanoic acid, 1-methylethyl ester) which is commercially available from Abbott Laboratories or LIPANTHYL® micronized fenofibrate which is commercially available from Labortoire Founier, France) and mixtures thereof. These compounds can be used in a variety of forms, including but not limited to acid form, salt form, racemates, enantiomers, zwitterions and tautomers. Other examples of PPARα activators useful with the practice of the present invention include suitable fluorophenyl compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,028,109 which is incorporated herein by reference; certain substituted phenylpropionic compounds as disclosed in WO 00/75103 which is incorporated herein by reference; and PPARα activator compounds as disclosed in WO 98/43081 which is incorporated herein by reference. Non-limiting examples of suitable PPARy activators useful in the compositions of the present invention include suitable derivatives of glitazones or thiazolidinediones, such as, troglitazone (such as REZULIN® troglitazone (−5-[[4-[3,4-dihydro-6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-2H-1-benzopyran-2-yl)methoxy]phenyl]methyl]-2,4-thiazolidinedione) commercially available from Parke-Davis); rosiglitazone (such as AVANDIA® rosiglitazone maleate (−5-[[4-[2-(methyl-2-pyridinylamino)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-2,4-thiazolidinedione, (Z)-2-butenedioate) (1:1) commercially available from SmithKline Beecham) and pioglitazone (such as ACTOS™ pioglitazone hydrochloride (5-[[4-[2-(5-ethyl-2-pyridinyl)ethoxy]phenyl]methyl]-2,4-]thiazolidinedione monohydrochloride) commercially available from Takeda Pharmaceuticals). Other useful thiazolidinediones include ciglitazone, englitazone, darglitazone and BRL 49653 as disclosed in WO 98/05331 which is incorporated herein by reference; PPARγ activator compounds disclosed in WO 00/76488 which is incorporated herein by reference; and PPARγ activator compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,554 which is incorporated herein by reference. Other useful PPARγ activator compounds include certain acetylphenols as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,859,051 which is incorporated herein by reference; certain quinoline phenyl compounds as disclosed in WO 99/20275 which is incorporated herein by reference; aryl compounds as disclosed by WO 99/38845 which is incorporated herein by reference; certain 1,4-disubstituted phenyl compounds as disclosed in WO 00/63161; certain aryl compounds as disclosed in WO 01/00579 which is incorporated herein by reference; benzoic acid compounds as disclosed in WO 01/12612 and WO 01/12187 which are incorporated herein by reference; and substituted 4-hydroxy-phenylalconic acid compounds as disclosed in WO 97/31907 which is incorporated herein by reference. PPARδ compounds are useful for, among other things, lowering triglyceride levels or raising HDL levels. Non-limiting examples of suitable PPARδ activators useful in the compositions of the present invention include suitable thiazole and oxazole derivates, such as C.A.S. Registry No. 317318-32-4, as disclosed in WO 01/00603 which is incorporated herein by reference); certain fluoro, chloro or thio phenoxy phenylacetic acids as disclosed in WO 97/28149 which is incorporated herein by reference; suitable non-β-oxidizable fatty acid analogues as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,093,365 which is incorporated herein by reference; and PPARδ activator compounds disclosed in WO 99/04815 which is incorporated herein by reference. Moreover, compounds that have multiple functionality for activating various combinations of PPARα, PPARγ and PPARδ also are useful in compositions of the present invention. Non-limiting examples include certain substituted aryl compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,248,781; WO 00/23416; WO 00/23415; WO 00/23425; WO 00/23445; WO 00/23451; and WO 00/63153, all of which are incorporated herein by reference, which are described as being useful PPARα and/or PPARγ activator compounds. Other non-limiting examples of useful PPARα and/or PPARγ activator compounds include activator compounds as disclosed in WO 97/25042 which is incorporated herein by reference; activator compounds as disclosed in WO 00/63190 which is incorporated herein by reference; activator compounds as disclosed in WO 01/21181 which is incorporated herein by reference; biaryl-oxa(thia)zole compounds as disclosed in WO 01/16120 which is incorporated herein by reference; activator compounds as disclosed in WO 00/63196 and WO 00/63209 which are incorporated herein by reference; substituted 5-aryl-2,4-thiazolidinediones compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,008,237 which is incorporated herein by reference; arylthiazolidinedione and aryloxazolidinedione compounds as disclosed in WO 00/78312 and WO 00/78313G which are incorporated herein by reference; GW2331 or (2-(4-[difluorophenyl]-1 heptylureido)ethyl]phenoxy)-2-methylbutyric compounds as disclosed in WO 98/05331 which is incorporated herein by reference; aryl compounds as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,166,049 which is incorporated herein by reference; oxazole compounds as disclosed in WO 01/17994 which is incorporated herein by reference; and dithiolane compounds as disclosed in WO 01/25225 and WO 01/25226 which are incorporated herein by reference. Other useful PPAR activator compounds include substituted benzylthiazolidine-2,4-dione compounds as disclosed in WO 01/14349, WO 01/14350 and WO/01/04351 which are incorporated herein by reference; mercaptocarboxylic compounds as disclosed in WO 00/50392 which is incorporated herein by reference; ascofuranone compounds as disclosed in WO 00/53563 which is incorporated herein by reference; carboxylic compounds as disclosed in WO 99/46232 which is incorporated herein by reference; compounds as disclosed in WO 99/12534 which is incorporated herein by reference; benzene compounds as disclosed in WO 99/15520 which is incorporated herein by reference; o-anisamide compounds as disclosed in WO 01/21578 which is incorporated herein by reference; and PPAR activator compounds as disclosed in WO 01/40192 which is incorporated herein by reference. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor(s) activator(s) are administered in a therapeutically effective amount to treat the specified condition, for example in a daily dose can range from about 0.1 to about 1000 mg per day, preferably about 0.25 to about 50 mg/day, and more preferably about 10 mg per day, given in a single dose or 2-4 divided doses. The exact dose, however, is determined by the attending clinician and is dependent on such factors as the potency of the compound administered, the age, weight, condition and response of the patient. The term “therapeutically effective amount” means that amount of a therapeutic agent of the composition, such as the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s), sterol absorption inhibitor(s) and other pharmacological or therapeutic agents described below, that will elicit a biological or medical response of a tissue, system, animal or mammal that is being sought by the administrator (such as a researcher, doctor or veterinarian) which includes alleviation of the symptoms of the condition or disease being treated and the prevention, slowing or halting of progression of one or more conditions, for example vascular conditions, such as hyperlipidaemia (for example atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia or sitosterolemia), vascular inflammation, stroke, diabetes, obesity and/or to reduce the level of sterol(s) (such as cholesterol) in the plasma. As used herein, “combination therapy” or “therapeutic combination” means the administration of two or more therapeutic agents, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s), to prevent or treat a condition, for example a vascular condition, such as hyperlipidaemia (for example atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia or sitosterolemia), vascular inflammation, stroke, diabetes, obesity and/or reduce the level of sterol(s) (such as cholesterol) in the plasma. As used herein, “vascular” comprises cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and combinations thereof. The compositions, combinations and treatments of the present invention can be administered by any suitable means which produce contact of these compounds with the site of action in the body, for example in the plasma, liver or small intestine of a mammal or human. Such administration includes coadministration of these therapeutic agents in a substantially simultaneous manner, such as in a single tablet or capsule having a fixed ratio of active ingredients or in multiple, separate capsules for each therapeutic agent. Also, such administration includes use of each type of therapeutic agent in a sequential manner. In either case, the treatment using the combination therapy will provide beneficial effects in treating the condition. A potential advantage of the combination therapy disclosed herein may be a reduction in the required amount of an individual therapeutic compound or the overall total amount of therapeutic compounds that are effective in treating the condition. By using a combination of therapeutic agents, the side effects of the individual compounds can be reduced as compared to a monotherapy, which can improve patient compliance. Also, therapeutic agents can be selected to provide a broader range of complimentary effects or complimentary modes of action. As discussed above, the compositions, pharmaceutical compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention comprise one or more substituted azetidinone or substituted β-lactam sterol absorption inhibitors discussed in detail below. As used herein, “sterol absorption inhibitor” means a compound capable of inhibiting the absorption of one or more sterols, including but not limited to cholesterol, phytosterols (such as sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol and avenosterol), 5α-stanols (such as cholestanol, 5α-campestanol, 5α-sitostanol), and mixtures thereof, when administered in a therapeutically effective (sterol absorption inhibiting) amount to a mammal or human. In a preferred embodiment, sterol absorption inhibitors useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (I) below: or isomers of the compounds of Formula (I), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (I) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (I), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (I) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (I), wherein, in Formula (I) above: Ar1 and Ar2 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl and R4-substituted aryl; Ar3 is aryl or R5 substituted aryl; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; R and R2 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7; R1 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl and aryl; q is 0 or 1; r is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; provided that at least one of q and r is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, q and r is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; and provided that when p is O and r is 1, the sum of m, q and n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; R4 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6 (CO)R7, —NR6 (CO)OR9, —NR6 (CO)NR7R8, —NR6 SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, -(lower alkylene)COOR6, —CH═CH—COOR6, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; R5 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, -(lower alkylene)COOR6 and —CH═CH—COOR6; R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl. Preferably, R4 is 1-3 independently selected substituents, and R5 is preferably 1-3 independently selected substituents. As used herein, the term “alkyl” or “lower alkyl” means straight or branched alkyl chains having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms and “alkoxy” means alkoxy groups having 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Non-limiting examples of lower alkyl groups include, for example methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl groups. “Alkenyl” means straight or branched carbon chains having one or more double bonds in the chain, conjugated or unconjugated. Similarly, “alkynyl” means straight or branched carbon chains having one or more triple bonds in the chain. Where an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl chain joins two other variables and is therefore bivalent, the terms alkylene, alkenylene and alkynylene are used. “Cycloalkyl” means a saturated carbon ring of 3 to 6 carbon atoms, while “cycloalkylene” refers to a corresponding bivalent ring, wherein the points of attachment to other groups include all positional isomers. “Halogeno” refers to fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine radicals. “Aryl” means phenyl, naphthyl, indenyl, tetrahydronaphthyl or indanyl. “Phenylene” means a bivalent phenyl group, including ortho, meta and para-substitution. The statements wherein, for example, R, R1, R2 and R3, are said to be independently selected from a group of substituents, mean that R, R1, R2 and R3 are independently selected, but also that where an R, R1, R2 and R3 variable occurs more than once in a molecule, each occurrence is independently selected (e.g., if R is —OR6, wherein R6 is hydrogen, R2 can be —OR6 wherein R6 is lower alkyl). Those skilled in the art will recognize that the size and nature of the substituent(s) will affect the number of substituents that can be present. Compounds of the invention have at least one asymmetrical carbon atom and therefore all isomers, including enantiomers, stereoisomers, rotamers, tautomers and racemates of the compounds of Formula (I-XI) (where they exist) are contemplated as being part of this invention. The invention includes d and l isomers in both pure form and in admixture, including racemic mixtures. Isomers can be prepared using conventional techniques, either by reacting optically pure or optically enriched starting materials or by separating isomers of a compound of the Formulae I-XI. Isomers may also include geometric isomers, e.g., when a double bond is present. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that for some of the compounds of the Formulae I-XI, one isomer will show greater pharmacological activity than other isomers. Compounds of the invention with an amino group can form pharmaceutically acceptable salts with organic and inorganic acids. Examples of suitable acids for salt formation are hydrochloric, sulfuric, phosphoric, acetic, citric, oxalic, malonic, salicylic, malic, fumaric, succinic, ascorbic, maleic, methanesulfonic and other mineral and carboxylic acids well known to those in the art. The salt is prepared by contacting the free base form with a sufficient amount of the desired acid to produce a salt. The free base form may be regenerated by treating the salt with a suitable dilute aqueous base solution such as dilute aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The free base form differs from its respective salt form somewhat in certain physical properties, such as solubility in polar solvents, but the salt is otherwise equivalent to its respective free base forms for purposes of the invention. Certain compounds of the invention are acidic (e.g., those compounds which possess a carboxyl group). These compounds form pharmaceutically acceptable salts with inorganic and organic bases. Examples of such salts are the sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminum, gold and silver salts. Also included are salts formed with pharmaceutically acceptable amines such as ammonia, alkyl amines, hydroxyalkylamines, N-methylglucamine and the like. As used herein, “solvate” means a molecular or ionic complex of molecules or ions of solvent with those of solute (for example, one or more compounds of Formulae I-XI, isomers of the compounds of Formulae I-XI, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formulae I-XI). Non-limiting examples of useful solvents include polar, protic solvents such as water and/or alcohols (for example methanol). As used herein, “prodrug” means compounds that are drug precursors which, following administration to a patient, release the drug in vivo via some chemical or physiological process (e.g., a prodrug on being brought to the physiological pH or through enzyme action is converted to the desired drug form). Preferred compounds of Formula (I) are those in which Ar1 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, more preferably (4-R4)-substituted phenyl. Ar2 is preferably phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, more preferably (4-R4)-substituted phenyl. Ar3 is preferably R5-substituted phenyl, more preferably (4-R5)-substituted phenyl. When Ar1 is (4-R4)-substituted phenyl, R4 is preferably a halogen. When Ar2 and Ar3 are R4- and R5-substituted phenyl, respectively, R4 is preferably halogen or —OR6 and R5 is preferably —OR6, wherein R6 is lower alkyl or hydrogen. Especially preferred are compounds wherein each of Ar1 and Ar2 is 4-fluorophenyl and Ar3 is 4-hydroxyphenyl or 4-methoxyphenyl. X, Y and Z are each preferably —CH2—. R1 and R2 are each preferably hydrogen. R and R2 are preferably —OR6 wherein R6 is hydrogen, or a group readily metabolizable to a hydroxyl (such as —O(O)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7, defined above). The sum of m, n, p, q and r is preferably 2, 3 or 4, more preferably 3. Preferred are compounds wherein m, n and r are each zero, q is 1 and p is 2. Also preferred are compounds of Formula (I) in which p, q and n are each zero, r is 1 and m is 2 or 3. More preferred are compounds wherein m, n and r are each zero, q is 1, p is 2, Z is —CH2— and R6 is —OR6, especially when R6 is hydrogen. Also more preferred are compounds of Formula (I) wherein p, q and n are each zero, r is 1, m is 2, X is —CH2— and R2 is —OR6, especially when R6 is hydrogen. Another group of preferred compounds of Formula (I) is that in which Ar1 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, Ar2 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl and Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl. Also preferred are compounds in which Ar1 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, Ar2 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl, and the sum of m, n, p, q and r is 2, 3 or 4, more preferably 3. More preferred are compounds wherein Ar1 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, Ar2 is phenyl or R4-substituted phenyl, Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl, and wherein m, n and r are each zero, q is 1 and p is 2, or wherein p, q and n are each zero, r is 1 and m is 2 or 3. In a preferred embodiment, a sterol inhibitor of Formula (I) useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention is represented by Formula (II) (ezetimibe) below: or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compound of Formula (II), or prodrugs of the compound of Formula (II) or of the salts or solvates of the compound of Formula (II). Compounds of Formula I can be prepared by a variety of methods well know to those skilled in the art, for example such as are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,631,365, 5,767,115, 5,846,966, 6,207,822, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/279,288 filed Mar. 28, 2001, and PCT Patent Application WO 93/02048, each of which is incorporated herein by reference, and in the Example below. For example, suitable compounds of Formula I can be prepared by a method comprising the steps of: (a) treating with a strong base a lactone of the Formula A or B: wherein R′ and R2′ are R and R2, respectively, or are suitably protected hydroxy groups; Ar10 is Ar1, a suitably protected hydroxy-substituted aryl or a suitably protected amino-substituted aryl; and the remaining variables are as defined above for Formula I, provided that in lactone of formula B, when n and r are each zero, p is 1-4; (b) reacting the product of step (a) with an imine of the formula wherein Ar20 is Ar2, a suitably protected hydroxy-substituted aryl or a suitably protected amino-substituted aryl; and Ar30 is Ar3, a suitably protected hydroxy-substituted aryl or a suitably protected amino-substituted aryl; c) quenching the reaction with an acid; d) optionally removing the protecting groups from R′, R2′, Ar10, Ar20 and Ar30, when present; and e) optionally functionalizing hydroxy or amino substituents at R, R2, Ar1, Ar2 and Ar3. Using the lactones shown above, compounds of Formula IA and IB are obtained as follows: wherein the variables are as defined above; and wherein the variables are as defined above. Alternative sterol absorption inhibitors useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (III) below: or isomers of the compounds of Formula (III), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (III) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (III), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (III) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (III), wherein, in Formula (III) above: Ar1 is R3-substituted aryl; Ar2 is R4-substituted aryl; Ar3 is R5-substituted aryl; Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; A is selected from —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O)2—; R1 is selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7; R2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl and aryl; or R1 and R2 together are ═O; q is 1, 2 or 3; p is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; R5 is 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR9, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6(CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR6R7, —NR6SO2-lower alkyl, —NR6SO2-aryl, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2-alkyl, S(O)0-2-aryl, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10—CONR6R7, -halogeno, m-halogeno, o-lower alkyl, m-lower alkyl -(lower alkylene)-COOR6, and —CH═CH—COOR6, R3 and R4 are independently 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of R5, hydrogen, p-lower alkyl, aryl, —NO2, —CF3 and p-halogeno; R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl. Preferred compounds of Formula I include those in which Ar1 is R3-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R3)-substituted phenyl. Ar2 is preferably R4-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R4)-substituted phenyl. Ar3 is preferably R5-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R5)-substituted phenyl. Mono-substitution of each of Ar1, Ar2 and Ar3 is preferred. Y and Z are each preferably —CH2—. R2 is preferably hydrogen. R1 is preferably —OR6 wherein R6 is hydrogen, or a group readily metabolizable to a hydroxyl (such as —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7, defined above). Also preferred are compounds wherein R1 and R2 together are ═O. The sum of q and p is preferably 1 or 2, more preferably 1. Preferred are compounds wherein p is zero and q is 1. More preferred are compounds wherein p is, zero, q is 1, Y is —CH2— and R1 is —OR, especially when R6 is hydrogen. Another group of preferred compounds is that in which Ar1 is R3-substituted phenyl, Ar2 is R4-substituted phenyl and Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl. Also preferred are compounds wherein Ar1 is R1-substituted phenyl, Ar2 is R4-substituted phenyl, Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl, and the sum of p and q is 1 or 2, especially 1. More preferred are compounds wherein Ar1 is R3-substituted phenyl, Ar2 is R4-substituted phenyl, Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl, p is zero and q is 1. A is preferably —O—. R3 is preferably —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2-alkyl, S(O)0-2-aryl, NO2 or halogeno. A more preferred definition for R3 is halogeno, especially fluoro or chloro. R4 is preferably hydrogen, lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, COR6 or halogeno, wherein R6 and R7 are preferably independently hydrogen or lower alkyl, and R9 is preferably lower alkyl. A more preferred definition for R4 is hydrogen or halogeno, especially fluoro orchloro. R5 is preferably —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, -(lower alkylene)-COOR6 or —CH═CH—COOR6, wherein R6 and R7 are preferably independently hydrogen or lower alkyl, and R9 is preferably lower alkyl. A more preferred definition for R5 is —OR6, -(lower alkylene)-COOR6 or —CH═CH—COOR6, wherein R6 is preferably hydrogen or lower alkyl. Methods for making compounds of Formula III are well known to those skilled in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable methods are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,688,990, which is incorporated herein by reference. In another embodiment, sterol absorption inhibitors useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (IV): or isomers of the compounds of Formula (IV), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IV) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (IV), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (IV) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IV), wherein, in Formula (IV) above: A is selected from the group consisting of R2-substituted heterocycloalkyl, R2substituted heteroaryl, R2-substituted benzofused heterocycloalkyl, and R2-substituted benzofused heteroaryl; Ar1 is aryl or R3-substituted aryl; Ar2 is aryl or R4-substituted aryl; Q is a bond or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R1 is selected from the group consisting of: —(CH2)q, wherein q is 2-6, provided that when Q forms a spiro ring, q can also be zero or 1; —(CH2)e-G-(CH2)r—, wherein G is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —NR8— or —S(O)0-2—, e is 0-5 and r is 0-5, provided that the sum of e and r is 1-6; —(C2-C6 alkenylene)-; and —(CH2)f—V—(CH2)g—, wherein V is C3-C6 cycloalkylene, f is 1-5 and g is 0-5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1-6; R5 is selected from: R6 and R7 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—; or R5 together with an adjacent R6, or R5 together with an adjacent R7, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C1-C6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R6 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R7 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R6's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R7's can be the same or different; and when Q is a bond, R1 also can be selected from: where M is —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O)2—; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)- and —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl); R10 and R12 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR14, —O(CO)R14, —O(CO)OR16 and —O(CO)NR14R15; R11 and R13 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl and aryl; or R10 and R11 together are ═O, or R12 and R13 together are ═O; d is 1, 2 or 3; h is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; s is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently 0-4; provided that at least one of s and t is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, s and t is 1-6; provided that when p is 0 and t is 1, the sum of m, s and n is 1-5; and provided that when p is 0 and s is 1, the sum of m, t and n is 1-5; v is 0 or 1; j and k are independently 1-5, provided that the sum of j, k and v is 1-5; R2 is 1-3 substituents on the ring carbon atoms selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C10)alkyl, (C2-C10)alkenyl, (C2-C10)alkynyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkenyl, R17-substituted aryl, R17-substituted benzyl, R17-substituted benzyloxy, R17-substituted aryloxy, halogeno, —NR14R15, NR14R15 (C1-C6 alkylene)-, NR14R15C(O)(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —NHC(O)R16, OH, C1-C6 alkoxy, —OC(O)R16, —COR14, hydroxy(C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)alkyl, NO2, —S(O)0-2R16, —SO2NR14R15 and —(C1-C6 alkylene)COOR14; when R2 is a substituent on a heterocycloalkyl ring, R2 is as defined, or is ═O or and, where R2 is a substituent on a substitutable ring nitrogen, it is hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, aryloxy, (C1-C6)alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, hydroxy, —(CH2)1-6CONR18R18, wherein J is —O—, —NH—, —NR18— or —CH2—; R3 and R4 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C1-C6)alkyl, —OR14, —O(CO)R14, —O(CO)OR16, —O(CH2)1-5OR14, —O(CO)NR14R15, —NR14R15, —NR14(CO)R15, —NR14(CO)OR16, —NR14(CO)NR15R19, —NR14SO2R16, —COOR14, —CONR14R15, —COR14, —SO2NR14R15, S(O)0-2R16, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR14, —O(CH2)1-10CONR14R15, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-COOR14, —CH═CH—COOR14, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; R8 is hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)R14 or —COOR14; R9 and R17 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —NR14R15, OH and halogeno; R14 and R15 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C1-C6)alkyl; R16 is (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl or R17-substituted aryl; R18 is hydrogen or (C1-C6)alkyl; and R19 is hydrogen, hydroxy or (C1-C6)alkoxy. As used in Formula (IV) above, “A” is preferably an R2-substituted, 6-membered heterocycloalkyl ring containing 1 or 2 nitrogen atoms. Preferred heterocycloalkyl rings are piperidinyl, piperazinyl and morpholinyl groups. The ring “A” is preferably joined to the phenyl ring through a ring nitrogen. Preferred R2 substituents are hydrogen and lower alkyl. R19 is preferably hydrogen. Ar2 is preferably phenyl or R4-phenyl, especially (4-R4)-substituted phenyl. Preferred definitions of R4 are lower alkoxy, especially methoxy, and halogeno, especially fluoro. Ar1 is preferably phenyl or R3-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R3)-substituted phenyl. There are several preferred definitions for the —R1-Q- combination of variables: Q is a bond and R1 is lower alkylene; preferably propylene; Q is a spiro group as defined above, wherein preferably R6 and R7 are each ethylene and R5 is Q is a bond and R1 is wherein the variables are chosen such that R1 is —O—CH2—CH(OH)—; Q is a bond and R1 is wherein the variables are chosen such that R1 is —CH(OH)—(CH2)2—; and Q is a bond and R1 is wherein the variables are chosen such that R1 is —CH(OH)—CH2—S(O)0-2—. Methods for making compounds of Formula IV are well known to those skilled in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable methods are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,656,624, which is incorporated herein by reference. In another embodiment, sterol absorption inhibitors useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (V): or isomers of the compounds of Formula (V), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (V) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (V), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (V) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (V), wherein, in Formula (V) above: Ar1 is aryl, R10-substituted aryl or heteroaryl; Ar2 is aryl or R4-substituted aryl; Ar3 is aryl or R5 substituted aryl; X and Y are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; R is —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 or —O(CO)NR6R7; R1 is hydrogen, lower alkyl or aryl; or R and R1 together are ═O; q is 0 or 1; r is 0, 1 or 2; m and n are independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; provided that the sum of m, n and q is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; R4 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6 (CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR6R7, —NR6 SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, -(lower alkylene)COOR6 and —CH═CH—COOR6; R5 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6 (CO)R7, —NR6 (CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, —SO2NR6R7, S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, —CF3, —CN, —NO2, halogen, -(lower-alkylene)COOR6 and —CH═CH—COOR6; R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; R9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R10 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR6, —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9, —O(CH2)1-5OR6, —O(CO)NR6R7, —NR6R7, —NR6 (CO)R7, —NR6(CO)OR9, —NR6(CO)NR7R8, —NR6SO2R9, —COOR6, —CONR6R7, —COR6, SO2NR6R7, —S(O)0-2R9, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR6, —O(CH2)1-10CONR6R7, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen. Within the scope of Formula V, there are included two preferred structures. In Formula VA, q is zero and the remaining variables are as defined above, and in Formula VB, q is 1 and the remaining variables are as defined above: R4, R5and R10 are each preferably 1-3 independently selected substituents as set forth above. Preferred are compounds of Formula (V) wherein Ar1 is phenyl, R10-substituted phenyl or thienyl, especially (4-R10)-substituted phenyl or thienyl. Ar2 is preferably R4-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R4)-substituted phenyl. Ar3 is preferably phenyl or R5-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R5-substituted phenyl. When Ar1 is R10-substituted phenyl, R10 is preferably halogeno, especially fluoro. When Ar2 is R4-substituted phenyl, R4 is preferably —OR6, especially wherein R6 is hydrogen or lower alkyl. When Ar3 is R5-substituted phenyl, R5 is preferably halogeno, especially fluoro. Especially preferred are compounds of Formula (V) wherein Ar1 is phenyl, 4-fluorophenyl or thienyl, Ar2 is 4-(alkoxy or hydroxy)phenyl, and Ar3 is phenyl or 4-fluorophenyl. X and Y are each preferably —CH2—. The sum of m, n and q is preferably 2, 3 or 4, more preferably 2. When q is 1, n is preferably 1 to 5. Preferences for X, Y, Ar1, Ar2 and Ar3 are the same in each of Formulae (VA) and (VB). In compounds of Formula (VA), the sum of m and n is preferably 2, 3 or 4, more preferably 2. Also preferred are compounds wherein the sum of m and n is 2, and r is 0 or 1. In compounds of Formula (VB), the sum of m and n is preferably 1, 2 or 3, more preferably 1. Especially preferred are compounds wherein m is zero and n is 1. R1 is preferably hydrogen and R is preferably —OR6 wherein R6 is hydrogen, or a group readily metabolizable to a hydroxyl (such as —O(CO)R6, —O(CO)OR9 and —O(CO)NR6R7 defined above), or R and R1 together form a ═O group. Methods for making compounds of Formula V are well known to those skilled in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable methods are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,920, which is incorporated herein by reference. In another embodiment, sterol absorption inhibitors useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (VI): (VI) or isomers of the compounds of Formula (VI), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VI) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (VI), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VI) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VI), wherein: R1 is R2 and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of: —CH2—, —CH(lower alkyl)-, —C(di-lower alkyl)-, —CH═CH— and —C(lower alkyl)═CH—; or R1 together with an adjacent R2, or R1 together with an adjacent R3, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(lower alkyl)-group; u and v are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R2 is —CH═CH— or —C(lower alkyl)═CH—, v is 1; provided that when R3 is CH═CH— or —C(lower alkyl)═CH—, u is 1; provided that when v is 2 or 3, the R2's can be the same or different; and provided that when u is 2 or 3, the R3's can be the same or different; R4 is selected from B—(CH2)mC(O)—, wherein m is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; B—(CH2)q—, wherein q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)e-Z-(CH2)r—, wherein Z is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —N(R8)— or —S(O)0-2—, e is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, provided that the sum of e and r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(C2-C6 alkenylene)-; B—(C4-C6 alkadienylene)-; B—(CH2)t-Z-(C2-C6 alkenylene)-, wherein Z is as defined above, and wherein t is 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided that the sum of t and the number of carbon atoms in the alkenylene chain is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)f—V—(CH2)g—, wherein V is C3-C6 cycloalkylene, f is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and g is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)t—V—(C2-C6 alkenylene)- or B—(C2-C6 alkenylene)-V—(CH2)t—, wherein V and t are as defined above, provided that the sum of t and the number of carbon atoms in the alkenylene chain is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH2)a-Z-(CH2)b—V—(CH2)d—, wherein Z and V are as defined above and a, b and d are independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6, provided that the sum of a, b and d is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; or T-(CH2)s—, wherein T is cycloalkyl of 3-6 carbon atoms and s is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; or R1 and R4 together form the group B is selected from indanyl, indenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, heteroaryl or W-substituted heteroaryl, wherein heteroaryl is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolyl, pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, triazinyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazolyl, thienyl, oxazolyl and furanyl, and for nitrogen-containing heteroaryls, the N-oxides thereof, or W is 1 to 3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, hydroxy lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, alkoxyalkyl, alkoxyalkoxy, alkoxycarbonylalkoxy, (lower alkoxyimino)-lower alkyl, lower alkanedioyl, lower alkyl lower alkanedioyl, allyloxy, —CF3, —OCF3, benzyl, R7-benzyl, benzyloxy, R7-benzyloxy, phenoxy, R7-phenoxy, dioxolanyl, NO2, —N(R8)(R9), N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylene-, N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylenyloxy-, OH, halogeno, —CN, —N3, —NHC(O)OR10, —NHC(O)R10, R11O2SNH—, (R11O2S)2N—, —S(O)2NH2, —S(O)0-2R8, tert-butyldimethyl-silyloxymethyl, —C(O)R12, —COOR19, —CON(R8)(R9), —CH═CHC(O)R12, -lower alkylene-C(O)R12, R10C(O)(lower alkylenyloxy)-, N(R8)(R9)C(O)(lower alkylenyloxy)- and for substitution on ring carbon atoms, and the substituents on the substituted heteroaryl ring nitrogen atoms, when present, are selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —C(O)OR10, —C(O)R10, OH, N(R8)(R9)-lower-alkylene-, N(R8)(R9)-lower alkylenyloxy-, —S(O)2NH2 and 2-(trimethylsilyl)-ethoxymethyl; R7 is 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —N(R8)(R9), OH, and halogeno; R8 and R9 are independently selected from H or lower alkyl; R10 is selected from lower alkyl, phenyl, R7-phenyl, benzyl or R7-benzyl; R11 is selected from OH, lower alkyl, phenyl, benzyl, R7-phenyl or R7-benzyl; R12 is selected from H, OH, alkoxy, phenoxy, benzyloxy, —N(R8)(R9), lower alkyl, phenyl or R7-phenyl; R13 is selected from —O—, —CH2—, —NH—, —N(lower alkyl)- or —NC(O)R19; R15, R16 and R17 are independently selected from the group consisting of H and the groups defined for W; or R15 is hydrogen and R16 and R17, together with adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form a dioxolanyl ring; R19 is H, lower alkyl, phenyl or phenyl lower alkyl; and R20 and R21 are independently selected from the group consisting of phenyl, W-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, W-substituted naphthyl, indanyl, indenyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, benzodioxolyl, heteroaryl, W-substituted heteroaryl, benzofused heteroaryl, W-substituted benzofused heteroaryl and cyclopropyl, wherein heteroaryl is as defined above. One group of preferred compounds of Formula VI is that in which R21 is selected from phenyl, W-substituted phenyl, indanyl, benzofuranyl, benzodioxolyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, pyridyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, quinolyl or cyclopropyl, wherein W is lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, OH, halogeno, —N(R8)(R9), —NHC(O)OR10, —NHC(O)R10, NO2, —CN, —N3, —SH, —S(O)0-2-(lower alkyl), —COOR19, —CON(R8)(R9), —COR12, phenoxy, benzyloxy, —OCF3, —CH═C(O)R12 or tert-butyldimethylsilyloxy, wherein R8, R9, R10, R12 and R19 are as defined for Formula IV. When W is 2 or 3 substituents, the substituents can be the same or different. Another group of preferred compounds of Formula VI is that in which R20 is phenyl or W-substituted phenyl, wherein preferred meanings of W are as defined above for preferred definitions of R21. More preferred are compounds of Formula VI wherein R20 is phenyl or W-substituted phenyl and R21 is phenyl, W-substituted phenyl, indanyl, benzofuranyl, benzodioxolyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, pyridyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, quinolyl or cyclopropyl; W is lower alkyl, lower alkoxy; OH, halogeno, —N(R8)(R9), —NHC(O)OR10, —NHC(O)R10, NO2, —CN, —N3, —SH, —S(O)0-2-(lower alkyl), —COOR19, —CON(R8)(R9), —COR12, phenoxy, benzyloxy, —CH═CHC(O)R12, —OCF3 or tert-butyl-dimethyl-silyloxy, wherein when W is 2 or 3 substituents, the substituents can be the same or different, and wherein R8, R9, R10, R12 and R19 are as defined in Formula VI. Also preferred are compounds of Formula VI wherein R1 is —CH— or —C(OH)—. Another group of preferred compounds of Formula VI is in which R2 and R3 are each —CH2— and the sum of u and v is 2, 3 or 4, with u=v=2 being more preferred. R4 is preferably B—(CH2)q— or B—(CH2)e-Z-(CH2)r, wherein B, Z, q, e and r are as defined above. B is preferably wherein R16 and R17 are each hydrogen and wherein R15 is preferably H, OH, lower alkoxy, especially methoxy, or halogeno, especially chloro. Preferably Z is —O—, e is 0, and r is 0. Preferably q is 0-2. R20 is preferably phenyl or W-substituted phenyl. Preferred W substituents for R20 are lower alkoxy, especially methoxy and ethoxy, OH, and —C(O)R12, wherein R12 is preferably lower alkoxy. Preferably R21 is selected from phenyl, lower alkoxy-substituted phenyl and F-phenyl. Especially preferred are compounds of Formula VI wherein R1 is —CH—, or —C(OH)—, R2 and R3 are each —CH2—, u=v=2, R4 is B—(CH2)q—, wherein B is phenyl or phenyl substituted by lower alkoxy or chloro, q is 0-2, R20 is phenyl, OH-phenyl, lower alkoxy-substituted phenyl or lower alkoxycarbonyl-substituted phenyl, and R21 is phenyl, lower alkoxy-substituted phenyl or F-phenyl. Methods-for making compounds of Formula VI are well known to those skilled in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable methods are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,548, which is incorporated herein by reference. In another embodiment, sterol inhibitors useful in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (VII): or isomers of the compounds of Formula (VII), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VII) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (VII), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VII) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VII), wherein in Formula (VII) above: A is —CH═CH—, —C≡C— or —(CH2)p— wherein p is 0, 1 or 2; B is E is C10 to C20 alkyl or —C(O)—(C9 to C19)-alkyl, wherein the alkyl is straight or branched, saturated or containing one or more double bonds; R is hydrogen, C1-C15 alkyl, straight or branched, saturated or containing one or more double bonds, or B—(CH2)r—, wherein r is 0, 1, 2, or 3; R1, R2, and R3 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, carboxy, NO2, NH2, OH, halogeno, lower alkylamino, dilower alkylamino, —NHC(O)OR5, R6O2SNH— and —S(O)2NH2; R4 is wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; R5 is lower alkyl; and R6 is OH, lower alkyl, phenyl, benzyl or substituted phenyl wherein the substituents are 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, carboxy, NO2, NH2, OH, halogeno, lower alkylamino and dilower alkylamino. Preferred compounds of Formula (VII) are those wherein R is hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, phenyl or phenylpropyl. Another group of preferred compounds of Formula (VII) is that wherein R4 is p-methoxyphenyl or 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl. Still another group of preferred compounds of Formula (VII) is that wherein A is ethylene or a bond. Yet another group of preferred compounds of Formula (VII) is that wherein E is decyl, oleoyl or 7-Z-hexadecenyl. Preferably R1, R2 and R3 are each hydrogen. More preferred compounds of Formula (VII) are those wherein R is hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, phenyl or phenylpropyl; R4 is p-methoxyphenyl or 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl; A is ethylene or a bond; E is decyl, oleoyl or 7-Z-hexadecenyl; and R1, R2 and R3 are each hydrogen. A preferred compound of Formula (VII) is that wherein E is decyl, R is hydrogen, B-A is phenyl and R4 is p-methoxyphenyl. In another embodiment, sterol inhibitors useful in the compositions and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (VIII): (VIII) or isomers of the compounds of Formula (VIII), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VIII) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (VIII), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VIII) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VIII), wherein, in Formula (VIII) above, R26 is H or OG1; G and G1 are independently selected from the group consisting of provided that when R26 is H or OH, G is not H; R, Ra and Rb are independently-selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH2, azido, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)-alkoxy br-W—R30; W is independently selected from the group consisting of —NH—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—N(R31)—, —NH—C(O)—N(R31)— and —O—C(S)—N(R31)—; R2 and R6 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl(C1-C6)alkyl; R3, R4, R5, R7, R3a and R4a are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl(C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)(C1-C6)alkyl and —C(O)aryl; R30 is selected from the group consisting of R32-substituted-T, R32-substituted-T-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C2-C4)alkenyl, R32-substituted-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl and R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl(C1-C6)alkyl; R31 is selected from the group consisting of H and (C1-C4)alkyl; T is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, iosthiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl and pyridyl; R32 is independently selected from 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogeno, (C1-C4)alkyl, —OH, phenoxy, —CF3, —NO2, (C1-C4)alkoxy, methylenedioxy, oxo, (C1-C4)alkylsulfanyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfonyl, —N(CH3)2, —C(O)—NH(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—N((C1-C4)alkyl)2, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkoxy and pyrrolidinylcarbonyl; or R32 is a covalent bond and R31, the nitrogen to which it is attached and R32 form a pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methyl-piperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group, or a (C1-C4)alkoxycarbonyl-substituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methylpiperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group; Ar1 is aryl or R10-substituted aryl; Ar2 is aryl or R11-substituted aryl; Q is a bond or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R1 is selected from the group consisting of —(CH2)q—, wherein q is 2-6, provided that when Q forms a spiro ring, q can also be zero or 1; —(CH2)e-E-(CH2)r—, wherein E is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —NR22— or —S(O)0-2—, e is 0-5 and r is 0-5, provided that the sum of e and r is 1-6; —(C2-C6)alkenylene-; and —(CH2)f—V—(CH2)g—, wherein V is C3-C6 cycloalkylene, f is 1-5 and g is 0-5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1-6; R12 is R13 and R14 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—; or R12 together with an adjacent R13, or R12 together with an adjacent R14, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C1-C6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R13 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R14 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R13's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R14's can be the same or different; and when Q is a bond, R1 also can be: M is —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O)2—; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6)alkyl- and —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl); R10 and R11 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C1-C6)alkyl, —OR19, —O(CO)R19, —O(CO)OR21, —O(CH2)1-5OR19, —O(CO)NR19R20, —NR19R20, —NR19(CO)R20, —NR19(CO)OR21, —NR19(CO)NR2OR25, —NR19SO2R21, —COOR19, —CONR19R20, —COR19, —SO2NR19R20, S(O)0-2R21, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR19, —O(CH2)1-10CONR19R20, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-COOR19, —CH═CH—COOR19, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; R15 and R17 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR19, —O(CO)R19, —O(CO)OR21 and —O(CO)NR19R20; R16 and R18 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl and aryl; or R15 and R16 together are ═O, or R17 and R18 together are ═O; d is 1, 2 or 3; h iso, 1, 2, 3 or 4; s is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently 0-4; provided that at least one of s and t is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, s and t is 1-6; provided that when p is 0 and t is 1, the sum of m, s and n is 1-5; and provided that when p is 0 and s is 1, the sum of m, t and n is 1-5; v is 0 or 1; j and k are independently 1-5, provided that the sum of j, k and v is 1-5; and when Q is a bond and R1 is Ar1 can also be pyridyl, isoxazolyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl or pyridazinyl; R19 and R20 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C1-C6)alkyl; R21 is (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl or R24-substituted aryl; R22 is H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)R19 or —COOR19; R23 and R24 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —NR19R20, —OH and halogeno; and R25 is H, —OH or (C1-C6)alkoxy. Ar2 is preferably phenyl or R11-phenyl, especially (4-R11)-substituted phenyl. Preferred definitions of R11 are lower alkoxy, especially methoxy, and halogeno, especially fluoro. Ar1 is preferably phenyl or R10-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R10)-substituted phenyl. Preferably R10 is halogeno, and more preferably fluoro. There are several preferred definitions for the —R1-Q-combination of variables: Q is a bond and R1 is lower alkylene, preferably propylene; Q is a spiro group as defined above, wherein preferably R13 and R14 are each ethylene and R12 is and R1 is —(CH2)q wherein q is 0-6; Q is a bond and R1 is wherein the variables are chosen such that R1 is —O—CH2—CH(OH)—; Q is a bond and R1 wherein the variables are chosen such that R1 is —CH(OH)—(CH2)2—; and Q is a bond and R1 is wherein the variables are chosen such that R1 is —CH(OH)—CH2—S(O)0-2—. A preferred compound of Formula (VIII) therefore, is one wherein G and G1 are as defined above and in which the remaining variables have the following definitions: Ar1 is phenyl or R10-substituted phenyl, wherein R10 is halogeno; Ar2 is phenyl or R11-phenyl, wherein R1 1 is 1 to 3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkoxy and halogeno; Q is a bond and R1 is lower alkylene; Q, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the group wherein preferably R13 and R14 are each ethylene and a and b are each 1, and wherein R12 is —CH— or —C(OH)—; Q is a bond and R1 is —O—CH2—CH(OH)—; Q is a bond and R1 is —CH(OH)—(CH2)2—; or Q is a bond and R1 is —CH(OH)—CH2—S(O)0-2—. Preferred variables for G and G1 groups of the formulae are as follows: R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, benzyl and acetyl. Preferred variables for group G or G1 of the formula: are as follows: R3, R3a, R4 and R4a are selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, benzyl and acetyl; R, Ra and Rb are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH2, azido, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)alkoxy and —W—R30, wherein W is —O—C(O)— or —O—C(O)—NR31—, R31 is H and R30 is (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkoxy-(C1-C6)alkyl, T, T-(C1-C6)alkyl, or T or T-(C1-C6)alkyl wherein T is substituted by one or two halogeno or (C1-C6)alkyl groups. Preferred R30 substituents are selected from the group consisting of: 2-fluorophenyl, 2,4-difluoro-phenyl, 2,6-dichlorophenyl, 2-methylphenyl, 2-thienylmethyl, 2-methoxy-carbonylethyl, thiazol-2-yl-methyl, 2-furyl, 2-methoxycarbonylbutyl and phenyl. Preferred combinations of R, Ra and Rb are as follows: 1) R, Ra and Rb are independently —OH or —O—C(O)—NH—R30, especially wherein Ra is —OH and R and Rb are —O—C(O)—NH—R30 and R30 is selected from the preferred substituents identified above, or wherein R and Ra are each —OH and Rb is —O—C(O)—NH—R30 wherein R30 is 2-fluorophenyl, 2,4-difluoro-phenyl, 2,6-dichlorophenyl; 2) Ra is —OH, halogeno, azido or (C1-C6)-alkoxy(C1-C6)alkoxy; Rb is H, halogeno, azido or (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)-alkoxy, and R is —O—C(O)—NH—R30, especially compounds wherein Ra is —OH, Rb is H and R30 is 2-fluorophenyl; 3) R, Ra and Rb are independently —OH or —O—C(O)—R30 and R30 is (C1-C6)alkyl, T, or T substituted by one or two halogeno or (C1-C6)alkyl groups, especially compounds wherein R is —OH and Ra and Rb are —O—C(O)—R30 wherein R30 is 2-furyl; and 4) R, Ra and Rb are independently —OH or halogeno. Three additional classes of preferred compounds are those wherein the C1′ anomeric oxy is beta, wherein the C2′ anomeric oxy is beta, and wherein the R group is alpha. G and G1 are preferably selected from: wherein Ac is acetyl and Ph is phenyl. Preferably, R26 is H or OH, more preferably H. The —O-G substituent is preferably in the 4-position of the phenyl ring to which it is attached. In another embodiment, sterol inhibitors useful in the compositions and methods of the present invention are represented by Formula (IX) below: or isomers of the compounds of Formula (IX), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IX) or of the isomers of the compounds of Formula (IX), or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (IX) or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IX), wherein in Formula (IX) above: R26 is selected from the group consisting of: a) OH; b) OCH3; c) fluorine and d) chlorine. R1 is selected from the group consisting of —SO3H; natural and unnatural amino acids. R, Ra and Rb are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH2, azido, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)-alkoxy and —W—R30; W is independently selected from the group consisting of —NH—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—N(R31)—, —NH—C(O)—N(R31)— and —O—C(S)—N(R31)—; R2 and R6 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl(C1-C6)alkyl; R3, R4, R5, R7, R3a and R4a are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl(C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)(C1-C6)alkyl and —C(O)aryl; R30 is independently selected form the group consisting of R32-substituted T, R32-substituted-T-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C2-C4)alkenyl, R32-substituted-(C1-C6)alkyl, R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl and R32-substituted-(C3-C7)cycloalkyl(C1-C6)alkyl; R31 is independently selected from the group consisting of H and (C1-C4)alkyl; T is independently selected from the group consisting of phenyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, iosthiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl and pyridyl; R32 is independently selected from 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogeno, (C1-C4)alkyl, —OH, phenoxy, —CF3, —NO2, (C1-C4)alkoxy, methylenedioxy, oxo, (C1-C4)alkylsulfanyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfinyl, (C1-C4)alkylsulfonyl, —N(CH3)2, —C(O)—NH(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—N((C1-C4)alkyl)2, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkyl, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkoxy and pyrrolidinylcarbonyl; or R32 is a covalent bond and R31, the nitrogen to which it is attached and R32 form a pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methyl-piperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group, or a (C1-C4)alkoxycarbonyl-substituted-pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methylpiperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group; Ar1 is aryl or R10-substituted aryl; Ar2 is aryl or R11-substituted aryl; Q is —(CH2)q—, wherein q is 2-6, or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R12 is R13 and R14 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH2—, —CH(C1-C6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C1-C6)alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—; or R12 together with an adjacent R13, or R12 together with an adjacent R14, form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C1-C6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R13 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R14 is —CH═CH— or —C(C1-C6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R13's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R14's can be the same or different; R10 and R1 1 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C1-C6)alkyl, —OR19, —O(CO)R19, —O(CO)OR21, —O(CH2)1-5OR19, —O(CO)NR19R20, —NR19R20, —NR19(CO)R20, —NR19(CO)OR21, —NR19(CO)NR20R25, —NR19SO2R21, —COOR19, —CONR19R20, —COR19, —SO2NR19R20, S(O)0-2R21, —O(CH2)1-10—COOR19, —O(CH2)1-10CONR19R20, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-COOR19, —CH═CH—COOR19, —CF3, —CN, —NO2 and halogen; Ar1 can also be pyridyl, isoxazolyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl or pyridazinyl; R19 and R20 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C1-C6)alkyl; R21 is (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl or R24-substituted aryl; R22 is H, (C1-C6)alkyl, aryl (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)R19 or —COOR19; R23 and R24 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, (C1-C6)alkoxy, —COOH, NO2, —NR19R20, —OH and halogeno; and R25 is H, —OH or (C1-C6)alkoxy. Ar2 is preferably phenyl or R11-phenyl, especially (4-R11)-substituted phenyl. Preferred definitions of R11 are lower alkoxy, especially methoxy, and halogeno, especially fluoro. Ar1 is preferably phenyl or R10-substituted phenyl, especially (4-R10)-substituted phenyl. A preferred definition of R10 is halogeno, especially fluoro. Preferably Q is a lower alkyl or a spiro group as defined above, wherein preferably R13 and R14 are each ethylene and R12 is A preferred compound of formula IX, therefore, is one wherein R1 is as defined above and in which the remaining variables have the following definitions: Ar1 is phenyl or R10-substituted phenyl, wherein R10 is halogeno; Ar2 is phenyl or R11-phenyl, wherein R11 is 1 to 3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkoxy and halogeno; Q is a lower alkyl (i.e. C-1 to C-2) with Q=C-2 being preferred, or Q, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the group wherein preferably R13 and R14 are each ethylene and a and b are each 1, and wherein R12 is Preferred variables for R1 groups of the formula are as follows: R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, benzyl and acetyl. Preferred variables for group R1 of the formula are as follows: R3, R3a, R4 and R4a are selected from the group consisting of H, (C1-C6)alkyl, benzyl and acetyl; R, Ra and Rb are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH2, azido, (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)alkoxy and —W—R30, wherein W is —O—C(O)— or —O—C(O)—NR31—, R31 is H and R30 is (C1-C6)alkyl, —C(O)—(C1-C4)alkoxy-(C1-C6)alkyl, T, T-(C1-C6)alkyl, or T or T-(C1-C6)alkyl wherein T is substituted by one or two halogeno or (C1-C6)alkyl groups. Preferred R30 substituents are 2-fluorophenyl, 2,4-difluoro-phenyl, 2,6-dichlorophenyl, 2-methylphenyl, 2-thienylmethyl, 2-methoxy-carbonylethyl, thiazol-2-yl-methyl, 2-furyl, 2-methoxycarbonylbutyl and phenyl. Preferred combinations of R, Ra and Rb are as follows: 1) R, Ra and Rb are independently —OH or —O—C(O)—NH—R30, especially wherein Ra is —OH and R and Rb are —O—C(O)—NH—R30 and R30 is selected from the preferred substituents identified above, or wherein R and Ra are —OH and Rb is —O—C(O)—NH—R30 wherein R30 is 2-fluorophenyl, 2,4-difluoro-phenyl, 2,6-dichlorophenyl; 2) Ra is —OH, halogeno, azido or (C1-C6)-alkoxy(C1-C6)alkoxy, Rb is H, halogeno, azido or (C1-C6)alkoxy(C1-C6)-alkoxy, and R is —O—C(O)—NH—R30, especially compounds wherein Ra is —OH, Rb is H and R30 is 2-fluorophenyl; 3) R, Ra and Rb are independently —OH or —O—C(O)—R30 and R30 is (C1-C6)alkyl, T, or T substituted by one or two halogeno or (C1-C6)alkyl groups, especially compounds wherein R is —OH and Ra and Rb are —O—C(O)—R30 wherein R30 is 2-furyl; and 4) R, Ra and Rb are independently —OH or halogeno. Three additional classes of preferred are compounds are those wherein the C1′ anomeric oxy is beta, wherein the C2′ anomeric oxy is beta, and wherein the R group is alpha. R1 is preferably selected from: wherein Ac is acetyl and Ph is phenyl. An example of a useful compound of this invention is one represented by the formula X: wherein R1 is defined as above, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compound of Formula (X), or prodrugs of the compound of Formula (X) or of the pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compound of Formula (X). A more preferred compound is one represented by formula XI: or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compound of Formula (XI), or prodrugs of the compound of Formula (XI) or of the pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compound of Formula (XI). In another embodiment, compositions, pharmaceutical compositions, therapeutic combinations, kits and methods of treatment as described above are provided which comprise: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound wherein the first amount and the second amount together in their totality (whether administered concurrently or consecutively) comprise a therapeutically effective amount for the treatment or prevention of a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal. Suitable substituted azetidinone compounds or substituted β-lactam compounds can be selected from any of the compounds discussed above in Formulae I-XI. Other useful substituted azetidinone compounds include N-sulfonyl-2-azetidinones such as are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,983,597 and ethyl 4-(2-oxoazetidin-4-yl)phenoxy-alkanoates such as are disclosed in Ram et al., Indian J. Chem. Sect. B. 29B, 12 (1990), p; 1134-7, which are incorporated by reference herein. The compounds of Formulae I-XI can be prepared by known methods, including the methods discussed above and, for example, WO 93/02048 describes the preparation of compounds wherein —R1-Q- is alkylene, alkenylene or alkylene interrupted by a hetero atom, phenylene or cycloalkylene; WO 94/17038 describes the preparation of compounds wherein Q is a spirocyclic group; WO 95/08532 describes the preparation of compounds wherein —R1-Q- is a hydroxy-substituted alkylene group; PCT/US95/03196 describes compounds wherein —R1-Q- is a hydroxy-substituted alkylene attached to the Ar1 moiety through an —O— or S(O)0-2— group; and U.S. Ser. No. 08/463,619, filed Jun. 5, 1995, describes the preparation of compounds wherein —R1-Q- is a hydroxy-substituted alkylene group attached the azetidinone ring by a —S(O)0-2— group. The daily dose of the sterol absorption inhibitor(s) can range from about 0.1 to about 1000 mg per day, preferably about 0.25 to about 50 mg/day, and more preferably about 10 mg per day, given in a single dose or 2-4 divided doses. The exact dose, however, is determined by the attending clinician and is dependent on the potency of the compound administered, the age, weight, condition and response of the patient. For administration of pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the above compounds, the weights indicated above refer to the weight of the acid equivalent or the base equivalent of the therapeutic compound derived from the salt. In one embodiment of the present invention, the compositions or therapeutic combinations can further comprise one or more pharmacological or therapeutic agents or drugs such as cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors and/or lipid-lowering agents discussed below. In another embodiment, the composition or treatment can further comprise one or more cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Non-limiting examples of cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors for use in the compositions, therapeutic combinations and methods of the present invention include competitive inhibitors of HMG CoA reductase, the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis, squalene synthase inhibitors, squalene epoxidase inhibitors and mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable HMG CoA reductase inhibitors include statins such as lovastatin (for example MEVACOR® which is available from Merck & Co.), pravastatin (for example PRAVACHOL® which is available from Bristol Meyers Squibb), fluvastatin, simvastatin (for example ZOCOR® which is available from Merck & Co.), atorvastatin, cerivastatin, CI-981, rivastatin (sodium 7-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,6-diisopropyl-5-methoxymethylpyridin-3-yl)-3,5-dihydroxy-6-heptanoate), rosuvastatin, pitavastatin (such as NK-104 of Negma Kowa of Japan); HMG CoA synthetase inhibitors, for example L-659,699 ((E,E)-11-[3′R-(hydroxy-methyl)-4′-oxo-2′R-oxetanyl]-3,5,7R-trimethyl-2,4-undecadienoic acid); squalene synthesis inhibitors, for example squalestatin 1; and squalene epoxidase inhibitors, for example, NB-598 ((E)-N-ethyl-N-(6,6-dimethyl-2-hepten-4-ynyl)-3-[(3,3′-bithiophen-5-yl)methoxy]benzene-methanamine hydrochloride) and other sterol biosynthesis inhibitors such as DMP-565. Preferred HMG CoA reductase inhibitors include lovastatin, pravastatin and simvastatin. The most preferred HMG CoA reductase inhibitor is simvastatin. Generally, a total daily dosage of cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor(s) can range from about 0.1 to about 160 mg per day, and preferably about 0.2 to about 80 mg/day in single or 2-3 divided doses. In another preferred embodiment, the composition or treatment comprises the compound of Formula (II) in combination with one or more peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor(s) activator(s) and one or more cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors. In this embodiment, preferably the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) is a fibric acid derivative selected from gemfibrozil, clofibrate and/or fenofibrate. Preferably the cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor comprises one or more HMG CoA reductase inhibitors, such as, for example, lovastatin, pravastatin and/or simvastatin. More preferably, the composition or treatment comprises the compound of Formula (II) in combination with simvastatin and gemfibrozil or fenofibrate. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions, therapeutic combinations or methods of the present invention can further comprise one or more bile acid sequestrants (insoluble anion exchange resins), coadministered with or in combination with the PPAR activators(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Bile acid sequestrants bind bile acids in the intestine, interrupting the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids and causing an increase in the faecal excretion of steroids. Use of bile acid sequestrants is desirable because of their non-systemic mode of action. Bile acid sequestrants can lower intrahepatic cholesterol and promote the synthesis of apo B/E (LDL) receptors that bind LDL from plasma to further reduce cholesterol levels in the blood. Non-limiting examples of suitable bile acid sequestrants include cholestyramine (a styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer containing quaternary ammonium cationic groups capable of binding bile acids, such as QUESTRAN® or QUESTRAN LIGHT® cholestyramine which are available from Bristol-Myers Squibb), colestipol (a copolymer of diethylenetriamine and 1-chloro-2,3-epoxypropane, such as COLESTID® tablets which are available from Pharmacia), colesevelam hydrochloride (such as WelChol® Tablets (poly(allylamine hydrochloride) cross-linked with epichlorohydrin and alkylated with 1-bromodecane and (6-bromohexyl)-trimethylammonium bromide) which are available from Sankyo), water soluble derivatives such as 3,3-ioene, N-(cycloalkyl) alkylamines and poliglusam, insoluble quaternized polystyrenes, saponins and mixtures thereof. Other useful bile acid sequestrants are disclosed in PCT Patent Applications Nos. WO 97/11345 and WO 98/57652, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,692,895 and 5,703,188 which are incorporated herein by reference. Suitable inorganic cholesterol sequestrants include bismuth salicylate plus montmorillonite clay, aluminum hydroxide and calcium carbonate antacids. Generally, a total daily dosage of bile acid sequestrant(s) can range from about 1 to about 50 grams per day, and preferably about 2 to about 16 grams per day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In an alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise one or more ileal bile acid transport (“IBAT”) inhibitors (or apical sodium co-dependent bile acid transport (“ASBT”) inhibitors)-coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. The IBAT inhibitors can inhibit bile acid transport to reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Non-limiting examples of suitable IBAT inhibitors include benzothiepines such as therapeutic compounds comprising a 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1-benzothiepine 1,1-dioxide structure such as are disclosed in PCT Patent Application WO 00/38727 which is incorporated herein by reference. Generally, a total daily dosage of IBAT inhibitor(s) can range from about 0.01 to about 1000 mg/day, and preferably about 0.1 to about 50 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise nicotinic-acid (niacin) and/or derivatives thereof coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. As used herein, “nicotinic acid derivative” means a compound comprising a pyridine-3-carboxylate structure or a pyrazine-2-carboxylate structure, including acid forms, salts, esters, zwitterions and tautomers, where available. Examples of nicotinic acid derivatives include niceritrol, nicofuranose and acipimox (5-methylpyrazine-2-carboxylic acid 4-oxide). Nicotinic acid and its derivatives inhibit hepatic production of VLDL and its metabolite LDL and increases HDL and apo A-1 levels. An example of a suitable nicotinic acid product is NIASPAN® (niacin extended-release tablets) which are available from Kos. Generally, a total daily dosage of nicotinic acid or a derivative thereof can range from about 500 to about 10,000 mg/day, preferably about 1000 to about 8000 mg/day, and more preferably about 3000 to about 6000 mg/day in single or divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise one or more AcylCoA:Cholesterol O-acyltransferase (“ACAT”) Inhibitors, which can reduce LDL and VLDL levels, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. ACAT is an enzyme responsible for esterifying excess intracellular cholesterol and may reduce the synthesis of VLDL, which is a product of cholesterol esterification, and overproduction, of apo B-100-containing lipoproteins. Non-limiting examples of useful ACAT inhibitors include avasimibe ([[2,4,6-tris(1-methylethyl)phenyl]acetyl]sulfamic acid, 2,6-bis(1-methylethyl)phenyl ester, formerly known as CI-1011), HL-004, lecimibide (DuP-128) and CL-277082 (N-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-N-[[4-(2,2-dimethylpropyl)phenyl]methyl]-N-heptylurea). See P. Chang et al., “Current, New and Future-Treatments in Dyslipidaemia and Atherosclerosis”, Drugs 2000 July; 60(1); 55-93, which is incorporated by reference herein. Generally, a total daily dosage of ACAT inhibitor(s) can range from about 0.1 to about 0.1000 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise one or more Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein (“CETP”) Inhibitors coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. CETP is responsible for the exchange or transfer of cholesteryl ester carrying HDL and triglycerides in VLDL. Non-limiting examples of suitable CETP inhibitors are disclosed in PCT Patent Application No. WO 00/38721 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,147,090, which are incorporated herein by reference. Pancreatic cholesteryl ester hydrolase (PCEH) inhibitors such as WAY-121.898 also can be coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor(s) activator and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total daily dosage of CETP inhibitor(s) can range from about 0.01 to about 1000 mg/day, and preferably about 0.5 to about 20 mg/kg body weight/day in single or divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise probucol or derivatives thereof (such as AGI-1067 and other derivatives disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,121,319 and 6,147,250), which can reduce LDL levels, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total daily dosage of probucol or derivatives thereof can range from about 10 to about 2000 mg/day, and preferably about 500 to about 1500 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor activators, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Non-limiting examples of suitable LDL-receptor activators include HOE-402, an imidazolidinyl-pyrimidine derivative that directly stimulates LDL receptor activity. See M. Huettinger et al., “Hypolipidemic activity of HOE-402 is Mediated by Stimulation of the LDL Receptor Pathway”, Arterioscler. Thromb. 1993; 13: 1005-12. Generally, a total daily dosage of LDL receptor activator(s) can range from about 1 to about 1000 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise fish oil, which contains Omega 3 fatty acids (3-PUFA), which can reduce VLDL and triglyceride levels, coadministered-with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total daily dosage of fish oil or Omega 3 fatty acids can range from about 1 to about 30 grams per day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise natural water soluble fibers, such as psyllium, guar, oat and pectin, which can reduce cholesterol levels, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total-daily dosage of natural water soluble fibers can range from about 0.1 to about 10 grams per day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise plant sterols, plant stanols and/or fatty acid esters of plant stanols, such as sitostanol ester used in BENECOL® margarine, which can reduce cholesterol levels, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total daily dosage of plant sterols, plant stanols and/or fatty acid esters of plant stanols can range from about 0.5 to about 20 grams per day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise antioxidants, such as probucol, tocopherol, ascorbic acid, β-carotene and selenium, or vitamins such as vitamin B6 or vitamin B12, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total daily dosage of antioxidants or vitamins can range from about 0.05 to about 10 grams per day in single or 2-4 divided doses. In another alternative embodiment, the compositions or treatments of the present invention can further comprise monocyte and macrophage inhibitors such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), thyroid hormones including throxine analogues such as CGS-26214 (a thyroxine compound with a fluorinated ring), gene therapy and use of recombinant proteins such as recombinant apo E, coadministered with or in combination with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator(s) and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) discussed above. Generally, a total daily dosage of these agents can range from about 0.01 to about 1000 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. Also useful with the present invention are compositions or therapeutic combinations which further comprise hormone replacement agents and compositions. Useful hormone agents and compositions for hormone replacement therapy of the present invention include androgens, estrogens, progestins, their pharmaceutically acceptable salts and derivatives thereof. Combinations of these agents and compositions are also useful. The dosage of androgen and estrogen combinations vary, desirably from about 1 mg to about 4 mg androgen and from about 1 mg to about 3 mg estrogen. Examples include, but are not limited to, androgen and estrogen combinations such as the combination of esterified estrogens (sodium estrone sulfate and sodium equilin sulfate) and methyltestosterone (17-hydroxy-17-methyl-, (17B)-androst-4-en-3-one) available from Solvay Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Marietta, Ga., under the tradename Estratest. Estrogens and estrogen combinations may vary in dosage from about 0.0.1 mg up to 8 mg, desirably from about 0.3 mg to about 3.0 mg. Examples of useful estrogens and estrogen combinations include: (a) the blend of nine (9) synthetic estrogenic substances including sodium estrone sulfate, sodium equilin sulfate, sodium 17α-dihydroequilin sulfate, sodium 17α-estradiol sulfate, sodium 17β-dihydroequilin sulfate, sodium 17α-dihydroequilenin sulfate, sodium 17β-dihydroequilenin sulfate, sodium equilenin sulfate and sodium 17β-estradiol sulfate; available from Duramed Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, under the tradename Cenestin; (b) ethinyl estradiol (19-nor-17 α-pregna-1,3,5(10)-trien-20-yne-3,17-diol; available by Schering Plough Corporation, Kenilworth, N.J., under the tradename Estinyl; (c) esterified estrogen combinations such as sodium estrone sulfate and sodium equilin sulfate; available from Solvay under the tradename Estratab and from Monarch Pharmaceuticals, Bristol, Tenn., under the tradename Menest; (d) estropipate (piperazine estra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-one, 3-(sulfooxy)-estrone sulfate); available from Pharmacia & Upjohn, Peapack, N.J., under the tradename Ogen and from Women First Health Care, Inc., San Diego, Calif., under the tradename Ortho-Est; and (e) conjugated estrogens (17α-dihydroequilin, 17α-estradiol, and 17β-dihydroequilin); available from Wyeth-Ayerst Pharmaceuticals, Philadelphia, Pa., under the tradename Premarin. Progestins and estrogens may also be administered with a variety of dosages, generally from about 0.05 to about 2.0 mg progestin and about 0.001 mg to about 2 mg estrogen, desirably from about 0.1 mg to about 1 mg progestin and about 0.01 mg to about 0.5 mg estrogen. Examples of progestin and estrogen combinations that may vary in dosage and regimen include: (a) the combination of estradiol (estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17 β-diol hemihydrate) and norethindrone (17β-acetoxy-19-nor-17 α-pregn-4-en-20-yn-3-one); which is available from Pharmacia & Upjohn, Peapack, N.J., under the tradename Activella; (b) the combination of levonorgestrel (d(−)-13 β-ethyl-17 α-ethinyl-17 β-hydroxygon-4-en-3-one) and ethinyl estradial; available from Wyeth-Ayerst under the tradename Alesse, from Watson Laboratories, Inc., Corona, Calif., under the tradenames Levora and Trivora, Monarch Pharmaceuticals, under the tradename Nordette, and from Wyeth-Ayerst under the tradename Triphasil; (c) the combination of ethynodiol diacetate (19-nor-17 α-pregn-4-en-20-yne-3 β, 17-diol diacetate) and ethinyl estradiol; available from G. D. Searle & Co., Chicago, Ill., under the tradename Demulen and from Watson under the tradename Zovia; (d) the combination of desogestrel (13-ethyl-11-methylene-18,19-dinor-17 α-pregn-4-en-20-yn-17-ol) and ethinyl estradiol; available from Organon under the tradenames Desogen and Mircette, and from Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, Raritan, NJ, under the tradename Ortho-Cept; (e) the combination of norethindrone and ethinyl estradiol; available from Parke-Davis, Morris Plains, N.J., under the tradenames Estrostep and femhrt, from Watson under the tradenames Microgestin, Necon, and Tri-Norinyl, from Ortho-McNeil under the tradenames Modicon and Ortho-Novum, and from Warner Chilcoft Laboratories, Rockaway, N.J., under the tradename Ovcon; (f) the combination of norgestrel ((±)-13-ethyl-17-hydroxy-18,19-dinor-17 α-preg-4-en-20-yn-3-one) and ethinyl estradiol; available from Wyeth-Ayerst under the tradenames Ovral and Lo/Ovral, and from Watson under the tradenames Ogestrel and Low-Ogestrel; (g) the combination of norethindrone, ethinyl estradiol, and mestranol (3-methoxy-19-nor-17 α-pregna-1,3,5(10)-trien-20-yn-17-ol); available from Watson under the tradenames Brevicon and Norinyl; (h) the combination of 17 β-estradiol (estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17 β-diol) and micronized norgestimate (17 α-17-(Acetyloxyl)-13-ethyl-18,19-dinorpregn-4-en-20-yn-3-one3-oxime); available from Ortho-McNeil under the tradename Ortho-Prefest; (i) the combination of norgestimate (18,19-dinor-17-pregn-4-en-20-yn-3-one, 17—(acetyloxy)-13-ethyl-oxime, (17(α)-(+)-) and ethinyl estradiol; available from Ortho-McNeil under the tradenames Ortho Cyclen and Ortho Tri-Cyclen; and (j) the combination of conjugated estrogens (sodium estrone sulfate and sodium equilin sulfate) and medroxyprogesterone acetate (20-dione, 17-(acetyloxy)-6-methyl-, (6(α))-pregn-4-ene-3); available from Wyeth-Ayerst under the tradenames Premphase and Prempro. In general, a dosage of progestins may vary from about 0.05 mg to about 10 mg or up to about 200 mg if microsized progesterone is administered. Examples of progestins include norethindrone; available from ESI Lederle, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., under the tradename Aygestin, from Ortho-McNeil under the tradename Micronor, and from Watson under the tradename Nor-QD; norgestrel; available from Wyeth-Ayerst under the tradename Ovrette; micronized progesterone (pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione); available from Solvay under the tradename Prometrium; and medroxyprogesterone acetate; available from Pharmacia & Upjohn under the tradename Provera. The compositions, therapeutic combinations or methods of the present invention can further comprise one or more obesity control medications. Useful obesity control medications include, but are not limited to, drugs that reduce energy intake or suppress appetite, drugs that increase energy expenditure and nutrient-partitioning agents. Suitable obesity control medications include, but are not limited to, noradrenergic agents (such as diethylpropion, mazindol, phenylpropanoiamine, phentermine, phendimetrazine, phendamine tartrate, methamphetamine, phendimetrazine and tartrate); serotonergic agents (such as sibutramine, fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine and paroxtine); thermogenic agents (such as ephedrine, caffeine, theophylline, and selective β3-adrenergic agonists); alpha-blocking agents; kainite or AMPA receptor antagonists; leptin-lipolysis stimulated receptors; phosphodiesterase enzyme inhibitors; compounds having nucleotide sequences of the mahogany gene; fibroblast growth factor-10 polypeptides; monoamine oxidase inhibitors (such as befloxatone, moclobemide, brofaromine, phenoxathine, esuprone, befol, toloxatone, pirlindol, amiflamine, sercloremine, bazinaprine, lazabemide, milacemide and caroxazone); compounds for increasing lipid metabolism (such as evodiamine compounds); and lipase inhibitors (such as orlistat); Generally, a total dosage of the above-described obesity control medications can range from 1 to 3,000 mg/day, desirably from about 1 to 1,000 mg/day and more desirably from about 1 to 200 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. The compositions, therapeutic combinations or methods of the present invention can further comprise one or more blood modifiers which are chemically different from the substituted azetidinone and substituted β-lactam compounds (such as compounds I-XI above) and the PPAR receptor-activators discussed above, for example, they contain one or more different atoms, have a different arrangement of atoms or a different number of one or more atoms than the sterol absorption inhibitor(s) or PPAR receptor activators discussed above. Useful blood modifiers include but are not limited to anti-coagulants (argatroban, bivalirudin, dalteparin sodium, desirudin, dicumarol, lyapolate sodium, nafamostat mesylate, phenprocoumon, tinzaparin sodium, warfarin sodium); antithrombotic (anagrelide hydrochloride, bivalirudin, cilostazol, dalteparin sodium, danaparoid sodium, dazoxiben hydrochloride, efegatran sulfate, enoxaparin sodium, fluretofen, ifetroban, ifetroban sodium, lamifiban, lotrafiban hydrochloride, napsagatran, orbofiban acetate, roxifiban acetate, sibrafiban, tinzaparin-sodium, trifenagrel, abciximab, zolimomab aritox); fibrinogen receptor antagonists (roxifiban acetate, fradafiban, orbofiban, lotrafiban hydrochloride, tirofiban, xemilofiban, monoclonal antibody 7E3, sibrafiban); platelet inhibitors (cilostazol, clopidogrel bisulfate, epoprostenol, epoprostenol sodium, ticlopidine hydrochloride, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, sulindae, idomethacin, mefenamate, droxicam, diclofenac, sulfinpyrazone, piroxicam, dipyridamole); platelet aggregation inhibitors (acadesine, beraprost, beraprost sodium, ciprostene calcium, itazigrel, lifarizine, lotrafiban hydrochloride, orbofiban acetate, oxagrelate, fradafiban, orbofiban, tirofiban, xemilofiban); hemorrheologic agents (pentoxifylline); lipoprotein associated coagulation inhibitors; Factor VIIa inhibitors (4H-31-benzoxazin-4-ones, 4H-3,1-benzoxazin-4-thiones, quinazolin-4-ones, quinazolin-4-thiones, benzothiazin-4-ones, imidazolyl-boronic acid-derived peptide analogues TFPI-derived peptides, naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid {1-[3-(aminoiminomethyl)-benzyl]-2-oxo-pyrrolidin-3-(S)-yl}amide-trifluoroacetate, dibenzofuran-2-sulfonic acid {1-[3-(aminomethyl)-benzyl]-5-oxo-pyrrolidin-3-yl}-amide, tolulene-4-sulfonic acid {1-[3-(aminoiminomethyl)-benzyl]-2-oxo-pyrrolidin-3-(S)-yl}-amide trifluoroacetate, 3,4-dihydro-1H-isoquinoline-2-sulfonic acid {1-[3-(aminoiminomethyl)-benzyl]-2-oxo-pyrrolin-3-(S)-yl}-amide trifluoroacetate); Factor Xa inhibitors (disubstituted pyrazolines, disubstituted triazolines, substituted n-[(aminoiminomethyl)phenyl]propylamides, substituted n-[(aminomethyl)phenyl]propylamides, tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), low molecular weight heparins, heparinoids, benzimidazolines, benzoxazolinones, benzopiperazinones, indanones, dibasic (amidinoaryl) propanoic acid derivatives, amidinophenyl-pyrrolidines, amidinophenyl-pyrrolines, amidinophenyl-isoxazolidines, amidinoindoles, amidinoazoles, bis-arlysulfonylaminobenzamide derivatives, peptidic Factor Xa inhibitors). The compositions, therapeutic combinations or methods of the present invention can further comprise one or more cardiovascular agents which are chemically different from the substituted azetidinone and substituted β-lactam compounds (such as compounds I-XI above) and the PPAR receptor activators discussed above, for example, they contain one or more different atoms, have a different arrangement of atoms or a different number of one or more atoms than the sterol absorption inhibitor(s) or PPAR receptor activators discussed above. Useful cardiovascular agents include but are not limited to calcium channel blockers (clentiazem maleate, amlodipine besylate, isradipine, nimodipine, felodipine, nilvadipine, nifedipine, teludipine hydrochloride, diltiazem hydrochloride, belfosdil, verapamil hydrochloride, fostedil); adrenergic blockers (fenspiride hydrochloride, labetalol hydrochloride, proroxan, alfuzosin hydrochloride, acebutolol, acebutolol hydrochloride, alprenolol hydrochloride, atenolol, bunolol hydrochloride, carteolol hydrochloride, celiprolol hydrochloride, cetamolol hydrochloride, cicloprolol hydrochloride, dexpropranolol hydrochloride, diacetolol hydrochloride, dilevalol hydrochloride, esmolol hydrochloride, exaprolol hydrochloride, flestolol sulfate, labetalol hydrochloride, levobetaxolol hydrochloride, levobunolol hydrochloride, metalol hydrochloride, metoprolol, metoprolol tartrate, nadolol, pamatolol sulfate, penbutolol sulfate, practolol, propranolol hydrochloride, sotalol hydrochloride, timolol, timolol maleate, tiprenolol hydrochloride, tolamolol, bisoprolol, bisoprolol fumarate, nebivolol); adrenergic stimulants; angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (benazepril hydrochloride, benazeprilat, captopril, delapril hydrochloride, fosinopril sodium, libenzapril, moexipril hydrochloride, pentopril, perindopril, quinapril hydrochloride, quinaprilat, ramipril, spirapril hydrochloride, spiraprilat, teprotide, enalapril maleate, lisinopril, zofenopril calcium, perindopril erbumine); antihypertensive agents (althiazide, benzthiazide, captopril, carvedilol, chlorothiazide sodium, clonidine hydrochloride, cyclothiazide, delapril hydrochloride, dilevalol hydrochloride, doxazosin mesylate, fosinopril sodium, guanfacine hydrochloride, methyldopa, metoprolol succinate, moexipril hydrochloride, monatepil maleate, pelanserin hydrochloride, phenoxybenzamine hydrochloride, prazosin hydrochloride, primidolol, quinapril hydrochloride, quinaprilat, ramipril, terazosin hydrochloride, candesartan, candesartan cilexetil, telmisartan, amlodipine besylate, amlodipine maleate, bevantolol hydrochloride); angiotensin II receptor antagonists (candesartan, irbesartan, losartan potassium, candesartan cilexetil, telmisartan); anti-anginal agents (amlodipine besylate, amlodipine maleate, betaxolol hydrochloride, bevantolol hydrochloride, butoprozine hydrochloride, carvedilol, cinepazet maleate, metoprolol succinate, molsidomine, monatepil maleate, primidolol, ranolazine hydrochoride, tosifen, verapamil hydrochloride); coronary vasodilators (fostedil, azaclorzine hydrochloride, chromonar hydrochloride, clonitrate, diltiazem hydrochloride, dipyridamole, droprenilamine, erythrityl tetranitrate, isosorbide dinitrate, isosorbide mononitrate, lidoflazine, mioflazine hydrochloride, mixidine, molsidomine, nicorandil, nifedipine, nisoldipine, nitroglycerine, oxprenolol hydrochloride, pentrinitrol, perhexiline maleate, prenylamine, propatyl nitrate, terodiline hydrochloride, tolamolol, verapamil); diuretics (the combination product of hydrochlorothiazide and spironolactone and the combination product of hydrochlorothiazide and triamterene). The compositions, therapeutic combinations or methods of the present invention can further comprise one or more antidiabetic medications for reducing blood glucose levels in a human. Useful antidiabetic medications include, but are not limited to, drugs that reduce energy intake or suppress appetite, drugs that increase energy expenditure and nutrient-partitioning agents. Suitable antidiabetic medications include, but are not limited to, sulfonylurea (such as acetohexamide, chlorpropamide gliamilide, gliclazide, glimepiride, glipizide, glyburide, glibenclamide, tolazamide, and tolbutamide), meglitinide (such as repaglinide and nateglinide), biguanide (such as mefformin and buformin), alpha-glucosidase inhibitor (such as acarbose, miglitol, camiglibose, and voglibose), certain peptides (such as amlintide, pramlintide, exendin, and GLP-1 agonistic peptides), and orally administrable insulin or insulin composition for intestinal delivery thereof. Generally, a total dosage of the above-described antidiabetic medications can range from 0.1 to 1,000 mg/day in single or 2-4 divided doses. Mixtures of any of the pharmacological or therapeutic agents described above can be used in the compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) at least one AcylCoA:Cholesterol O-acyltransferase Inhibitor and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) probucol or a derivative thereof and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinbne compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) at least one low-density lipoprotein receptor activator and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prod rugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) at least one Omega 3 fatty-acid and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) at least one natural water soluble fiber and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) at least one of plant sterols, plant stanols or fatty acid esters of plant stanols and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition or therapeutic combination comprising (a) at least one antioxidant or vitamin and (b) at least one substituted azetidinone compound or at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound. Mixtures of any of the pharmacological or therapeutic agents described above can be used in the compositions and therapeutic combinations of these other embodiments of the present invention. The compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention can be administered to a mammal in need of such treatment in a therapeutically effective amount to treat one or more conditions, for example vascular conditions such as atherosclerosis, hyperlipidaemia (including but not limited to hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridaemia, sitosterolemia), vascular inflammation, stroke, diabetes, obesity, and/or reduce the level of sterol(s) in the plasma. The compositions and treatments can be administered by any suitable means which produce contact of these compounds with the site of action in the body, for example in the plasma, liver or small intestine of a mammal or human. The daily dosage for the various compositions and therapeutic combinations described above can be administered to a patient in a single dose or in multiple subdoses, as desired. Subdoses can be administered 2 to 6 times per day, for example. Sustained release dosages can be used. Where the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor(s) activator and sterol absorption inhibitor(s) are administered in separate dosages, the number of doses of each component given per day may not necessarily be the same, e.g., one component may have a greater duration of activity and will therefore need to be administered less frequently. The pharmaceutical treatment compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention can further comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, one or more excipients and/or one or more additives. Non-limiting examples of pharmaceutically acceptable-carriers include solids and/or liquids such as ethanol, glycerol, water and the like. The amount of carrier in the treatment composition can range from about 5 to about 99 weight percent of the total weight of the treatment composition or therapeutic combination. Non-limiting examples of suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients and additives include non-toxic compatible fillers, binders such as starch, disintegrants, buffers, preservatives, anti-oxidants, lubricants, flavorings, thickeners, coloring agents, emulsifiers and the like. The amount of excipient or additive can range from about 0.1 to about 90 weight percent of the total weight of the treatment composition or therapeutic combination. One skilled in the art would understand that the amount of carrier(s), excipients and additives (if present) can vary. The treatment compositions of the present invention can be administered in any conventional dosage form, preferably an oral dosage form such as a capsule, tablet, powder, cachet, suspension or solution. The formulations and pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared using conventional pharmaceutically acceptable and conventional techniques. Several examples of preparation of dosage formulations are provided below. The following formulations exemplify some of the dosage forms of this invention. In each formulation, the term “Active Compound I” designates a substituted azetidinone compound, β-lactam compound or any of the compounds of Formulae I-XI described herein above, or isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or any of the compounds of Formulae I-XI, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or any of the compounds of Formulae I-XI or of the isomers of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or any of the compounds of Formulae I-XI, or prodrugs of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or any of the compounds of Formulae I-XI or of the isomers, salts or solvates of the at least one substituted azetidinone compound or the at least one substituted β-lactam compound or any of the compounds of Formulae I-XI, and the term “Active-Compound II” designates a PPAR activator described herein above. Tablets No. Ingredient mg/tablet 1 Active Compound I 10 2 Lactose monohydrate NF 55 3 Microcrystalline cellulose NF 20 4 Povidone (K29-32) USP 4 5 Croscarmellose sodium NF 8 6 Sodium lauryl sulfate 2 7 Magnesium stearate NF 1 Total 100 In the present invention, the above-described tablet can be coadministered with a tablet, capsule, etc. comprising a dosage of Active Compound II, for example a TRICOR® capsule as described above. Method of Manufacture Mix Item No. 4 with purified water in suitable mixer to form binder solution. Spray the binder solution and then water over Items 1, 2, 6 and a portion of Item 5 in a fluidized bed processor to granulate the ingredients. Continue fluidization to dry the damp granules. Screen the dried granules and blend with Item No. 3 and the remainder of Item 5. Add Item No. 7 and mix. Compress the mixture to appropriate size and weight on a suitable tablet machine. For coadministration in separate tablets or capsules, representative formulations comprising a cholesterol absorption inhibitor such as are discussed above are well known in the art and representative formulations comprising a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator such as are discussed above are well known in the art. It is contemplated that where the two active ingredients are administered as a single composition, the dosage forms disclosed above for substituted azetidinone or β-lactam compounds may readily be modified using the knowledge of one skilled in the art. Since the present invention relates to treating conditions as discussed above, such as reducing the plasma sterol (especially cholesterol) concentrations or levels by treatment with a combination of active ingredients wherein the active ingredients may be administered separately, the invention also relates to combining separate pharmaceutical compositions in kit form. That is, a kit is contemplated wherein two separate units are combined: a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator and a separate pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one sterol absorption inhibitor as described above. The kit will preferably include directions for the administration of the separate components. The kit form is particularly advantageous when the separate components must be administered in different dosage forms (e.g., oral and parenteral) or are administered at different dosage intervals. The treatment compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention can inhibit the intestinal absorption of cholesterol in mammals, as shown in the Example below, and can be useful in the treatment and/or prevention of conditions, for example vascular conditions, such as atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia and sitosterolemia, stroke, obesity and lowering of plasma levels of cholesterol in mammals, in particular in mammals. In another embodiment of the present invention, the compositions and therapeutic combinations of the present invention can inhibit sterol absorption or reduce plasma concentration of at least one sterol selected from the group consisting of phytosterols (such as sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol and avenosterol), 5α-stanols (such as cholestanol, 5α-campestanol, 5α-sitostanol), cholesterol and mixtures thereof. The plasma concentration can be reduced by administering to a mammal in need of such treatment an effective amount of at least one treatment composition or therapeutic combination comprising at least one PPAR activator and at least one sterol absorption inhibitor described above. The reduction in plasma concentration of sterols can range from about 1 to about 70 percent, and preferably about 10 to about 50 percent. Methods of measuring serum total blood cholesterol and total LDL cholesterol are well known to those skilled in the art and for example include those disclosed in PCT WO 99/38498 at page 11, incorporated by reference herein. Methods of determining levels of other sterols in serum are disclosed in H. Gylling et al., “Serum Sterols During Stanol Ester Feeding in a Mildly, Hypercholesterolemic Population”, J. Lipid Res. 40: 593-600 (1999), incorporated by reference herein. Illustrating the invention are the following examples which, however, are not to be considered as limiting the invention to their details. Unless otherwise indicated, all parts and percentages in the following examples, as well as throughout the specification, are by weight. EXAMPLES Preparation of Compound of Formula (II) Step 1): To a solution of (S)-4-phenyl-2-oxazolidinone (41 g, 0.25 mol) in CH2Cl2 (200 ml), was added 4-dimethylaminopyridine (2.5 g, 0.02 mol) and triethylamine (84.7 ml, 0.61 mol) and the reaction mixture was cooled to 0° C. Methyl-4-(chloroformyl)butyrate (50 g, 0.3 mol) was added as a solution in CH2Cl2 (375 ml) dropwise over 1 h, and the reaction was allowed to warm to 22° C. After 17 h, water and H2SO4 (2N, 100 ml), was added the layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed sequentially with NaOH (10%), NaCl (sat'd) and water. The organic layer was dried over MgSO4 and concentrated to obtain a semicrystalline product. Step 2): To a solution of TiCl4 (18.2 ml, 0.165 mol) in CH2Cl2 (600 ml) at 0° C., was added titanium isopropoxide (16.5 ml, 0.055 mol). After 15 min, the product of Step 1 (49.0 g, 0.17 mol) was added as a solution in CH2Cl2 (100 ml). After 5 min., diisopropylethylamine (DIPEA) (65.2 ml, 0.37 mol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 1 h, the reaction mixture was cooled to −20° C., and 4-benzyloxybenzylidine(4-fluoro)aniline (114.3 g, 0.37 mol) was added as a solid. The reaction mixture was stirred vigorously for 4 h at −20° C., then acetic acid was added as a solution in CH2Cl2 dropwise over 15 min, the reaction mixture was allowed to warm to 0° C., and H2SO4 (2N) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred an additional 1 h, the layers were separated, washed with water, separated and the organic layer was dried. The crude product was crystallized from ethanol/water to obtain the pure intermediate. Step 3): To a solution of the product of Step 2 (8.9 g, 14.9 mmol) in toluene (100 ml) at 50° C., was added N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide (BSA) (7.50 ml, 30.3 mmol). After 0.5 h, solid TBAF (0.39 g, 1.5 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture stirred at 50° C. for an additional 3 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to 22° C., CH3OH (10 ml), was added. The reaction mixture was washed with HCl (1 N), NaHCO3 (1 N) and NaCl (sat'd.), and the organic layer was dried over MgSO4. Step 4): To a solution of the product of Step 3 (0.94 g, 2.2 mmol) in CH3OH (3 ml), was added water (1 ml) and LiOH.H2O (102 mg, 2.4 mmole). The reaction mixture was stirred at 22° C. for 1 h and then additional LiOH.H2O (54 mg, 1.3 mmole) was added. After a total of 2 h, HCl (1 N) and EtOAc was added, the layers were separated, the organic layer was dried and concentrated in vacuo. To a solution of the resultant product (0.91 g, 2.2 mmol) in CH2Cl2 at 22° C., was added ClCOCOCl (0.29 ml, 3.3 mmol) and the mixture stirred for 16 h. The solvent was removed in vacuo. Step 5): To an efficiently stirred suspension of 4-fluorophenylzinc chloride (4.4 mmol) prepared from 4-fluorophenylmagnesium bromide (1 M in THF, 4.4 ml, 4.4 mmol) and ZnCl2 (0.6 g, 4.4 mmol) at 4° C., was added tetrakis(triphenyl-phosphine)palladium (0.25 g, 0.21 mmol) followed by the product of Step 4 (0.94 g, 2.2 mmol) as a solution in THF (2 ml). The reaction was stirred for 1 h at 0° C. and then for 0.5 h at 22° C. HCl (1 N, 5 ml) was added and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The organic layer was concentrated to an oil and purified by silica gel chromatography to obtain 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-4(S)-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-3(R)-(3-oxo-3-phenylpropyl)-2-azetidinone: HRMS calc'd for C24H19F2NO3=408.1429, found 408.1411. Step 6): To the product of Step 5 (0.95 g, 1.91 mmol) in THF (3 ml), was added (R)-tetrahydro-1-methyl-3,3-diphenyl-1H,3H-pyrrolo-[1,2-c][1,3,2]oxazaborole (120 mg, 0.43 mmol) and the mixture was cooled to −20° C. After 5 min, borohydride-dimethylsulfide complex (2M in THF, 0.85 ml, 1.7 mmol) was added dropwise over 0.5 h. After a total of 1.5 h, CH3OH was added followed by HCl (1 N) and the reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc to obtain 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-3(R)-[3(S)-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-hydroxypropyl)]-4(S)-[4-(phenylmethoxy)phenyl]-2-azetidinone (compound 6A-1) as an oil. 1H in CDCl3 d H3=4.68. J=2.3 Hz. Cl (M+H) 500. Use of (S)-tetra-hydro-1-methyl-3,3-diphenyl-1H,3H-pyrrolo-[1,2-c][1,3,2]oxazaborole gives the corresponding 3(R)-hydroxypropyl azetidinone (compound 6B-1). 1H in CDCl3 d H3=4.69. J=2.3 Hz. Cl (M+H) 500. To a solution of compound 6A-1 (0.4 g, 0.8 mmol) in ethanol (2 ml), was added 10% Pd/C (0.03 g) and the reaction mixture was stirred under a pressure (60 psi) of H2 gas for 16 h. The reaction mixture was filtered and the solvent was concentrated to obtain compound 6A. Mp 164-166° C.; Cl (M+H) 410. [α]D25=−28.1° (c 3, CH3QH) Elemental analysis calc'd for C24H21F2NO3: C, 70.41; H, 5.17; N, 3.42; found C, 70.25; H, 5.19; N, 3.54. Similarly treat compound 6B-1 to obtain compound 6B. Mp 129.5-132.5° C.; Cl (M+H) 410. Elemental analysis calc'd for C24H21F2NO3: C, 70.41; H, 5.17; N, 3.42; found C, 70.30; H, 5.14; N, 3.52. Step 6′ (Alternative): To a solution of the product of Step 5 (0.14 g, 0.3 mmol) in ethanol (2 ml), was added 10% Pd/C (0.03 g) and the reaction was stirred under a pressure (60 psi) of H2 gas for 16 h. The reaction mixture was filtered and the solvent was concentrated to afford a 1:1 mixture of compounds 6A and 6B. In Vivo Evaluation In a randomized, evaluator-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study 32 healthy hypercholesterolemic humans (screening LDL-C≧130 mg/dL) stabilized and maintained on a NCEP Step I Diet were randomized to one of the following four treatments: Treatment A—placebo given orally as 1 dose per day, Treatment B—10 mg of Compound II given orally as 1 dose per day, Treatment C—200 mg of LIPANTHYL® micronized Fenofibrate (available from Labortoire Fournier of France) given orally as 1 dose per day, or Treatment D—200 mg of LIPANTHYL® micronized Fenofibrate plus 10 mg of Compound II given orally as 1 dose per day every morning for 14 days. Serum lipids were assessed predose (after a minimum of a 10-hour fast) on Day 1 (Baseline), Day 7 and Day 14. Results: The mean (S.E.) Day 14 percent (%) change from Baseline in serum lipids (n=8) are shown in Table 1 below: TABLE 1 Treatment LDL-C Total-C HDL-C TG A −10.1 (4.9) −8.38 (4.0) −14.1 (2.2) −19.1 (13.9) B −22.3 (5.7) −19.6 (4.0) −13.3 (4.4) −4.57 (12.8) C −13.5 (3.1) −13.0 (2.4) −6.1 (3.6) −0.28 (11.4) D −36.3 (3.5) −27.8 (1.7) −1.97 (4.7) −32.4 (4.5) The coadministration of 10 mg of Compound II and 200 mg of Fenofibrate (Treatment D) was well tolerated and caused a significant (p≧0.03) reduction in LDL-C compared to either drug alone or placebo. In this inpatient study where the subjects' physical activity was restricted, in general HDL-C concentrations tended to decrease and triglycerides tended to increase. The group receiving Treatment C had the least decrease in HDL-C and the greatest decrease in triglyceride levels. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes could be made to the embodiments described above without departing from the broad inventive concept thereof. It is understood, therefore, that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed, but it is intended to cover modifications which are within the spirit and scope of the invention, as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Atherosclerotic coronary heart disease (CHD) represents the major cause for death and vascular morbidity in the western world. Risk factors for atherosclerotic coronary heart disease include hypertension, diabetes mellitus, family history, male gender, cigarette smoke and serum cholesterol. A total cholesterol level in excess of 225-250 mg/dl is associated with significant elevation of risk of CHD. Cholesteryl esters are a major component of atherosclerotic lesions and the major storage form of cholesterol in arterial wall cells. Formation of cholesteryl esters is also a step in the intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol. Thus, inhibition of cholesteryl ester formation and reduction of serum cholesterol can inhibit the progression of atherosclerotic lesion formation, decrease the accumulation of cholesteryl esters in the arterial wall, and block the intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol. The regulation of whole-body cholesterol homeostasis in mammals and animals involves the regulation of dietary cholesterol and modulation of cholesterol biosynthesis, bile acid biosynthesis and the catabolism of the cholesterol-containing plasma lipoproteins. The liver is the major organ responsible for cholesterol biosynthesis and catabolism and, for this reason, it is a prime determinant of plasma cholesterol levels. The liver is the site of synthesis and secretion of very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) which are subsequently metabolized to low density lipoproteins (LDL) in the circulation. LDL are the predominant cholesterol-carrying lipoproteins in the plasma and an increase in their concentration is correlated with increased atherosclerosis. When intestinal cholesterol absorption is reduced, by whatever means, less cholesterol is delivered to the liver. The consequence of this action is decreased hepatic lipoprotein (VLDL) production and an increase in the hepatic clearance of plasma cholesterol, mostly as LDL. Thus, the net effect of inhibiting intestinal cholesterol absorption is a decrease in plasma cholesterol levels. Fibric acid derivatives (“fibrates”), such as fenofibrate, gemfibrozil and clofibrate, have been used to lower triglycerides, moderately lower LDL levels and increase HDL levels. Fibric acid derivatives are also known to be peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha activators. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,767,115, 5,624,920, 5,668,990, 5,656,624 and 5,688,787, respectively, disclose hydroxy-substituted azetidinone compounds and substituted β-lactam compounds useful for lowering cholesterol and/or in inhibiting the formation of cholesterol-containing lesions in mammalian arterial walls. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,846,966 and 5,661,145, respectively, disclose hydroxy-substituted azetidinone compounds or substituted β-lactam compounds in combination with HMG CoA reductase inhibitors for preventing or treating atherosclerosis and reducing plasma cholesterol levels. PCT Patent Application No. WO 00/38725 discloses cardiovascular therapeutic combinations including an ileal bile acid transport inhibitor or cholesteryl ester transport protein inhibitor in combination with a fibric acid derivative, nicotinic acid derivative, microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitor, cholesterol absorption antagonist, phytosterol, stanol, antihypertensive agent or bile acid sequestrant. U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,527 discloses ergostanone derivatives substituted with disaccharides as cholesterol absorption inhibitors, employed alone or in combination with certain other cholesterol lowering agents, which are useful in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and related disorders. Despite recent improvements in the treatment of vascular disease, there remains a need in the art for improved compositions and treatments for hyperlipidaemia, atherosclerosis and other vascular conditions. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (I): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (I) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (I) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein in Formula (I) above: Ar 1 and Ar 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl and R 4 -substituted aryl; Ar 3 is aryl or R 5 -substituted aryl; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; R and R 2 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 and —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 ; R 1 and R 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl and aryl; q is 0 or 1; r is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; provided that at least one of q and r is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, q and r is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; and provided that when p is 0 and r is 1, the sum of m, q and n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; R 4 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 6 , —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)OR 9 , —NR 6 (CO)NR 7 R 8 , —NR 6 SO 2 R 9 , —COOR 6 , —CONR 6 R 7 , —COR 6 , —SO 2 NR 6 R 7 , S(O) 0-2 R 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 6 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 6 R 7 , -(lower alkylene)COOR 6 , —CH═CH—COOR 6 , —CF 3 , —CN, —NO 2 and halogen; R 5 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 6 , —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)OR 9 , —NR 6 (CO)NR 7 R 8 , —NR 6 SO 2 R 9 , —COOR 6 , —CONR 6 R 7 , —COR 6 , —SO 2 NR 6 R 7 , S(O) 0-2 R 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 6 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 6 R 7 , -(lower alkylene)COOR 6 and —CH═CH—COOR 6 ; R 6 , R 7 and R 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R 9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl. In another embodiment, there is provided a composition comprising: (a) at least one fibric acid derivative; and (b) a compound represented by Formula (II) below: or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or prodrug of the compound of Formula (II) or of the salt or solvate thereof. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (III): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (III) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (III) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (III) above: Ar 1 is R 3 -substituted aryl; Ar 2 is R 4 -substituted aryl; Ar 3 is R 5 -substituted aryl; Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; A is selected from —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O) 2 —; R 1 is selected from the group consisting of —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 and —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 ; R 2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl and aryl; or R 1 and R 2 together are ═O; q is 1, 2 or 3; p is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; R 5 is 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 9 , —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)OR 9 , —NR 6 (CO)NR 7 R 8 , —NR 6 SO 2 -lower alkyl, —NR 6 SO 2 -aryl, —CONR 6 R 7 , —COR 6 , —SO 2 NR 6 R 7 , S(O) 0-2 -alkyl, S(O) 0-2 -aryl, —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 6 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 6 R 7 , o-halogeno, m-halogeno, o-lower alkyl, m-lower alkyl, -(lower alkylene)-COOR 6 , and —CH═CH—COOR 6 ; R 3 and R 4 are independently 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of R 5 , hydrogen, p-lower alkyl, aryl, —NO 2 , —CF 3 and p-halogeno; R 6 , R 7 and R 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R 9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (IV): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IV) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (IV) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (IV) above: A is selected from the group consisting of R 2 -substituted heterocycloalkyl, R 2 -substituted heteroaryl, R 2 -substituted benzofused heterocycloalkyl, and R 2 -substituted benzofused heteroaryl; Ar 1 is aryl or R 3 -substituted aryl; Ar 2 is aryl or R 4 -substituted aryl; Q is a bond or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R 1 is selected from the group consisting of: —(CH 2 ) q —, wherein q is 2-6, provided that when Q forms a spiro ring, q can also be zero or 1; —(CH 2 ) e -G-(CH 2 ) r —, wherein G is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —NR 8 — or —S(O) 0-2 , e is 0-5 and r is 0-5, provided that the sum of e and r is 1-6; —(C 2 -C 6 alkenylene)-; and —(CH 2 ) f —V—(CH 2 ) g —, wherein V is C 3 -C 6 cycloalkylene, f is 1-5 and g is 0-5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1-6; R 5 is selected from: R 6 and R 7 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—; or R 5 together with an adjacent R 6 , or R 5 together with an adjacent R 7 , form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R 6 is —CH═CH— or —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R 7 is —CH═CH— or —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R 6 's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R 7 's can be the same or different; and when Q is a bond, R 1 also can be selected from: where M is —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O) 2 —; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)- and —C(di-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl); R 10 and R 12 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR 14 , —O(CO)R 14 , —O(CO)OR 16 and —O(CO)NR 14 R 15 ; R 11 and R 13 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and aryl; or R 10 and R 11 together are ═O, or R 12 and R 13 together are ═O; d is 1, 2 or 3; h is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; s is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently 0-4; provided that at least one of s and t is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, s and t is 1-6; provided that when p is 0 and t is 1, the sum of m, s and n is 1-5; and provided that when p is 0 and s is 1, the sum of m, t and n is 1-5; v is 0 or 1; j and k are independently 1-5, provided that the sum of j, k and v is 1-5; R 2 is 1-3 substituents on the ring carbon atoms selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 2 -C 10 )alkenyl, (C 2 -C 10 )alkynyl, (C 3 -C 6 )cycloalkyl, (C 3 -C 6 )cycloalkenyl, R 17 -substituted aryl, R 17 -substituted benzyl, R 17 -substituted benzyloxy, R 17 -substituted aryloxy, halogeno, —NR 14 R 15 , NR 14 R 15 (C 1 -C 6 alkylene)-, NR 14 R 15 C(O)(C 1 -C 6 alkylene)-, —NHC(O)R 16 , OH, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, —OC(O)R 16 , —COR 14 , hydroxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, NO 2 , —S(O) 0-2 R 16 , —SO 2 NR 14 R 15 and —(C 1 -C 6 alkylene)COOR 14 ; when R 2 is a substituent on a heterocycloalkyl ring, R 2 is as defined, or is ═O or and, where R 2 is a substituent on a substitutable ring nitrogen, it is hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, aryloxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkylcarbonyl, arylcarbonyl, hydroxy, —(CH 2 ) 1-6 CONR 18 R 18 , wherein J is —O—, —NH—, —NR 18 — or —CH 2 —; R 3 and R 4 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —OR 14 , —O(CO)R 14 , —O(CO)OR 16 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 14 , —O(CO)NR 14 R 15 , —NR 14 R 15 , —NR 14 (CO)R 15 , —NR 14 (CO)OR 16 , —NR 14 (CO)NR 15 R 19 , —NR 14 SO 2 R 16 , —COOR 14 , —CONR 14 R 15 , COR 14 , SO 2 NR 14 R 15 , S(O) 0-2 R 16 , O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 14 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 14 R 15 , —(C 1 -C 6 alkylene)-COOR 14 , —CH═CH—COOR 14 , —CF 3 , —CN, —NO 2 and halogen; R 8 is hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —C(O)R 14 or —COOR 14 ; R 9 and R 17 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, —COOH, NO 2 , —NR 14 R 15 , OH and halogeno; R 14 and R 15 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 16 is (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl or R 17 -substituted aryl; R 18 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and R 19 is hydrogen, hydroxy or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (V): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (V) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (V) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (V) above: Ar 1 is aryl, R 10 -substituted aryl or heteroaryl; Ar 2 is aryl or R 4 -substituted aryl; Ar 3 is aryl or R 5 -substituted aryl; X and Y are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(lower alkyl)- and —C(dilower alkyl)-; R is —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 or —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 ; R 1 is hydrogen, lower alkyl or aryl; or R and R 1 together are ═O; q is 0 or 1; r is 0, 1 or 2; m and n are independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; provided that the sum of m, n and q is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; R 4 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 6 , —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)OR 9 , —NR 6 (CO)NR 7 R 8 , —NR 6 SO 2 R 9 , —COOR 6 , —CONR 6 R 7 , —COR 6 , —SO 2 NR 6 R 7 , S(O) 0-2 R 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 6 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 6 R 7 , -(lower alkylene)COOR 6 and —CH═CH—COOR 6 ; R 5 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 6 , —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)OR 9 , —NR 6 (CO)NR 7 R 8 , —NR 6 SO 2 R 9 , —COOR 6 , —CONR 6 R 7 , —COR 6 , —SO 2 NR 6 R 7 , S(O) 0-2 R 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 6 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 6 R 7 , —CF 3 , —CN, —NO 2 , halogen, -(lower alkylene)COOR 6 and —CH═CH—COOR 6 ; R 6 , R 7 and R 8 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted lower alkyl; R 9 is lower alkyl, aryl or aryl-substituted lower alkyl; and R 10 is 1-5 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, —OR 6 , —O(CO)R 6 , —O(CO)OR 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 6 , —O(CO)NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)R 7 , —NR 6 (CO)OR 9 , —NR 6 (CO)NR 7 R 8 , —NR 6 SO 2 R 9 , —COOR 6 , —CONR 6 R 7 , —COR 6 , —SO 2 NR 6 R 7 , —S(O) 0-2 R 9 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 6 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 6 R 7 , —CF 3 , —CN, —NO 2 and halogen. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (VI): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VI) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VI) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein in Formula (VI) above: R 1 is R 2 and R 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of: —CH 2 —, —CH(lower alkyl)-, —C(di-lower alkyl)-, —CH═CH— and —C(lower alkyl)═CH—; or R 1 together with an adjacent R 2 , or R 1 together with an adjacent R 3 , form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(lower alkyl)-group; u and v are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R 2 is —CH═CH— or —C(lower alkyl)═CH—, v is 1; provided that when R 3 is CH═CH— or —C(lower alkyl)═CH—, u is 1; provided that when v is 2 or 3, the R 2 's can be the same or different; and provided that when u is 2 or 3, the R 3 's can be the same or different; R 4 is selected from B—(CH 2 ) m C(O)—, wherein m is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5; B—(CH 2 ) q —, wherein q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH 2 ) e -Z-(CH 2 ) r —, wherein Z is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —N(R 8 )— or —S(O) 0-2 —, e is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, provided that the sum of e and r is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(C 2 -C 6 alkenylene)-; B—(C 4 -C 6 alkadienylene)-; B—(CH 2 ) t -Z-(C 2 -C 6 alkenylene)-, wherein Z is as defined above, and wherein t is 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided that the sum of t and the number of carbon atoms in the alkenylene chain is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH 2 ) f —V—(CH 2 ) g —, wherein V is C 3 -C 6 cycloalkylene, f is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and g is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH 2 ) t —V—(C 2 -C 6 alkenylene)- or B—(C 2 -C 6 alkenylene)-V—(CH 2 ) t —, wherein V and t are as defined above, provided that the sum of t and the number of carbon atoms in the alkenylene chain is 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; B—(CH 2 ) a -Z-(CH 2 ) b —V—(CH 2 ) d -, wherein Z and V are as defined above and a, b and d are independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6, provided that the sum of a, b and d is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; or T-(CH 2 ) s —, wherein T is cycloalkyl of 3-6 carbon atoms and s is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6; or R 1 and R 4 together form the group B—CH═C—; B is selected from indanyl, indenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, heteroaryl or W-substituted heteroaryl, wherein heteroaryl is selected from the group consisting of pyrrolyl, pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, triazinyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazolyl, thienyl, oxazolyl and furanyl, and for nitrogen-containing heteroaryls, the N-oxides thereof, or W is 1 to 3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, hydroxy lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, alkoxyalkyl, alkoxyalkoxy, alkoxycarbonylalkoxy, (lower alkoxyimino)-lower alkyl, lower alkanedioyl, lower alkyl lower alkanedioyl, allyloxy, —CF 3 , —OCF 3 , benzyl, R 7 -benzyl, benzyloxy, R 7 -benzyloxy, phenoxy, R 7 -phenoxy, dioxolanyl, NO 2 , —N(R 8 )(R 9 ), N(R 8 )(R 9 )-lower alkylene-, N(R 8 )(R 9 )-lower alkylenyloxy-, OH, halogeno, —CN, —N 3 , —NHC(O)OR 10 , —NHC(O)R 10 , R 11 O 2 SNH—, (R 11 O 2 S) 2 N—, —S(O) 2 NH 2 , —S(O) 0-2 R 8 , tert-butyldimethyl-silyloxymethyl, —C(O)R 12 , —COOR 19 , —CON(R 8 )(R 9 ), —CH═CHC(O)R 12 , -lower alkylene-C(O)R 12 , R 10 C(O)(lower alkylenyloxy)-, N(R 8 )(R 9 )C(O)(lower alkylenyloxy)- and for substitution on ring carbon atoms, and the substituents on the substituted heteroaryl ring nitrogen atoms, when present, are selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —C(O)OR 10 , —C(O)R 10 , OH, N(R 8 )(R 9 )-lower alkylene-, N(R 8 )(R 9 )-lower alkylenyloxy, —S(O) 2 NH 2 and 2-(trimethylsilyl)-ethoxymethyl; R 7 is 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —COOH, NO 2 , —N( 8 )(R 9 ), OH, and halogeno; R 8 and R 9 are independently selected from H or lower alkyl; R 10 is selected from lower alkyl, phenyl, R 7 -phenyl, benzyl or R 7 -benzyl; R 11 is selected from OH, lower alkyl, phenyl, benzyl, R 7 -phenyl or R 7 -benzyl; R 12 is selected from H, OH, alkoxy, phenoxy, benzyloxy, —N(R 8 )(R 9 ), lower alkyl, phenyl or R 7 -phenyl; R 13 is selected from —O—, —CH 2 —, —NH—, —N(lower alkyl)- or —NC(O)R 19 ; R 15 , R 16 and R 17 are independently selected from the group consisting of H and the groups defined for W; or R 15 is hydrogen and R 16 and R 17 , together with adjacent carbon atoms to which they are attached, form a dioxolanyl ring; R 19 is H, lower alkyl, phenyl or phenyl lower alkyl; and R 20 and R 21 are independently selected from the group consisting of phenyl, W-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, W-substituted naphthyl, indanyl, indenyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, benzodioxolyl, heteroaryl, W-substituted heteroaryl, benzofused heteroaryl, W-substituted benzofused heteroaryl and cyclopropyl, wherein heteroaryl is as defined above. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and(b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (VII): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VII) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VII) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein in Formula (VII) above: A is —CH≡CH—, —C═C— or —(CH 2 ) p — wherein p is 0, 1 or 2; B is E is C 10 to C 20 alkyl or —C(O)—(C 9 to C 19 )-alkyl, wherein the alkyl is straight or branched, saturated or containing one or more double bonds; R is hydrogen, C 1 -C 15 alkyl, straight or branched, saturated or containing one or more double bonds, or B—(CH 2 ) r —, wherein r is 0, 1, 2, or 3; R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, carboxy, NO 2 , NH 2 , OH, halogeno, lower alkylamino, dilower alkylamino, —NHC(O)OR 5 , R 6 O 2 SNH— and —S(O) 2 NH 2 ; R 4 is wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; R 5 is lower alkyl; and R 6 is OH, lower alkyl, phenyl, benzyl or substituted phenyl wherein the substituents are 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, carboxy, NO 2 , NH 2 , OH, halogeno, lower alkylamino and dilower alkylamino. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (VIII): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (VIII) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (VIII) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (VIII) above, R 26 is H or OG 1 ; G and G 1 are independently selected from the group consisting of provided that when R 26 is H or OH, G is not H; R, R a and R b are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH 2 , azido, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )-alkoxy or —W—R 30 ; W is independently selected from the group consisting of —NH—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—N(R 31 )—, —NH—C(O)—N(R 31 )— and —O—C(S)—N(R 31 )—; R 2 and R 6 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl and aryl(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 7 , R 3a and R 4a are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —C(O)(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and —C(O)aryl; R 30 is selected from the group consisting of R 32 -substituted T, R 32 -substituted-T-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, R 32 -substituted-(C 2 -C 4 )alkenyl, R 32 -substituted-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, R 32 -substituted-(C 3 -C 7 )cycloalkyl and R 32 -substituted-(C 3 -C 7 )cycloalkyl(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 31 is selected from the group consisting of H and (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl; T is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, iosthiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl and pyridyl; R 32 is independently selected from 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogeno, (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, —OH, phenoxy, —CF 3 , —NO 2 , (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy, methylenedioxy, oxo, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylsulfanyl, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylsulfinyl, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylsulfonyl, —N(CH 3 ) 2 , —C(O)—NH(C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, —C(O)—N((C 1 -C 4 )alkyl) 2 , —C(O)—(C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, —C(O)—(C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy and pyrrolidinylcarbonyl; or R 32 is a covalent bond and R 31 , the nitrogen to which it is attached and R 32 form a pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methyl-piperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group, or a (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxycarbonyl-substituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl. N-methylpiperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group; Ar 1 is aryl or R 10 -substituted aryl; Ar 2 is aryl or R 11 -substituted aryl; Q is a bond or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R 1 is selected from the group consisting of —(CH 2 ) q —, wherein q is 2-6, provided that when Q forms a spiro ring, q can also be zero or 1; —(CH 2 ) e -E-(CH 2 ) r —, wherein E is —O—, —C(O)—, phenylene, —NR 22 — or —S(O) 0-2 —, e is 0-5 and r is 0-5, provided that the sum of e and r is 1-6; —(C 2 -C 6 )alkenylene-; and —(CH 2 ) f —V—(CH 2 ) g —, wherein V is C 3 -C 6 cycloalkylene, f is 1-5 and g is 0-5, provided that the sum of f and g is 1-6; R 12 is R 13 and R 14 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—; or R 12 together with an adjacent R 13 , or R 12 together with an adjacent R 14 , form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R 13 is —CH═CH— or —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R 14 is —CH═CH— or —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R 13 's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R 14 's can be the same or different; and when Q is a bond, R 1 also can be: M is —O—, —S—, —S(O)— or —S(O) 2 —; X, Y and Z are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl- and —C(di-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl); R 10 and R 1 1 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —OR 19 , —O(CO)R 19 , —O(CO)OR 21 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 19 , —O(CO)NR 19 R 20 , —NR 19 R 20 , —NR 19 (CO)R 20 , —NR 19 (CO)OR 21 , —NR 19 (CO)NR 20 R 25 , —NR 19 SO 2 R 21 , —COOR 19 , —CONR 19 R 20 , —COR 19 , —SO 2 NR 19 R 20 , S(O) 0-2 R 21 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 19 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 19 R 20 , —(C 1 -C 6 alkylene)-COOR 19 , —CH═CH—COOR 19 , —CF 3 , —CN, —NO 2 and halogen; R 15 and R 17 are independently selected from the group consisting of —OR 19 , —O(CO)R 19 , —O(CO)OR 21 and —O(CO)NR 19 R 20 ; R 16 and R 18 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and aryl; or R 15 and R 16 together are ═0, or R 17 and R 18 together are ═O; d is 1, 2 or 3; h is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4; s is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; m, n and p are independently 0-4; provided that at least one of s and t is 1, and the sum of m, n, p, s and t is 1-6; provided that when p is 0 and t is 1, the sum of m, s and n is 1-5; and provided that when p is 0 and s is 1, the sum of m, t and n is 1-5; v is 0 or 1; j and k are independently 1-5, provided that the sum of j, k and v is 1-5; and when Q is a bond and R 1 is Ar 1 can also be pyridyl, isoxazolyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl or pyridazinyl; R 19 and R 20 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 21 is (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl or R 24 -substituted aryl; R 22 is H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —C(O)R 19 or —COOR 19 ; R 23 and R 24 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, —COOH, NO 2 , —NR 19 R 20 , —OH and halogeno; and R 25 is H, —OH or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy. In another embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising: (a) at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formula (IX): or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (IX) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (IX) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein, in Formula (IX) above, R 26 is selected from the group consisting of: a) OH; b) OCH 3 ; c) fluorine and d) chlorine. R 1 is selected from the group consisting of SO 3 H; natural and unnatural amino acids. R, R a and R b are independently selected from the group consisting of H, —OH, halogeno, —NH 2 , azido, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )-alkoxy and —W—R 30 ; W is independently selected from the group consisting of —NH—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—, —O—C(O)—N(R 31 )—, —NH—C(O)—N(R 31 )— and —O—C(S)—N(R 31 )—; R 2 and R 6 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl and aryl(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 7 , R 3a and R 4a are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —C(O)(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and —C(O)aryl; R 30 is independently selected form the group consisting of R 32 -substituted T, R 32 -substituted-T-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, R 32 -substituted-(C 2 -C 4 )alkenyl, R 32 -substituted-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, R 32 -substituted-(C 3 -C 7 )cycloalkyl and R 32 -substituted-(C 3 -C 7 )cycloalkyl(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 31 is independently selected from the group consisting of H and (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl; T is independently selected from the group consisting of phenyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, iosthiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyrazolyl, imidazolyl and pyridyl; R 32 is independently selected from 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of H, halogeno, (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, —OH, phenoxy, —CF 3 , —NO 2 , (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy, methylenedioxy, oxo, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylsulfanyl, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylsulfinyl, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylsulfonyl, —N(CH 3 ) 2 , —C(O)—NH(C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, —C(O)—N((C 1 -C 4 )alkyl) 2 , —C(O)—(C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, —C(O)—(C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy and pyrrolidinylcarbonyl; or R 32 is a covalent bond and R 31 , the nitrogen to which it is attached and R 32 form a pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methyl-piperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group, or a (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxycarbonyl-substituted pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, N-methylpiperazinyl, indolinyl or morpholinyl group; Ar 1 is aryl or R 10 -substituted aryl; Ar 2 is aryl or R 11 -substituted aryl; Q is —(CH 2 ) q —, wherein q is 2-6, or, with the 3-position ring carbon of the azetidinone, forms the spiro group R 12 is R 13 and R 14 are independently selected from the group consisting of —CH 2 —, —CH(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)-, —C(di-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl), —CH═CH— and —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—; or R 12 together with an adjacent R 13 , or R 12 together with an adjacent R 14 , form a —CH═CH— or a —CH═C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)-group; a and b are independently 0, 1, 2 or 3, provided both are not zero; provided that when R 13 is —CH═CH— or —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—, a is 1; provided that when R 14 is —CH═CH— or —C(C 1 -C 6 alkyl)═CH—, b is 1; provided that when a is 2 or 3, the R 13 's can be the same or different; and provided that when b is 2 or 3, the R 14 's can be the same or different; R 10 and R 11 are independently selected from the group consisting of 1-3 substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —OR 19 , —O(CO)R 19 , —O(CO)OR 21 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-5 OR 19 , —O(CO)NR 19 R 20 , —NR 19 R 20 , —NR 19 (CO)R 20 NR 19 (CO)OR 21 , —NR 19 (CO)NR 20 R 25 , —NR 19 SO 2 R 21 , —COOR 19 , —CONR 19 R 20 , —COR 19 , —SO 2 NR 19 R 20 , S(O) 0-2 R 21 —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 —COOR 19 , —O(CH 2 ) 1-10 CONR 19 R 20 , —(C 1 -C 6 alkylene)-COOR 19 , —CH═CH—COOR 19 , —CF 3 , —CN, —NO 2 and halogen; Ar 1 can also be pyridyl, isoxazolyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, thiazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl or pyridazinyl; R 19 and R 20 are independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl and aryl-substituted (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; R 21 is (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl or R 24 -substituted aryl; R 22 is H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, aryl (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —C(O)R 19 or —COOR 19 ; R 23 and R 24 are independently 1-3 groups independently selected from the group consisting of H, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, —COOH, NO 2 , —NR 19 R 20 , —OH and halogeno; and R 25 is H, —OH or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy. Therapeutic combinations also are provided comprising: (a) a first amount of at least one peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activator; and (b) a second amount of at least one sterol absorption inhibitor represented by Formulae (I-XI) above or isomers thereof, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates of the compounds of Formula (I-XI) or of the isomers thereof, or prodrugs of the compounds of Formula (I-XI) or of the isomers, salts or solvates thereof, wherein the first amount and the second amount together comprise a therapeutically effective amount for the treatment or prevention of a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal. Pharmaceutical compositions for the treatment or prevention of a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the above compositions or therapeutic combinations and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier also are provided. Methods of treating or preventing a vascular condition, diabetes, obesity or lowering a concentration of a sterol in plasma of a mammal, comprising the step of administering to a mammal in need of such treatment an effective amount of the above compositions or therapeutic combinations also are provided. Other than in the operating examples, or where otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041129 | 20091103 | 20050714 | 66080.0 | 3 | HUI, SAN MING R | METHODS FOR INHIBITING STEROL ABSORPTION | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,581 | ACCEPTED | Pleated filter media with embossed spacers and cross flow | A panel filter element has a pleated filter media having peaks and valleys arranged in pleated sets of first and second panels. The pleated sets are adhered along side edges to form clean-side pockets which open adjacent to the valleys. The first and second panels have elongated embossments projecting both into and away from the pockets to keep the pockets open and to keep the pleated sets separate. Dirty air flows into the filter media both transverse to the peaks and laterally between the pleated sets of first and second panels. By having dirty air to be filtered flowing both transversly and laterally, the dirt holding capacity of the filter is increased while increases in restriction are minimized. | 1. A panel filter element, comprising: a pleated filter media having peaks and valleys and having a clean and dirty side, the pleated filter media having arrays of embossments projecting from both the clean and dirty sides, and being arranged with sets of pleats having edges which are closed to form the clean side of the pleated filter media into pockets with openings adjacent to the valleys, and a peripheral seal around the filter media forming a barrier between the clean and dirty sides whereby dirty air passes through the filter media in a direction transverse to the peaks of the pleated filter media and laterally between the sets of adhered pleats before passing through the filter media and emerging in the pockets as clean air for passage out of the openings adjacent the valleys. 2. The panel filter element of claim 1 wherein the arrays of embossments are arranged in columns extending between the peaks and valleys with the embossments being elongated. 3. The panel filter element of claim 2 wherein the embossments in some columns are spaced to form gaps that allow dirty fluid to flow between the embossments. 4. The panel filter element of clam 3 wherein some embossments are continuous to form channels directly fluid flow in a direction transverse to the peaks and valleys. 5. A filter element comprising: a continuous pleated filter media having a series of first and second panels having clean sides and dirty sides separated by folds, the clean sides being adhered adjacent the edges thereof, and to form pleated filter media sets with the folds forming the peaks that define a dirty face of the pleated filter media with the dirty sides of the panels forming closed filter media sets facing one another, the sets being joined by valleys of the pleated filter media, the valleys defining a clean side face of the pleated filter media; embossments projecting from both the clean and dirty sides of the filter media to keep the first and second panels separate from one another so that fluid may pass therebetween for flow through the filter media from the dirty sides of the first and second panels to clean sides of the panels. 6. The filter element of claim 5 wherein the filter media has a seal around the clean side face of the filter media, the valleys being embedded in the seal adjacent the sides of the filter media. 7. The filter element of claim 6 further including a screen over the clean side face of the pleated filter media. 8. The filter element of claim 7 wherein the embossments include arrays of spaced embossments which let air pass through the arrays, a centrally positioned continuous embossment in each first and second panel projecting from the dirty sides of the first and second panels to separate the dirty sides of the panels into first and second portions, whereby fluid flowing laterally between the closed filter media sets and flowing transverse to the dirty side face is divided in two dirty fluid streams. 9. The filter element of claim 8 further including continuous embossments projecting from the clean sides of the first and second panels and spaced laterally fro the central continuous embossment to subdivide the clean sides of the first and second panels into separate chambers which open through the clean side face of the filter element. 10. The filter element of claim 1 wherein the filter media is made of cellulous and the seal of polyurethane. 11. A filter media for inclusion with a filter element comprising: a web of filter media material having clean and dirty sides and first and second longitudinally extending edges, the web being divided by transverse fold lines into a plurality of first and second panels wherein first and second panels face one another on both the clean and dirty sides when the web is folded in opposite directions to form a pleated filter media with peaks and valleys providing a dirty side face and a clean side face, respectively; lines of adhesive extending on the clean side of the web at the first and second edges of the web for adhering the first and second panels to one another at the first surface when the web is folded to form the pleated filter media, the dirty side of the pleated filter media being free of adhesive so that dirty fluid enters the filter media as the dirty fluid flows from the peaks to the valleys and also flows laterally from the first and second edges over the dirty side of filter media material laterally into the pleated filter media, and a first array of spaced embossments in the web of media material projecting from the clean side and engaging the clean side of the filter media to maintain space between first and second panels on the clean side so that filtered fluid emerges from the clean side between the first and second as dirty air impinges on the dirty side of the filter media. 12. The filter media of claim 11 further including a second array of spaced embossments projecting from the dirty side of the filter media and abutting the dirty side of the filter media when the filter media is folded into a pleated filter media to hold the first and second panels on the dirty side in spaced relation as dirty air impinges on the dirty side. 13. The filter media of claim 12 wherein the first array of spaced embossments on the clean side of the filter media are located in positions on the first and second panels which are aligned when the filter media is pleated and abut to keep the first and second panels separated. 14. The filter media of claim 12 wherein the first array of spaced embossments on the clean side of the filter media are located in positions on the first and second panels which are aligned when the filter media is pleated and abut to keep the first and second panels separated. 15. The filter media of claim 12 wherein the clean and dirty sides of the filter media both have arrays of spaced embossments projecting therefrom which are arranged to align when the filter media is folded so that the spaced embossments on the first panel are aligned with corresponding spaced embossments on the second panel to engage one another on both the clean and dirty sides of the filter media spaced from one another. 16. The filter media of claim 11 further including elongated embossments projecting from the clean sides of the first and second panels for engaging one another and channeling clean side fluid out of the filter media in a direction parallel with adhered edges of the filter media. 17. The filter media of claim 16 further including elongated embossments projecting from the dirty sides of the first and second panels engaging one another to keep the first and second panels in spaced relation and to channel dirty fluid from the peaks to the valleys of the pleated filter media. 18. The filter media of claim 17 wherein the spaced embossments are enlongated. 19. The filter media of claim 18 wherein the spaced embossments are of different lengths and are arranged in columns with spaces therebetween the spaces in one column being out of alignment with the spaces of adjacent columns. 20. The filter media of claim 19 wherein the valleys of the pleated filter media adjacent the edges are obtuse, thereby separating adjacent sets of adhered first and second panels adjacent the edges of the filter media. | RELATED PATENT APPLICATION This application claims priority from provisional application Ser. No. 60/287,420 filed May 1, 2001 and titled “Cross Flow Filter Element.” FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a filter element having a filter media with embossed spacers. More particularly, the present invention is directed to a filter element having a filter media with embossed spacers which allow for cross flow of dirty air into the filter media. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Filter elements which use filter media having spacer arrangements between panels of the media for filtering particulate bearing fluid streams are known in the art. However, the spacers tend to be inserted elements which increases the cost of filter media and can compromise the reliability of the filter media. This is because inserted spacers can become dislodged and damage the filter media if on the upstream or dirty side of the filter media. If on the clean side of the spacers can become dislarged and possibly damage the machinery served by the filter media. With respect to air filters for internal combustion engines, there is continuing need to increase dirt holding capacity while reducing restriction. Preferably, this is accomplished as inexpensively as possible. With respect to filters for diesel trucks, increased dirt holding capacity with acceptable restriction levels is currently only obtainable with cylindrical filters used for medium and heavy duty applications. In order to conserve space in engine compartments panel air filters are now being employed, but panel air filters have encountered the aforementioned problems of reduced dirt holding capacity and relatively high restriction. Accordingly, there is a need for improvement in panel air filters. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the aforementioned considerations, a panel filter element having a pleated filter media is utilized wherein the pleated filter media has plurality of embossments with first sets of embossments projecting from the clean side of the pleats and second sets of embossments projecting from the dirty side of the pleats. Edges of the pleats are closed. Consequently, dirty air flows both transversely through the dirty-side face of the filter media and laterally between the pleats. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Various other features and attendant advantages of the present invention will be more fully appreciated as the same becomes better understood when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the several views, and wherein: FIG. 1 is a bottom perspective view of the filter element configured in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a bottom planar view of the filter of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 3 is a top perspective view of the filter element of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a side view of the filter of FIGS. 1-3; FIG. 5 is a bottom perspective view of the filter of FIGS. 1-4 showing a portion of the filter media cut away; FIG. 6 is a first end view of the filter element showing a first panel; FIG. 7 is a second end view of the filter element showing a second panel; FIG. 8 is a planar view of the dirty side of the filter media before being pleated; FIG. 9 is a planar view of the clean side of the filter media before being pleated, and FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an air cleaner for engine combustion air which utilizes the filter element of FIGS. 1-9. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring now to FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 there is shown a filter element 10 configured in accordance with the principles of the present invention. The filter element 10 includes a pleated filter media 12 and a peripheral seal 14. The peripheral seal 14 is made of a rubber or rubber-like polymer material, for example polyurethane. FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate the dirty side 15 of the filter element 10. As is seen in FIG. 3, the top of the filter element 10 is covered by an explanded metal screen 16 which covers the clean side 18 of the filter element 10. Pleated filter media 12 has peaks 20 and valleys 22 defined by pleat forming sets 23 of first and second panels 24 and 26 that are closed adjacent first and second edges 30 and 32. Peaks 20 occur in a plane which defines a dirty-side face 34 of the filter media 12, while the valleys 22 occur in a plane which defines a clean-side face 36 of the filter media. In accordance with the principles of the present invention, dirty air enters the filter media in directions transverse to the dirty-side face 34 as indicated by arrows 38 and laterally to the dirty-side face through side filter media faces 40 and 42 of the first and second panels 24 and 26 in the directions of arrows 44 and 46, respectively. As is seen in FIG. 2, clean air exits the filter element 10 through the clean side face 36 in the direction of arrows 48. The peaks 20 and valleys 22 are determined by the direction 38 of dirty air flow through the filter media 12 so that the peaks are at the bottom and the valleys are above the peaks. Referring now to FIGS. 4-7 showing side and end views of the filter element 10, it is seen that the pleat sets 23 formed by the first and second panels 24 and 26 are adhered only at their edges 30 and 32 (FIG. 1). Consequently, gaps 54 are maintained between adjacent pleat forming sets 23. Accordingly, dirty air can pass laterally between the pleat sets 23 in the direction of arrows 44 and 46 (see FIG. 1). Spacing is maintained between the pleat sets 23 adjacent the edges 30 and 32 by having substantially flat or obtuse valley floors 56 to keep the edges 30 and 32 of the sets 23 spaced from one another, and by having arrays 60 of spaced embossments and a continuous embossment 61 projecting from the dirty sides 40 and 42 of the first and second panels 24 and 26. The embossments 60 have spaces 64 therebetween to allow dirty air to continually pass laterally between the sides 40 and 42 of the pleated filter media 12. As will be explained hereinafter, the embossments 60 cooperate not only to keep the pleated sets 23 in spaced relation, but also stiffen the pleats and distribute air over the pleats in an even fashion so as to increase the capacity of the filter media 12 while reducing restriction. Referring now mainly to FIG. 5, where the filter media 12 has been severed through the pleated sets 23 to reveal pockets 62, which open upwardly through openings 65 which coincide with the clean side face 36 of the filter element 10. As with the dirty sides 40 and 42 of the panels 24 and 26, clean sides 66 and 68 of the panels are kept separated by arrays of spaced embossments 70 projecting from the first and second panels 24 and 26 into the pockets 62. As with the dirty sides of the panels the embossments 70 abut but have gaps 72 therebetween so that clean air in a direction 48 flows from the peaks 20 toward the openings 65, and is channeled by the embossments 70. If necessary the clean air can pass laterally through the gaps 72 between embossments 70 so as to even out clean air flow and make it more laminar, which is desirable if the clean air is combustion air for an internal combustion engine. Referring now mainly to FIGS. 6 and 7 as well as FIG. 5 wherein end views of the filter element 10 reveal embossment structure, it is seen that the first and second panels 24 and 26 have the arrays of spaced embossments 60 and 70 that respectively keep the pleat sets 23 spaced from one another and keep the pleat sets 23 open to define the interior pockets 62 (FIG. 5). The first panel 24 and the second panel 26 are substantially identical so that when the first and second panels are folded at the peaks 20, the arrays of spaced embossments 70 abut within the pocket 62 (see FIG. 5) with gaps 72 therebetween, while the elongated continuous embossments 71 abut, and with the closed edges 30 and 32, form three substantially closed first channels within the pockets 62. Referring now to FIG. 8 where the clean sides 66 and 68 of the filter media 12 are shown prior to folding the media web 12 at peaks 20 and valleys 22, it is seen that upon folding the media web, pairs of spaced embossments A abut within the pockets 62 of FIG. 5. Gaps 80 occur between the spaced embossments A. The two elongated continuous embossments 71 with the opposite edges 30 and 32 of the filter media 12 form a pair of closed channels 82 adjacent opposite edges. The spaced columns of three embossments B, with spaces 84 therebetween are in a central channel 86 in pockets 62 (FIG. 5) between a pair of the elongated continuous embossments 71. Upon folding the filter media 12 so that the panels 24 and 26 have clean-side surfaces 66 and 68 in abutment and then adhering the edges 30 and 32 to one another with beads of adhesive, the interior pockets 62 of FIG. 5 are created. Referring now to FIG. 9, a second array of embossments 61, including three spaced embossments C separated by spaces 95; pairs of embossments D separated by spaces 96, and the continuous central embossment 61, project from the dirty sides 40 and 42 of the first and second panels 24 and 26. These embossments abut one another to help keep the pleated sets 23 separated to provide the gaps 54 therebetween (see FIGS. 4 and 5). When folded, the continuous center embossment 61 channels air through the dirty-side face 34 and between the sides edges 30 and 32 in two separate channels 97 and 98 on the dirty side of the filter media 12. As is seen in FIGS. 8 and 9 where the filter media 12 is shown flat prior to folding at creases 100 and 102 to form the peaks 20 and valleys 22, it is seen that first and second panels 24 and 26 are identically embossed so that upon folding, the appropriate embossments face one another to provide interior and exterior spacing. As is seen in FIG. 8, at least the first panels 24 have beads of adhesive 103 and 104 proximate edges 30 and 32, respectively. The panels 24 and 26 are folded along the creases 105 and 106 to form the peaks 20 and valleys 22 of the pleated filter media with the adhesive beads 103 and 104 adhering the edges 30 and 32 of the panels 24 and 26 together so as to form the pockets 62 shown in FIG. 5. Each valley 22 has the flattened area 56 at each end in order to help keep the edge portions 30 and 32 of adjacent panels 24 and 26 separate. In that the seal 14 is molded around the filter media 10, the material of the seal engages and wedges adjacent the flattened panel portion 56 to help stiffen the base portion of the filter media formed by the valleys 22. The aforedescribed filter element has use as an air filter for internal combustion engines. Since the height of the pleats is approximately 3 inches, the various embossments described provide stiffness as well as spacing. FIG. 10 illustrates an air cleaner 120 for an internal combustion engine (not shown) in which a filter element 10 embodying the principles of the present invention is used. Dirty air enters the air cleaner 120 through an inlet 122, passes adjacent to and around a storage battery 124 and into a filter housing 126. The dirty air then rises through the dirty-side face 34 of the filter media 12 (FIG. 1) within the filter housing as well as passing laterally through the sides of the filter media. Clean air passes through the clean-side face 34 (FIG. 1) of the filter media 12 and out of the outlet 130 for combustion by the associated engine. While the filter element 10 is shown being used to filter air, the structure of the filter media 12 and filter element is usable to filter other gases as well as fluids in general including liquids. From the foregoing description, one skilled in the art can easily ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Filter elements which use filter media having spacer arrangements between panels of the media for filtering particulate bearing fluid streams are known in the art. However, the spacers tend to be inserted elements which increases the cost of filter media and can compromise the reliability of the filter media. This is because inserted spacers can become dislodged and damage the filter media if on the upstream or dirty side of the filter media. If on the clean side of the spacers can become dislarged and possibly damage the machinery served by the filter media. With respect to air filters for internal combustion engines, there is continuing need to increase dirt holding capacity while reducing restriction. Preferably, this is accomplished as inexpensively as possible. With respect to filters for diesel trucks, increased dirt holding capacity with acceptable restriction levels is currently only obtainable with cylindrical filters used for medium and heavy duty applications. In order to conserve space in engine compartments panel air filters are now being employed, but panel air filters have encountered the aforementioned problems of reduced dirt holding capacity and relatively high restriction. Accordingly, there is a need for improvement in panel air filters. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the aforementioned considerations, a panel filter element having a pleated filter media is utilized wherein the pleated filter media has plurality of embossments with first sets of embossments projecting from the clean side of the pleats and second sets of embossments projecting from the dirty side of the pleats. Edges of the pleats are closed. Consequently, dirty air flows both transversely through the dirty-side face of the filter media and laterally between the pleats. | 20041130 | 20061017 | 20050407 | 76264.0 | 1 | GREENE, JASON M | PLEATED FILTER MEDIA WITH EMBOSSED SPACERS AND CROSS FLOW | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,691 | ACCEPTED | Device and method for embedding and retrieving information in digital images | A digital imaging device and methods thereof that will enable the embedding and retrieving of information in digital images are provided. The digital imaging device includes a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. The device further includes a scanning module for reading a symbology associated with a printed digital image and wherein the processing module is adapted to use the symbology to retrieve the associated information of the digital image file. The device may be embodied as a digital camera, a mobile phone, personal digital assistant (PDA), etc. | 1. A digital imaging device comprising: a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. 2. The device as in claim 1, further comprising a microphone for acquiring audio to be associated to the digital image file. 3. The device as in claim 1, further comprising a display module for displaying the captured imaged. 4. The device as in claim 3, wherein the display module is adapted to prompt a user to input information regarding the captured image. 5. The device as in claim 4, further comprising a character recognition capture device coupled to the input module for entering information regarding the capture images. 6. The device as in claim 5, wherein the character recognition device is a touch screen overlaid upon the display module. 7. The device as in claim 3, wherein the display module further includes an audio output device for audibly prompting a user to input information regarding the captured image. 8. The device as in claim 1, further comprising a storage module for storing at least one digital image file and the information associated to the digital image file. 9. The device as in claim 8, wherein the storage module is internal storage memory or removable storage memory. 10. The device as in claim 1, further comprising a transmission module for transmitting at least one digital image file and its associated information to computing device. 11. The device as in claim 10, wherein the transmission module is a hardwired connection, a wireless connection or a removable memory card slot for receiving removable memory. 12. The device as in claim 1, further comprising an auxiliary input module for generating auxiliary information related to the captured image, wherein the auxiliary information is location, date, time, sequence number of the capture image and user information. 13. The device as in claim 1, further comprising a scanning module for scanning information to be associated with the digital image file. 14. The device as in claim 1, further comprising a scanning module for reading a symbology associated with a printed digital image and wherein the processing module is adapted to use the symbology to retrieve the associated information of the digital image file. 15. The device as in claim 1, wherein the processing module is adapted to create a separate information file including the inputted information that is linked to the digital image file. 16. The device as in claim 1, wherein the processing module is adapted to append the inputted information to the digital image file. 17. A mobile communication device comprising: a communication module coupled to an antenna for wirelessly receiving and transmitting communication messages; a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. 18. The device as in claim 17, further comprising a microphone for acquiring audio to be associated to the digital image file. 19. The device as in claim 17, further comprising a display module for displaying the captured imaged and for prompting a user to input information regarding the captured image. 20. The device as in claim 19, further comprising a character recognition capture device coupled to the input module for entering information regarding the capture images. 21. The device as in claim 17, further comprising an audio output device for audibly prompting a user to input information regarding the captured image and for audibly producing the received communication messages. 22. The device as in claim 17, further comprising a storage module for storing at least one digital image file and the information associated to the digital image file. 23. The device as in claim 22, wherein the storage module is internal storage memory or removable storage memory. 24. The device as in claim 17, further comprising a transmission module coupled to the antenna for transmitting at least one digital image file and its associated information to a computing device. 25. The device as in claim 17, further comprising an auxiliary input module for generating auxiliary information related to the captured image, wherein the auxiliary information is location, date, time, sequence number of the capture image and user information. 26. The device as in claim 17, wherein the capture module is coupled to a scanning module for decoding a symbology captured as a digital image by the capture module. 27. The device as in claim 26, wherein the processing module is adapted to use the symbology to retrieve the associated information of the digital image file. 28. The device as in claim 17, wherein the processing module is adapted to create a separate information file including the inputted information that is linked to the digital image file. 29. The device as in claim 17, wherein the processing module is adapted to append the inputted information to the digital image file. 30. A method for associating information with a digital image, the method comprising the steps of: capturing an image and creating a digital image file; prompting a user for information regarding the captured image; receiving information from the user; and associating the received information to the digital image file. 31. The method as in claim 30, wherein the prompting step includes displaying at least one question to the user. 32. The method as in claim 30, wherein the prompting step includes audibly producing at least one question to the user. 33. The method as in claim 30, wherein the receiving step further comprises the steps of: receiving text input via a character recognition capture device; and translating the text input into alphanumeric characters. 34. The method as in claim 30, wherein the receiving step further comprises the steps of: receiving spoken input via a microphone; and translating the spoken input into alphanumeric characters. 35. The method as in claim 30, wherein the associating step includes creating a separate information file including the received information that is linked to the digital image file. 36. The method as in claim 30, wherein the associating step includes appending the received information to the digital image file. 37. The method as in claim 30, further comprising the step of transmitting the digital image file and associated information to a computing device. 38. The method as in claim 37, further comprising the step of retrieving the associated information by scanning a symbology printed with the captured digital image. | BACKGROUND 1. Field The present disclosure relates generally to digital image processing, and more particularly, to devices and methods for embedding and retrieving information in digital images and using the information to organize, process and control the digital images. 2. Description of the Related Art Photographs are taken for a variety of personal and business reasons. During the course of the year, an individual may take numerous photographs of various events. During these events, quite often there is a variety of different individuals and items present in these photographs. In the prior art, when one desires to catalog these images in a particular order, they usually are left to placing these images manually into photograph albums. This is a very extensive, manual procedure requiring a significant amount of time. In addition, it is very limited with regard to the amount of information that can be associated with the image in a quick and easy manner. While some photo albums allow the writing and placing of text, the entering of this data is a very time consuming and arduous affair. Once having sorted these images into particular albums which may represent categories of interest, it is extremely difficult to retrieve and/or reorganize the images into other categories. With the advent of digital cameras and digital imaging, the process of organizing images and associating information with the images has become even more difficult. Firstly, upon capturing an image with a digital camera, the camera simply gives the image a numerical file name which usually has no meaning to the user and makes it difficult to retrieve at a later date. Secondly, with the technological advances in file size compression and increased capacity of storage media, several hundred images may be taken before a user downloads the images to a computer or other device, making it a very time consuming task to associate information to each image. Therefore, a need exists for techniques for easily associating information about an image to the image and using the information to control and retrieve the image. SUMMARY A device for capturing, storing, allowing user input, receiving internal input, processing, transmitting, scanning, and displaying digital images is provided. Digital photography has gained a substantial share of the worldwide photographic market. More and more cameras record images in digital form and more and more of these images are stored digitally for retrieval or archival purposes on home and business computers and on the Global Computer Network, e.g., the Internet. The present disclosure describes hardware devices and methods that will facilitate embedding information into digital images of any type (e.g., jpeg, bmp, tiff, etc.) to organize, control and manipulate these images both while in digital form, and later when in printed form. According to one aspect of the present disclosure, a digital imaging device is provided including a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. The processing module is adapted to create a separate information file including the inputted information that is linked to the digital image file or to append the inputted information to the digital image file. The device further includes a display module for displaying the captured imaged, wherein the display module is adapted to prompt a user to input information regarding the captured image. Furthermore, the display module may include an audio output device for audibly prompting a user to input information regarding the captured image. In another aspect of the present disclosure, the device includes a character recognition capture device coupled to the input module for entering information regarding the capture images, wherein the character recognition device is a touch screen overlaid upon the display module. In a further aspect, the device includes a transmission module for transmitting at least one digital image file and its associated information to a computing device, wherein the transmission module is a hardwired connection, a wireless connection or a removable memory card slot for receiving removable memory. In another aspect of the present disclosure, the device includes a scanning module for scanning information to be associated with the digital image file. The scanning module will also be employed for reading a symbology associated with a printed digital image and wherein the processing module is adapted to use the symbology to retrieve the associated information of the digital image file. In still a further aspect of the present disclosure, a mobile communication device is provided including a communication module coupled to an antenna for wirelessly receiving and transmitting communication messages; a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. In another aspect of the present disclosure, a method for associating information with a digital image is provided. The method includes the steps of capturing an image and creating a digital image file; prompting a user for information regarding the captured image; receiving information from the user; and associating the received information to the digital image file. The prompting step includes displaying at least one question to the user or audibly producing at least one question to the user. The receiving step further includes the steps of receiving text input via a character recognition capture device; and translating the text input into alphanumeric characters, or alternatively, includes the steps of receiving spoken input via a microphone; and translating the spoken input into alphanumeric characters. In one aspect, the associating step includes creating a separate information file including the received information that is linked to the digital image file. In another aspect, the associating step includes appending the received information to the digital image file. The method further includes the step of transmitting the digital image file and associated information to a computing device and retrieving the associated information by scanning a symbology printed with the captured digital image. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other aspects, features, and advantages of the present disclosure will become more apparent in light of the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1A is front view of a device for capturing digital images and embedding information in the captured images according to an embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG. 1B is a rear view of the device illustrated in FIG. 1A; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of various modules included in a device for capturing images and embedding information in the images in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 3A is front view of a device for capturing digital images and embedding information in the captured images according to another embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG. 3B is a rear view of the device illustrated in FIG. 3A; and FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a method for embedding information in a digital image according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Preferred embodiments of the present disclosure will be described hereinbelow with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the following description, well-known functions or constructions are not described in detail to avoid obscuring the present disclosure in unnecessary detail. Throughout the figures like reference numerals represent like elements. A hardware device and methods thereof that will enable the embedding and retrieving of information in digital images are provided. The embedded information will enable a user to organize, process and control these images. Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, a device 100 for capturing images and associating information about the captured images is shown. The device 100 includes a lens 102 coupled to a capture module, which will be described in detail below, for capturing an image and a viewfinder 104 for correctly positioning the device when capturing an image. The device 100 further includes a microphone 106 for acquiring audio, from the user of the device or from the subject of the image, which may be associated with the image. A rear side of the device 100 is illustrated in FIG. 1B where a display module 108 is provided for displaying the captured image. As will be described in more detail below, the display module 108 may include a touch screen for facilitating user input of information to be associated with digital image. The device 100 further includes a storage module 110 for storing a plurality of images, a transmission module 112 for transmitting the plurality of images to another device, e.g., a personal computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a server residing on the Internet, etc, and a scanning module 114 for scanning and inputting information to be associated with an image and for reading information from printed images. Referring to FIG. 2, the various components of the device 100 will now be described. The device will contain a computer processing module 120, e.g., a microprocessor. The computer processing module 120 will use computer software instructions that have been programmed into the module and conventional computer processing power to interact and organize the traffic flow between the various other modules. It is to be understood that the present disclosure may be implemented in various forms of hardware, software, firmware, special purpose processors, or a combination thereof. A system bus 121 couples the various components shown in FIG. 2 and may be any of several types of bus structures including a memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus, and a local bus using any of a variety of bus architectures. The device also includes an operating system and micro instruction code preferably residing in read only memory (ROM). The various processes and functions described herein may either be part of the micro instruction code or part of an application program (or a combination thereof) which is executed via the operating system. It is to be further understood that because some of the constituent device components and method steps depicted in the accompanying figures may be implemented in software, the actual connections between the device components (or the process steps) may differ depending upon the manner in which the present disclosure is programmed. Given the teachings of the present disclosure provided herein, one of ordinary skill in the related art will be able to contemplate these and similar implementations or configurations of the present disclosure. Capture module 122 will capture an image desired by the user in digital form. The capture module includes an image sensor, an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter and a digital signal processor (DSP). As the user pushes the device's shutter button 124, light is allowed to enter through the lens 102 and shine on the image sensor, e.g., a charge-coupled device (CCD) or complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). The image sensor includes preferably millions of photosensors, e.g., pixels, wherein each pixel absorbs the light and transforms the light into an electric charge proportional to the intensity of light. Each charge is transmitted to an A/D converter where the charge is converted into a digital value representing the color the pixel will be, e.g., representing different intensities of red, green and blue. The digital values are then passed to the digital signal processor which enhances the image, compresses it and then stores it in a digital file format in the storage module 110. The storage module 110 includes internal storage memory, e.g., random access memory (RAM), or removable memory such as a CompactFlash card, Memory Stick, SmartMedia, MultiMediaCard (MMC), SD (Secure Digital) memory, or any other memory storage that exists currently or will exist in the future. The digital file format utilized to store the image is not critical, but may include standard file formats which currently exist or will exist in the future for example jpeg, tiff, bmp, gif, pcx, png or other file formats. The device 100 will also contain a display module 108 for the user to view acquired images. This display may be in any current form in the art, including Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD), Light emitting diode displays (LED), Cathode Ray Tube Displays (CRT) or any other type of display currently existing or existing in the future. The display module 108 will also include an audio output device 128, e.g., a speaker, headphone jack, etc., allowing the user to also hear audio output from the hardware device. An additional but optional embodiment of the present disclosure may also include video or computer output jacks that will allow the user to hook the subject hardware device to an external television display device or a computer. The hardware device 100 of the present disclosure will contain a user input module 124 to either receive user instructions via text input by the way of a standard keyboard interface, or a character recognition capture device which translates user text input into alphanumeric characters. Preferably, the character recognition device is a touch screen which overlays the display module 108 and text is entered via a pen-like stylus. Such input devices are standard and currently available on many electronic devices including portable digital assistants (PDAs) and cellular telephones. Alternatively, microphone 106 will be coupled to the input module 124 and the input module will further include a analog-to-digital (A/D) converter and a voice recognition processor that translates human voice into alpha numeric characters for user input. The user will utilize the user input module after an image is captured to enter various data that will either be stored as a file associated with the digital image file or alternatively written as an additional part of the digital image file. By example, if the digital image is recorded by the hardware device as jpg101 or tif101 or bmp101 where these descriptions indicate the name of the captured digital image, then another file will be created for each captured digital image. This file would be the information associated file. In the above example, the image jpg101 would now have an additional file called info101 (or any other name that the hardware device selects). This digital file would receive and contain the user inputted information. Alternatively, the user input module may write its information directly to the previously stored digital file. By example, if the digital image is recorded by the hardware device as jpg101 or tif101 or bmp101 where these descriptions indicate the name of the captured digital image, then this file will be appended with the additional information written from the user input module, for example, in the header of the digital image file. The device 100 will also include an auxiliary input computer module 126. This module will allow the hardware device to automatically and simultaneously (with image capture) store information in the associated file or alternatively in the same file as the digital image. The information from the auxiliary input module 126 will flow directly from the various input processors contained in the hardware device. These processors may include but are not limited to a processor to determine the individual number of the picture in the sequence of pictures shot that are captured and stored, a Global Positioning System (GPS) chip to determine the geographic location of where the image was taken, a date chip to determine the date and time the image was taken, a voice capture device to capture comments on the image, and various other input processors that will provide additional information relevant to the digital information, all information which the auxiliary input module will store as information in the info files or directly as addenda in the digital image files. Knowledge of the art, indicates that the individual processors such as GPS, date time and voice storage, may be separate processors or may also be incorporated as one computer processor. After the digital image is captured and stored on the device 100, these files will be transferred to the user's local computer hardware device or to the Global Computer Network, e.g., the Internet, or to the user's local device and then to the Global Computer Network. This transfer will be done by transmission module 112 including hardwired and/or wireless connectivity. The hardwire connection may include but is not limited to hard wire cabling e.g., parallel or serial cables, USB cable, Firewire (1394 connectivity) cables and the appropriate port. The wireless connection will operate under any of the various known wireless protocols including but not limited to Bluetooth™ interconnectivity, infrared connectivity, radio transmission connectivity including computer digital signal broadcasting and reception commonly referred to as Wi-X or 80211.X (where x denotes the type of transmission), or any other type of communication protocols or systems currently existing or to be developed for wirelessly transmitting data. Furthermore, the transmission module 112 may include a removable memory card slot for accepting any of the various known removable memory cards, transferring the image files to the removable card, and subsequently the images may be uploaded to a computer from the removable memory card by an appropriate reader coupled to the user's computer. The file name of each digital image file and/or associated file will be recorded in a relational database either on the user's local computer or the Global computer network. This database will contain information on any file(s) related to each digital image including audio and video files, or other associated image files. The user, or any other party, may print out any of the digital images described herein. The printing will be done once the images are stored on the local computer or the Global Computer Network and recorded in a relational database as described above. When the images are printed out, the computer that prints the image will cause the image to be printed with symbology that encodes that file name of the image and file location of the image, or any other coding that will provide access to the file name and file location. This file name will be the assigned name that the image was stored in at the relational database, as well as the assigned location of the relational database whether in the user's local computer or at a stored location on the Global Computer Network. The symbology may be in any form currently practiced in the art including barcodes (e.g., UPC, EAN, PDF417, etc.), photosymbols, standard or specialized text, etc, or any future type of symbology. Of course, as stated, any symbology utilized will represent or lead to the file names and file locations of the digital images. The device 100 will further include an integrated scanning module 130 that will contain a light source, e.g., LED, and photocell coupled to the computer processing module 120, or alternatively, will includes a separate decoder engine that will decode the data received by the photocell before sending it to the computer processing module 120. Knowledge of the art reveals that many different types of scanners currently exist and the inventor realizes that the type of scanner would depend upon the type of symbology that is utilized in the printed images. The user will be able to scan the printed digital images with the device 100 and the scanning module 130 would scan in the symbology and using standard computer programming and the computer processing module, the device would translate the symbology to extract the name of the digital image and the file locations (whether local or on the Global Computer Network) of the digital image. Alternatively, the scanner may extract some type of marker or symbol that when presented to the relational database would indicate the file name and file location of the digital images. This information would then be transferred to the transmission module which will transmit it to the local or Global computer Network which will then submit it to the relational database containing information on the digital images. Using standard computer programming and processing, this database would then locate the stored digital image and associated files and also process the users request(s) regarding the digital image. If the subject hardware device is coupled to a computer via the transmission module 112, then the hardware device 100 will receive back and display the processed requests on the display module 108. By example, a user may scan in a printed digital image with the hardware device 100 and then receive that image for display on his device, along with auxiliary information on the image, and along with auxiliary and associated audio and video files that can be displayed on the hardware device via the display module 108. Referring to FIGS. 3A and 3B, another embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated. Here, a device 200 according to the principles of the present disclosure is embodied as a mobile phone. Device 200 includes a microphone 206 having the same functionality as microphone 106 and is further coupled to a communication module 240 for encoding a user's speech to be transmitted via antenna ANT using CDMA, PCS, GSM or any other known wireless communication technology. Device 200 further includes display module 208 for displaying captured images and preferably the display module will have a touch screen overlaid upon it which will enable user input via a stylus. The user may also enter phone numbers to be dialed via the touch screen. As is known in the mobile phone art, device 200 may include a full QWERTY keyboard 224 as an input module to enter text information to be associated to captured images. Earpiece or speaker 228 may be utilized to play audio clips associated with images in addition to being coupled to the antenna ANT and a decoder for receiving and decoding voice communication from another mobile phone. Preferably, the antenna ANT is coupled to a transmission module similar to the one described above in relation to FIG. 2. The transmission module will compress and encode captured images for transmission using any known wireless communication technology. Transmitting images via wireless technology will facilitate the transferring of images to an online photo storage site or to an online photo developing service provider. Referring to FIG. 3B, a rear side of device 200 is shown. Capture module 222 is employed for capturing images and when disposed on a rear side of device 200 is used in conjunction with display module 208 for positioning a subject of the image in lieu of a viewfinder. In this embodiment, the capture module 222 may also be used in conjunction with the scanning module to read symbology associated with an image. Here, the capture module will acquire an image of the symbology and the scanning module will further include a digital signal processor executing an algorithm for deciphering or decoding the symbology from the capture image. The use of an image sensor to read symbology, e.g., a barcode, is known in the art and systems employing such technology is commercially available from Symbol Technologies of New York. Similar to the embodiments described in relation to FIGS. 1 and 2, device 200 includes a storage module 210 for storing images via a removable memory card. In utilizing the hardware device described herein, the user will be able to accomplish the various applications of the disclosure which are described below in relation to FIG. 4. A user takes several pictures with his imaging device (step 302). In one example, the picture is of a baby in Las Vegas. The next picture is of a Monet painting hanging in a gallery in Las Vegas. Another picture is of the user's wife. At end of taking pictures or alternatively, immediately after taking each individual picture, the user goes back to the device 100, 200 and using either keystroke input via input module 124 or voice recognition software via a microphone, or any other input means the user is prompted to provide the following information regarding the pictures, i.e., the images taken (step 304): (1) The file location to store the photos or images once they are transferred to permanent memory storage, e.g., a local computer or a server residing on the Internet. For the first picture the user indicates that he would like the photo stored under his baby picture file, e.g., a folder on his local computer, for the second picture his famous art file, and for third picture his file with pictures of his wife. (2) The user is then asked via the speaker, or prompted on the display module 108, 208, if he wants to attach any audio or video to the images to stay associated with the images once they are stored. He indicates that for the first image he wishes to record an audio file indicating: “this is a picture of my baby girl Samantha here in Las Vegas. Boy is she cute.” For the second image: “Loved this Monet and had previously seen it in at the Louvre last year” for third: “Jenny is wearing the new dress that I just bought her” also for number three picture please attach the video file entitled Jenny's day in Las Vegas to this picture. (3) The user now is asked via text input or voice recognition or any other input means, whether they will be storing these photos online. The answer would be either Yes or No. If the user answers Yes, a predetermined site could have been selected and pre-stored in the camera hardware device (for instance the Ofoto or Imagestation site) and selected photos would automatically go to that location for upload when the digital images are transferred. The hardware device retrieves (from input that it receives from the auxiliary input computer module 126) the time and location of the images. The hardware device also knows (from memory that was pre-stored in the hardware) the name and identification information on the owner of the hardware device or any guest using the device. Moreover, the hardware device will also store the number of the digital image by recording the order that the image was taken in. The user can also flag (select) any images that he would like to have printed or emailed. The various information is then complied and either stored as a separate information file associated to the image or appended to the digital image file and stored for example in the header of the image file (step 306). The user will now transfer the images to his local computer workstation which may or may not be connected to the Global Computer Network via transmission module 112 (step 308). When the computer receives these imbedded ‘smart pix’ images, the computer will: a. Sort and file the images in the file or folder selected including storing the files with the associated information and audio and video attachments; b. Perform any actions requested for the photos including, email the photos to a selected user or users and print the photos on designated printers in a size pre-selected; and c. With a connection to the Global Computer Network, automatically upload the photos and associated attached files to the specified server site (Ofoto, or Smartpix, for instance) for storage and retrieval. Once the images are printed, the user will be enabled, regardless of the time elapsed since the images were taken, to take a hardware device (possibly the camera device that the user utilized to take the images, or another hardware reader device) and scan it over a photo. The device will read the symbology in the images and using standard communications techniques including Wifi or Bluetooth, Infrared, or Cabling, etc., the scanning/reading device will transmit the photo identifier information to a computer processor which then may optionally transfer it to the Global Computer Network. The device will then receive the information back from the local processor or Global Computer Network and will then locate the file or files that contain the image and associated attachments on the local or Global Computer Network. By example, the user holds the scanning device over images of a child on the beach and an audio track then comes back: “Daddy I love this beach and I love you”. The user would also be able to instantly receive information on the photo such as when and where the photo was taken and who the photographer was. The user could also request that the photo be printed to a local printer in a specific size or that the picture be emailed to a selected recipient. Other user requests could include asking the computer to display all associated photos, and file attachments, or to store the photo in a selected location on the local computer or the Global Computer Network. While the disclosure has been shown and described with reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field The present disclosure relates generally to digital image processing, and more particularly, to devices and methods for embedding and retrieving information in digital images and using the information to organize, process and control the digital images. 2. Description of the Related Art Photographs are taken for a variety of personal and business reasons. During the course of the year, an individual may take numerous photographs of various events. During these events, quite often there is a variety of different individuals and items present in these photographs. In the prior art, when one desires to catalog these images in a particular order, they usually are left to placing these images manually into photograph albums. This is a very extensive, manual procedure requiring a significant amount of time. In addition, it is very limited with regard to the amount of information that can be associated with the image in a quick and easy manner. While some photo albums allow the writing and placing of text, the entering of this data is a very time consuming and arduous affair. Once having sorted these images into particular albums which may represent categories of interest, it is extremely difficult to retrieve and/or reorganize the images into other categories. With the advent of digital cameras and digital imaging, the process of organizing images and associating information with the images has become even more difficult. Firstly, upon capturing an image with a digital camera, the camera simply gives the image a numerical file name which usually has no meaning to the user and makes it difficult to retrieve at a later date. Secondly, with the technological advances in file size compression and increased capacity of storage media, several hundred images may be taken before a user downloads the images to a computer or other device, making it a very time consuming task to associate information to each image. Therefore, a need exists for techniques for easily associating information about an image to the image and using the information to control and retrieve the image. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A device for capturing, storing, allowing user input, receiving internal input, processing, transmitting, scanning, and displaying digital images is provided. Digital photography has gained a substantial share of the worldwide photographic market. More and more cameras record images in digital form and more and more of these images are stored digitally for retrieval or archival purposes on home and business computers and on the Global Computer Network, e.g., the Internet. The present disclosure describes hardware devices and methods that will facilitate embedding information into digital images of any type (e.g., jpeg, bmp, tiff, etc.) to organize, control and manipulate these images both while in digital form, and later when in printed form. According to one aspect of the present disclosure, a digital imaging device is provided including a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. The processing module is adapted to create a separate information file including the inputted information that is linked to the digital image file or to append the inputted information to the digital image file. The device further includes a display module for displaying the captured imaged, wherein the display module is adapted to prompt a user to input information regarding the captured image. Furthermore, the display module may include an audio output device for audibly prompting a user to input information regarding the captured image. In another aspect of the present disclosure, the device includes a character recognition capture device coupled to the input module for entering information regarding the capture images, wherein the character recognition device is a touch screen overlaid upon the display module. In a further aspect, the device includes a transmission module for transmitting at least one digital image file and its associated information to a computing device, wherein the transmission module is a hardwired connection, a wireless connection or a removable memory card slot for receiving removable memory. In another aspect of the present disclosure, the device includes a scanning module for scanning information to be associated with the digital image file. The scanning module will also be employed for reading a symbology associated with a printed digital image and wherein the processing module is adapted to use the symbology to retrieve the associated information of the digital image file. In still a further aspect of the present disclosure, a mobile communication device is provided including a communication module coupled to an antenna for wirelessly receiving and transmitting communication messages; a capture module for capturing an image and creating a digital image file; an input module for inputting information regarding the captured image; and a processing module for associating the inputted information to the digital image file. In another aspect of the present disclosure, a method for associating information with a digital image is provided. The method includes the steps of capturing an image and creating a digital image file; prompting a user for information regarding the captured image; receiving information from the user; and associating the received information to the digital image file. The prompting step includes displaying at least one question to the user or audibly producing at least one question to the user. The receiving step further includes the steps of receiving text input via a character recognition capture device; and translating the text input into alphanumeric characters, or alternatively, includes the steps of receiving spoken input via a microphone; and translating the spoken input into alphanumeric characters. In one aspect, the associating step includes creating a separate information file including the received information that is linked to the digital image file. In another aspect, the associating step includes appending the received information to the digital image file. The method further includes the step of transmitting the digital image file and associated information to a computing device and retrieving the associated information by scanning a symbology printed with the captured digital image. | 20041129 | 20081111 | 20060601 | 70463.0 | H04N576 | 4 | DURNFORD GESZVAIN, DILLON | DEVICE AND METHOD FOR EMBEDDING AND RETRIEVING INFORMATION IN DIGITAL IMAGES | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04N | 2,004 |
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10,998,768 | ACCEPTED | Air mattress with single perimeter seam | A transfer mattress is provided including a top sheet having a width, a length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a bottom sheet having the same width, the same length, longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a plurality of perforations. The longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of the top and bottom sheets are sealingly fastened to one another often by heat sealing. A plurality of baffles, each having a width and a length, are attached to an inner surface of the top sheet and an inner surface of the bottom sheet so as to be transversely oriented between the top sheet and the bottom. The baffles along with the widths of the top and bottom sheets define a radially-outwardly curved perimeter wall that is disposed between an edge of the baffles and the sealed peripheral edges of the top and bottom sheets. The radially-outwardly curved perimeter wall has a width y that is determined by the following relationship: d π - x 2 ≤ y where d comprises a height of the longitudinally extensive pontoon and x comprises the width of the baffles. | 1. A transfer mattress comprising: a top panel having a width, a length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges; a bottom panel having said width, said length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a plurality of perforations wherein said longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of said top and bottom panels are sealingly fastened to one another; and a plurality of baffles each having a width and a length and being attached to an inner surface of said top panel and an inner surface of said bottom panel so as to be transversely oriented between said top panel and said bottom panel, thereby defining a radially outwardly curved longitudinally extensive pontoon disposed between an edge of said baffles and peripheral edges of said top and bottom panels said radially outwardly curved longitudinally extensive perimeter pontoon having a width y that is determined by the following relationship: d π - x 2 ≤ y wherein d comprises a height of said longitudinally extensive pontoon, and x comprises said width of said baffles. 2. A transfer mattress according to claim 1 wherein said top and bottom panels are formed from a sheet of fabric that is coated on at least one surface with a fluid proof coating. 3. A transfer mattress according to claim 2 wherein said water proof coating comprises at least one of a polymeric and elastomeric compound that is impervious to semi-solids and liquids. 4-5. (canceled) 6. A transfer mattress according to claim 1 wherein said plurality of baffles each comprise a substantially rectangular sheet. 7. A transfer mattress according to claim 1 wherein said baffles are fastened transversely to a portion of an inner surface of said top sheet and to a portion of an inner surface of said bottom sheet. 8. A transfer mattress according to claim 1 wherein said longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of said top and bottom sheets are heat sealed along their interface. 9. A transfer mattress according to claim 8 wherein said heat sealing comprises at least one of heat and ultra sonic energy deposited an interface longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of said top and bottom sheets so as to form a re-solidified interface structure. 10. A transfer mattress comprising: a coated top sheet having a width, a length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges; a coated bottom sheet having said width, said length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a plurality of perforations wherein said longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of said top and bottom sheets are heat sealed one to another; and a plurality of baffles each having a width and a length and being attached to an inner surface of said top sheet and an inner surface of said bottom sheet so as to be transversely oriented between said top sheet and said bottom, thereby defining a radially outwardly curved perimeter wall disposed between an edge of said baffles and said peripheral edges of said top and bottom sheets, said radially outwardly curved perimeter wall having a width y that is determined by the following relationship: d π - x 2 ≤ y wherein d comprises a height of said longitudinally extensive pontoon and x comprises said width of said baffles. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to patient transfer devices and, more particularly to a patient transfer apparatus which employs an air bearing to facilitate the transfer. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Patient handling mattresses are known in the art which include at least two flexible material sheets, that together define a plenum chamber, with at least one sheet being perforated with small pinholes over at least a central surface area, and which open up directly to the interior of the plenum chamber. Such prior art mattresses are used by arranging the perforated sheet so that it faces an underlying fixed, generally planar support surface, such as a floor or table. When the mattress is charged with pressurized air, the escape of air under pressure through the pinholes acts initially to jack a load placed upon the mattress above the perforated flexible sheet, and thereby creates an air bearing of relatively small height between the underlying fixed, generally planar support surface and the perforated flexible sheet. For example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,517,690, issued to Wegener, an air pallet is disclosed that is formed from upper and lower thin flexible film sheets sealed at their edges to form a plenum chamber. Wegener's air pallet functions to move a load with minimal friction over an underlying generally planar fixed support surface. The bottom thin flexible material sheet is perforated by small diameter perforations such as pin holes at the load imprint area. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,561,873, issued to Weedling, provides an inflatable flexible pallet within which an array of structurally interrelated inflatable chambers are formed to support a load when inflated. The flexible pallet is configured to resist lateral and longitudinal shrinkage of the load support surface, as well as ballooning and hot dogging. Rotational instability is also reduced by providing a greater load surface support area. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,073,291, issued to Davis, an inflatable medical patient transfer apparatus is disclosed that has a combination of transverse partition members and a raised perimeter section to reduce deleterious ballooning and uneven inflation as well as quick emergency deflation. Additional differentially inflatable patient rolling chambers are disclosed on the top of the transfer apparatus to provide assistance to medical personnel in beginning to roll patients reclining or lying upon the transfer apparatus, particularly in a deflated condition on a hospital bed. All of the foregoing devices have suffered from an inability to be cleaned sufficiently and quickly so as to prevent transmission of disease from their patient engaging surfaces after use. Such a mattress would need to have the material contacting the patient be readily washable, and also be non-absorbent, since patients often experience loss of bodily fluids with resultant messing of bed linen and the like. One solution to this ongoing problem is provided in U.S. Pat. No. 4,627,426, issued to Wegener et al., which discloses a highly absorbent sheet is provided to be placed onto the top of an operating table, and is weakened longitudinally through the center to form paired separable center-joined sections for lateral removal to respective sides of a patient lying on the sheet and centered longitudinally therewith. Thus after surgery, the absorbent pad carrying a significant mass of blood can be quickly removed from the patient by pulling with sufficient force on the opposites sides of the pad, severing the pad along the weakened portion. The pad may have several layers with one or more layers being weakened by thinning the sheet material or perforating the same longitudinally. Unfortunately, many of the foregoing devices also suffer from the fact that their uninflated area is significantly larger than their inflated area. Consequently, peripheral edge portions of these devices tend to hang over the peripheral edges of a hospital bed or patient transfer cart, adding to the aforementioned cleaning problems. In the medical field, there is a continuing need to easily, safely and comfortably transport an injured person, hospital patient or injured person at the scene of an accident, using an air mattress. There is also a continuing need to be able to easily and safely clean such a mattress after use. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a transfer mattress including a top sheet having a width, a length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a bottom sheet having the same width, the same length, longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a plurality of perforations. The longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of the top and bottom sheets are sealingly fastened to one another often by heat sealing. A plurality of baffles, each having a width and a length, are attached to an inner surface of the top sheet and an inner surface of the bottom sheet so as to be transversely oriented between the top sheet and the bottom. The baffles along with the widths of the top and bottom sheets define a radially-outwardly curved perimeter wall that is disposed between an edge of the baffles and the sealed peripheral edges of the top and bottom sheets. The radially-outwardly curved longitudinally extensive pontoon has an uninflated width y that is determined by the following relationship: d π - x 2 ≤ y where d comprises a height of the longitudinally extensive pontoon and x comprises the width of the baffles. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be more fully disclosed in, or rendered obvious by, the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, which is to be considered together with the accompanying drawings wherein like numbers refer to like parts and further wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a transfer mattress formed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a partially broken-way, perspective view of the transfer mattress shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a top elevational view of a bottom panel or sheet formed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 4 is a top elevational view of a top panel or sheet formed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view, as taken along lines 5-6 in FIG. 2, showing a baffle and a dimensional relationship of a radially-outwardly curved perimeter wall to the mattress as a whole; and FIG. 6 is a broken-way cross-sectional view of the transfer mattress shown in FIGS. 5 and 2, with an enlarged portion shown encircled so as to illustrate a waterproof coating. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT This description of preferred embodiments is intended to be read in connection with the accompanying drawings, which are to be considered part of the entire written description of this invention. The drawing figures are not necessarily to scale and certain features of the invention may be shown exaggerated in scale or in somewhat schematic form in the interest of clarity and conciseness. In the description, relative terms such as “horizontal,” “vertical,” “up,” “down,” “top” and “bottom” as well as derivatives thereof (e.g., “horizontally,” “downwardly,” “upwardly,” etc.) should be construed to refer to the orientation as then described or as shown in the drawing figure under discussion. These relative terms are for convenience of description and normally are not intended to require a particular orientation. Terms including “inwardly” versus “outwardly,” “longitudinal” versus “lateral” and the like are to be interpreted relative to one another or relative to an axis of elongation, or an axis or center of rotation, as appropriate. Terms concerning attachments, coupling and the like, such as “connected” and “interconnected,” refer to a relationship wherein structures are secured or attached to one another either directly or indirectly through intervening structures, as well as both movable or rigid attachments or relationships, unless expressly described otherwise. The term “operatively connected” is such an attachment, coupling or connection that allows the pertinent structures to operate as intended by virtue of that relationship. In the claims, means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described, suggested, or rendered obvious by the written description or drawings for performing the recited function, including not only structural equivalents but also equivalent structures. Referring to FIGS. 1-4, a transfer mattress 2 formed in accordance with the present invention comprises a top panel 4, a bottom panel 6, and a plurality of baffle-panels 8. More particularly, top panel 4 comprises a head portion 12, a foot portion 14, and a peripheral edge 16, and is formed from a sheet of fabric, e.g., nylon scrim or the like, that is coated on at least its outer surface 18 with a water proof coating 20. Inner surface 19 of top panel 4 may also be coated with a water proof coating 20 as well. Water proof coating 20 may be any of the well known polymeric or elastomeric compounds that are known to be impervious to semi-solids and liquids, such as, blood, urine, feces, hospital strength disinfecting compounds, alcohol, or the like. For example, a nylon twill fabric that is coated on one side with a heat sealable, polyurethane coating (e.g., an inner side) and the outer side coated with a Durable Water Repellant (Patient side). Alternatively, transfer mattress 2 may be formed from a top panel 4 and a bottom panel 6 comprising double coated nylon twill, having a polyurethane coating on both outer and inner sides of the panels. It has been found that although Durable Water Repellant repels water for a little while, it eventually washes out of the fabric. Even when new, fluid will bead up but then eventually soak into the scrim of the fabric. The double coated polyurethane coating does not allow any absorption, and is therefore much preferred for use in connection with the present invention. Moreover, the presence of polyurethane on the interior surfaces allows for heat sealing, eliminating needle holes. A practical benefit associated with the use of the foregoing preferred materials is that transfer mattresses 2 retain a better appearance for longer periods of time during use. Double coated transfer mattresses can be easily wiped down and put back into use more quickly. Mattresses formed from a durable water repellant take much longer to dry when wiped down with a germicidal solution. Also, the need to have to send a double coated transfer mattress to the laundry (mostly off site) is greatly reduced. A double coated transfer mattress 2 formed in accordance with the present invention will not soil during normal use. Additionally, because the top side of the mattress is coated with a heat sealable polyurethane, other structures can be attached by heat sealing to the top of the mattress and, advantageously, without sewing. Bottom panel 6 comprises a head portion 22, a foot portion 24, and a peripheral edge 26, that is also formed from a sheet of nylon scrim or the like, and that may be coated on at least its outer surface 28 with water proof coating 20. Inner surface 29 of bottom panel 6 may also be coated with water proof coating 20 as well. An inlet opening 32 is formed in a corner portion of transfer mattress 2, and may be a closable opening that sealingly accepts an air supply hose 34. Inlet opening 32 is sized and shaped so that air supply hose 34 may be inserted, with the inlet being thereafter snapped shut or otherwise closed to hold air supply hose 34 in place while transfer mattress 2 is being inflated. Inlet opening 32 may also include a valve (not shown) that is biased to be normally closed to prevent air from exiting through the inlet, and opened when air supply hose 34 is inserted into inlet opening 32. Other arrangements known to those skilled in the art may be used to inflate transfer mattress 2. Bottom panel 6 also includes a plurality of tiny holes 36 that are defined through its thickness to allow air, that is supplied by a low-pressure air supply to transfer mattress 2, via air supply hose 34, to escape in a controlled manner. The air supplied to transfer mattress 2 escapes through plurality of holes 36, providing a weight-bearing cushion of air that facilitates the sliding of transfer mattress 2 along a surface, as well as, from one surface to another. Plurality of baffle-panels 8 each comprise substantially rectangular sheets of nylon scrim or the like, and include a top edge 40 and a bottom edge 42. Baffle-panels 8 may have differing widths, depending upon their position within transfer mattress 2. Each top edge 40 is fastened transversely to a portion of inner surface 19 of top panel 4, and each bottom edge 42 is fastened transversely to a portion of inner surface 29 of bottom panel 6, as will hereinafter be disclosed in further detail. A transfer mattress 2 is assembled according to the present invention in the following manner. Bottom panel 6 is laid out on a suitable support surface so that baffle-panel 8 may be transversely arranged in the center section of inner surface 29. Once in this position, bottom edge 42 of each baffle-panel 8 is fixedly fastened to inner surface 29 of bottom panel 6. Baffle-panels 8 are advantageously heat sealed along the interface between bottom edge 42 and inner surface 29 of bottom panel 6. This heat sealing may be done with the application of heat or ultra sonic energy at the edge interface. In this way, a re-solidified interface structure (FIG. 6) is formed between top edge 16 and bottom edge 26 so as to improve the bond and its resistance to rupture under normal loading. Once plurality of baffle-panels 8 are fastened to inner surface 29 of bottom panel 6, top panel 4 is arranged in overlying confronting relation with bottom panel 6 so that head portion 12 of top panel 4 is confronting head portion 22 of bottom panel 6 and foot portion 14 of top panel 4 is confronting foot portion 24 of bottom panel 6. Once in this position, each top edge 40 of each baffle-panel 8 is fixedly fastened to inner surface 29 of top panel 4. In order to complete construction of transfer mattress 2, it is necessary to sealingly fasten peripheral edge 16 of top panel 4 to peripheral edge 26 of bottom panel 6 (FIGS. 5-6). Significantly, in order to prevent a person from rolling off transfer mattress 2 during sliding, it has been found to be advantageous to create a radially outwardly curved perimeter wall or “pontoons” 35 that extend longitudinally from head portion 22 to foot portion 24 on either side of baffle-panels 8. Pontoons 35 often comprise a substantially cylindrical shape throughout most of their length, with a substantially circular transverse cross-sectional profile. This provides for a “cradling” effect for the patient. A significant improvement in functionality of transfer mattress 2 is achieved, if pontoon 35 is sized according to the following relationship: d π - x 2 ≤ y where y is the uninflated width of top panel 4 and bottom panel 6 as measured from an edge of baffle-panels 8 to peripheral edges, 16,26; d is the inner diameter of a pontoon 35, i.e., the distance from that portion of top panel 4 that extends from the edge of baffle-panel 8 to peripheral edge 16 and that portion of bottom panel 6 that extends from the edge of baffle-panel 8 to peripheral edge 26, once transfer mattress 2 is inflated; x is the width of a baffle-panel 8; and π is the well known geometric/trigonometric constant having an approximate value of 3.14159. The creation of an appropriately expanded peripheral pontoon 35 adjacent the ends of the transverse baffle-panels 8 provides several advantages. It helps to raise the sides of inflated transfer mattress 2, so as to give the person supported thereon a feeling of security, as well as, actual security in opposing rolling of the person off the inflated device. In addition, the pronounced curvature of pontoon 35 provides for a reduced contact area between mattress 2 and the underlying support surface, so as to reduce drag. A pair of substantially parallel peripheral pontoons 35, located at the ends of transverse baffle-panels 8 provides a slight relative restriction to air passing to the central chambers during inflation, thereby decreasing the tendency of the device to “balloon”, i.e., where the load is jacked or raised up so high that it becomes unbalanced on the footprint formed by the central portion of mattress 2. Pontoons 35 also provide for efficient feeding of low-pressure air to all the central chambers defined by baffle-panels 8 at once, effectively encouraging more uniform inflation of those central chambers, even while slightly restricting or slowing down the feeding of air to them. Pontoons 35 also provide enhanced stiffness to the entire transfer mattress, making it easier to handle when inflated. Thus forming pontoon 35 according to this relationship provides for significantly improved sliding movement of transfer mattress 2 during use. It is to be understood that the present invention is by no means limited only to the particular constructions herein disclosed and shown in the drawings, but also comprises any modifications or equivalents within the scope of the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Patient handling mattresses are known in the art which include at least two flexible material sheets, that together define a plenum chamber, with at least one sheet being perforated with small pinholes over at least a central surface area, and which open up directly to the interior of the plenum chamber. Such prior art mattresses are used by arranging the perforated sheet so that it faces an underlying fixed, generally planar support surface, such as a floor or table. When the mattress is charged with pressurized air, the escape of air under pressure through the pinholes acts initially to jack a load placed upon the mattress above the perforated flexible sheet, and thereby creates an air bearing of relatively small height between the underlying fixed, generally planar support surface and the perforated flexible sheet. For example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,517,690, issued to Wegener, an air pallet is disclosed that is formed from upper and lower thin flexible film sheets sealed at their edges to form a plenum chamber. Wegener's air pallet functions to move a load with minimal friction over an underlying generally planar fixed support surface. The bottom thin flexible material sheet is perforated by small diameter perforations such as pin holes at the load imprint area. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,561,873, issued to Weedling, provides an inflatable flexible pallet within which an array of structurally interrelated inflatable chambers are formed to support a load when inflated. The flexible pallet is configured to resist lateral and longitudinal shrinkage of the load support surface, as well as ballooning and hot dogging. Rotational instability is also reduced by providing a greater load surface support area. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,073,291, issued to Davis, an inflatable medical patient transfer apparatus is disclosed that has a combination of transverse partition members and a raised perimeter section to reduce deleterious ballooning and uneven inflation as well as quick emergency deflation. Additional differentially inflatable patient rolling chambers are disclosed on the top of the transfer apparatus to provide assistance to medical personnel in beginning to roll patients reclining or lying upon the transfer apparatus, particularly in a deflated condition on a hospital bed. All of the foregoing devices have suffered from an inability to be cleaned sufficiently and quickly so as to prevent transmission of disease from their patient engaging surfaces after use. Such a mattress would need to have the material contacting the patient be readily washable, and also be non-absorbent, since patients often experience loss of bodily fluids with resultant messing of bed linen and the like. One solution to this ongoing problem is provided in U.S. Pat. No. 4,627,426, issued to Wegener et al., which discloses a highly absorbent sheet is provided to be placed onto the top of an operating table, and is weakened longitudinally through the center to form paired separable center-joined sections for lateral removal to respective sides of a patient lying on the sheet and centered longitudinally therewith. Thus after surgery, the absorbent pad carrying a significant mass of blood can be quickly removed from the patient by pulling with sufficient force on the opposites sides of the pad, severing the pad along the weakened portion. The pad may have several layers with one or more layers being weakened by thinning the sheet material or perforating the same longitudinally. Unfortunately, many of the foregoing devices also suffer from the fact that their uninflated area is significantly larger than their inflated area. Consequently, peripheral edge portions of these devices tend to hang over the peripheral edges of a hospital bed or patient transfer cart, adding to the aforementioned cleaning problems. In the medical field, there is a continuing need to easily, safely and comfortably transport an injured person, hospital patient or injured person at the scene of an accident, using an air mattress. There is also a continuing need to be able to easily and safely clean such a mattress after use. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a transfer mattress including a top sheet having a width, a length, and longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a bottom sheet having the same width, the same length, longitudinally oriented peripheral edges and a plurality of perforations. The longitudinally oriented peripheral edges of the top and bottom sheets are sealingly fastened to one another often by heat sealing. A plurality of baffles, each having a width and a length, are attached to an inner surface of the top sheet and an inner surface of the bottom sheet so as to be transversely oriented between the top sheet and the bottom. The baffles along with the widths of the top and bottom sheets define a radially-outwardly curved perimeter wall that is disposed between an edge of the baffles and the sealed peripheral edges of the top and bottom sheets. The radially-outwardly curved longitudinally extensive pontoon has an uninflated width y that is determined by the following relationship: d π - x 2 ≤ y where d comprises a height of the longitudinally extensive pontoon and x comprises the width of the baffles. | 20041129 | 20080520 | 20050505 | 76453.0 | 1 | SAFAVI, MICHAEL | AIR MATTRESS WITH SINGLE PERIMETER SEAM | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,998,849 | ACCEPTED | Method of treatment using bisphosphonic acid | The present invention refers to a pharmaceutical composition of a bisphosphonic acid or salt thereof, and an excipient thereof, and a method of treating disorder characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption comprising orally administering at least 150% of the expected efficious daily dose of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients thereof and administering the dose at a period of one two or three consecutive days per month. | 1. A method for preventing disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption comprising orally administering at least 150% of the expected efficacious daily dose of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients at a period of one day per month. 2. The method according to claim 1 wherein the disease is osteoporosis. 3. The method according to claim 1 wherein the efficacious daily dose is about 100 mg to about 150 mg of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the bisphosphonic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of ibandronic acid. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the bisphosphonic acid is ibandronic acid. 6. The method of claim 4 wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is ibandronate sodium. 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is the monosodium salt of ibandronic acid. 8. The method according to claim 6 wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is 3-(N-methyl)-N-pentyl)amino-1-hydroxypropane-1,1-diphosphonic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein the efficacious daily dose is about 100 mg of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the efficacious daily dose is about 150 mg of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 11. A method for preventing disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption comprising oral administration of an effective amount of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein 50 to 250 mg of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is administered at a period of one day per month. 12. The method according to claim 11 wherein the bisphosphonic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salt is ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the bisphosphonic acid is ibandronic acid. 14. The method of claim 12 wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is ibandronate sodium. 15. The method of claim 14 wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is the monosodium salt of ibandronic acid. 16. The method of claim 14 wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is 3-(N-methyl)-N-pentyl)amino-1-hydroxypropane-1,1-diphosphonic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. | PRIORITY TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation of Ser. No. 10/430,007, filed May 6, 2003, which is now pending. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention refers to the use of bisphosphonic acids, especially of (1-hydroxy-3-(N-methyl-N-pentyl)aminopropylidene-1,1-bisphosphonic acid (ibandronic acid) or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions for the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption, especially for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Bones serve mainly as a support, and consequently bone is frequently regarded as a simple building material. However, bone is a complicated biomaterial adapted to a wide variety of requirements, stimuli and noxae to which it is exposed. Endoprostheses are available as substitutes for bones and joints. However, endoprostheses, even when biomechanically highly refined, do not have an active effect on the environmental and load factors. A variety of disorders in humans and mammals involve or are associated with abnormal bone resorption. Such disorders include, but are not limited to, osteoporosis, Paget's disease, periprosthetic bone loss or osteolysis, and hypercalcemia of malignancy and metastatic bone disease. The most common of these disorders is osteoporosis, which in its most frequent manifestation occurs in postmenopausal women. Because osteoporosis, as well as other disorders associated with bone loss, are chronic conditions, it is believed that appropriate therapy will generally require chronic treatment. Bisphosphonates, i.e. bisphosphonic acids or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, are synthetic analogs of the naturally occurring pyrophosphate. Due to their marked affinity for solid-phase calcium phosphate, bisphosphonates bind strongly to bone mineral. Pharmacologically active bisphosphonates are well known in the art and are potent inhibitors of bone resorption and are therefore useful in the treatment and prevention of diseases involving abnormal bone resorption, especially osteoporosis, Paget's disease, hypercalcemia of malignancy, and metastatic and metabolic bone diseases. Bisphosphonates as pharmaceutical agents are described for example in EP-A-170,228; EP-A-197,478; EP-A-22,751; EP-A-252,504; EP-A-252,505; EP-A-258,618; EP-A-350,002; EP-A-273,190; and WO-A-90/00798, each of which are incorporated herein by reference. Pharmaceutical forms of currently marketed bisphosphonates are oral formulations (tablets or capsules) or solutions for intravenous injection or infusion. They are systemically well tolerated when administered at therapeutic doses. However, bisphosphonates as a class are irritant to skin and mucous membranes and when given orally on a continuous basis may result in digestive tract side effects, e.g., esophageal adverse events or gastrointestinal disturbances. As a consequence, and due to their low oral bioavailability, the oral route of administration has, to date, had to follow inconvenient recommendations of use for the patient. Bisphosphonates can be classified into two groups with different modes of action. Ibandronate belongs to the more potent nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates[Russell 1999 Russell R G G, Rogers M J. Bisphosphonates: From the laboratory to the clinic and back again. Bone 25(1):97-106 (1999); Rogers M J, Gordon S, Benford H L, Coxon F P, Luckman S P, Monkkonen J, Frith J C. Cellular Molecular mechanisms of action of bisphosphonates. Cancer 88 (12) Suppl:2961-2978 (2000)]. Ibandronate is one of the most potent bisphosphonates currently under clinical development in osteoporosis and metastatic bone diseases. In animal models of bone resorption, ibandronate is 2, 10, 50 and 500 times more potent than risedronate, alendronate, pamidronate, and clodronate respectively[Mühlbauer R. C., F. Bauss, R. Schenk, M. Janner, E. Bosies, K. Strein, and H. Fleisch. BM 21.0955 a potent new bisphosphonate to inhibit bone resorption. J. Bone Miner. Res. 6: 1003-1011 (1991)]. Ibandronate inhibits bone resorption without any impairment of mineralization (Mühlbauer et al Mühlbauer R. C., F. Bauss, R. Schenk, M. Janner, E. Bosies, K. Strein, and H. Fleisch. BM 21.0955 a potent new bisphosphonate to inhibit bone resorption. J. Bone Miner. Res. 6: 1003-1011 (1991).). It has been shown to decrease osteoclastic activity, thus inhibiting bone destruction. At high doses it also reduces the number of osteoclasts (Mühlbauer et al. Mühlbauer R. C., F. Bauss, R. Schenk, M. Janner, E. Bosies, K. Strein, and H. Fleisch. BM 21.0955 a potent new bisphosphonate to inhibit bone resorption. J. Bone Miner. Res. 6: 1003-1011 (1991)). As described, bisphosphonates are accepted as providing strong efficacy in the management of osteoporosis. However, given the administration restrictions related to low oral bioavailability and potential for gastro-intestinal effects, there is a clear opportunity for regimens which offer improved convenience and flexibility, leading to a higher level of compliance and superior patient management/satisfaction. Intermitted regimens such as, for example, once weekly administration have been described in the art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has now been found that the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption such as osteoporosis, can be improved by a monthly administration of 50 to 250 mg of a bisphosphonate or pharmaceutical acceptable salt thereof, especially by a monthly administration of ibandronate, i.e., ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The present invention is thus concerned with the use of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutical acceptable salt thereof, especially with the use of ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutical acceptable salt thereof, for the preparation of pharmaceutical compositions for the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption, wherein the medicament comprises about 50 to 250 mg, preferably about 100 to 150 mg, of a bisphosphonic acid or a acceptable salt thereof; and orally administered in a period of one, two or three consecutive days per month. Monthly oral treatment by administration of at least 120%, especially of 120% to 200%, of the expected efficacious daily dose offers incremental patient benefits with respect to convenience and compliance as well as superior results. Prior to the completion of the ibandronate clinical development program, no bisphosphonate had prospectively demonstrated fracture reduction efficacy with a drug-free interval beyond daily administration. In summary, it is quite unexpected that fracture reduction benefit can be derived from a monthly administration of an oral bisphosphonate with a single or multiple tablet administration scheme. Accordingly, the present invention relates to the use of bisphosphonic acids or pharmaceutically acceptable salts, especially ibandronic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for the prevention or treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption, e.g. osteoporosis, wherein the medicament comprises at least 120% of the expected efficacious daily dose of a bisphosphonic acids or acceptable salts thereof and is administered on one, two or three consecutive days per month. More preferably the invention comprises the use of ibandronic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption wherein the medicament a) comprises about 100 to about 150 mg of ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and b) is orally administered in a period of one, two or three consecutive days per month. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The term “bisphosphonic acid” means compounds characterized by two phosphonate groups linked by phosphoether bonds to a central (geminal) carbon atom. Such a P—C—P structure is represented by compound I (see, page 6). The use of a specific nomenclature in referring to the bisphosphonate or bisphosphonates is not meant to limit the scope of the present invention, unless specifically indicated. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” as used herein means that the salts or chelating agents are acceptable from a toxicity viewpoint. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to ammonium salts, alkali metal salts such as potassium and sodium (including mono, di- and tri-sodium) salts (which are preferred), alkaline earth metal salts such as calcium and magnesium salts, salts with organic bases such as dicyclohexylamine salts, N-methyl-D-glucamine, and salts with amino acids such as arginine, lysine, and so forth. The term “disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption” refers to medically defined conditions with or without identifiable cause (such as post-menopausal osteoporosis, idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis, Klinefelter's syndrome; male osteoporosis; osteoporosis due to nutritional factors; organ transplant related osteoporosis; immobilization associated osteoporosis; inflammatory condition and cortico-steroid induced osteoporosis). The term “one, two or three consecutive days per month” means administration of one to three dose proportional or non-dose proportional tablets on one, two or three consecutive days of the month, preferably on one day per month. As used herein, the term “month” is used in accordance with the generally accepted meaning as a measure of time amounting to approximately four (4) weeks, approximately 30 days, or approximately {fraction (1/12)} Of a calendar year. The term “medicament” refers to a pharmaceutical composition. The term encompasses single or multiple administration schemes. Preferably, the medicament is administered on one day per month. Preferably, the medicament is administered as a single dose, however, the scope of the present invention includes pharmaceutical compositions administered as multiple sub-doses such as on two consecutive day per month or on three consecutive days per month. Preferably, the medicament comprises at least 100%, preferably 120% to 200% of the efficacious dose of bisphosphonic acids or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, more preferably of ibandronic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. The term “efficacious dose” refers to about 50 to about 250 mg, more preferably to about 100 to about 150 mg, of a bisphosphonate or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, for example, of ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. As noted, the efficacious dose may be a single dose or multiple sub-doses. For example, if the efficacious dose is 150 mg, the dose may be one (1) 150 mg dose, two (2) 75 mg sub-doses administered on one day or on two consecutive days, or three (3) 50 mg sub-doses administered on one day or on two or three consecutive days; if the efficacious dose is 100 mg, the dose may include one (1) 100 mg dose, two (2) 50 mg sub-doses administered on one day or two consecutive days, preferably on two consecutive days. “Bisphosphonic acids and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof” as pharmaceutical agents are described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,509,612; 4,666,895; 4,719,203; 4,777,163; 5,002,937 and 4,971,958 and in European Patent Applications Nos. 252,504 and 252,505, herein incorporated by reference for such description. Methods for the preparation of bisphosphonic acids and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may be found in, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,962,432; 4,054,598; 4,267,108; 4,327,039; 4,407,761; 4,621,077; 4,624,947; 4,746,654; 4,970,335; 5,019,651; 4,761,406; 4,876,248; in J. Org. Chem. 32, 4111 (1967) and European Patent Application 252,504, herein incorporated by reference. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts of bisphosphonic acids may also be employed in the instant invention. Examples of base salts of bisphosphonic acids include ammonium salts, alkali metal salts such as potassium and sodium (including mono, di- and tri-sodium) salts (which are preferred), alkaline earth metal salts such as calcium and magnesium salts, salts with organic bases such as dicyclohexylamine salts, N-methyl-D-glucamine, and salts with amino acids such as arginine, lysine, and so forth. Non-toxic, physiologically acceptable salts are preferred. The salts may be prepared by methods known in the art, such as described in European Patent Application 252,504 or in U.S. Pat. No. 4,922,077, incorporated herein by reference. In this invention, the medicament comprises 100 to 150 mg of a ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The pharmaceutical composition comprises at least 150% of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients thereof. In one embodiment, the bisphosphonic acid is ibandronic acid. Preferably, the medicament is administered as a single dose. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the term “bisphosphonate” of the present invention corresponds to compounds of general formula wherein A and X are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, hydroxy, halogen, amino, SH, phenyl, alkyl, mono- or dialkylamino, mono- or dialkylaminoalkyl, alkoxy, thioalkyl, thiophenyl, and aryl or heteroaryl moieties selected from the group consisting of phenyl, pyridyl, furanyl, pyrrolidinyl, imidazolyl, and benzyl, wherein the aryl or heteroaryl moiety is optionally substituted with alkyl. In the foregoing chemical formula, A can include X, and X include A such that the two moieties can form part of the same cyclic structure. The foregoing chemical formula is also intended to encompass carbocyclic, aromatic and heteroaromatic structures for the A and/or X substituents, e.g. naphthyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, adamantyl, and chlorophenylthio. Preferred structures are those in which A is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, hydroxy, and halogen, an X is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halogen, thiophenyl, thioalkyl and dialkylaminoalkyl. More preferred structures are those in which A is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, hydroxy, and Cl and X is selected from the group consisting of alkyl, Cl, chlorophenylthio and dialkylaminoalkyl. The preferred bisphosphonic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of alendronate, cimadronate, clodronate, tiludronate, etidronate, ibandronate, incadronate, minodronate, neridronate, olpadronate, risedronate, pamidronate, piridronate, zolendronate, EB-1053 or acceptable salts thereof, e.g., ibandronic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. Ibandronic acid (1-hydroxy-3-(N-methyl-N-pentyl)aminopropylidene-1,1-bisphosphonic acid) or physiologically compatible salts thereof are particularly preferred, e.g., ibandronic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. The bisphosphonates and pharmaceutically acceptable salts may be administered alone or in combination with other bone active drugs, either in fixed combinations or separately both physically and in time, including hormones, such as a steroid hormone, e.g., an estrogen; a partial estrogen agonist, or estrogen-gestagen combination; a calcitonin or analogue or derivative thereof, e.g., salmon, eel or human calcitonin parathyroid hormone or analogues thereof, e.g., PTH (1-84), PTH (1-34), PTH (1-36), PTH (1-38), PTH (1-31)NH2 or PPTS 893; a SERM (Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulator), e.g., raloxifene, lasofoxifene, TSE-434, FC1271, tibolone, vitamin D or an analog. Such additional bone active drugs may be administered more frequently than the bisphosphonate. Appropriate pharmaceutical compositions are known in the art and have been described e.g., in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,143,326 and 6,294,196, herein incorporated by reference. For the preparation of tablets, coated tablets, drageés or hard gelatine capsules, the compounds of the present invention may be admixed with pharmaceutically inert, inorganic or organic excipients. Examples of suitable excipients for tablets, drageés or hard gelatine capsules include lactose, maize starch or derivatives thereof, talc or stearic acid or salts thereof. The pharmaceutical compositions may also contain preserving agents, solubilizing agents, stabilizing agents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, sweeteners, colorants, odorants, salts for the variation of osmotic pressure, buffers, coating agents or antioxidants. They may also contain other therapeutically valuable agents. Preferably, the pharmaceutical composition is a film coated tablet wherein the tablet core comprises 50 to 200 mg of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof as defined above and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients selected from the group consisting of lactose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, microcrystalline cellulose, crospovidone, stearic acid, silicon dioxide and the tablet core comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients selected from the group consisting of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, titanium dioxide, talc and polyethylene glycol 6000. These compositions are known in the art and described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,143,326 and 6,294,196. Another aspect of the present invention is a method for treating, reducing or preventing disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption comprising to a mammal administration of an effective amount of bisphosphonic acids or acceptable salts thereof. In particular, the invention refers to a method for treating, reducing or preventing disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption comprising oral administration of an effective amount of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein approximately 50 to 250 mg bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof are administered on one, two or three consecutive days per month. As noted above, the effective amount of bisphosphonic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof may be administered as a single dose or as multiple sub-doses. Preferably, in the method comprises administration of about 50 to 250 mg, preferably about 100 to 150 mg, of a bisphosphonate or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof on one, two or three consecutive days per month. While the method includes administration of the dose through multiple sub-dosing, the preferred method provides a single dose. Examples for administration of the dose through multiple sub-dosing are as follows, if the efficacious dose is 150 mg, the dose may be two (2) 75 mg sub-doses administered on one day or on two consecutive days, or three (3) 50 mg sub-doses administered on one day or on two or three consecutive days; if the efficacious dose is 100 mg, the dose may be two (2) 50 mg sub-doses administered on one day or two consecutive days, preferably on two consecutive days. The preferred bisphosphonate is ibandronate or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, e.g., ibandronic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. Preferably, in the method according to the present invention, the bisphosphonic acid is selected from the group consisting of alendronate, cimadronate, clodronate, tiludronate, etidronate, ibandronate, incadronate, minodronate, neridronate, olpadronate, risedronate, pamidronate, piridronate, zolendronate, EB-1053 or pharmaceutical acceptable salts thereof. More preferably, the bisphosphonic acid is ibandronate or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, e.g. ibandronic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. The invention will now be explained with reference to exemplified embodiments. EXAMPLES Example 1 Pharmaceutical Composition The Example shows the composition of a 50 mg tablet. The composition and preparation of these tablets is known in the art and described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,143,326 and 6,294,196. Other compositions may be prepared by adjusting the ingredients according to the amount of bisphosphonate, e.g. ibandronic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate. 50 mg film-coated tablet Components mg per tablet Tablet core: Ibandronic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate 56.250 Lactose monohydrate 92.750 Povidone K 25 5.000 Microcrystalline cellulose 30.000 Crospovidone 10.000 Purified stearic acid 4.000 Colloidal silicon dioxide 2.000 Tablet coat: Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose 5.1425 Titanium dioxide 2.4650 Talc 0.8925 Polyethylene glycol 6,000 1.5000 Final weight: 210.000 | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Bones serve mainly as a support, and consequently bone is frequently regarded as a simple building material. However, bone is a complicated biomaterial adapted to a wide variety of requirements, stimuli and noxae to which it is exposed. Endoprostheses are available as substitutes for bones and joints. However, endoprostheses, even when biomechanically highly refined, do not have an active effect on the environmental and load factors. A variety of disorders in humans and mammals involve or are associated with abnormal bone resorption. Such disorders include, but are not limited to, osteoporosis, Paget's disease, periprosthetic bone loss or osteolysis, and hypercalcemia of malignancy and metastatic bone disease. The most common of these disorders is osteoporosis, which in its most frequent manifestation occurs in postmenopausal women. Because osteoporosis, as well as other disorders associated with bone loss, are chronic conditions, it is believed that appropriate therapy will generally require chronic treatment. Bisphosphonates, i.e. bisphosphonic acids or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, are synthetic analogs of the naturally occurring pyrophosphate. Due to their marked affinity for solid-phase calcium phosphate, bisphosphonates bind strongly to bone mineral. Pharmacologically active bisphosphonates are well known in the art and are potent inhibitors of bone resorption and are therefore useful in the treatment and prevention of diseases involving abnormal bone resorption, especially osteoporosis, Paget's disease, hypercalcemia of malignancy, and metastatic and metabolic bone diseases. Bisphosphonates as pharmaceutical agents are described for example in EP-A-170,228; EP-A-197,478; EP-A-22,751; EP-A-252,504; EP-A-252,505; EP-A-258,618; EP-A-350,002; EP-A-273,190; and WO-A-90/00798, each of which are incorporated herein by reference. Pharmaceutical forms of currently marketed bisphosphonates are oral formulations (tablets or capsules) or solutions for intravenous injection or infusion. They are systemically well tolerated when administered at therapeutic doses. However, bisphosphonates as a class are irritant to skin and mucous membranes and when given orally on a continuous basis may result in digestive tract side effects, e.g., esophageal adverse events or gastrointestinal disturbances. As a consequence, and due to their low oral bioavailability, the oral route of administration has, to date, had to follow inconvenient recommendations of use for the patient. Bisphosphonates can be classified into two groups with different modes of action. Ibandronate belongs to the more potent nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates[Russell 1999 Russell R G G, Rogers M J. Bisphosphonates: From the laboratory to the clinic and back again. Bone 25(1):97-106 (1999); Rogers M J, Gordon S, Benford H L, Coxon F P, Luckman S P, Monkkonen J, Frith J C. Cellular Molecular mechanisms of action of bisphosphonates. Cancer 88 (12) Suppl:2961-2978 (2000)]. Ibandronate is one of the most potent bisphosphonates currently under clinical development in osteoporosis and metastatic bone diseases. In animal models of bone resorption, ibandronate is 2, 10, 50 and 500 times more potent than risedronate, alendronate, pamidronate, and clodronate respectively[Mühlbauer R. C., F. Bauss, R. Schenk, M. Janner, E. Bosies, K. Strein, and H. Fleisch. BM 21.0955 a potent new bisphosphonate to inhibit bone resorption. J. Bone Miner. Res. 6: 1003-1011 (1991)]. Ibandronate inhibits bone resorption without any impairment of mineralization (Mühlbauer et al Mühlbauer R. C., F. Bauss, R. Schenk, M. Janner, E. Bosies, K. Strein, and H. Fleisch. BM 21.0955 a potent new bisphosphonate to inhibit bone resorption. J. Bone Miner. Res. 6: 1003-1011 (1991).). It has been shown to decrease osteoclastic activity, thus inhibiting bone destruction. At high doses it also reduces the number of osteoclasts (Mühlbauer et al. Mühlbauer R. C., F. Bauss, R. Schenk, M. Janner, E. Bosies, K. Strein, and H. Fleisch. BM 21.0955 a potent new bisphosphonate to inhibit bone resorption. J. Bone Miner. Res. 6: 1003-1011 (1991)). As described, bisphosphonates are accepted as providing strong efficacy in the management of osteoporosis. However, given the administration restrictions related to low oral bioavailability and potential for gastro-intestinal effects, there is a clear opportunity for regimens which offer improved convenience and flexibility, leading to a higher level of compliance and superior patient management/satisfaction. Intermitted regimens such as, for example, once weekly administration have been described in the art. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It has now been found that the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption such as osteoporosis, can be improved by a monthly administration of 50 to 250 mg of a bisphosphonate or pharmaceutical acceptable salt thereof, especially by a monthly administration of ibandronate, i.e., ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The present invention is thus concerned with the use of a bisphosphonic acid or a pharmaceutical acceptable salt thereof, especially with the use of ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutical acceptable salt thereof, for the preparation of pharmaceutical compositions for the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption, wherein the medicament comprises about 50 to 250 mg, preferably about 100 to 150 mg, of a bisphosphonic acid or a acceptable salt thereof; and orally administered in a period of one, two or three consecutive days per month. Monthly oral treatment by administration of at least 120%, especially of 120% to 200%, of the expected efficacious daily dose offers incremental patient benefits with respect to convenience and compliance as well as superior results. Prior to the completion of the ibandronate clinical development program, no bisphosphonate had prospectively demonstrated fracture reduction efficacy with a drug-free interval beyond daily administration. In summary, it is quite unexpected that fracture reduction benefit can be derived from a monthly administration of an oral bisphosphonate with a single or multiple tablet administration scheme. Accordingly, the present invention relates to the use of bisphosphonic acids or pharmaceutically acceptable salts, especially ibandronic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for the prevention or treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption, e.g. osteoporosis, wherein the medicament comprises at least 120% of the expected efficacious daily dose of a bisphosphonic acids or acceptable salts thereof and is administered on one, two or three consecutive days per month. More preferably the invention comprises the use of ibandronic acid or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for the prevention or the treatment of disorders characterized by pathologically increased bone resorption wherein the medicament a) comprises about 100 to about 150 mg of ibandronic acid or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and b) is orally administered in a period of one, two or three consecutive days per month. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041129 | 20070320 | 20050407 | 91655.0 | 30 | HENLEY III, RAYMOND J | METHOD OF TREATMENT USING BISPHOSPHONIC ACID | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,999,054 | ACCEPTED | Methods of preventing and treating gastrointestinal dysfunction | Methods of preventing and treating gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus and post-partum ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery or other biological stress by administering 4-aryl-piperidine derivatives are disclosed. | 1. A method of treating or preventing non-opioid induced gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient in need thereof about 0.5 mg/day to about 18 mg/day of an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said patient is not receiving chronic or periodic exogenous opioids; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. 2. A method of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. 3. A method of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. 4. A method according to claim 1, 2, or 3, further comprising the step of administering at least one opioid to said patient. 5. A method according to claim 4, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to said patient from about 30 minutes prior to surgery to less than about 120 minutes prior to said administration of said opioid. 6. A method according to claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to said patient from about 30 minutes prior to surgery to less than about 120 minutes prior to surgery. 7. A method according to claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered orally. 8. A method according to claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered parenterally. 9. A method according to claim 8, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered intravenously. 10. A method according to claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein said [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid is in hydrate form. 11. A method according to claim 10, wherein said [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid dihydrate. 12. A method according to claim 11, wherein said compound is a substantially pure stereoisomer. 13. A method according to claim 12, wherein said [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid is [[(2S)-2-[[(3R,4R)-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid dihydrate. 14. A method of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof, in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, aralkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl, or aralkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, aralkyl or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl, or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. 15. A method of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13 OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17, R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. 16. A method of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4is hydrogen, alkyl or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6 R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR8 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. 17. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, further comprising the step of administering at least one opioid to said patient. 18. A method according to claim 17, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to said patient from about 30 minutes to less than about 120 minutes prior to said administration of said opioid. 19. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to said patient from about 30 minutes to less than about 120 minutes prior to surgery. 20. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered orally. 21. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered parenterally. 22. A method according to claim 21, wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered intravenously. 23. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein the compound of formula (IA) is a trans 3,4-isomer. 24. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: R1 is hydrogen; R2 is alkyl; n is 1 or 2; R3 is benzyl, phenyl, cyclohexyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; and R4 is alkyl. 25. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: A is OR5; and R5 is hydrogen or alkyl. 26. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: A is NR6R7; R6 is hydrogen; R7 is alkylene substituted B; and B is C(O)W. 27. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: R7 is (CH2)q—B; q is about 1 to about 3; W is OR10; and R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, phenyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl or cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl. 28. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: W is NR11R12 R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; and R12 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y. 29. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: R12 is (CH2)mC(O)Y; m is 1 to 3; Y is OR8 or NR19R21; and R18, R19 and R20 are independently hydrogen or alkyl. 30. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: W is OE; E is CH2C(═O)D; D is OR15or NR16R17, R15 is hydrogen or alkyl; R16 is methyl or benzyl; and R17 is hydrogen. 31. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein: W is OE; E is R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is —CH(CH3)— or —CH(CH2CH3)—; and R14 is alkyl. 32. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein p is 1. 33. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein the configuration at positions 3 and 4 of the piperidine ring is each R. 34. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of: Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H5))C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)OCH2CH3, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)NHCH3, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)NHCH2CH3, G-NH(CH2)2C(O)NH2, G-NH(CH2)2C(O)NHCH3, G-NHCH2C(O)NH2, G-NHCH2C(O)NHCH3, G-NHCH2C(O)NHCH2CH3, G-NH(CH2)3C(O)OCH2CH3, G-NH(CH2)3C(O)NHCH3, G-NH(CH2)2C(O)OH, G-NH(CH2)3C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H11))C(O)NHCH2C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H11))C(O)NH(CH2)2C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H11))C(O)NH(CH2)2C(O)NH2, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2CH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, Z-NHCH2C(O)NH2, Z-NHCH2C(O)N(CH3)2, Z-NHCH2C(O)NHCH(CH3)2, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2CH(CH3)2, Z-NH(CH2)2C(O)OCH2(C6H5), Z-NH(CH2)C(O)OH, Z-NH(CH2)2C(O)NHCH2CH3, Z-NH(CH2)3C(O)NHCH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)NHCH2C(O)OH, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2C(O)OCH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)O(CH2)4CH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2C(O)NHCH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)O-(4-methoxycyclohexyl), Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2C(O)NHCH2(C6H5) and Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH(CH3)OC(O)CH3; wherein: Q represents G represents and Z represents 35. A method according to claim 34, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of: (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, (−)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, (3R,4R)-Z-NHCH2C(O)NHCH2(C6H5) and (3R,4R)-G-NH(CH2)3C(O)OH. 36. A method according to claim 35, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of: (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, and (−)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH. 37. A method according to claim 36, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of: (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH. 38. A method according to claim 35, wherein said compound is Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H5))C(O)OH. 39. A method according to claim 38, wherein said compound is (3R,4R,S)-Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H5))C(O)OH. 40. A method according to claim 14, 15, or 16, wherein said compound is a substantially pure stereoisomer. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims benefit of U.S. Application No. 60/526,851 filed Dec. 4, 2003, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to methods of preventing and treating gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction. More specifically, the present invention relates to methods of preventing and treating gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus and post-partum ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery or other biological stress, by administering 4-aryl-piperidine derivatives. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It is well known that opioid drugs target three types of endogenous opioid receptors (i.e., μ, δ, κ receptors) in biological systems. Many opiates, such as morphine, are mu opioid agonists that are often used as analgesics for the treatment of severe pain due to their activation of mu opioid receptors in the brain and central nervous system (CNS). Opioid receptors are, however, not limited to the CNS, and may be found in other tissues throughout the body. A number of side effects of opioid drugs may be caused by activation of these peripheral receptors. For example, administration of mu opioid agonists often results in intestinal dysfunction due to the large number of receptors in the wall of the gut (Wittert, G., Hope, P. and Pyle, D., Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 1996, 218, 877-881; Bagnol, D., Mansour, A., Akil, A. and Watson, S. J., Neuroscience, 1997, 81, 579-591). Specifically, opioids are generally known to cause nausea and vomiting as well as inhibition of normal propulsive gastrointestinal function in animals and man (Reisine, T., and Pasternak, G., Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics Ninth Edition, 1996, 521-555) resulting in side effects such as, for example, constipation. Recent evidence has indicated that naturally occurring endogenous opioid compounds may also affect propulsive activity in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Met-enkephalin, which activates mu and delta receptors in both the brain and gut, is one of several neuropeptides found in the GI tract (Koch, T. R., Carney, J. A., Go, V. L., and Szurszewski, J. H., Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 1991, 36, 712-728). Additionally, receptor knockout techniques have shown that mice lacking mu opioid receptors may have faster GI transit times than wild-type mice, suggesting that endogenous opioid peptides may tonically inhibit GI transit in normal mice (Schuller, A. G. P., King, M., Sherwood, A. C., Pintar, J. E., and Pasternak, G. W., Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, 1998, 24, 524). Studies have shown that opioid peptides and receptors located throughout the GI tract may be involved in normal regulation of intestinal motility and mucosal transport of fluids in both animals and man (Reisine, T., and Pasternak, G., Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics Ninth Edition, 1996, 521-555). Other studies show that the sympathetic nervous system may be associated with endogenous opioids and control of intestinal motility (Bagnol, D., Herbrecht, F., Jule, Y., Jarry, T., and Cupo, A., Regul. Pept., 1993, 47, 259-273). The presence of endogenous opioid compounds associated with the GI tract suggests that an abnormal physiological level of these compounds may lead to bowel dysfunction. It is a common problem for patients having undergone surgical procedures, especially surgery of the abdomen, to suffer from a particular bowel dysfunction called post-surgical (or postoperative) ileus. “ileus,” as used herein, refers to the obstruction of the bowel or gut, especially the colon. See, e.g., Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, p. 816, 27th ed. (W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia 1988). Ileus should be distinguished from constipation, which refers to infrequent or difficulty in evacuating the feces. See, e.g., Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, p. 375, 27th ed. (W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia 1988). fleus may be diagnosed by the disruption of normal coordinated movements of the gut, resulting in failure of the propulsion of intestinal contents. See, e.g., Resnick, J. Am. J. of Gastroenterology, 1992, 751 and Resnick, J. Am. J. of Gastroenterology, 1997, 92, 934. In some instances, particularly following surgery, including surgery of the abdomen, the bowel dysfunction may become quite severe, lasting for more than a week and affecting more than one portion of the GI tract. This condition is often referred to as post-surgical (or postoperative) paralytic ileus and most frequently occurs after laparotomy (see Livingston, E. H. and Passaro, E. D. Jr., Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 1990, 35, 121). Similarly, post-partum ileus is a common problem for women in the period following childbirth, and is thought to be caused by similar fluctuations in natural opioid levels as a result of birthing stress. Gastrointestinal dysmotility associated with post-surgical ileus is generally most severe in the colon and typically lasts for 3 to 5 days. The administration of opioid analgesics to a patient after surgery may often contribute to bowel dysfunction, thereby delaying recovery of normal bowel function. Since virtually all patients receive opioid analgesics, such as morphine or other narcotics for pain relief after surgery, particularly major surgery, current post-surgical pain treatment may actually slow recovery of normal bowel function, resulting in a delay in hospital discharge and increasing the cost of medical care. Post-surgical ileus may also occur in the absence of exogenous opioid agonists. It would be of benefit to inhibit the natural activity of endogenous opioids during and/or after periods of biological stress, such as surgery and childbirth, so that ileus and related forms of bowel dysfunction can be prevented or treated. Currently, therapies for ileus include functional stimulation of the intestinal tract, stool softeners, laxatives, lubricants, intravenous hydration, and nasogastric decompression. These prior art methods suffer from drawbacks, for example, as lacking specificity for post-surgical or post-partum ileus. And these prior art methods offer no means for prevention. If ileus could be prevented, hospital stays, recovery times, and medical costs would be significantly decreased in addition to the benefit of minimizing patient discomfort. Thus, drugs which selectively act on opioid receptors in the gut would be ideal candidates for preventing and/or treating post-surgical and post-partum ileus. Of those, drugs that do not interfere with the effects of opioid analgesics in the CNS would be of special benefit in that they may be administered simultaneously for pain management with limited side effects. Peripheral opioid antagonists that do not cross the blood-brain barrier into the CNS are known in the literature and have been tested in relation to their activity on the GI tract. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,542, U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,171, U.S. Pat. No. 5,159,081, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,270,328, peripherally selective piperidine-N-alkylcarboxylate opioid antagonists are described as being useful in the treatment of idiopathic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome and opioid-induced constipation. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 4,176,186 describes quaternary derivatives of noroxymorphone (i.e., methylnaltrexone) that are said to prevent or relieve the intestinal immobility side-effect of narcotic analgesics without reducing analgesic effectiveness. U.S. Pat. No. 5,972,954 describes the use of methylnaltrexone, enteric-coated methylnaltrexone, or other quaternary derivatives of noroxymorphone for preventing and/or treating opioid- and/or non-opioid-induced side effects associated with opioid administration. General opioid antagonists, such as naloxone and naltrexone have also been implicated as being useful in the treatment of GI tract dysmotility. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,126 and Kreek, M. J. Schaefer, R. A., Hahn, E. F., Fishman, J., Lancet, 1983, 1(8319), 261 disclose naloxone and other morphinan-based opioid antagonists (i.e., naloxone, naltrexone) for the treatment of idiopathic gastrointestinal dysmotility. In addition, naloxone has been shown to effectively treat non-opioid induced bowel obstruction, implying that the drug may act directly on the GI tract or in the brain (Schang, J. C., Devroede, G., Am. J. Gastroenerol., 1985, 80(6), 407). Furthermore, it has been implicated that naloxone may provide therapy for paralytic ileus (Mack, D. J. Fulton, J. D., Br. J. Surg., 1989, 76(10), 1101). However, it is well known that activity of naloxone and related drugs is not limited to peripheral systems and may interfere with the analgesic effects of opioid narcotics. Inasmuch as post-surgical and post-partum ileus, for example, are common illnesses that add to the cost of health care and as yet have no specific treatments, there is a need for a specific and effective remedy. The majority of currently known opioid antagonist therapies are not peripherally selective and have the potential for undesirable side effects resulting from penetration into the CNS. Given the estimated 21 million inpatient surgeries and 26 outpatient surgeries each year, and an estimate of 4.7 million patients experiencing post-surgical ileus, methods involving opioid antagonists that are not only specific for peripheral systems, but specific for the gut, are desirable for treating post-surgical and post-partum ileus. Alvimopan is an orally active, gastrointestinal (GI) restricted g opioid antagonist being developed to alleviate the GI side effects associated with narcotic therapy. This compound differs from previously characterized peripherally selective opioid antagonists by its potency and degree of peripheral receptor selectivity [Zimmerman et al., J. Med. Chem., 1994, 37, 2262-2265]. In clinical trials, alvimopan had heretofore been administered at least two hours prior to a surgical procedure to block the undesirable effects of opioid analgesics on the GI tract. Oftentimes, however, there may be insufficient time to administer the alvimopan at least two hours prior to surgery, especially prior to emergency surgery. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide methods for preventing and/or treating gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery. The methods of the present invention are directed toward these, as well as other, important ends. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The methods of the present invention are directed to treating and preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus and postpartum ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery or other biological stress. In a first aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially complete saturation of μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a second aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a third aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a fourth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially complete saturation of μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR8 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In a fifth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R3is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In a sixth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR5 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl; cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. These and other aspects of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the free plasma concentration of alvimopan (12 mg dose) as a function of time. FIG. 2 shows GI score as a function of log of plasma concentrations measured as AUC (τ) (in ng-ml/hr) with a GI score measured by radio-opaque markers in subjects given loperamide with either placebo or one of three doses of I.V. alvimopan (0.1 mg b.i.d, 0.45 mg b.i.d., and 1 mg b.i.d.) selected to target different plasma concentrations (4.5, 20, and 45 ng/ml, respectively). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The methods of the present invention are directed to treating and preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus and post-partum ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery. Different types of ileus may be treated and/or prevented using the methods of the present invention. The present methods are particularly suitable for treating and/or preventing postoperative ileus and post-partum ileus. “Postoperative ileus,” which may follow surgery such as laparotomy, may be characterized by such symptoms as, for example, obstruction of the gut, particularly in the colon, resulting in nausea, vomiting, lack of passage of flatus and/or stools, abdominal distention and lack of bowel sounds. This condition generally lasts from about 3 to about 5 days, but may endure longer, including up to about one week. Longer durations are generally characteristic of a more severe form of ileus, termed post-surgical paralytic ileus, which may affect other portions of the GI tract in addition to the colon. “Post-partum ileus” generally refers to obstruction of the gut, particularly the colon, following parturition. Both natural and surgically-assisted procedures during parturition may lead to post-partum ileus treated by the present invention. Symptoms of post-partum ileus and postoperative ileus are similar. Error! Bookmark Not Defined. As employed above and throughout the disclosure, the following terms, unless otherwise indicated, shall be understood to have the following meanings. As used herein, “alkyl” refers to an optionally substituted, saturated straight, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon having from about 1 to about 20 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 1 to about 8 carbon atoms, herein referred to as “lower alkyl”, being preferred. “Branched” refers to an alkyl group in which a lower alkyl group, such as methyl, ethyl, or propyl, is attached to a linear alkyl chain. In certain preferred embodiments, the alkyl group is a C1-C5 alkyl group, i.e., a branched or linear alkyl group having from 1 to about 5 carbons. In other preferred embodiments, the alkyl group is a C1-C3 alkyl group, i.e., a branched or linear alkyl group having from 1 to about 3 carbons. Exemplary alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, and decyl. “Lower alkyl” refers to an alkyl group having 1 to about 6 carbon atoms. Preferred alkyl groups include the lower alkyl groups of 1 to about 3 carbons. Alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, cyclopentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, n-hexyl, isohexyl, cyclohexyl, cyclooctyl, adamantyl, 3-methylpentyl, 2,2-dimethylbutyl, and 2,3-dimethylbutyl. As used herein, “alkylene” refers to a bivalent alkyl radical having the general formula —(CH2)n—, where n is 1 to 10, and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges therein. The alkylene group may be straight, branched or cyclic. Non-limiting examples include methylene, methylene (—CH2—), ethylene (—CH2CH2—), propylene (—(CH2)3—), trimethylene, pentamethylene, and hexamethylene. There may be optionally inserted along the alkylene group one or more oxygen, sulfur or optionally substituted nitrogen atoms, wherein the nitrogen substituent is alkyl as described previously. Alkylene groups can be optionally substituted. The term “lower alkylene” herein refers to those alkylene groups having from about 1 to about 6 carbon atoms. Preferred alkylene groups have from about 1 to about 4 carbons. As used herein, “aralkylene” refers to a bivalent alkyl radical having the general formula —(CH2)n—, wherein any one of the hydrogens on the alkylene radical is replaced by an aryl group, and where n is 1 to 10. Aralkylene groups can be optionally substituted. Non-limiting examples include phenylmethylene, 2-phenyltrimethylene, 3-(p-anisyl)-pentamethylene, and 2-(m-trifluromethylphenyl)-hexamethylene. Aralkylene groups can be substituted or unsubstituted. The term “lower aralkylene” herein refers to those aralkylene groups having from about 1 to about 6 carbon atoms in the alkylene portion of the aralkylene group. As used herein, “alkenyl” refers to a monovalent alkyl radical containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond and having from 2 to about 10 carbon atoms in the chain, and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges therein. Alkenyl groups can be optionally substituted. In certain preferred embodiments, the alkenyl group is a C2-C10 alkyl group, i.e., a branched or linear alkenyl group having from 2 to about 10 carbons. In other preferred embodiments, the alkenyl group is a C2-C6 alkenyl group, i.e., a branched or linear alkenyl group having from 2 to about 6 carbons. In still other preferred embodiments, the alkenyl group is a C3-C10 alkenyl group, i.e., a branched or linear alkenyl group having from about 3 to about 10 carbons. In yet other preferred embodiments, the alkenyl group is a C2-C5 alkenyl group, i.e., a branched or linear alkenyl group having from 2 to about 5 carbons. Exemplary alkenyl groups include, for example, vinyl, propenyl, butenyl, pentenyl hexenyl, heptenyl, octenyl, nonenyl and decenyl groups. As used herein, the term “alkenylene” refers to an alkylene group containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. Exemplary alkenylene groups include, for example, ethenylene (—CH═CH—) and propenylene (—CH═CHCH2—). Preferred alkenylene groups have from 2 to about 4 carbons. As used herein, “aryl” refers to an optionally substituted, mono-, di-, tri-, or other multicyclic aromatic ring system having from about 5 to about 50 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 6 to about 10 carbons being preferred. Non-limiting examples include, for example, phenyl, naphthyl, anthracenyl, and phenanthrenyl. As used herein, “aralkyl” refers to alkyl radicals bearing an aryl substituent and have from about 6 to about 50 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 6 to about 10 carbon atoms being preferred. Aralkyl groups can be optionally substituted in either the aryl or alkyl portions. Non-limiting examples include, for example, phenylmethyl (benzyl), diphenylmethyl, triphenylmethyl, phenylethyl, diphenylethyl and 3-(4-methylphenyl)propyl. As used herein, “heteroaryl” refers to an optionally substituted, mono-, di-, tri-, or other multicyclic aromatic ring system that includes at least one, and preferably from 1 to about 4 sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen heteroatom ring members. Heteroaryl groups can have, for example, from about 3 to about 50 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 4 to about 10 carbons being preferred. Non-limiting examples of heteroaryl groups include, for example, pyrryl, furyl, pyridyl, 1,2,4-thiadiazolyl, pyrimidyl, thienyl, isothiazolyl, imidazolyl, tetrazolyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, thiophenyl, benzothienyl, isobenzofuryl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, purinyl, carbazolyl, benzimidazolyl, and isoxazolyl. As used herein, “cycloalkyl” refers to an optionally substituted, alkyl group having one or more rings in their structures having from about 3 to about 20 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 3 to about 10 carbon atoms being preferred, with from about 3 to about 8 carbon atoms being more preferred, with from about 3 to about 6 carbon atoms being even more preferred. Multi-ring structures may be bridged or fused ring structures. The cycloalkyl group may be optionally substituted with, for example, alkyl, preferably C1-C3 alkyl, alkoxy, preferably C1-C3 alkoxy, or halo. Non-limiting examples include, for example, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl cyclooctyl, and adamantyl. As used herein, “cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl” refers to a linear alkyl group, preferably a lower alkyl group, substituted at a terminal carbon with a cycloalkyl group, preferably a C3-C8 cycloalkyl group. Non-limiting examples include, for example, cyclohexylmethyl, cyclohexylethyl, cyclopentylethyl, cyclopentylpropyl, cyclopropylmethyl and the like. As used herein, “cycloalkenyl” refers to an olefinically unsaturated cycloalkyl group having from about 4 to about 10 carbons, and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges therein. In preferred embodiments, the cycloalkenyl group is a C5-C8 cycloalkenyl group, i.e., a cycloalkenyl group having from about 5 to about 8 carbons. As used herein, “alkylcycloalkyl” refers to an optionally substituted ring system comprising a cycloalkyl group having one or more alkyl substituents. Non-limiting examples include, for example, alkylcycloalkyl groups include 2-methylcyclohexyl, 3,3-dimethylcyclopentyl, trans-2,3-dimethylcyclooctyl, and 4-methyldecahydronaphthalenyl. As used herein, “heteroaralkyl” refers to an optionally substituted, heteroaryl substituted alkyl radicals having from about 2 to about 50 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 6 to about 25 carbon atoms being preferred. Non-limiting examples include 2-(1H-pyrrol-3-yl)ethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 5-(2H-tetrazolyl)methyl, and 3-(pyrimidin-2-yl)-2-methylcyclopentanyl. As used herein, “heterocycloalkyl” refers to an optionally substituted, mono-, di-, tri-, or other multicyclic aliphatic ring system that includes at least one, and preferably from 1 to about 4 sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen heteroatom ring members. Heterocycloalkyl groups can have from about 3 to about 20 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 4 to about 10 carbons being preferred. The heterocycloalkyl group may be unsaturated, and may also be fused to aromatic rings. Non-limiting examples include, for example, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, piperidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, isoxazolidinyl, isothiazolidinyl, pyrazolidinyl, oxazolidinyl, thiazolidinyl, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, piperadinyl, decahydroquinolyl, octahydrochromenyl, octahydro-cyclopenta[c]pyranyl, 1,2,3,4,-tetrahydroquinolyl, octahydro-[2]pyrindinyl, decahydro-cycloocta[c]furanyl, and imidazolidinyl. As used herein, the term “spiroalkyl” refers to an optionally substituted, alkylene diradical, both ends of which are bonded to the same carbon atom of the parent group to form a spirocyclic group. The spiroalkyl group, taken together with its parent group, as herein defined, has 3 to 20 ring atoms. Preferably, it has 3 to 10 ring atoms. Non-limiting examples of a spiroalkyl group taken together with its parent group include 1-(1-methyl-cyclopropyl)-propan-2-one, 2-(1-phenoxy-cyclopropyl)-ethylamine, and 1-methyl-spiro[4.7]dodecane. As used herein, the term “alkoxy” refers to an optionally substituted alkyl-O-group wherein alkyl is as previously defined. Non-limiting examples include, for example, include methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, i-propoxy, n-butoxy, and heptoxy. As used herein, the term “aryloxy” refers to an optionally substituted aryl-O-group wherein aryl is as previously defined. Non-limiting examples include, for example, phenoxy and naphthoxy. As used herein, the term “aralkoxy” refers to an optionally substituted aralkyl-O-group wherein aralkyl is as previously defined. Non-limiting examples include, for example, benzyloxy, 1-phenylethoxy, 2-phenylethoxy, and 3-naphthylheptoxy. As used herein, the term “aryloxyaryl” refers to an aryl group with an aryloxy substituent wherein aryloxy and aryl are as previously defined. Aryloxyaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Non-limiting examples include, for example, phenoxyphenyl, and naphthoxyphenyl. As used herein, the term “heteroarylaryl” refers to an aryl group with a heteroaryl substituent wherein heteroaryl and aryl are as previously defined. Heteroarylaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Non-limiting examples include, for example, 3-pyridylphenyl, 2-quinolylnaphthalenyl, and 2-pyrrolylphenyl. As used herein, the term “alkoxyaryl” refers to an aryl group bearing an alkoxy substituent wherein alkoxy and aryl are as previously defined. Alkoxyaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Non-limiting examples include, for example, para-anisyl, meta-t-butoxyphenyl, and methylendioxyphenyl. As used herein, the term “carbon chain of said alkoxy interrupted by a nitrogen atom” refers to a carbon chain of an alkoxy group, wherein a nitrogen atom has been inserted between two adjacent carbon atoms of the carbon chain and wherein alkoxy is as previously defined. Both the alkoxy group and the nitrogen atom can be optionally substituted. Exemplary groups include —OCH2CH2N(CH3)CH2CH3 and —OCH2CH2NHCH3. As used herein, the term “heterocycloalkylheteroaryl” refers to an heteroaryl group with a heterocycloalkyl substituent wherein heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl are as previously defined. Heterocycloalkylheteroaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Exemplary heterocycloalkylheteroaryl groups include 3-[N-morpholinyl]pyridine and 3-[2-piperidinyl]pyridine. As used herein, the term “heteroarylheteroaryl” refers to a heteroaryl group with a heteroaryl substituent wherein heteroaryl is as previously defined. Heteroarylherteroaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Exemplary heteroarylheteroaryl groups include 4-[3-pyridyl]pyridine and 2-[2-quinolyl]quinuclidine. As used herein, the term “aralkoxyaryl” refers to an aryl group with an aralkoxy substituent wherein aralkoxy and aryl are as previously defined. Aralkoxyaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Exemplary aralkoxyaryl groups include benzyloxyphenyl and meta-toluenyloxyphenyl. As used herein, the term “arylheteroaryl” refers to a heteroaryl group with an aryl substituent wherein aryl and heteroaryl are as previously defined. Arylheteroaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Exemplary arylheteroaryl groups include 3-phenylpyridyl and 2-naphthalenylquinolinyl. As used herein, the term “alkoxyheteroaryl” refers to an heteroaryl group with an alkoxy substituent wherein alkoxy and heteroaryl are as previously defined. Alkoxyheteroaryl groups can be optionally substituted. Exemplary alkoxyheteroaryl groups include 2-methoxypyridine and 6-n-propoxyquinoline. As used herein, “bicycloalkyl” refers to an optionally substituted, alkyl group having two bridged rings in its structure and having from about 7 to about 20 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 7 to about 15 carbon atoms being preferred. Exemplary bicycloalkyl-ring structures include, but are not limited to, norbornyl, bornyl, [2.2.2]-bicyclooctyl, cis-pinanyl, trans-pinanyl, camphanyl, iso-bornyl, and fenchyl. As used herein, “bicycloalkenyl” refers to an optionally substituted, alkenyl group having two bridged rings in its structure and having from about 7 to about 20 carbon atoms (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific numbers of carbon atoms therein), with from about 7 to about 15 carbon atoms being preferred. Exemplary bicycloalkenyl-ring structures include, but are not limited to, bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-5-en-2-yl, bornenyl, [2.2.2]-bicyclooct-5-en-2-yl, α-pinenyl, β-pinenyl, camphenyl, and fenchyl. As used herein, “carboxy” refers to a —C(═O)OH group. As used herein, “alkanoyl” refers to a —C(═O)-alkyl group, wherein alkyl is as previously defined. Exemplary alkanoyl groups include acetyl (ethanoyl), n-propanoyl, n-butanoyl, 2-methylpropanoyl, n-pentanoyl, 2-methylbutanoyl, 3-methylbutanoyl, 2,2-dimethylpropanoyl, heptanoyl, decanoyl, and palmitoyl. As used herein, “alkoxy-alkyl” refers to an alkyl-O-alkyl group where alkyl is as previously described. As used herein, “heterocyclic” refers to a monocyclic or multicyclic ring system carbocyclic radical containing from about 4 to about 10 members, and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges therein, wherein one or more of the members is an element other than carbon, for example, nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur. The heterocyclic group may be aromatic or nonaromatic. Non-limiting examples include, for example, pyrrole and piperidine groups. As used herein, “halo” refers to fluoro, chloro or bromo. Typically, substituted chemical moieties include one or more substituents that replace hydrogen. Exemplary substituents include, for example, halo (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I), alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroaralkyl, spiroalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, hydroxyl (—OH), nitro (—NO2), cyano (—CN), amino (—NH2), —N-substituted amino (—NHR″), —N,N-disubstituted amino (—N(R″)R″), carboxyl (—COOH), —C(═O)R″, —OR″, —C(═O)OR″, —NHC(═O)R″, aminocarbonyl (—C(═O)NH2), —N-substituted aminocarbonyl (—C(═O)NHR″), —N,N-disubstituted aminocarbonyl (—C(═O)N(R″)R″), thiol, thiolato (SR″), sulfonic acid (SO3H), phosphonic acid (PO3H), S(═O)2R″, S(═O)2NH2, S(═O)2 NHR″, S(═O)2NR″R″, NHS(═O)2R″, NR″S(═O)2R″, CF3, CF2CF3, NHC(═O)NHR″, NHC(═O)NR″R″, NR″C(═O)NHR″, NR″C(═O)NR″R″, NR″C(═O)R″ and the like. In relation to the aforementioned substituents, each moiety R″ can be, independently, any of H, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heterocycloalkyl, for example. As used herein, the phrase “to substantially saturate” refers to the providing sufficient compound to the patient to achieve a maximum free (unbound) concentrations greater than or equal to 10-fold above the Ki to produce greater than 91% receptor occupancy, as defined in Copeland, R. E., Enzymes. A Practical Introduction to Structure, Mechanism, and Data Analysis, 2nd Edition, (New York: Wiley-VCH, 2000), page 88, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. As used herein, the term “surgery” refers to any methodical action of the hand, or of the hand with instruments, on a patient, to produce a curative or remedial effect, and specifically includes Caesarian births and sterilizations. As used herein, the term “side effect” refers to a consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other then the one sought to be benefited by its administration. In the case, for example, of the treatment of gastrointestinal dysfunction, such as the treatment of postoperative ileus, the term “side effect” may refer to such conditions as, for example, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and combinations thereof. As used herein, “dosage unit” refers to physically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the particular individual to be treated. Each unit may contain a predetermined quantity of active compound(s) calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect(s) in association with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The specification for the dosage unit forms of the invention may be dictated by (a) the unique characteristics of the active compound(s) and the particular therapeutic effect(s) to be achieved, and (b) the limitations inherent in the art of compounding such active compound(s). As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to those compounds, materials, compositions, and/or dosage forms that are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for contact with the tissues of human beings and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, or other problem complications commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” refer to derivatives of the disclosed compounds wherein the parent compound is modified by making acid or base salts thereof. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but are not limited to, mineral or organic acid salts of basic residues such as amines; alkali or organic salts of acidic residues such as carboxylic acids; and the like. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts include the conventional non-toxic salts or the quaternary ammonium salts of the parent compound formed, for example, from non-toxic inorganic or organic acids. For example, such conventional non-toxic salts include those derived from inorganic acids such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric, sulfamic, phosphoric, nitric and the like; and the salts prepared from organic acids such as acetic, propionic, succinic, glycolic, stearic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, pamoic, maleic, hydroxymaleic, phenylacetic, glutamic, benzoic, salicylic, sulfanilic, 2-acetoxybenzoic, fumaric, toluenesulfonic, methanesulfonic, ethane disulfonic, oxalic, isethionic, and the like. These physiologically acceptable salts are prepared by methods known in the art, e.g., by dissolving the free amine bases with an excess of the acid in aqueous alcohol, or neutralizing a free carboxylic acid with an alkali metal base such as a hydroxide, or with an amine. Compounds described herein throughout, can be used or prepared in alternate forms. For example, many amino-containing compounds can be used or prepared as an acid addition salt. Often such salts improve isolation and handling properties of the compound. For example, depending on the reagents, reaction conditions and the like, compounds as described herein can be used or prepared, for example, as their hydrochloride or tosylate salts. Isomorphic crystalline forms, all chiral and racemic forms, N-oxide, hydrates, solvates, and acid salt hydrates, are also contemplated to be within the scope of the present invention. Certain acidic or basic compounds of the present invention may exist as zwitterions. All forms of the compounds, including free acid, free base and zwitterions, are contemplated to be within the scope of the present invention. It is well known in the art that compounds containing both amino and carboxyl groups often exist in equilibrium with their zwitterionic forms. Thus, any of the compounds described herein throughout that contain, for example, both amino and carboxyl groups, also include reference to their corresponding zwitterions. As used herein, “patient” refers to animals, including mammals, preferably humans. As used herein, “prodrug” refers to compounds specifically designed to maximize the amount of active species that reaches the desired site of reaction that are of themselves typically inactive or minimally active for the activity desired, but through biotransformation are converted into biologically active metabolites. As used herein, “stereoisomers” refers to compounds that have identical chemical constitution, but differ as regards the arrangement of the atoms or groups in space. As used herein, “N-oxide” refers to compounds wherein the basic nitrogen atom of either a heteroaromatic ring or tertiary amine is oxidized to give a quaternary nitrogen bearing a positive formal charge and an attached oxygen atom bearing a negative formal charge. As used herein, “hydrate” refers to a compound of the present invention which is associated with water in the molecular form, i.e., in which the H—OH bond is not split, and may be represented, for example, by the formula R—H2O, where R is a compound of the invention. A given compound may form more than one hydrate including, for example, monohydrates (R.H2O) or polyhydrates (R.nH2O wherein n is an integer >1) including, for example, dihydrates (R.2H2O), trihydrates (R.3H2O), and the like, or hemihydrates, such as, for example, R.n/2H2O, R.n/3H2O, R.n/4H2O and the like wherein n is an integer. As used herein, “solvate” refers to a compound of the present invention which is associated with solvent in the molecular form, i.e., in which the solvent is coordinatively bound, and may be represented, for example, by the formula R.(solvent), where R is a compound of the invention. A given compound may form more than one solvate including, for example, monosolvates (R.(solvent)) or polysolvates (R.n(solvent)) wherein n is an integer >1) including, for example, disolvates (R.2(solvent)), trisolvates (R.3(solvent)), and the like, or hemisolvates, such as, for example, R.n/2(solvent), R.n/3(solvent), R.n/4(solvent) and the like wherein n is an integer. Solvents herein include mixed solvents, for example, methanol/water, and as such, the solvates may incorporate one or more solvents within the solvate. As used herein, “acid salt hydrate” refers to a complex that may be formed through association of a compound having one or more base moieties with at least one compound having one or more acid moieties or through association of a compound having one or more acid moieties with at least one compound having one or more base moieties, said complex being further associated with water molecules so as to form a hydrate, wherein said hydrate is as previously defined and R represents the complex herein described above. When any variable occurs more than one time in any constituent or in any formula, its definition in each occurrence is independent of its definition at every other occurrence. Combinations of substituents and/or variables are permissible only if such combinations result in stable compounds. The piperidines derivatives useful in the methods of the invention as illustrated in formula (IA) can occur as the trans and cis stereochemical isomers at the 3- and 4-positions of the piperidine ring. The term “trans” as used herein refers, for example, in formula (IA) to the R2 substituent being on the opposite side of the R4 substituent, whereas in the “cis” isomer, the R2 substituent and the R4 substituent are on the same side of the ring. The present invention contemplates the individual stereoisomers, as well as racemic mixtures. In the most preferred compounds of formula (IA), the R2 substituent and the R4 substituent are in the “trans” orientation on the piperidine. In addition to the “cis” and “trans” orientation of the R2 substituent and the R4 substituent of formula (IA), the absolute stereochemistry of the carbon atoms bearing R2 substituent and the R4 substituent of formula (IA) is also defined as using the commonly employed “R” and “S” definitions (Orchin et al., The Vocabulary of Organic Chemistry, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1981, page 126, which is incorporated herein by reference). The preferred compounds of the present invention are in which the configuration of both the R substituent and the R4 substituents of formula (IA) on the piperidine ring are “R.” Furthermore, asymmetric carbon atoms may be introduced into the molecule depending on the structure of R4. As such, these classes of compounds can exist as the individual “R” or “S” stereoisomers at these chiral centers, or the racemic mixture of the isomers, and all are contemplated as within the scope of the present invention. Preferably, a substantially pure stereoisomer of the compounds of this invention is used, i.e., an isomer in which the configuration at the chiral center is “R” or “S”, i.e., those compounds in which the configuration at the three chiral centers are preferably 3R, 4R, S or 3R, 4R, R. As used herein, “peripheral” or “peripherally-acting” refers to an agent that acts outside of the central nervous system. As used herein, “centrally-acting” refers to an agent that acts within the central nervous system (CNS). In certain preferred embodiments, the methods may involve a peripheral opioid antagonist compound. The term “peripheral” designates that the compound acts primarily on physiological systems and components external to the central nervous system. In preferred form, the peripheral opioid antagonist compounds employed in the methods of the present invention exhibit high levels of activity with respect to peripheral tissue, such as, gastrointestinal tissue, while exhibiting reduced, and preferably substantially no, CNS activity. The phrase “substantially no CNS activity,” as used herein, means that less than about 20% of the pharmacological activity of the compounds employed in the present methods is exhibited in the CNS, preferably less than about 15%, more preferably less than about 10%, even more preferably less than about 5% and most preferably 0% of the pharmacological activity of the compounds employed in the present methods is exhibited in the CNS. Furthermore, it is preferred in certain embodiments of the invention that the compound of formula (IA) does not substantially cross the blood-brain barrier and thereby interfere with the receptors in the CNS. The phrase “does not substantially cross,” as used herein, means that less than about 20% by weight of the compound employed in the present methods crosses the blood-brain barrier, preferably less than about 15% by weight, more preferably less than about 10% by weight, even more preferably less than about 5% by weight and most preferably 0% by weight of the compound crosses the blood-brain barrier. The methods of the present invention are directed to treating and preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery or other biological stress, including the birth process. Such gastrointestinal dysfunction includes postoperative ileus and post-partum ileus. The methods of the present invention may further employ one or more other active ingredients that may be conventionally employed in preventing or treating gastrointestinal dysfunction. Such conventional ingredients include, for example, laxatives, fiber, stool softeners, or bowel stimulants. Typical or conventional ingredients that may be included are described, for example, in the Physicians' Desk Reference, 2003, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference, in its entirety. Other optional components that may be employed in the methods and compositions of the present invention, in addition to those exemplified above, would be readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art, once armed with the teachings of the present disclosure. Suitable 4-aryl-piperidine derivatives and a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide and an isomorphic crystalline form thereof. Preferred 4-aryl-piperidine derivatives include, for example, the compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,542; U.S. Pat. No. 5,159,081; U.S. Pat. No. 5,270,328; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,171, U.S. Pat. No. 6,451,806 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,469,030, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference, in their entireties. In a first aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially complete saturation of μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a second aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a third aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In preferred embodiments, the [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid is in hydrate form, more preferably, [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid dihydrate, even more preferably in substantially pure isomeric form, most especially [[(2S)-2-[[(3R,4R)-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid dihydrate (alvimopan). In a fourth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially complete saturation of μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In a fifth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16 R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In a sixth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR5 or NR6R7; R5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R6 and R7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR8R9; R8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl; heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R8 and R9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR10, NR11R12, or OE; R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R11 and R12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R14 is alkyl; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R16 and R17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR18 or NR19R20; R18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R19 and R20 form a heterocyclic ring; R21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In preferred embodiments, the compound of formula (IA) is a trans 3,4-isomer. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that R1 is hydrogen; R2 is alkyl; n is 1 or 2; R3 is benzyl, phenyl, cyclohexyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; and R4 is alkyl. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that A is OR5; and R5 is hydrogen or alkyl. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that A is NR6R7; R6 is hydrogen; R7 is alkylene substituted B; and B is C(O)W. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that R7 is (CH2)q—B; q is about 1 to about 3; W is OR10; and R10 is hydrogen, alkyl, phenyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl or cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments including compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that W is NR11R12 R11 is hydrogen or alkyl; and R12 is hydrogen, alkyl or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that R12 is (CH2)mC(O)Y; m is 1 to 3; Y is OR18 or NR19 R20; and R18, R19 and R20 are independently hydrogen or alkyl. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that W is OE; E is CH2C(═O)D; D is OR15 or NR16R17; R15 is hydrogen or alkyl; R16 is methyl or benzyl; and R17 is hydrogen. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that W is OE; E is R13OC(═O)R14; R13 is —CH(CH3)— or —CH(CH2CH3)—; and R14 is alkyl. In certain embodiments including compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that p is 1. In certain embodiments employing compounds of formula (IA), it is preferred that the configuration at positions 3 and 4 of the piperidine ring is each R. Preferred compounds of formula (IA) include: Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H5))C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)OCH2CH3, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)NHCH3, Q-CH2CH2CH(C6H5)C(O)NHCH2C(O)NHCH2CH3, G-NH(CH2)2C(O)NH2, G-NH(CH2)2C(O)NHCH3, G-NHCH2C(O)NH2, G-NHCH2C(O)NHCH3, G-NHCH2C(O)NHCH2CH3, G-NH(CH2)3C(O)OCH2CH3, G-NH(CH2)3C(O)NHCH3, G-NH(CH2)2C(O)OH, G-NH(CH2)3C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H11))C(O)NHCH2C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H11))C(O)NH(CH2)2C(O)OH, Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H11))C(O)NH(CH2)2C(O)NH2, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2CH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, Z-NHCH2C(O)NH2, Z-NHCH2C(O)N(CH3)2, Z-NHCH2C(O)NHCH(CH3)2, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2CH(CH3)2, Z-NH(CH2)2C(O)OCH2(C6H5), Z-NH(CH2)C(O)OH, Z-NH(CH2)2C(O)NHCH2CH3, Z-NH(CH2)3C(O)NHCH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)NHCH2C(O)OH, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2C(O)OCH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)O(CH2)4CH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2C(O)NHCH3, Z-NHCH2C(O)O-(4-methoxycyclohexyl), Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH2C(O)NHCH2(C6H5) and Z-NHCH2C(O)OCH(CH3)OC(O)CH3; wherein: Q represents G represents Z represents More preferred compounds of formula (IA) include: (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, (−)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, (3R,4R)-Z-NHCH2C(O)NHCH2(C6H5) and (3R,4R)-G-NH(CH2)3C(O)OH, wherein Q, Z and G are as defined above. Even more preferred compounds of formula (IA) include (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH and (−)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, most especially (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, where Z is as defined above. Even more preferred compounds of formula (IA) include Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H5))C(O)OH, wherein Q is as defined above. It is especially preferred when said compound is (3R,4R,S)-Q-CH2CH(CH2(C6H5))C(O)OH. A particularly preferred embodiment of the present invention is the compound (+)-Z-NHCH2C(O)OH, i.e., the compound of the following formula (II): The compound of formula (II) has low solubility in water except at low or high pH conditions. In especially preferred embodiments, the compound of a formula (IA) is a substantially pure stereoisomer. In preferred embodiments, the methods may further comprise the step of administering at least one opioid to the patient. The opioid may be administered to the patient before, during, or after surgery or another biological stress. Suitable opioids include alfentanil, buprenorphine, butorphanol, codeine, dezocine, dihydrocodeine, fentanyl, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, levorphanol, meperidine (pethidine), methadone, morphine, nalbuphine, oxycodone, oxymorphone, pentazocine, propiram, propoxyphene, sufentanil, and tramadol. Preferred opioids include morphine, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydrocodeine, propoxyphene, fentanyl, and tramadol. The opioid component may further include one or more other active ingredients that may be conventionally employed in analgesic and/or cough-cold-antitussive combination products. Such conventional ingredients include, for example, aspirin, acetaminophen, phenylpropanolamine, phenylephrine, chlorpheniramine, caffeine, and/or guaifenesin. Typical or conventional ingredients that may be included in the opioid component are described, for example, in the Physicians' Desk Reference, 1999, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference, in its entirety. In addition, the opioid component may further include one or more compounds that may be designed to enhance the analgesic potency of the opioid and/or to reduce analgesic tolerance development. Such compounds include, for example, dextromethorphan or other NMDA antagonists (Mao, M. J. et al., Pain 1996, 67, 361), L-364,718 and other CCK antagonists (Dourish, C. T. et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol., 1988, 147, 469), NOS inhibitors (Bhargava, H. N. et al., Neuropeptides, 1996, 30, 219), PKC inhibitors (Bilsky, E. J. et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1996, 277, 484), and dynorphin antagonists or antisera (Nichols, M. L. et al., Pain, 1997, 69, 317). The disclosures of each of the foregoing documents are hereby incorporated herein by reference, in their entireties. Other opioids, optional conventional opioid components, and optional compounds for enhancing the analgesic potency of the opioid and/or for reducing analgesic tolerance development, that may be employed in the methods and compositions of the present invention, in addition to those exemplified above, would be readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art, once armed with the teachings of the present disclosure. In certain preferred embodiments, the 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to the patient from about 30 minutes to less than about 120 minutes prior to the administration of the opioid (and all combinations and subcombinations of ranges and specific administration times therein), preferably from about 30 minutes to less than about 90 minutes prior to the administration of the opioid, more preferably from about 30 minutes to less than about 60 minutes prior to the administration of the opioid, and even more preferably from about 30 minutes to less than about 45 minutes prior to the administration of the opioid. In certain preferred embodiments, the 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to the patient from about 30 minutes to less than about 120 minutes prior to surgery (and all combinations and subcombinations of rangers and specific administration times therein), preferably from about 30 minutes prior to surgery to less than about 90 minutes prior to surgery, more preferably from about 30 minutes prior to surgery to less than about 60 minutes prior to surgery, and even more preferably from about 30 minutes prior to surgery to less than about 45 minutes prior to surgery. In certain preferred embodiments, the 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to the patient orally. In certain other preferred embodiments, the 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered to the patient parenterally, more preferably intravenously. The compounds employed in the methods of the present invention may exist in prodrug form. As used herein, “prodrug” is intended to include any covalently bonded carriers that release the active parent drug, for example, as according to formulas (IA) or other formulas or compounds employed in the methods of the present invention in vivo when such prodrug is administered to a mammalian subject. Since prodrugs are known to enhance numerous desirable qualities of pharmaceuticals (e.g., solubility, bioavailability, manufacturing, etc.) the compounds employed in the present methods may, if desired, be delivered in prodrug form. Thus, the present invention contemplates methods of delivering prodrugs. Prodrugs of the compounds employed in the present invention, for example formula (IA), may be prepared by modifying functional groups present in the compound in such a way that the modifications are cleaved, either in routine manipulation or in vivo, to the parent compound. Accordingly, prodrugs include, for example, compounds described herein in which a hydroxy, amino, or carboxy group is bonded to any group that, when the prodrug is administered to a mammalian subject, cleaves to form a free hydroxyl, free amino, or carboxylic acid, respectively. Examples include, but are not limited to, acetate, formate and benzoate derivatives of alcohol and amine functional groups; and alkyl, carbocyclic, aryl, and alkylaryl esters such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, iso-propyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, cyclopropyl, phenyl, benzyl, and phenethyl esters, and the like. The compounds employed in the methods of the present invention may be prepared in a number of ways well known to those skilled in the art. The compounds can be synthesized, for example, using the methods described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,542, U.S. Pat. No. 6,469,030, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,451,806, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference, in their entireties. All processes disclosed in association with the present invention are contemplated to be practiced on any scale, including milligram, gram, multigram, kilogram, multikilogram or commercial industrial scale. As discussed in detail above, compounds employed in the present methods may contain one or more asymmetrically substituted carbon atoms, and may be isolated in optically active or racemic forms. Thus, all chiral, diastereomeric, racemic forms and all geometric isomeric forms of a structure are intended, unless the specific stereochemistry or isomeric form is specifically indicated. It is well known in the art how to prepare and isolate such optically active forms. For example, mixtures of stereoisomers may be separated by standard techniques including, but not limited to, resolution of racemic forms, normal, reverse-phase, and chiral chromatography, preferential salt formation, recrystallization, and the like, or by chiral synthesis either from chiral starting materials or by deliberate synthesis of target chiral centers. As will be readily understood, functional groups present may contain protecting groups during the course of synthesis. Protecting groups are known per se as chemical functional groups that can be selectively appended to and removed from functionalities, such as hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups. These groups are present in a chemical compound to render such functionality inert to chemical reaction conditions to which the compound is exposed. Any of a variety of protecting groups may be employed with the present invention. Preferred protecting groups include the benzyloxycarbonyl group and the tert-butyloxycarbonyl group. Other preferred protecting groups that may be employed in accordance with the present invention may be described in Greene, T. W. and Wuts, P. G. M., Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis 2d. Ed., Wiley & Sons, 1991. As noted above, the compounds of the present invention can exist as the individual stereoisomers. Preferably, reaction conditions are adjusted as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,581,456 or as set forth in Example 1 of U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,542 to be substantially stereoselective and provide a racemic mixture of essentially two enantiomers. These enantiomers may then be resolved. A procedure which may be employed to prepare the resolved starting materials used in the synthesis of these compounds includes treating a racemic mixture of alkyl-3,4-dimethyl-4-(3-alkoxyphenyl)piperidine with either (+)- or (−)-ditoluoyl tartaric acid to provide the resolved intermediate. This compound may then be dealkylated at the 1-position with vinyl chloroformate and finally converted to the desired 4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)piperidine isomer. As will be understood by those skilled in the art, the individual enantiomers of the invention can also be isolated with either (+) or (−) dibenzoyl tartaric acid, as desired, from the corresponding racemic mixture of the compounds of the invention. Preferably, the (+)-trans enantiomer is obtained. Although the (+)trans-3,4 stereoisomer is preferred, all of the possible stereoisomers of the compounds described herein are within the contemplated scope of the present invention. Racemic mixtures of the stereoisomers as well as the substantially pure stereoisomers are within the scope of the invention. The term “substantially pure,” as used herein, refers to at least about 90 mole percent, more preferably at least about 95 mole percent and most preferably at least about 98 mole percent of the desired stereoisomer is present relative to other possible stereoisomers. The compounds employed in the methods of the present invention may be administered by any means that results in the contact of the active agents with the agents' site or site(s) of action in the body of a patient. The compounds may be administered by any conventional means available for use in conjunction with pharmaceuticals, either as individual therapeutic agents or in a combination of therapeutic agents. For example, they may be administered as the sole active agents in a pharmaceutical composition, or they can be used in combination with other therapeutically active ingredients. The compounds are preferably combined with a pharmaceutical carrier selected on the basis of the chosen route of administration and standard pharmaceutical practice as described, for example, in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1980), the disclosures of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference, in its entirety. Compounds of the present invention can be administered to a mammalian host in a variety of forms adapted to the chosen route of administration, e.g., orally or parenterally. Parenteral administration in this respect includes administration by the following routes: intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and intraperitoneal. Other acceptable routes of administration are transepithelial including transdermal, transnasal, ophthalmic, sublingual and buccal; topically including ophthalmic, dermal, ocular, and rectal; nasal or pulmonary inhalation via insufflation or aerosol; and rectal systemic. The active compound may be orally administered, for example, with an inert diluent or with an assimilable edible carrier, it may be enclosed in hard or soft shell gelatin capsules, it may be compressed into tablets, or it may be incorporated directly with the food of the diet. For oral therapeutic administration, the active compound may be incorporated with excipient and used in the form of ingestible tablets, buccal tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, and the like. The amount of active compound(s) in such therapeutically useful compositions is from about 0.1 mg/day to about 500 mg/day of active compound, including all combinations, and subcombinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments of the invention, said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered at a level of at least about 0.75 mg/day, more preferably at a level of at least about 1 mg/day, even more preferably at a level of at least about 2 mg/day, and yet even more preferably at a level of at least about 3 mg/day. In certain preferred embodiments of the invention, said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is administered at a level of less than about 300 mg/day, more preferably at a level of less than about 120 mg/day, even more preferably at a level of less than about 60 mg/day, and yet even more preferably at a level of less than about 30 mg/day. The tablets, troches, pills, capsules and the like may also contain one or more of the following: a binder, such as gum tragacanth, acacia, corn starch or gelatin; an excipient, such as dicalcium phosphate; a disintegrating agent, such as corn starch, potato starch, alginic acid and the like; a lubricant, such as magnesium stearate; a sweetening agent such as sucrose, lactose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent, such as peppermint, oil of wintergreen or cherry flavoring. When the dosage unit form is a capsule, it may contain, in addition to materials of the above type, a liquid carrier. Various other materials may be present as coatings or to otherwise modify the physical form of the dosage unit. For instance, tablets, pills, or capsules may be coated with shellac, sugar or both. A syrup or elixir may contain the active compound, sucrose as a sweetening agent, methyl and propylparabens as preservatives, a dye and flavoring, such as cherry or orange flavor. Of course, any material used in preparing any dosage unit form is preferably pharmaceutically pure and substantially non-toxic in the amounts employed. In addition, the active compound may be incorporated into sustained-release preparations and formulations. The active compound may also be administered parenterally. Solutions of the active compounds as free bases or pharmacologically acceptable salts can be prepared in water suitably mixed with a surfactant, such as hydroxypropylcellulose. A dispersion can also be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols and mixtures thereof and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use, these preparations may contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. The pharmaceutical forms suitable for injectable use include, for example, sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. In all cases, the form is preferably sterile and fluid to provide easy syringability. It is preferably stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and is preferably preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier may be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethylene glycol and the like), suitable mixtures thereof, and vegetable oils. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating, such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of a dispersion, and by the use of surfactants. The prevention of the action of microorganisms may be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal and the like. In many cases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars or sodium chloride. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions may be achieved by the use of agents delaying absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin. Sterile injectable solutions may be prepared by incorporating the active compounds in the required amounts, in the appropriate solvent, with various of the other ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions may be prepared by incorporating the sterilized active ingredient into a sterile vehicle which contains the basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation may include vacuum drying and the freeze-drying technique that yield a powder of the active ingredient, plus any additional desired ingredient from the previously sterile-filtered solution thereof. The therapeutic compounds of this invention may be administered to a patient alone or in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. As noted above, the relative proportions of active ingredient and carrier may be determined, for example, by the solubility and chemical nature of the compounds, chosen route of administration and standard pharmaceutical practice. The dosage of the compounds of the present invention that will be most suitable for prophylaxis or treatment will vary with the form of administration, the particular compound chosen and the physiological characteristics of the particular patient under treatment. Generally, small dosages may be used initially and, if necessary, increased by small increments until the desired effect under the circumstances is reached. Generally speaking, oral administration may require higher dosages. The combination products useful in the methods of this invention, such as pharmaceutical compositions comprising 4-aryl-piperidine derivatives with additional active ingredients, may be in any dosage form, such as those described herein, and can also be administered in various ways, as described herein. In a preferred embodiment, the combination products of the invention are formulated together, in a single dosage form (that is, combined together in one capsule, tablet, powder, or liquid, etc.). When the combination products are not formulated together in a single dosage form, the 4-aryl-piperidine derivative and additional active ingredient may be administered at the same time or simultaneously (that is, together), or in any order. When not administered at the same time or simultaneously, that is, when administered sequentially, preferably the administration of a 4-aryl-piperidine derivative and additional active ingredient occurs less than about one hour apart, more preferably less than about 30 minutes apart, even more preferably less than about 15 minutes apart, and still more preferably less than about 5 minutes apart. Preferably, administration of the combination products of the invention is oral or intravenously, although other routes of administration, as described above, are contemplated to be within the scope of the present invention. Although it is preferable that the 4-aryl-piperidine derivative and the additional active ingredients are all administered in the same fashion (that is, for example, both orally), if desired, they may each be administered in different fashions (that is, for example, one component of the combination product may be administered orally, and another component may be administered intravenously). The dosage of the combination products of the invention may vary depending upon various factors such as the pharmacodynamic characteristics of the particular agent and its mode and route of administration, the age, health and weight of the recipient, the nature and extent of the symptoms, the kind of concurrent treatment, the frequency of treatment, and the effect desired. Particularly when provided as a single dosage form, the potential exists for a chemical interaction between the combined active ingredients. For this reason, the preferred dosage forms of the combination products of this invention are formulated such that although the active ingredients are combined in a single dosage form, the physical contact between the active ingredients is minimized (that is, reduced). In order to minimize contact, one embodiment of this invention where the product is orally administered provides for a combination product wherein one active ingredient is enteric coated. By enteric coating one or more of the active ingredients, it is possible not only to minimize the contact between the combined active ingredients, but also, it is possible to control the release of one of these components in the gastrointestinal tract such that one of these components is not released in the stomach but rather is released in the intestines. Another embodiment of this invention where oral administration is desired provides for a combination product wherein one of the active ingredients is coated with a sustained-release material that effects a sustained-release throughout the gastrointestinal tract and also serves to minimize physical contact between the combined active ingredients. Furthermore, the sustained-released component can be additionally enteric coated such that the release of this component occurs only in the intestine. Still another approach would involve the formulation of a combination product in which the one component is coated with a sustained and/or enteric release polymer, and the other component is also coated with a polymer such as a low-viscosity grade of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) or other appropriate materials as known in the art, in order to further separate the active components. The polymer coating serves to form an additional barrier to interaction with the other component. Dosage forms of the combination products of the present invention wherein one active ingredient is enteric coated can be in the form of tablets such that the enteric coated component and the other active ingredient are blended together and then compressed into a tablet or such that the enteric coated component is compressed into one tablet layer and the other active ingredient is compressed into an additional layer. Optionally, in order to further separate the two layers, one or more placebo layers may be present such that the placebo layer is between the layers of active ingredients. In addition, dosage forms of the present invention can be in the form of capsules wherein one active ingredient is compressed into a tablet or in the form of a plurality of microtablets, particles, granules or non-pareils, which are then enteric coated. These enteric coated microtablets, particles, granules or non-pareils are then placed into a capsule or compressed into a capsule along with a granulation of the other active ingredient. These as well as other ways of minimizing contact between the components of combination products of the present invention, whether administered in a single dosage form or administered in separate forms but at the same time by the same manner, will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, once armed with the present disclosure. Pharmaceutical kits useful in the methods of the invention are also within the ambit of the present invention. Sterilization of the container may be carried out using conventional sterilization methodology well known to those skilled in the art. The sterile containers of materials may comprise separate containers, or one or more multi-part containers, as exemplified by the UNIVIAL™ two-part container (available from Abbott Labs, Chicago, Ill.), as desired. The 4-aryl-piperidine derivative and the optional additional active ingredient may be separate, or combined into a single dosage form as described above. Such kits may further include, if desired, one or more of various conventional pharmaceutical kit components, such as for example, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, additional vials for mixing the components, etc., as will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. Instructions, either as inserts or as labels, indicating quantities of the components to be administered, guidelines for administration, and/or guidelines for mixing the components, may also be included in the kit. EXAMPLES The present invention will now be illustrated by reference to the following specific, non-limiting examples. The examples are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. Example 1 Twelve milligrams of alvimopan (two 6 mg capsules) was administered orally to patients about 120 minutes prior to surgery. The free alvimopan plasma concentration was measured for about 24 hours. The results are shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 1 shows the free plasma concentration of alvimopan (12 mg dose) (in nM) as a function of time (in hours). This figure shows that a single 12 mg oral dose of alvimopan produced free plasma concentrations sufficient to substantially saturate μ opioid receptors in the GI tract. Maximum concentrations achieved were 11-fold greater than the Ki. Moreover, the profile demonstrates that the Ki is exceeded at various times by a factor ranging from approximately 6 to twice the Ki; concentrations that would be estimated to produce receptor occupancy of greater than 68%, still within a reasonable interpretation of “substantial saturation.” Example 2 A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of different doses of alvimopan (opioid antagonist) I.V. for 4 days in the presence and absence of loperamide (opioid) 2 mg p.o. q.i.d. in 60 healthy subjects (n=12 in each of five treatment groups) was carried out. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive one of the following five treatments: Group 1: Placebo for alvimopan I.V. b.i.d.+placebo for loperamide p.o. q.i.d. (n=12) Group 2: Placebo for alvimopan I.V. b.i.d.+loperamide 2 mg p.o. q.i.d. (n=12) Group 3: Alvimopan 1 mg I.V. b.i.d.+loperamide 2 mg p.o. q.i.d. (n=12) Group 4: Alvimopan 0.45 mg I.V. b.i.d.+loperamide 2 mg p.o. q.i.d. (n=12) Group 5: Alvimopan 0.1 mg I.V. b.i.d.+loperamide 2 mg p.o. q.i.d. (n=12) Oral SITZMARKS capsules containing radio-opaque markers were be administered on Days 1, 2, and 3. Alvimopan and loperamide was administered at the same time, when applicable. Study Assessments Serial blood samples were collected for the determination of concentrations of alvimopan and its amide hydrolysis metabolite in plasma. Subjects were assessed for their pain at the I.V. infusion site using a categorical four-point verbal scale (i.e., no discomfort/pain, mild discomfort/pain, moderate pain, or severe pain). The Investigator also assessed certain characteristics (e.g., erythema) of the I.V. site (i.e., none, mild, moderate, or severe). Abdominal x-rays and x-rays of stool samples were performed to determine the location of the SITZMARKS markers. The appropriate dose was drawn into the delivery system, normal saline was added to bring the total volume to 6 mL, and the contents will be mixed thoroughly. Placebo for alvimopan I.V. was 6 mL of normal saline. Alvimopan or matching placebo and loperamide or matching placebo were administered on Days 1 through 4. Note that only the morning doses of alvimopan and loperamide were administered on Day 4. Oral SITZMARKS capsules were administered on Days 1, 2, and 3 at the same time that study medication is administered each day. Pharmacokinetic Sampling The first eight subjects in each treatment group followed a full sampling schedule and the last four subjects followed a sparse sampling schedule. For the first eight subjects (full sampling schedule), blood samples was collected just prior to administration of alvimopan I.V. on Days 1 through 4 (four samples); and at 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 60 minutes and at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, and 168 hours after the end of the infusion of alvimopan I.V. on Day 4. This is a total of 27 samples per subject (135 mL per subject). For the last four subjects in each treatment group (sparse sampling schedule), blood was collected prior to administration of alvimopan I.V. on Days 1 through 4 (four samples), and immediately following the last infusion on Day 4. Subjects were randomized to have one sample collected during each of the following intervals, relative to the end of the infusion on Day 4: Interval 1: 3, 5, 10, or 15 minutes Interval 2: 1, 2, 2.5, or 3 hours Interval 3: 4, 5, 6, or 8 hours Interval 4: 10, 12, 14, or 16 hours Interval 5: 24, 48, 72, or 96 hours Interval 6: 120 or 144 hours GI transit score (GITS) was measured by the transit of radio-opaque markers administered on Days 1,2 and 3 with an abdominal x-ray on Day 4. FIG. 2 shows GI score as a function of log of plasma concentrations measured as AUC (τ) (in ng-ml/hr) with a GI score measured by radio-opaque markers in subjects given loperamide with either placebo or one of three doses of I.V. alvimopan (0.1 mg b.i.d, 0.45 mg b.i.d., and 1 mg b.i.d.) selected to target different plasma concentrations (4.5, 20, and 45 ng/ml, respectively). The means for the groups are: AUC (τ) of log AUC (τ) of Alvimopan Alvimopan Group (ng-ml/hr) (ng-ml/hr) GI Score 1 0 — 255.56 2 0 — 208.67 3 4.36 0.639486 231 4 22.06 1.343606 274.62 5 49.79 1.697142 278.5 The R2 value for the means is 0.76. The normal GI score (no loperamide, no alvimopan) was 255.56. Groups 4 and 5 are statistically different from Group 2 and not different from normal (Group 1). This data suggests that that plasma concentrations are important in antagonizing the effect of opioids on GI transit. Further, the figures show that increasing exposure, as measured by AUC, which takes into account both concentration and time, produces an improved effect (antagonizing the effect of opioids on GI transit). When ranges are used herein for physical properties, such as molecular weight, or chemical properties, such as chemical formulae, all combinations and subcombinations of ranges specific embodiments therein are intended to be included. The disclosures of each patent, patent application, and publication cited or described in this document are hereby incorporated herein by reference, in their entirety. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that numerous changes and modifications can be made to the preferred embodiments of the invention and that such changes and modifications can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. It is, therefore, intended that the appended claims cover all such equivalent variations as fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is well known that opioid drugs target three types of endogenous opioid receptors (i.e., μ, δ, κ receptors) in biological systems. Many opiates, such as morphine, are mu opioid agonists that are often used as analgesics for the treatment of severe pain due to their activation of mu opioid receptors in the brain and central nervous system (CNS). Opioid receptors are, however, not limited to the CNS, and may be found in other tissues throughout the body. A number of side effects of opioid drugs may be caused by activation of these peripheral receptors. For example, administration of mu opioid agonists often results in intestinal dysfunction due to the large number of receptors in the wall of the gut (Wittert, G., Hope, P. and Pyle, D., Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 1996, 218, 877-881; Bagnol, D., Mansour, A., Akil, A. and Watson, S. J., Neuroscience, 1997, 81, 579-591). Specifically, opioids are generally known to cause nausea and vomiting as well as inhibition of normal propulsive gastrointestinal function in animals and man (Reisine, T., and Pasternak, G., Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics Ninth Edition, 1996, 521-555) resulting in side effects such as, for example, constipation. Recent evidence has indicated that naturally occurring endogenous opioid compounds may also affect propulsive activity in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Met-enkephalin, which activates mu and delta receptors in both the brain and gut, is one of several neuropeptides found in the GI tract (Koch, T. R., Carney, J. A., Go, V. L., and Szurszewski, J. H., Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 1991, 36, 712-728). Additionally, receptor knockout techniques have shown that mice lacking mu opioid receptors may have faster GI transit times than wild-type mice, suggesting that endogenous opioid peptides may tonically inhibit GI transit in normal mice (Schuller, A. G. P., King, M., Sherwood, A. C., Pintar, J. E., and Pasternak, G. W., Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, 1998, 24, 524). Studies have shown that opioid peptides and receptors located throughout the GI tract may be involved in normal regulation of intestinal motility and mucosal transport of fluids in both animals and man (Reisine, T., and Pasternak, G., Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics Ninth Edition, 1996, 521-555). Other studies show that the sympathetic nervous system may be associated with endogenous opioids and control of intestinal motility (Bagnol, D., Herbrecht, F., Jule, Y., Jarry, T., and Cupo, A., Regul. Pept., 1993, 47, 259-273). The presence of endogenous opioid compounds associated with the GI tract suggests that an abnormal physiological level of these compounds may lead to bowel dysfunction. It is a common problem for patients having undergone surgical procedures, especially surgery of the abdomen, to suffer from a particular bowel dysfunction called post-surgical (or postoperative) ileus. “ileus,” as used herein, refers to the obstruction of the bowel or gut, especially the colon. See, e.g., Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, p. 816, 27th ed. (W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia 1988). Ileus should be distinguished from constipation, which refers to infrequent or difficulty in evacuating the feces. See, e.g., Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, p. 375, 27th ed. (W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia 1988). fleus may be diagnosed by the disruption of normal coordinated movements of the gut, resulting in failure of the propulsion of intestinal contents. See, e.g., Resnick, J. Am. J. of Gastroenterology, 1992, 751 and Resnick, J. Am. J. of Gastroenterology, 1997, 92, 934. In some instances, particularly following surgery, including surgery of the abdomen, the bowel dysfunction may become quite severe, lasting for more than a week and affecting more than one portion of the GI tract. This condition is often referred to as post-surgical (or postoperative) paralytic ileus and most frequently occurs after laparotomy (see Livingston, E. H. and Passaro, E. D. Jr., Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 1990, 35, 121). Similarly, post-partum ileus is a common problem for women in the period following childbirth, and is thought to be caused by similar fluctuations in natural opioid levels as a result of birthing stress. Gastrointestinal dysmotility associated with post-surgical ileus is generally most severe in the colon and typically lasts for 3 to 5 days. The administration of opioid analgesics to a patient after surgery may often contribute to bowel dysfunction, thereby delaying recovery of normal bowel function. Since virtually all patients receive opioid analgesics, such as morphine or other narcotics for pain relief after surgery, particularly major surgery, current post-surgical pain treatment may actually slow recovery of normal bowel function, resulting in a delay in hospital discharge and increasing the cost of medical care. Post-surgical ileus may also occur in the absence of exogenous opioid agonists. It would be of benefit to inhibit the natural activity of endogenous opioids during and/or after periods of biological stress, such as surgery and childbirth, so that ileus and related forms of bowel dysfunction can be prevented or treated. Currently, therapies for ileus include functional stimulation of the intestinal tract, stool softeners, laxatives, lubricants, intravenous hydration, and nasogastric decompression. These prior art methods suffer from drawbacks, for example, as lacking specificity for post-surgical or post-partum ileus. And these prior art methods offer no means for prevention. If ileus could be prevented, hospital stays, recovery times, and medical costs would be significantly decreased in addition to the benefit of minimizing patient discomfort. Thus, drugs which selectively act on opioid receptors in the gut would be ideal candidates for preventing and/or treating post-surgical and post-partum ileus. Of those, drugs that do not interfere with the effects of opioid analgesics in the CNS would be of special benefit in that they may be administered simultaneously for pain management with limited side effects. Peripheral opioid antagonists that do not cross the blood-brain barrier into the CNS are known in the literature and have been tested in relation to their activity on the GI tract. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,542, U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,171, U.S. Pat. No. 5,159,081, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,270,328, peripherally selective piperidine-N-alkylcarboxylate opioid antagonists are described as being useful in the treatment of idiopathic constipation, irritable bowel syndrome and opioid-induced constipation. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 4,176,186 describes quaternary derivatives of noroxymorphone (i.e., methylnaltrexone) that are said to prevent or relieve the intestinal immobility side-effect of narcotic analgesics without reducing analgesic effectiveness. U.S. Pat. No. 5,972,954 describes the use of methylnaltrexone, enteric-coated methylnaltrexone, or other quaternary derivatives of noroxymorphone for preventing and/or treating opioid- and/or non-opioid-induced side effects associated with opioid administration. General opioid antagonists, such as naloxone and naltrexone have also been implicated as being useful in the treatment of GI tract dysmotility. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,126 and Kreek, M. J. Schaefer, R. A., Hahn, E. F., Fishman, J., Lancet, 1983, 1(8319), 261 disclose naloxone and other morphinan-based opioid antagonists (i.e., naloxone, naltrexone) for the treatment of idiopathic gastrointestinal dysmotility. In addition, naloxone has been shown to effectively treat non-opioid induced bowel obstruction, implying that the drug may act directly on the GI tract or in the brain (Schang, J. C., Devroede, G., Am. J. Gastroenerol., 1985, 80(6), 407). Furthermore, it has been implicated that naloxone may provide therapy for paralytic ileus (Mack, D. J. Fulton, J. D., Br. J. Surg., 1989, 76(10), 1101). However, it is well known that activity of naloxone and related drugs is not limited to peripheral systems and may interfere with the analgesic effects of opioid narcotics. Inasmuch as post-surgical and post-partum ileus, for example, are common illnesses that add to the cost of health care and as yet have no specific treatments, there is a need for a specific and effective remedy. The majority of currently known opioid antagonist therapies are not peripherally selective and have the potential for undesirable side effects resulting from penetration into the CNS. Given the estimated 21 million inpatient surgeries and 26 outpatient surgeries each year, and an estimate of 4.7 million patients experiencing post-surgical ileus, methods involving opioid antagonists that are not only specific for peripheral systems, but specific for the gut, are desirable for treating post-surgical and post-partum ileus. Alvimopan is an orally active, gastrointestinal (GI) restricted g opioid antagonist being developed to alleviate the GI side effects associated with narcotic therapy. This compound differs from previously characterized peripherally selective opioid antagonists by its potency and degree of peripheral receptor selectivity [Zimmerman et al., J. Med. Chem., 1994, 37, 2262-2265]. In clinical trials, alvimopan had heretofore been administered at least two hours prior to a surgical procedure to block the undesirable effects of opioid analgesics on the GI tract. Oftentimes, however, there may be insufficient time to administer the alvimopan at least two hours prior to surgery, especially prior to emergency surgery. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide methods for preventing and/or treating gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery. The methods of the present invention are directed toward these, as well as other, important ends. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The methods of the present invention are directed to treating and preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction, particularly postoperative ileus and postpartum ileus, in a patient undergoing surgery or other biological stress. In a first aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially complete saturation of μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a second aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a third aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4 -aryl-piperidine derivative is [[2-[[-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl]-3-phenylpropanoyl]amino]acetic acid. In a fourth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the free concentration in the plasma of said patient of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to substantially saturate the μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof is sufficient to achieve substantially complete saturation of μ opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract of said patient; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R 1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR 5 or NR 6 R 7 ; R 5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 6 and R 7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR 8 R 9 ; R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 8 and R 9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR 10 , NR 11 R 12 , or OE; R 10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R 11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 11 and R 12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R 13 OC(═O)R 14 ; R 13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R 14 is alkyl; D is OR 15 or NR 16 R 17 ; R 15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R 17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 16 and R 17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR 8 or NR 19 R 20 ; R 18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 19 and R 20 form a heterocyclic ring; R 21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In a fifth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes prior to said surgery; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R 1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR 5 or NR 6 R 7 ; R 5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 6 and R 7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR 8 R 9 ; R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 8 and R 9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR 10 , NR 11 R 12 , or OE; R 10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R 11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 11 and R 12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R 13 OC(═O)R 14 ; R 13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R 14 is alkyl; D is OR 15 or NR 16 R 17 ; R 15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R 17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 16 and R 17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR 18 or NR 19 R 20 ; R 18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 19 and R 20 form a heterocyclic ring; R 21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. In a sixth aspect, the present invention is directed, in part, to methods of treating or preventing gastrointestinal dysfunction in a patient undergoing surgery, comprising the step of: administering to said patient an effective amount of at least one 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or a stereoisomer, a prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, a hydrate, a solvate, an acid salt hydrate, an N-oxide or an isomorphic crystalline form thereof; in a manner so as to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile wherein the plasma or whole blood concentration of 4-aryl-piperidine of said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative or stereoisomer, prodrug, pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, acid salt hydrate, N-oxide or isomorphic crystalline form thereof reaches a maximum concentration from about 30 minutes to about 120 minutes after said administration; wherein said gastrointestinal dysfunction is postoperative ileus; and wherein said 4-aryl-piperidine derivative is a compound of formula (IA): wherein: R 1 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 2 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 4 is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkenyl; A is OR 5 or NR 6 R 7 ; R 5 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 6 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 7 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, B, or alkylene substituted B or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 6 and R 7 form a heterocyclic ring; B is C(═O)W or NR 8 R 9 ; R 8 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 9 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 8 and R 9 form a heterocyclic ring; W is OR 10 , NR 11 R 12 , or OE; R 10 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, or aralkyl; R 11 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 12 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, or alkylene substituted C(═O)Y or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 11 and R 12 form a heterocyclic ring; E is alkylene substituted (C═O)D, or —R 13 OC(═O)R 14 ; R 13 is alkyl substituted alkylene; R 14 is alkyl; D is OR 5 or NR 16 R 17 ; R 15 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 16 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl or cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl; R 17 is hydrogen or alkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 16 and R 17 form a heterocyclic ring; Y is OR 18 or NR 19 R 20 ; R 18 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl; cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl; R 19 is hydrogen or alkyl; R 20 is hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkyl-substituted alkyl, cycloalkenyl-substituted alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, or heteroarylalkyl or, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, R 19 and R 20 form a heterocyclic ring; R 21 is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0 to 4; and p is 0 or 1. These and other aspects of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description. | 20041129 | 20150203 | 20050609 | 73902.0 | 1 | CHUI, MEI PING | Methods of preventing and treating gastrointestinal dysfunction | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,999,091 | ACCEPTED | Ear warming article including electronic device and easily interchangeable advertising areas | An ear warming article that can be comprised of a C-shaped resilient band, an outer sleeve and a speaker or other electronic device is described. The outer sleeve is dimensioned to contain the resilient band, and includes two insulating, ear-receiving portions as well as a first opening through which the resilient band can be inserted or removed to yield an assembled or disassembled article, respectively. In a preferred embodiment, the article includes an electronic device having one or more speakers located at the ends of the resilient band; additional openings in the outer sleeve may exist for any control functionality associated with the electronic device(s). The outer sleeve can be comprised of a washable fabric material, particularly suitable as a means for interchangeable advertising (team logo, branding, etc.). In other embodiments, the ear warming article includes additional advertising and/or securing features. | 1. An article for the ears of an individual comprising: two speakers for producing an audio output; and an outer sleeve including two portions for covering an individual's ears and a first opening for inserting the speakers into each of the two portions; each of the two speakers being located in each of the two portions of the outer sleeve. 2. The article of claim 1, wherein the outer sleeve further includes insulating material on the side of the outer sleeve facing the individual in the location of the two end portions for insulating the individual's ears. 3. The article of claim 1 further including at least one advertising or logo portion. 4. The article of claim 1 further including a band having two distal portions connected to each of the two speakers such that the band supports the article on the individual's ears and around the back of the individual's head. 5. The article of claim 1 further including a band having two distal portions connected to each of the two speakers such that the band supports the article on the individual's ears and over the individual's head. 6. The article of claim 1 further including an electronic device; the speakers being electronically connected to the device. 7. The article of claim 6 wherein the electronic device is located inside the outer sleeve. 8. The article of claim 6 wherein the electronic device is located outside of the outer sleeve. 9. The article of claim 1 wherein the outer sleeve includes a second opening. 10. The article of claim 1 further including one or more control mechanism related to the audio output that is exposed through the second opening. 11. The article of claim 1 where in the article is an ear warming article. 12. The article of claim 1 wherein the outer sleeve is interchangeable. 13. The article of claim 1 further including at least one text portion. 14. An article for the ears of an individual comprising: a band having two distal portions connected together by a central portion; at least one speaker for producing an audio output from an audio signal; the at least one speaker mounted on at least one of the distal portions of the band; and an outer sleeve comprising two end portions for covering an individual's ears and a connecting portion between the two end portions; the outer sleeve including a first opening for inserting the band and the at least one speaker into the outer sleeve; the outer sleeve including insulating material at least in the location of the two end portions and facing the individual for insulating the individual's ears; the band and the at least one speaker being located inside the outer sleeve. 15. The article of claim 14 including two speakers; each speaker being mounted on each of the two distal portions of the band; each speaker being located in each of the end portions of the outer sleeve. 16. The article of claim 14 wherein the band is C-shaped and supports the device on the individual's ears and around the back of the individual's head or over the individual's head. 17. The article of claim 14 wherein the band is resilient possessing a spring bias that urges the two distal portions onto the individual's head supporting the device around the back of the individual's head or over the individual's head. 18. The article of claim 14 further including an electronic device for delivering a signal to the at least one speaker; the at least one speaker being connected to the electronic device. 19. The article of claim 18 wherein the electronic device is located outside of the outer sleeve. 20. The article of claim 18, wherein the electronic device is located in the outer sleeve. 21. The article of claim 18, wherein the electronic device includes one or more control mechanisms related to the audio output; the control mechanisms being accessible outside the outer sleeve. 22. The article of claim 21, wherein the outer sleeve includes a second opening to expose the one or more control mechanism. 23. The article of claim 14, wherein the outer sleeve includes a second opening. 24. The article of claim 23 further including one or more control mechanisms related to the audio output that is exposed through the second opening. 25. The article of claim 14 wherein the first opening of the outer sleeve is closable. 26. The article of claim 14 further including logo or advertising means located on the outer sleeve. 27. The article of claim 14 further including a logo or advertising portion on the connecting portion of the outer sleeve such that the advertisement is visible when the device is worn around the back of the individual's head. 28. The article of claim 26 wherein the logo or advertising means includes an interchangeable outer sleeve. 29. The article of claim 26 wherein the logo or advertising means is selected from the group consisting of a Velcro portion, an adhesive portion, a branding portion, a main branding zone, a plastic cap, a piece of material, an interchangeable outer sleeve, a snap-fit portion, and a piece of hard plastic. 30. The article of claim 18 wherein the electronic device is selected from the group consisting of an AM/FM radio, an AM radio, an FM radio, a compact disc player, a wireless device, and an MP3 player. 31. An article for the ears of an individual comprising: a band having two distal portions connected together by a-central portion; at least one speaker for producing an audio output from an audio signal; the at least one speaker mounted on at least one of the distal portions of the band; an outer sleeve comprising two end portions for covering an individual's ears and a connecting portion between the two end portions; the outer sleeve including a first opening for inserting the band and the at least one speaker into the outer sleeve; the outer sleeve including insulating material at least in the location of the two end portions and facing the individual for insulating the individual's ears; the band and the at least one speaker being located inside the outer sleeve, and at least one logo or advertising portion. 32. The article of claim 31 wherein the logo or advertising portion is located on the connecting portion of the outer sleeve. 33. The article of claim 31 wherein the logo or advertising portion is located on at least one end portion of the outer sleeve. 34. The article of claim 31 including two speakers; each speaker being mounted on each of the two distal portions of the band; each speaker being located in each of the end portions of the outer sleeve. 35. The article of claim 31 wherein the logo or advertising portion is selected from the group consisting of a Velcro portion, an adhesive portion, a branding portion, a main branding zone, a plastic cap, a piece of material, an interchangeable outer sleeve, a snap-fit portion, and a piece of hard plastic. 36. The article of claim 31 wherein the band is C-shaped and supports the device over an individual's ears and around the back of the individual's head. 37. The article of claim 31 wherein the logo or advertising portion is located on the connecting portion of the outer sleeve such that the logo or advertising portion is visible when the device is worn around the back of the individual's head. 38. The article of claim 31 wherein the band is substantially located in the connecting portion of the outer sleeve and the at least one speaker is substantially located in one of the end portions of the outer sleeve. 39. The article of claim 31 further including one or more control mechanisms related to the audio output; the control mechanisms being accessible outside the outer sleeve. 40. The article of claim 39, wherein the outer sleeve includes a second opening to expose the one or more control mechanism. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/188,572 filed Jul. 2, 2002 entitled “Ear warming article including electronic device and easily interchangeable advertising areas” by David R. Siskin and Joel A. Schechter, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference as if fully set forth herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to a warming article for a wearer's head that can include electronic equipment (e.g., earphones, headset, audio- or other data-receiving equipment, etc.), and more specifically to an ear warming article including an audio device that has a novel two-piece construction including easily interchangeable advertising means. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There are many prior articles designed to cover portions of an individual's head for warmth and/or protection from the elements, such as hats, headbands, and articles that cover primarily the ears alone. A most common variety of this last type of ear wanning, frequently referred to as an “earmuff,” is comprised of a resilient, C-shaped band that is worn around the top of an individuial's head and ear-receiving portions or pockets located at the ends of the C-shaped band. This arrangement is particularly useful in situations where an individual does not wish to constrain their hair as well as in other situations where additional material might be too bulky or interfere with the user. Furthermore, in many situations where an individual would desire to wear such ear protection and display additional insignia/advertising, a variety of additional functionality can be particularly advantageous. First, it may be desired to design the earmuff so that it may be positioned or worn around the back of an individual's head. A neck-engaging variety of this design can possess the additional advantage of providing protection and added warmth to a wearer's neck as well. In any arrangement where the C-shaped band traverses the backside of the wearer's head, however, the features and functionality of the remainder of the ear warming article need to accommodate this unconventional positioning. For example, the shape of the ear-engaging portions need to take into account the way the ear warming article is worn. Second, present ear warming articles do not allow the wearer to listen to music or other audio input by means of an integrated electronic device. At football games and other outdoor events, it is often desirable to have warm ears and listen to the radio or music at the same time. It is a significant drawback of current ear warming articles that they posses little or no ability to work with audio-related devices such as earphones, stereo/radio headphones, receivers (radio, XFM, etc.), audio output devices (CD players, MP3 players, etc.), and other audio or audiovisual electronic devices. Consumers are generally forced to pick between wearing either an ear warming article or radio headphones, or to switch between the two as needed, which is particularly undesirable in poor weather. At best, some products offer earphones as an add-on or accessory to a conventional ear-muff. For individuals who desire to receive the benefit of both ear warming articles and audio-related devices in an integrated device, there is a lack of acceptable articles that satisfy both functions at the same time. Further, many current ear warming articles are unsatisfactory due to a number of shortcomings related to either their appearance or their capabilities. For example, it is often desirable for such headgear to provide advertising or branding opportunities that are attractive to the wearer and are also economical to produce. Articles of this type are frequently purchased based upon the article's possession of a logo or other insignia that indicates association with an interest (favorite sporting team, company, etc.) of the wearer. The specific detail (size, shape, functionality, attractiveness, etc.) of this insignia can be of utmost importance and can easily form the basis for purchase of the article, particularly when a premium article is desired. Current articles sometimes attempt to provide insignia, however such insignia is frequently unacceptable to the wearer because of the logo's size or location, or even because the logo itself cannot be removed, changed or washed. Another drawback is that current ear warming articles are typically have a complicated, many-piece construction, frequently making the article difficult to manufacture. Such an approach also often leads to an unwanted appearance and can miss a main objective, such as making a reasonably-priced article that is both comfortable and good-looking while providing protection from inclement weather conditions. Therefore, current ear-warming articles are generally unable to offer the construction, usefulness, appearance and flexibility required to adequately and cost-effectively provide the functionality desired by today's sophisticated, demanding customers. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An ear warming article comprising a C-shaped resilient band, an outer sleeve and (in some embodiments) a speaker or other electronic device is described. The outer sleeve is dimensioned to contain the resilient band, and includes two insulating, ear-receiving portions as well as a first opening through which the resilient band can be inserted and removed to yield an assembled or disassembled article, respectively. In a preferred embodiment, the article includes an electronic device having one or more speakers located at the ends of the resilient band; additional openings in the outer sleeve may exist for any control functionality associated with the electronic device(s). The outer sleeve can be comprised of a washable fabric material, particularly suitable as a means for interchangeable advertising (team logo, branding, etc.). In some embodiments, the ear warming article provides coverage and warming benefit to the wearer's neck as well. In additional embodiments, the ear warming article includes additional advertising and/or securing features. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description that follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an overall three-dimensional perspective side view of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a planform view of the outside surface of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 illustrates a planform view of the inside surface of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates a bottom plan view of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates an exploded perspective view of an ear warming article, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 6 illustrates an enlarged right side view of a portion of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A warming article for a wearer's head comprising a C-shaped resilient band, an outer sleeve and (in some embodiments) a speaker or other electronic device is disclosed. Although generally referred to as an ear warming article throughout the specification, it should be understood that the article can also, in some embodiments, provide protection and warmth to the wearer's neck as well. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide an understanding of the present invention. It will be evident, however, to those of ordinary skill in the art that the present invention may be practiced without the specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form to facilitate explanation. The description of the preferred embodiments is not intended to limit the scope of the claims appended hereto. An overall three-dimensional side view of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention, is illustrated in FIG. 1. As shown in this embodiment, the visible portions of an assembled ear warming article 100 include a soft outer earmuff or “outer sleeve” 101 (made up of a soft outer portion 102, edge material 104 forming a border around the soft outer portion 102, and inner lining material 106 on surfaces that contact the wearer), at least one opening 110, and at least one control portion 108 that protrudes/extends from the soft outer portion 102 through the opening 110 (such as the circular grommet hole depicted in FIG. 1). As shown in the figure, a portion of an inner, resilient band 112 is seen visible through a viewing window 114, exposed only for the sake of illustration, that is located in the soft outer portion 102. The resilient band 112 is a generally C-shaped resilient member that takes the form of a band in this embodiment, although it can assume any shape (e.g., cross-section) that achieves the desired effect of partially encircling the wearer's head. As will be described in greater detail below in connection with FIG. 6, the control portion 108 of the ear warming article can include display and functional features of electronic components contained within the ear warming article 100. The embodiment of FIG. 1 illustrates several control mechanisms 116 as well as an exemplary display 118 (such as a LCD read-out, or other known screen). The aspects, features and functionality accomplished by these control mechanisms 116 and this display 118 can vary for a variety of desired articles, and thus are referred to here in only a broader sense. Also, it is noted here that the one or more control portions 108, with which these elements (control mechanisms 116 and display 118) are associated, are attached to the resilient band 112, and together the resilient band and the at least one control portion 108 are sometimes referred to as the band/electronic device. That these two elements are sometimes referred to as being grouped together is done for convenience sake only, as the non-sleeve components of the invention can either include or not include an electronic device; indeed, certain embodiments further allow for interchangeable and/or removable electronic devices. In this regard, the fact that some embodiments of the present invention allow for such interchangeability/removability represents another significant feature of those embodiments of the present invention. With respect to the materials that comprise the ear warming article, the composition of the outer sleeve 101 structure of the presently preferred embodiment is first described. As stated above, the outer sleeve 101 is comprised of a soft outer portion 102, edge material 104 and inner lining material 106, according to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1. The soft outer portion 102 can consist of a weather resistant, waterproof and/or breathable material such as, for example, a fabric like nylon or a breathable synthetic fabric like Goretex.RTM. (a trademark of W.L. Gore & Associates, Inc.). The edge material 104 can consist of a soft, stretchable material such as Lycra.RTM. or a Lycra.RTM. blend (trademark of E.I. du Pont and Co.). Internal padding (not shown) that better prevents rubbing or chafing between resilient band and the wearer and that provides a more comfortable article can also be included in the design; such padding can be comprised of any of the various, known open cell foam materials. Finally, the inner lining material 106 can consist of any number of suitable soft, flesh-accommodating fabric material, such as Polarfleece.RTM. (a trademark of ADS Corporation) or other soft micro-fleece material. The composition of the inner components (the resilient band and electronic device), according to one or more embodiments of the present invention, are now generally described. According to one preferred embodiment, the resilient band 112 itself is comprised of a band of resilient, lightweight metal, with the band possessing a spring bias that urges the ear-contacting portions to a position that is slightly narrower than the size of the relevant head; in other words, different sized ear warming articles (such as small, medium and large) would have different neutral positions (the positions at which the spring forces attempt to bias the resilent bands), as well as different curvatures of the bands themselves. In the most preferred embodiment, the resilient metal material is comprised of lightweight spring steel. In an alternate embodiment, the ear warming article can include different-size inserts and/or inflatable portions that can be interchanged or inflated/deflated, respectively, to change the fit of the ear warming article in order to accommodate the specific size and shape of the wearer's head. These inserts/inflatable portions can be located or associated with either the outer sleeve materials or the resilient band, or they can be entirely independent. Next, the preferred embodiment comprising an internal AM/FM radio device with embedded AM antenna is described, although the other various embodiments of electronic devices are set forth in more detail after the discussion of radio controls associated with FIG. 6 below. In this preferred embodiment, the internal AM/PM radio device can be located on one or both of the control portions 108 attached to the resilient band 112. As described in more detail in connection with FIG. 6, the controls 116 for the radio device can include volume, analog or digital tuning, user presets (such as input/output or radio station presets), and an OFF/AM/FM three-position switch. Additionally, the display 118 could be a digital station readout, and the power can be supplied by a battery (such as type AAA or AAAA) located in either or both control portions. An auxiliary input jack (for use with an MP3 player, CD player, etc.) can also be located on the ear warming article. Finally, the electronic device of such receiver- or radio-including embodiments can include an embedded antenna that is streamlined within the ear warming article in such a way as to not interfere with the functional and branding features of the inventive article. In the preferred embodiment, the embedded antenna is an AM and/or FM antenna that does not extend beyond the ear warming article. A planform view of the outside surface of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention, is illustrated in FIG. 2. The ear warming article of FIG. 2 is shown laid (or flattened) out, such that it discloses the ear warming article's appearance as if it were not in its customary arcuate or “C” shape. According to the embodiment of FIG. 2, a laid out, outside view 200 of an ear warming article is shown. The laid out, outside view 200 is comprised of the soft outer portion 102 containing a main branding zone 206, the bead of edge material 104 surrounding the soft outer portion 102, and the at least one opening 110 that allows for the protrusion of either a branding portion 202 or a control portion 108 therethrough. The branding portion 202 further includes a branding location 204 that can take the form of a cap or piece of material, preferably hard plastic, that is interchangeably mounted onto or into the branding portion 202. For example, the branding location 204 might constitute a plastic cap having small extension tabs that extend and snap into the branding portion 202 to secure a branding or advertising piece onto the ear warming article. Similarly, the control portion 108 can include an advertising patch 208 in addition to the various controls 116 and/or displays 118 that are located thereon. This advertising patch 208 can be secured or connectable to the control portion 108 by any of the means that the branding location 204 is connected to the branding portion 202, such as Velcro.RTM. (a trademark of Velcro Industries B.V.) adhesive, other known physical securement mechanisms (the above-mentioned tabs, etc.), or it may be permanently attached. In the embodiment of FIG. 2, the main branding zone 206 is located on the outer surface of the soft outer portion 102. This main branding zone 206 can be permanently attached thereto, such that the branding may be changed by using different outer sleeves 101 fitted over the internal resilient band/electronic device structure, or the main branding zone 206 can be removably attached to the soft outer portion 102. In the latter case, the main branding zone 206 can then be removed for such purposes as washing the outer sleeve or when no branding is wanted, and it can then also be easily interchanged when different branding is desired, e.g. replacing a favorite football team logo with a favorite ice hockey team logo. A planforn view of the inside surface of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention, is illustrated in FIG. 3. The ear warming article of FIG. 3 is shown laid (or flattened) out, such that it discloses the ear warming article's appearance as if it were not in its customary arcuate or “C” shape. According to the embodiment of FIG. 3, a laid out, inside view 300 of an ear warming article is shown. The laid out, inside view 300 is comprised of the bead of edge material 104, an inside surface 302, and two patches of the inner lining material 106. Stitching 304 is also shown in this figure to illustrate how the some of the exterior pieces of the ear warming article are attached together according to this embodiment. As seen in the embodiment of FIG. 3, the inner lining material 106 (preferably synthetic fleece or micro-fleece) is present in a shape that corresponds to the shape of the wearer's ears. A bottom plan view of an ear warming article, according to one embodiment of the present invention, is illustrated in FIG. 4. The bottom view 400 of an exemplary ear warming device is shown, illustrating an embodiment wherein a zippable closure 402, which is used for inserting and removing the resilient band and/or electronic devices, is discretely located on a bottom side of the outer sleeve 101. It should be noted that the novelty of the disclosed embodiments of the ear warming article is not necessarily circumscribed by the precise type of closure set forth herein (indeed, some embodiments of the invention, such as those having a permanent outer sleeve, would require no closure), although the novelty of some embodiments can be. Also illustrated in association with the outer sleeve 101 of FIG. 4, are protruding portions 408 (such as control portions 108 or branding portions 202, as seen in FIG. 2), a zipping closure element 404, and a fabric flap 406. In the presently preferred embodiment, the zipper (consisting of the zippable closure 402 and the zipping closure element 404) is located in a slightly recessed fashion within the outer sleeve 101, and the fabric flap 406 is of complementary size so to fit over and hide the zipper. Furthermore, the fabric flap 406 is constructed of the same material as the fabric sleeve and is biased to remain over the zipper (although it can be pushed aside when the user wishes to access the zipper), providing for hidden closure structure that does not affect the appearance of the ear warming article while it is worn. Additional portions of the ear warming article are indicated in the embodiment of FIG. 4 to assist full comprehension and description of the invention. First, end portions 410 are indicated to point out two regions of the outer sleeve 101 that contact the cars of the wearer, receive the electronics located at the ends of the resilient band, and have other importance. Similarly, the two end portions 410 are connected by means of the connecting portion 412. Finally, two alternate locations for the auxiliary input jack 409 are illustrated in the embodiment of FIG. 4. An exploded, perspective view of a particular construction of an ear warming article, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, is illustrated in FIG. 5. The exploded view 500 illustrated in the embodiment of FIG. 5 consists of a band/electronics portion 502 sandwiched between an exterior foam/fabric portion 504 and an interior foam/fabric portion 506 that together comprise an outer sleeve-like structure 102 that encompasses the band/electronics portion 502. In a preferred embodiment, the exterior foam/fabric portion 504 and the interior foam/fabric portion 506 are of unitary construction (where the band/electronics portion 502 is inserted through the zippable closure 402 as shown in connection with FIG. 4), although the outer sleeve can of course take the form of any multi-part/disassembleable construction. Next, we turn to the novel construction of both this band/electronics portion 502 as well as the outer sleeve-like structure. The band/electronics portion 502 forms a center, removable portion of this assembly, according to the illustrated embodiment. The preferred electronic devices 503 (e.g., radio, speaker, etc.) incorporated into the ear warming article are generally connected to the distal portions 505 of the central curved portion 507 of the resilient band 112. While these preferred devices have been set forth in more detail below, it is further noted here that all known, portable electronic devices can be incorporated into the ear warming article, provided as add-on or supplemental structure, or both. Similarly, the preferred composition of the resilient band 112 has been detailed above, although certain additional features of it's curvature and resiliency are set forth below. With respect to the exterior foam/fabric portion 504 of the preferred embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, it is comprised of an outer nylon layer 508, an open cell foam layer 510, and two 2-part snap grommets 512 (although only one grommet set is illustrated). As mentioned above, this exterior foam/fabric portion 504 can be integral with the interior foam/fabric portion 506 so as to form a unitary piece, or it may fit into (or otherwise snap or be removably secured to) the interior foam/fabric portion 506. The grommet structure defines the opening 110, as discussed in association with FIGS. 1, 2 and 6, through which either the control portion or the branding portions can protrude. With respect to the interior foam/fabric portion 506 of the preferred embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5, it is comprised of a foam base 512 covered in stretch fabric, an elastic headphone harness 514 (if necessary), and ear-engaging fabric 106 such as soft sythetic fleece or micro-fleece. The foam base 512 has a curved shape that matches and conforms to the head of the wearer, and is characterized by an outer foam skeleton and optionally foam ribs to provide the basic shape, while possessing various channels and cavities to accept the resilient band 112 and any electronic device(s) that are included. Attached between opposed foam ribs are a pair of elastic headphone harnesses 514 to secure any associated headphone, earphone, wires or other, similar supplemental electronic device or its component. Finally, the ear-engaging fabric 106 may be any of the varieties of soft fabric addressed above in connection with FIG. 2. In a preferred embodiment, the ear warming article can include any type of receiver, such as AM, FM, AM/FM, XM, or a receiver associated with any sort of wire-using or wireless transmitting or broadcasting device, etc. As mentioned above, it is desired to locate the radio and its controls in such a way as to allow straightforward control while maintaining an article of simple and easy construction. Such advantageous location of radio control features and functionality is more fully developed in connection with FIG. 6. FIG. 6 consists of an enlarged, right plan view of one ear covering portion of a preferred embodiment, illustrating the control portion of an AM/FM radio receiver that extends through one opening 110 of at least one end of the soft outer portion 102. As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 6, the control portion 108 of the receiver extends through an opening 110, which is differentiated from the soft outer portion 102 by means of the grommet 512 or other border material. The control portion 108, then, includes a digital read-out 622 (i.e., the display 118), an OFF/AM/FM switch 624, a channel/station UP button 626, a channel/station DOWN button 628, a ‘presets’ button 630, a volume control 632, and a advertising patch 208. As evident from the embodiment of FIG. 6, the functionality of the controls located on the control portion 108 are straightforward, although all controls reasonably related to audio or audiovisual devices are envisioned. In particular, these controls can be any of the controls associated with all known portable audio, video or audio/visual devices such as any of the existing Walkman.RTM. or other similar Sony.RTM. products, any of the controls used to control any other known devices possessing such potential audio-output (e.g., TV production equipment, any recording equipment, surveillance equipment, etc.), any of the controls used to modify audio data such as may be found in graphic equalizer equipment (tuners, etc.), and/or other controls found on electronic devices that can be carried on or with a wearer. For purposes of illustrating one such exemplary device, the following details of one specific embodiment of the invention are set forth: the digital read-out 622 functions to display such things as the currently selected radio station, the particular preset, the type of broadcast (AM or FM), the volume level and/or other relevant parameters (in another embodiment, the digital read-out 622 can be located underneath a branded lens); the OFF/AM/FM switch 624 turns the radio on, tuned to either frequency modulated (FM) or amplitude modulated (AM) receiving mode; the channel station UP button 626 and DOWN button 628 are used to change the radio, station and/or to effectuate related seek and scan functionality; the ‘presets’ button 630 is used to toggle the receiver through a variety of previously-established radio stations; and the volume control 632 provides either digital or analog control of speaker volume. However, it is noted again that a variety of other electronic devices are also contemplated with the present invention. In the foregoing, an ear warming article having an optional electronic device has been described. Although the present invention has been described with reference to specific exemplary embodiments, it will be evident that various modifications and changes may be made to these embodiments without departing from the broader spirit. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There are many prior articles designed to cover portions of an individual's head for warmth and/or protection from the elements, such as hats, headbands, and articles that cover primarily the ears alone. A most common variety of this last type of ear wanning, frequently referred to as an “earmuff,” is comprised of a resilient, C-shaped band that is worn around the top of an individuial's head and ear-receiving portions or pockets located at the ends of the C-shaped band. This arrangement is particularly useful in situations where an individual does not wish to constrain their hair as well as in other situations where additional material might be too bulky or interfere with the user. Furthermore, in many situations where an individual would desire to wear such ear protection and display additional insignia/advertising, a variety of additional functionality can be particularly advantageous. First, it may be desired to design the earmuff so that it may be positioned or worn around the back of an individual's head. A neck-engaging variety of this design can possess the additional advantage of providing protection and added warmth to a wearer's neck as well. In any arrangement where the C-shaped band traverses the backside of the wearer's head, however, the features and functionality of the remainder of the ear warming article need to accommodate this unconventional positioning. For example, the shape of the ear-engaging portions need to take into account the way the ear warming article is worn. Second, present ear warming articles do not allow the wearer to listen to music or other audio input by means of an integrated electronic device. At football games and other outdoor events, it is often desirable to have warm ears and listen to the radio or music at the same time. It is a significant drawback of current ear warming articles that they posses little or no ability to work with audio-related devices such as earphones, stereo/radio headphones, receivers (radio, XFM, etc.), audio output devices (CD players, MP3 players, etc.), and other audio or audiovisual electronic devices. Consumers are generally forced to pick between wearing either an ear warming article or radio headphones, or to switch between the two as needed, which is particularly undesirable in poor weather. At best, some products offer earphones as an add-on or accessory to a conventional ear-muff. For individuals who desire to receive the benefit of both ear warming articles and audio-related devices in an integrated device, there is a lack of acceptable articles that satisfy both functions at the same time. Further, many current ear warming articles are unsatisfactory due to a number of shortcomings related to either their appearance or their capabilities. For example, it is often desirable for such headgear to provide advertising or branding opportunities that are attractive to the wearer and are also economical to produce. Articles of this type are frequently purchased based upon the article's possession of a logo or other insignia that indicates association with an interest (favorite sporting team, company, etc.) of the wearer. The specific detail (size, shape, functionality, attractiveness, etc.) of this insignia can be of utmost importance and can easily form the basis for purchase of the article, particularly when a premium article is desired. Current articles sometimes attempt to provide insignia, however such insignia is frequently unacceptable to the wearer because of the logo's size or location, or even because the logo itself cannot be removed, changed or washed. Another drawback is that current ear warming articles are typically have a complicated, many-piece construction, frequently making the article difficult to manufacture. Such an approach also often leads to an unwanted appearance and can miss a main objective, such as making a reasonably-priced article that is both comfortable and good-looking while providing protection from inclement weather conditions. Therefore, current ear-warming articles are generally unable to offer the construction, usefulness, appearance and flexibility required to adequately and cost-effectively provide the functionality desired by today's sophisticated, demanding customers. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An ear warming article comprising a C-shaped resilient band, an outer sleeve and (in some embodiments) a speaker or other electronic device is described. The outer sleeve is dimensioned to contain the resilient band, and includes two insulating, ear-receiving portions as well as a first opening through which the resilient band can be inserted and removed to yield an assembled or disassembled article, respectively. In a preferred embodiment, the article includes an electronic device having one or more speakers located at the ends of the resilient band; additional openings in the outer sleeve may exist for any control functionality associated with the electronic device(s). The outer sleeve can be comprised of a washable fabric material, particularly suitable as a means for interchangeable advertising (team logo, branding, etc.). In some embodiments, the ear warming article provides coverage and warming benefit to the wearer's neck as well. In additional embodiments, the ear warming article includes additional advertising and/or securing features. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description that follows. | 20041129 | 20100223 | 20050512 | 80374.0 | 3 | SUTHERS, DOUGLAS JOHN | EAR WARMING ARTICLE INCLUDING ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND EASILY INTERCHANGEABLE ADVERTISING AREAS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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10,999,286 | ACCEPTED | Virtual file system | A virtual file system including multiple storage processor nodes including a management node, a backbone switch, a disk drive array, and a virtual file manager executing on the management node. The backbone switch enables communication between the storage processor nodes. The disk drive array is coupled to and distributed across the storage processor nodes and stores multiple titles. Each title is divided into data subchunks which are distributed across the disk drive array in which each subchunk is stored on a disk drive of the disk drive array. The virtual file manager manages storage and access of each subchunk, and manages multiple directory entries including a directory entry for each title. Each directory entry is a list of subchunk location entries in which each subchunk location entry includes a storage processor node identifier, a disk drive identifier, and a logical address for locating and accessing each subchunk of each title. | 1. A virtual file system, comprising: a plurality of storage processor nodes including at least one management node; a backbone switch, coupled to said plurality of storage processor nodes, that enables communication between each of said plurality of storage processor nodes; a disk drive array coupled to and distributed across said plurality of storage processor nodes, said disk drive array storing a plurality of titles, each title divided into a plurality of subchunks which are distributed across said disk drive array in which each subchunk is stored on a disk drive of said disk drive array; and said at least one management node executing a virtual file manager which manages storage and access of each subchunk of said plurality of titles, and which maintains a plurality of directory entries including a directory entry for each title, each said directory entry comprising a list of subchunk location entries in which each subchunk location entry comprises a storage processor node identifier, a disk drive identifier, and a logical address for locating and accessing each subchunk of each title stored on said disk drive array. 2. The virtual file system of claim 1, wherein each of said plurality of subchunks is retrieved in a single seek operation by providing said logical address to an identified disk drive of an identified storage processor node. 3. The virtual file system of claim 1, wherein the full capacity of each disk drive of said disk drive array is available for storage of said plurality of subchunks of said plurality of titles. 4. The virtual file system of claim 1, further comprising: a user process, executed on a storage processor node, which submits a title request for a selected title to said virtual file manager, which receives a corresponding directory entry for said selected title, and which submits a subchunk read request for each subchunk location entry in said corresponding directory entry; wherein each subchunk read request is sent to a storage processor node identified by a storage processor node identifier in a corresponding subchunk location entry in said corresponding directory entry, and wherein each subchunk read request includes a destination node identifier, said disk drive identifier and said logical address; and wherein said virtual file manager retrieves said corresponding directory entry for said selected title and forwards said corresponding directory entry to said user process in response to said title request. 5. The virtual file system of claim 4, further comprising a transfer process, executed on a storage processor node, which receives a subchunk read request, which requests a subchunk using said logical address to locate said requested subchunk from a local disk drive identified by said disk drive identifier, and which forwards a retrieved subchunk to a storage processor node identified by said destination node identifier. 6. The virtual file system of claim 4, wherein each title is subdivided into a plurality of data chunks, each said data chunk comprising a plurality of subchunks collectively comprising redundant data for each data chunk, and wherein said user process is operable to construct any data chunk from one less than all of said plurality of subchunks comprising said any data chunk. 7. The virtual file system of claim 6, wherein said disk drive array is divided into a plurality of redundant array groups, wherein each redundant array group comprises a plurality of disk drives distributed among a plurality of storage processor nodes, and wherein said plurality of subchunks of each data chunk are distributed among disk drives of a corresponding redundant array group. 8. The virtual file system of claim 7, wherein said user process is operable to reconstruct any stored title in the event of any one of: a failure of any one disk drive; a failure of any one disk drive of each of said plurality of redundant array groups; and a failure of any one of said plurality of storage processor nodes. 9. The virtual file system of claim 8, wherein said user process is operable to reconstruct a missing subchunk of a data chunk from remaining subchunks of said data chunk, and is operable to return said reconstructed missing subchunk to a storage processor node that would otherwise have sourced said missing subchunk. 10. The virtual file system of claim 9, wherein in the event that failure of said storage processor node that would otherwise have sourced said missing subchunk is replaced by a replacement storage processor node, said replacement storage processor node re-stores missing and new title data by storing received subchunks including returned and reconstructed subchunks. 11. The virtual file system of claim 9, further comprising a cache memory, coupled to said storage processor node that would otherwise have sourced said missing subchunk, that temporarily stores received subchunks including returned and reconstructed subchunks for transfer to a replacement disk drive of a failed disk drive. 12. The virtual file system of claim 1, wherein each subchunk is stored in a block of a disk drive identified by said logical address, wherein said logical address comprises a logical block address. 13. The virtual file system of claim 1, wherein said virtual file manager manages title storage in which each title is subdivided into a plurality of data chunks, each data chunk comprising a plurality of subchunks incorporating redundant data for each data chunk. 14. The virtual file system of claim 13, wherein said disk drive array is divided into a plurality of redundant array groups, wherein each redundant array group comprises a plurality of disk drives distributed among a plurality of storage processor nodes, and wherein said plurality of subchunks of each data chunk are distributed among disk drives of a corresponding redundant array group. 15. The virtual file system of claim 14, further comprising: a replacement disk drive with a plurality of missing subchunks coupled to a first storage processor node; said virtual file manager preparing a disk repair directory entry listing each missing subchunk along with its corresponding parity subchunks comprising a data chunk and forwarding said disk repair directory entry to said first storage processor node; and a repair process, executed on said first storage processor node, which submits a subchunk read request for each parity subchunk listed in said disk repair directory entry that corresponds to each missing subchunk, which reconstructs each missing subchunk using received corresponding parity subchunks, and which stores reconstructed subchunks onto said replacement disk drive. 16. The virtual file system of claim 15, further comprising: a spare storage processor node; a partially failed disk drive, replaced by said replacement disk drive, coupled to said spare storage processor node; said virtual file manager forwarding said disk repair directory entry first to said spare storage processor node prior to sending to said first storage processor node; and a salvage process, executed on said spare storage processor node, that employs checksum and locator to test validity of said missing subchunks stored on said partially failed disk drive, and that forwards valid subchunks read from said partially failed disk drive to said first storage processor node for storage on said replacement disk drive. 17. The virtual file system of claim 16, wherein said repair process discards received valid subchunks read from said partially failed disk drive in the event a corresponding missing subchunk has already been reconstructed and stored on said replacement disk drive. 18. The virtual file system of claim 14, wherein said disk drive array comprises a predetermined number of disk drives, and wherein said virtual file manager operates to distribute said plurality of data chunks in an even manner among said plurality of redundant array groups. 19. The virtual file system of claim 18, wherein said virtual file manager performs a re-striping process to re-distribute said plurality data chunks to maintain even distribution of data in response to a change of said predetermined number of disk drives. 20. The virtual file system of claim 19, wherein said re-striping process is performed as a background task. 21. The virtual file system of claim 19, wherein said virtual file manager performs said re-striping process to redistribute said plurality of data chunks among new disk drives in said disk drive array to maintain even distribution of data upon detecting an increase of said predetermined number of disk drives of said disk drive array. 22. The virtual file system of claim 19, wherein said virtual file manager detects a request to remove specified disk drives of said disk drive array, performs said re-striping process to redistribute said plurality of data chunks to maintain even distribution of data in remaining disk drives, and de-allocates said specified disk drives. 23. The virtual file system of claim 1, wherein said at least one management node comprises a mirror management node which executes a mirror virtual file manager which mirrors operation of said virtual file manager. 24. The virtual file system of claim 1, wherein said virtual file manager maintains a pool of pre-allocated directory entries, each comprising a list of available subchunk location entries. 25. The virtual file system of claim 24, wherein a number of said pool of pre-allocated directory entries is based on performance and site usage profile. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/526,390 filed on Dec. 2, 2003, and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application entitled “Interactive Broadband Server System” Ser. No. 10/304,378 filed Nov. 26, 2002, pending, which itself claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/333,856 filed on Nov. 28, 2001, all of which having a common inventor, being commonly assigned, and being herein incorporated by reference for all intents and purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to interactive broadband server systems, and more particularly, to virtual file system that manages and maintains information of data distributed across an array of storage devices. 2. Description of the Related Art It is desired to provide a solution for the storage and delivery of streaming media content. An initial goal for scalability is from 100 to 1,000,000 simultaneous individual isochronous content streams at 4 megabits per second (Mbps) per stream, although different data rates are contemplated. The total bandwidth available is limited by the largest available backplane switch. The largest switches at the present time are in the terabit per second range, or about 200,000 simultaneous output streams. The number of output streams is generally inversely proportional to the bit rate per stream. The simplest model of content storage is a single disk drive connected to a single processor which has a single network connector. Data is read from the disk, placed in memory, and distributed in packets, via a network, to each user. Traditional data, such as Web pages or the like, can be delivered asynchronously. In other words, there are random amounts of data with random time delays. Low volume, low resolution video can be delivered from a Web server. Real time media content, such as video and audio, require isochronous transmission, or transmission with guaranteed delivery times. In this scenario, a bandwidth constraint exists at the disk drive. The disk has arm motion and rotational latency to contend with. If the system can only sustain 6 simultaneous streams of continuous content from the drive to the processor at any given time, then the 7th user's request must wait for one of the prior 6 users to give up a content stream. The upside of this design is simplicity. The downside is the disk, which, as the sole mechanical device in the design, can only access and transfer data so fast. An improvement can be made by adding another drive, or drives, and interleaving the drive accesses. Also, duplicate content can be stored on each drive to gain redundancy and performance. This is better, but there are still several problems. Only so much content can be placed on the local drive or drives. The disk drives, CPU, and memory are each single points of failure that could be catastrophic. This system can only be scaled to the number of drives the disk controller can handle. Even with many units, there is a problem with the distribution of titles. In the real world, everyone wants to see the latest movies. As a rule of thumb 80% of content requests are for just 20% of the titles. All of a machine's bandwidth cannot be consumed by one title, as it would block access to less popular titles stored only on that machine. As a result, the “high demand” titles would have to be loaded on most or all of the machines. In short, if a user wanted to see an old movie, that user might be out of luck—even though it is loaded in the system. With a large library, the ratio may be much greater than the 80/20 rule used in this example. If the system were based on the standard Local Area Network (LAN) used in data processing, there would be other inefficiencies. Modern Ethernet-based TCP/IP systems are a marvel of guaranteed delivery, but include a time price caused by packet collisions and re-transmits of partially lost packets and the management needed to make it all work. There is no guarantee that a timely set of content streams will be available. Also, each user consumes a switch port and each content server consumes a switch port. Thus, the switch port count has to be twice the server count, limiting the total online bandwidth. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The benefits, features, and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with regard to the following description, and accompanying drawings where: FIG. 1 is a simplified block diagram of a portion of an Interactive Content Engine (ICE) implemented according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a logical block diagram of a portion of the ICE of FIG. 1 illustrating a synchronized data transfer system; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a portion of the ICE of FIG. 1 illustrating further details of the VFS of FIG. 2 and supporting functionality according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 shows a Table 1 illustrating an exemplary configuration of the ICE of FIG. 1 consisting of only three disk array groups; FIG. 5 shows a Table 2 illustrating how four titles are stored using the configuration of Table 1; FIG. 6 shows a Table 3 illustrating the contents of the first 12 locators for the 4 titles depicted in Table 2; and FIG. 7 shows a Table 4 illustrating further details of how subchunks are stored on different groups, SPNs, and disk drives for the ICE of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the present invention as provided within the context of a particular application and its requirements. Various modifications to the preferred embodiment will, however, be apparent to one skilled in the art, and the general principles defined herein may be applied to other embodiments. Therefore, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments shown and described herein, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and novel features herein disclosed. The architecture described herein accommodates individual components of varying capability to avoid an installation being limited to the point in time when the initial system purchase was made. The use of commodity components guarantees recent well proven technology, avoidance of sole sources, and the lowest cost per stream. Individual component failures are tolerated. In many cases, there is no noticeable change in behavior from a user's perspective. In other cases, there is a brief “self repair” cycle. In many cases, multiple failures may be tolerated. Also, in most if not all cases, the system can recover without requiring immediate attention, making it ideal for “lights out” operation. Content storage allocation and internal bandwidth is automatically managed by Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithms which guarantee that the content in RAM cache and the hard drive array cache are appropriate to the current demand, and the backplane switch bandwidth is used in the most efficient manner. Bandwidth within the system is rarely, if ever, oversubscribed, so it is not necessary to discard or delay the transmission of packets. The architecture provides the ability to take full advantage of the composite bandwidth of each component, so guarantees can be met, and the network is private and under full control so even in a situation of unanticipated peak demand no data path is overloaded. Streams of any bit rate can be accommodated, but typical streams are expected to remain in the 1 to 20 Mbps range. Asynchronous content is accommodated on an available bandwidth basis. Bandwidth may be reserved for the purpose if required by the application. Files may be of any size with a minimum of storage inefficiency. FIG. 1 is a simplified block diagram of a portion of an Interactive Content Engine (ICE) 100 implemented according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Portions not applicable for a full and complete understanding of the present invention are not shown for purposes of clarity. The ICE 100 includes an appropriate multiple-port (or multiport) Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) switch 101 as the backplane fabric having multiple Ethernet ports coupled to a number of Storage Processor Nodes (SPNs) 103. Each SPN 103 is a simplified server including two Gigabit Ethernet ports, one or more processors 107, memory 109 (e.g., random access memory (RAM)), and an appropriate number (e.g., four to eight) disk drives 111. A first Gb port 105 on each SPN 103 connects to a corresponding port of the switch 101 for full duplex operation (simultaneous transmission and reception at each SPN/port connection), and is used for moving data within the ICE 100. The other Gb port (not shown) delivers the content output to downstream users (not shown). Each SPN 103 has high speed access to its local disk drives and to the other disk drives of the other four SPNs in each group of five SPNs. The switch 101 is a backplane for the ICE 100 instead of just a communication device between SPNs 103. Only five SPNs 103 are shown for purposes of illustration, where it is understood that the ICE 100 typically includes a larger number of servers. Each SPN 103 acts as storage, processing, and transmitter of content. In the configuration shown, each SPN 103 is configured using off-the-shelf components, and is not a computer in the usual sense. Although standard operating systems are contemplated, such interrupt driven operating systems may pose unnecessary bottlenecks. Each title (e.g., video, movie or other media content) is not wholly stored on any single disk drive 111. Instead, the data for each title is divided and stored among several disk drives within the ICE 100 to achieve the speed benefits of interleaved access. The content of a single title is spread across multiple disk drives of multiple SPNs 103. Short “time frames” of title content are gathered in a round robin fashion from each drive in each SPN 103. In this manner, the physical load is spread escaping the drive count limits of SCSI and IDE, a form of fail-safe operation is gained, and a large set of titles are organized and managed. In the particular configuration shown, each content title is divided into discrete chunks of a fixed size (typically about 2 megabytes (MB) per chunk). Each chunk is stored on a different set of SPNs 103 in a round robin fashion. Each chunk is divided into four subchunks, and fifth subchunk representing the parity is created. Each subchunk is stored on a disk drive of a different SPN 103. In the configuration shown and described, the subchunk size of about 512 kilobytes (KB) (where “K” is 1024) matches the nominal unit of data of each of the disk drives 111. The SPNs 103 are grouped five at a time, and each group or SPN set stores a chunk of data of a title. As shown, the five SPNs 103 are labeled 1-4 and “Parity”, which collectively store a chunk 113 as five separate subchunks 113a, 113b, 113c, 113d and 113e stored on the SPNs 1, 2, 3, 4 and Parity, respectively. The subchunks 113a-113e are shown stored in a distributed manner on a different drive for each different SPN (e.g., SPN1/DRIVE1, SPN2/DRIVE2, SPN3/DRIVE3, etc.), but may be stored in any other possible combination (e.g., SPN1/DRIVE1, SPN2/DRIVE1, SPN3/DRIVE3, etc.) The subchunks 1-4 comprise the data and the subchunk Parity comprises the parity information for the data subchunks. The size of each SPN set, while typically five, is arbitrary and could just as easily be any other suitable number, such as, for example, 2 SPNs to 10 SPNs. Two SPNs would use 50% of their storage for redundancy, ten would use 10%. Five is a compromise between efficiency of storage and probability of failure. By distributing content in this fashion, at least two goals are achieved. First, the number of users that can view a single title is not limited to the number which can be served by a single set of SPNs, but by the bandwidth of all the sets of SPNs taken together. Therefore, only one copy of each content title is required. The tradeoff is the limitation in the number of new viewers for a given title that can be launched each second, which is far less of a constraint than the wasted space and management overhead of redundant storage. A second goal is the increase in overall reliability of the ICE 100. The failure of a single drive is masked by the real time regeneration of its content using the parity drive, similar to a redundant array of independent disks (RAID). The failure of an SPN 103 is masked by the fact that it contains one drive from each of several RAID sets, each of which continues to operate. The users connected to a failed SPN are very quickly taken over by shadow processes running on other SPNs. In the event of failure of a disk drive or of an entire SPN, the operator is notified to repair or replace the failed equipment. When a missing subchunk is rebuilt by the user process, it is transmitted back to the SPN that would have provided it, where it is cached in RAM (as it would have been had it been read from the local disk). This avoids wasting the time of other user processes in doing the same rebuild for a popular title, as subsequent requests will be filled from RAM as long as that subchunk is popular enough to remain cached. The goal of a user process (UP) running on each “user” SPN 103 is to gather the subchunks from its own disk plus the corresponding four subchunks from other user SPNs to assemble a chunk of video content for delivery. User SPNs are distinguished from one or more management MGMT SPNs, which are configured in the same manner but perform different functions, as further described below. A pair of redundant MGMT SPNs is contemplated to enhance reliability and performance. The gathering and assembling functions performed by each UP is done many times on behalf of many users on each user SPN 103. As a consequence, there is a significant amount of data traffic going between the user SPNs 103. The typical Ethernet protocol, with packet collision detection and retries, would otherwise be overwhelmed. Typical protocols are designed for random transmissions, and depend on slack time between those events. So this approach is not used. In the ICE 100, collisions are avoided by using a full duplex, fully switched architecture, and by managing bandwidth carefully. Most communication is done synchronously. The switch 101 itself is managed in a synchronous manner, as further described below, so that the transmissions are coordinated. Since it is determined which SPN 103 gets to transmit and when, ports are not overwhelmed with more data than they can handle during a given period. Indeed, data is first gathered in the memory 109 of user SPNs 103 and then its transfer is managed synchronously. As part of the orchestration, there are status signals between the user SPNs 103. Unlike the actual content going to the end user, the data size for signaling between the user SPN units is quite small. The length of each subchunk (about 512K bytes, where “K” is 1024) would otherwise overwhelm any buffering available in the GbE switch 101 if the transmission of subchunks were allowed to be done randomly or asynchronously. The period for transmitting this much information is about 4 milliseconds (ms), and it is desired to make sure that several ports do not try and transmit to a single port simultaneously. Therefore, as further described below, the switch 101 is managed in a manner that causes it to operate synchronously, with all ports fully utilized under full load conditions. The redundant directory process which manages the file system (or, virtual file system or VFS) is responsible for reporting where a given content title is stored when it is requested by a user. It is also responsible for allocating the required storage space when a new title is to be loaded. All allocations are in integral chunks, each of which is composed of five subchunks. Space on each disk drive is managed within the drive by Logical Block Address (LBA). A subchunk is stored on a disk drive in contiguous sectors or LBA addresses. The capacity of each disk drive in the ICE 100 is represented by its maximum LBA address divided by the number of sectors per subchunk. Each title map or “directory entry” contains a list indicating where the chunks of its title are stored, and more specifically, where each subchunk of each chunk is located. In the illustrated embodiment, each item in the list representing a subchunk contains an SPNID identifying a specific user SPN 103, a disk drive number (DD#) identifying a specific disk drive 111 of the identified user SPN 103, and a subchunk pointer (or Logical Block Address or LBA) packed as a 64-bit value. Each directory entry contains a subchunk list for about half an hour of content at the nominal 4 Mbsp. This is equal to 450 chunks, or 2250 subchunks. Each directory entry is about 20 KB with ancillary data. When a UP executing on an SPN requests a directory entry, the entire entry is sent and stored locally for the corresponding user. Even if an SPN supports 1,000 users, only 20 MB of memory is consumed for the local lists or directory entries. The ICE 100 maintains a database of all titles available to a user. This list includes the local optical disk library, real time network programming, and titles at remote locations where license and transport arrangements have been made. The database contains all the metadata for each title, including management information (licensing period, bit rate, resolution, etc.) as well as information of interest to the user (producer, director, cast, crew, author, etc.). When the user makes a selection, a directory of a virtual file system (VFS) 209 (FIG. 2) is queried to determine if the title is already loaded in the disk array. If not, a loading process (not shown) is initiated for that piece of content, and the UP is notified if necessary as to when it will be available for viewing. In most cases, the latency is no more than the mechanical latency of the optical disk retrieval robot (not shown), or about 30 seconds. Information stored on the optical disk (not shown) includes all metadata (which is read into the database when the disk is first loaded into the library), as well as the compressed digital video and audio representing the title and all information that can be gleaned in advance about those data streams. For example, it contains pointers to all relevant information in the data streams such as clock values and time stamps. It is already divided into subchunks, with the parity subchunk pre-calculated and stored on the disk. In general, anything which can be done in advance to save loading time and processing overhead is included on the optical disk. Included in the resource management system is a dispatcher (not shown) which a UP consults to receive a start time for its stream (usually within milliseconds of the request). The dispatcher insures that the load on the system remains even, that latency is minimized, and that at no time does the bandwidth required within the ICE 100 exceed that which is available. When ever a user requests a stop, pause, fast forward, rewind, or other operation which interrupts the flow of their stream, its bandwidth is de-allocated and a new allocation made for any new service requested (e.g., a fast forward stream). FIG. 2 is a logical block diagram of a portion of the ICE 100 illustrating a synchronized data transfer system 200 implemented according to an embodiment of the present invention. The switch 101 is shown coupled to several exemplary SPNs 103, including a first user SPN 201, a second user SPN 203, and a management (MGMT) SPN 205. As previously noted, many SPNs 103 are coupled to the switch 101 and only two user SPNs 201, 203 are shown for illustrating the present invention and are physically implemented just as any SPN 103 as previously described. The MGMT SPN 205 is physically implemented just like any other SPN 103, but generally performs management functions rather than the specific user functions. The SPN 201 illustrates certain functions and the SPN 203 illustrates other functions of each user SPN 103. It is understood, however, that each user SPN 103 is configured to perform similar functions so that the functions (and processes) described for the SPN 201 are also provided on the SPN 203 and vice-versa. As previously described, the switch 101 operates at 1 Gbps per port, so that each subchunk (about 512 KB) takes about 4 ms to pass from one SPN to another. Each user SPN 103 executes one or more user processes (UPs), each for supporting a downstream user. When a new chunk of a title is needed to refill a user output buffer (not shown), the next five subchunks from the list are requested from the other user SPNs storing those subchunks. Since many UPs potentially request multiple subchunks substantially at the same time, the subchunk transmission duration would otherwise overwhelm the buffering capacity of almost any GbE switch for a single port, let alone for the whole switch. This is true for the illustrated switch 101. If subchunk transmission is not managed, it would result in potentially all five subchunks for each UP being returned simultaneously, overwhelming the output port bandwidth. It is desired to tighten the timing of the transmissions of SPNs of the ICE 100, so that the most critical data is transmitted first, and intact. The SPN 201 is shown executing a UP 207 for servicing a corresponding downstream user. The user requests a title (e.g., a movie), which request is forwarded to the UP 207. The UP 207 transmits a title request (TR) to the VFS 209 (described further below) located on the MGMT SPN 205. The VFS 209 returns a directory entry (DE) to the UP 207, which locally stores the DE shown at 211. The DE 211 includes a list locating each subchunk of the title (SC1, SC2, etc.), each entry including the SPNID identifying a specific user SPN 103, the disk drive number (DD#) identifying a specific disk drive 111 of the identified SPN 103, and an address or LBA providing the specific location of the subchunk on the identified disk drive. The SPN 201 initiates a time stamped read request (TSRR) for each subchunk in the DE 211, one at a time. In the ICE 100, the requests are made immediately and directly. In other words, the SPN 201 begins making the requests for the subchunks immediately and directly to the specific user SPNs 103 storing the data. In the configuration shown, the requests are made in the same manner even if locally stored. In other words, even if the requested subchunk resides on a local disk drive of the SPN 201, it sends out the request via the switch 201 as though remotely located. The network is the location that may be configured to recognize that a request is being sent from an SPN to the same SPN. It is simpler to handle all cases the same especially in larger installations in which it is less likely that the request will actually be local. Although the requests are sent out immediately and directly, the subchunks are each returned in a fully managed manner. Each TSRR is to the specific user SPN using the SPNID, and includes the DD# and LBA for the target user SPN to retrieve and return the data. The TSRR may further include any other identification information sufficient to ensure that the requested subchunk is properly returned to the appropriate requestor and to enable to the requester to identify the subchunk (e.g., UP identifier to distinguish among multiple UP's executing on the destination SPN, a subchunk identifier to distinguish among the subchunks for each data chunk, etc.) Each TSRR also includes a timestamp (TS) identifying the specific time when the original request is made. The TS identifies the priority of the request for purposes of synchronous transmission, where priority is based on time such that earlier requests assume higher priority. When received, the returned subchunks of the requested title are stored in a local title memory 213 for further processing and delivery to the user which requested the title. The user SPN 203 illustrates operation of a transfer process (TP) 215 and supporting functions executing on each user SPN (e.g., 201, 203) for receiving TSRRs and for returning the requested subchunks. The TP 215 includes or is otherwise interfaced with a storage process (not shown) which interfaces the local disk drives 111 on the SPN 203 for requesting and accessing the stored subchunks. The storage process may be implemented in any desired manner, such as a state machine or the like, and may be a separate process interfaced between the TP 215 and the local disk drives 111 as known to those skilled in the art. As shown, the TP 215 receives one or more TSRRs from one or more UPs executing on the other user SPNs 103 and stores each request in a read request queue (RRQ) 217 in its local memory 109. The RRQ 217 stores a list of requests for subchunks SCA, SCB, etc. The disk drive storing the requested subchunks removes the corresponding requests from the RRQ 217, sorts them in physical order, and then executes each read in the sorted order. Accesses to subchunks on each disk is managed in groups. Each group is sorted in physical order according to “elevator seek” operation (one sweep from low to high, next sweep from high to low, etc., so that the disk head sweeps back and forth across the disk surface pausing to read the next sequential subchunk). Requests for successful reads are stored in a successful read queue (SRQ) 218 sorted in TS order. Requests for failed reads (if any) are stored in a failed read queue (FRQ) 220 and failed information is forwarded to a network management system (not shown) that determines the error and the appropriate corrective action. It is noted that in the configuration illustrated, the queues 217, 218 and 220 store request information rather than the actual subchunks. Each subchunk that is successfully read is placed in memory reserved for an LRU cache of recently requested subchunks. For each retrieved subchunk, the TP 215 creates a corresponding message (MSG), which includes the TS for the subchunk, the source (SRC) of the subchunk (e.g., the SPNID from which the subchunk is being transmitted and its physical memory location along with any other identifying information), and the destination (DST) SPN to which the subchunk is to be transmitted (e.g., the SPN 201). As shown, the SRQ 218 includes messages MSGA, MSGB, etc., for subchunks SCA, SCB, etc., respectively. After the requested subchunks are read and cached, the TP 215 sends corresponding MSGs to a synchronized switch manager (SSM) 219 executing on the MGMT SPN 205. The SSM 219 receives and prioritizes multiple MSGs received from TPs from user SPNs and eventually sends a transmit request (TXR) to the TP 215 identifying one of the MSGs in its SRQ 218, such as using a message identifier (MSGID) or the like. When the SSM 219 sends a TXR to the TP 215 with a MSGID identifying a subchunk in the SRQ 218, the request listing is moved from the SRQ 218 to a network transfer process (NTP) 221, which builds the packets used to transfer the subchunk to the destination user SPN (where “moved” denotes removing the request from the SRQ 218). The order in which subchunk request listings are removed from the SRQ 218 is not necessarily sequential, in spite of the list being in timestamp order, as only the SSM 219 determines the proper ordering. The SSM 219 sends one TXR to every other SPN 103 having at least one subchunk to send unless the subchunk is to be sent to a UP on an SPN 103 already scheduled to receive an equal or higher priority subchunk, as further described below. The SSM 219 then broadcasts a single transmit command (TX CMD) to all user SPNs 103. The TP 215 instructs the NTP 221 to transmit the subchunk to the requesting UP of the user SPN 103 in response to the TX CMD command broadcasted by the SSM 219. In this manner, each SPN 103 having received a TXR from the SSM 219 simultaneously transmits to another requesting user SPN 103. The VFS 209 on the MGMT SPN 205 manages the list of titles and their locations in the ICE 100. In typical computer systems, directories (data information) usually resides on the same disk on which the data resides. In the ICE 100, however, the VFS 209 is centrally located to manage the distributed data since data for each title is distributed across multiple disks in the disk array, which are in turn distributed across multiple user SPNs 103. As previously described, the disk drives 111 on the user SPNs 103 primarily store the subchunks of the titles. The VFS 209 includes identifiers for the location of each subchunk via SPNID, DD#, and the LBA as previously described. The VFS 209 also includes identifiers for other parts of the ICE 100 that are external, such as the optical storage. When a user requests a title, a full set of directory information (ID's/addresses) is made available to the UP executing on the user SPN 103 that accepted the user's request. From there, the task is to transfer subchunks off of disk drives to memory (buffers), moving them via the switch 101 to the requesting user SPN 103, which assembles a full chunk in a buffer, delivers it to the user, and repeats until done. The SSM 219 creates a list of “ready” messages in timestamp order in a ready message (RDY MSG) list 223. The order in which the messages are received from the TPs on the user SPNs 103 are not necessarily in timestamp order, but are organized in TS order in the RDY MSG list 223. Just before the next set of transfers, the SSM 219 scans the RDY MSG list 223 starting with the earliest time stamp. The SSM 219 first identifies the earliest TS in the RDY MSG list 223 and generates and sends the corresponding TXR message to the TP 215 of the user SPN 103 storing the corresponding subchunk to initiate a pending transfer of that subchunk. The SSM 219 continues scanning the list 223 for each subsequent subchunk in TS order generating the TXR messages for each subchunk whose source and destination are not already involved in a pending subchunk transfer. For each TX CMD broadcast to all of the user SPNs 103, each user SPN 103 only transmits one subchunk at a time and only receives one subchunk at a time, although it can do both simultaneously. For example, if a TXR message is sent to the TP of SPN #10 to schedule a pending subchunk transfer to SPN #2, then SPN #10 cannot simultaneously send another subchunk. SPN #10 can, however, simultaneously receive a subchunk from another SPN. Furthermore, the SPN #2 cannot simultaneously receive another subchunk while receiving the subchunk from SPN #10, although the SPN #2 can simultaneously transmit to another SPN because of the full duplex nature of each of the ports of the switch 101. The SSM 219 continues scanning the RDY MSG list 223 until all user SPNs 103 have been accounted for, or when the end of the RDY MSG list 223 is reached. Each entry in the RDY MSG list 223 corresponding to a TXR message is eventually removed from the RDY MSG list 223 (either when the TXR message is sent or after the transfer is completed). When the last transfer of the previous period has finished, the SSM 219 broadcasts a TX CMD packet which signals all user SPNs 103 to begin the next round of transmissions. Each transfer occurs synchronously within a period of approximately 4 to 5 ms for the specific configuration illustrated. During each transfer round, additional MSGs are sent to the SSM 219 and new TXR messages are sent out to the user SPNs 103 to schedule the next round of transmissions, and the process is repeated. The period between successive TX CMDs is approximately equal to the period necessary to transmit all of the bytes of a subchunk, including packet overhead and interpacket delay, plus a period to clear all caching that may have occurred in the switch during the transmission of the subchunk, typically 60 microseconds (μs), plus a period to account for any jitter caused by a delay in recognition of the TX CMD by an individual SPN, typically less than 100 μs. In one embodiment, a duplicate or mirrored MGMT SPN (not shown) mirrors the primary MGMT SPN 205, so that the SSM 219, the VFS 209, and the dispatcher are each duplicated on a pair of redundant dedicated MGMT SPNs. In one embodiment, the synchronizing TX CMD broadcast acts as a heartbeat indicating the health of the MGMT SPN 205. The heartbeat is a signal to the secondary MGMT SPN that all is well. In the absence of the heartbeat, the secondary MGMT SPN takes over all management functions within a predetermined period of time, such as, for example, within 5 ms. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a portion of the ICE 100 illustrating further details of the VFS 209 and supporting functionality according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the VFS 209 includes a virtual file manager (VFM) 301 and a VFS interface manager (VFSIM) 302. The VFSIM 302 is the communications conduit between the VFM 301 and the rest of the ICE 100, including a system monitor (SM) 303, a library loader (LL) 305 and a user master monitor (UMM) 307. The VFSIM 302 receives requests and directives from the SM 303 and provides services to the LL 305 and the UMM 307. Requests and directives intended for the VFM 301 are queued and held until retrieved. Responses from the VFM 301 are buffered and returned to the requestor. The VFSIM 302 manages background tasks initiated by itself and the VFM 301. These tasks include automatic content re-striping, storage device validation/repair, and capacity upsizing and downsizing. The VFSIM 302 monitors hardware addition/removal notifications; remembering device serial numbers so it can automatically initiate validation/repair when necessary. The discussion herein refers to the VFS 209, which may involve either or both the VSM 301 and the VFSIM 302, unless otherwise specified. The VFS 209 is responsible for managing title content storage (distributed across the storage devices or disk drives) in a way that maximizes overall system performance and facilitates recovery from hardware failures. The VFS 209 is designed to be as flexible as possible to support a wide range of hardware configurations, enabling each site deployment of the ICE 100 to fine-tune hardware expenditures to meet particular usage profiles. A site can increase its capacity by adding new SPNs 103 while the overall system remains operational. Likewise, the VFS 209 also provides the capability to swap SPNs as well as individual storage devices such as serial ATA (SATA) drives in and out of service while remaining operational. The number of SPNs 103 in an ICE 100 is limited only by the bandwidth of the largest contemporary backplane switch implementing the switch 101 (e.g., currently about 500 SPNs). Each SPN 103 can have any number of storage devices (the number of storage devices per SPN is usually constant for a given site), and each storage device can have a different storage capacity (greater than or equal to the minimum designated for that site). Currently, it is typical for a site to have from 1 to 8 hard disk drives per SPN 103, although the design is flexible enough to accommodate new device types as they become available. Furthermore, if an individual physical SPN 103 has twice or three times the minimum capacity for the site, it can be added to the VFS 209 as two or three logical SPNs (this holds true for any even multiple of the minimum capacity). The VFS 209 is designed to allow each site the capability to gradually upgrade its hardware over time, as needs dictate, using the best available hardware at the time of each addition. The VFS 209 manages content intelligently. It has provisions to smoothly handle peak loads, it can defer tasks that are not time-critical, it automatically redistributes content (re-striping process) to take full advantage of increased site capacity, it prioritizes failure recovery to anticipate demand and rebuild content before it is needed, and it has robust abilities to salvage content from previously used storage devices. In the embodiment shown, the VFM 301 communicates exclusively with the VFSIM 302, which in turn is managed by the SM 303 and provides services to the LL 305 and the UMM 307. At power-up the VFS 209 knows nothing of the system hardware configuration. As each user SPN 103 boots and announces itself, the SM 303 assembles the relevant details for that SPN (its group affiliation, the number of disks, storage capacity of each disk, etc.) and registers it with the VFSIM 302, which notifies the VFM 301. While every SPN is capable of storing content, not all are required to do so. The VFS 209 allows for any number of “hot spares” to be held in reserve with empty disks, ready to assume a role in failure recovery, scheduled maintenance, or other purposes. At site inception, a decision is made concerning the number of SPNs in a RAID group. Content is spread evenly over each group of SPNs, so SPNs must be added to a site in RAID group increments. The only exceptions are for SPNs designated as spares, which may be added individually in any number, and for redundant management SPNs. Most SPNs 103 are added during system initialization, however new groups of SPNs may be added at any point during the lifetime of the system. When a site increases its capacity by adding new groups of SPNs, existing content is automatically re-striped in the background (re-striping process explained below in more detail) to take full advantage of the added hardware. Downsizing the ICE 100 is accomplished by first re-striping (re-striping process in the background), then removing the de-allocated devices. In the VFS 209, each SPN 103 is assigned a logical ID that can be completely arbitrary, but for convenience it usually corresponds to the SPN's physical location. Once added, a given SPN exists in the VFS 209 as a logical entity until it is deleted. Any free spare SPN can be substituted for another SPN, and when that happens, the same logical address is assigned. Thus, the physical SPN can be swapped at will (explained below in more detail) providing the capability to perform periodic maintenance without interrupting service. As soon as a complete group of SPNs has been registered with the VFS 209, content can begin to be stored on that group. However, to permit uniform distribution of content over the entire system, all SPN groups intended for content storage should be registered prior to loading the first title. As previously described, each chunk of title content is stored on a different group, and content is spread across all groups in round-robin fashion. More specifically, each chunk is broken up into subchunks (the number of subchunks is equal to the group size for that site, with one of the subchunks being parity derived from the data subchunks), and each subchunk is stored on a different SPN of a given group. For example, assuming a RAID size of five disk drives, the SPN group size is five (and there are five subchunks per chunk of content). If each SPN contains four drives, there are a total of four RAID groups. The first group consists of drive 1 of each SPN; the second group consists of drive 2 of each SPN, and so on. Consider an exemplary configuration of the ICE 100 consisting of only three groups GP 1-GP 3 as illustrated by Table 1 shown in FIG. 4 for a first title, Title 1, in which each group is designated GP, each chunk is designated C, and each subchunk of each chunk is designated SC. Table 1 of FIG. 4 shows 3 groups numbered GP 1 through GP 3, twelve chunks numbered C1-C12, and 5 subchunks of each chunk numbered SC 1, SC 2, SC 3, SC 4 and SC P, in which the last “P” subchunk denotes a parity subchunk. The first chunk C1 of title 1 is recorded as five subchunks SC 1-4, SC P (the fifth subchunk is parity), one each on drive 1 of SPNs 1 through 5 of the first group GP 1. The next chunk C2 of title 1 is recorded as five subchunks (again SC 1-4, SC P), one each on drive 1 of SPNs 1 through 5 of the second group GP 2. Likewise, the third chunk C3 is recorded on drive 1 of each SPN 1-5 of the third group GP 3. The fourth chunk C4 is recorded on drive 2 of each SPN 1-5 of the first group GP 1. Table 1 shows how the first title, Title 1, is stored. Losing an entire SPN (one row of Table 1) results in the loss of one drive in each of four RAID groups. All RAID groups continue to produce content, and through parity reconstruction, no content is lost. Additional titles begin on the group and drive following those where the preceding title began. Therefore, the second title, Title 2 (not shown), begins on Drive 2 of GP 2 (the second chunk is on Drive 2 of GP 3, the third chunk is on drive 3 of group 1, and so on). Titles are distributed in this way to minimize start time latency. Each title wraps around the ICE 100 in a spiral that recycles from drive 4 on each SPN of group 3, back to drive 1 of each SPN of group 1. Table 2 of FIG. 5 shows how four titles are stored using the configuration of Table 1. For purposes of illustration, the first title T1 consists of 24 chunks T1 C1-T1 C24, the second title T2 has 10 chunks T2 C1-T2 C10, the third title T3 has 9 chunks T3 C1-T3 C9, and the fourth title T4 has 12 chunks T4 C1-T4 C12. For simplification, each of 3 SPN groups (SPN Group 1, SPN Group 2, SPN Group 3) has been collapsed into a single row, and the first chunk of each title is underlined and has been made bold. A typical title at 4 Mbps consists of 1350 chunks, in three VFS directory entries of 450 chunks each, which represents about one-half hour of content. Using 100 gigabyte (GB) disk drives, each RAID group holds more than 200,000 chunks (meaning each drive in the group holds more than 200,000 subchunks). Subchunk allocation on each drive of a RAID group is typically at the identical point (logical block address) on each drive. In the configuration illustrated, each directory entry (DE) of the VFS 209 consists of various metadata about the title, and an array of chunk locators. The chunk locator data structure consists of 8 bytes: two bytes for identifying the group, two bytes for identifying the disk, and four bytes for identifying the disk allocation block, where each block holds one subchunk. FIG. 6 shows a Table 3 illustrating the contents of the first 12 locators for the 4 titles T1-T4 (shown as Title 1-Title 4) depicted in Table 2. The upper 12 locators not shown for Title 1 use up block 2 on each disk. A lookup table is replicated on the VFSIM 302 and on each SPN 103 that maps the logical address of each disk to the MAC (media access control) ID of the SPN to which it is connected. The LBA corresponding to a subchunk is obtained by simply multiplying the block number times the number of sectors per subchunk. FIG. 7 shows a Table 4 illustrating further details of how subchunks are stored on different RAID groups, SPNs (numbered 1-5), and disk drives (numbered 1-4) for the ICE 100. For example, subchunk Sa of chunk C01 of title T1 is stored in Block 0 of Disk 1 of SPN 1 of RAID Group 1, the next subchunk Sb of chunk C01 of title T1 is stored in Block 0 of Disk 1 of SPN 2 of RAID Group 1, and so on. The variability in content length results in an unpredictable small variability in the amount of content stored on each SPN 103. For these exemplary titles, the variability is exaggerated, but for hundreds of titles consisting of a thousand or more chunks each, the differences between SPNs are expected to remain less than 1%. Although an individual storage device can have any amount of capacity greater than the site minimum, the amount in excess of the site minimum might not be used to store isochronous content. Therefore, the site minimum should be kept as large as possible, typically, it should be set equal to the capacity of the smallest-capacity storage device at the site. The site minimum can be increased or decreased at any time; for example, it should be increased to a greater value whenever larger devices replace the lowest capacity ones. Depending on where a given configuration of the ICE 100 is installed and how it is used, the VFS 209 may infrequently receive requests for storage allocation for new titles, or it may receive hundreds of nearly simultaneous requests at the top of each half hour. To rapidly and efficiently meet expected demands for storage, the VFS 209 maintains a pool of pre-allocated directory entries. The pool size is set in advance based on the usage profile of the site, and the pool size can be changed at any time for performance tuning or to respond to site profile changes. When the VFS 209 receives a storage allocation request, it first attempts to fulfill the request from the pool of pre-allocated directory entries. If available, a pre-allocated directory entry is immediately returned to the requestor. If the pool is exhausted, a fresh directory entry is created on-demand as described below. If an allocation request requires multiple directory entries for the same title, only the first entry is immediately returned. Allocation of the remaining entries for that title can take place at a later time, so that task is added to the list of background processes maintained by the VFS 209. Replenishing the pool of pre-allocated entries is also a background task. To create a directory entry, either pre-allocated or on-demand, the VFS 209 first determines if the required capacity is available (e.g., not currently being used). If so, the request is easily fulfilled. If not, the VFS 209 de-allocates one or more of the least recently used (LRU) titles as necessary to fulfill the request. When a title is de-allocated in this way, the VFS 209 informs the SM 303 and the SPNs 103 of the occurrence. An allocation request is initially fulfilled when the VFS 209 returns the first directory entry to the requester (or caller). When a title has multiple entries, subsequent entries are provided when needed with the caller being able to specify which entry it desires. Similarly, if an existing title is expanded, the first expanded entry is immediately returned and the other entries can be specifically requested when needed. Each entry contains a table of subchunk locators capable of storing up to 30 minutes worth of content. Thus, a 95-minute movie would require 4 entries, with the 4th entry being largely unused. More precisely, the 4th entry table is largely unused, but there is no wasted space on the actual disk drive since the only disk space consumed is that actually required for the 5 minutes of content. Internally, the VFS 209 keeps track of available subchunk locations on each storage device using memory-efficient data structures. Reclaiming unused storage space is made possible by incorporating a Last Valid Chunk (LVC) pointer in each entry. In the example above, the 4th entry, when given to the requestor, initially has 30 minutes worth of storage reserved. When the component actually storing the content has completed its task, it updates the LVC pointer and informs the VFS 209. The VFS 209 then releases any unused blocks, making them available for use elsewhere. Being variable in length, each title ends wherever it ends, and there is no need to waste disk space for any reason such as aligning storage to some arbitrary boundary. Thus, the VFS 209 packs disks as fully as possible, utilizing whatever is the next free block on the device. Initially, in the interest of simplicity, small files (e.g., system files that may fit entirely within a single block) are managed in the same way as any other content. Eventually, a micro-VFS capability can be added that treats a chunk as though it were a disk drive for the purpose of storing many small files. The SM 303 may also direct the VFS 209 to de-allocate a title at any time, as when a title's license period expires, or for any other reason. A commanded de-allocation is complicated by the fact that the title may currently be in use, and when this happens, in one embodiment, de-allocation is not completed until every user accessing that title signals termination of all usage of that title. The VFS 209 tracks all entries currently in use by each UMM 307, and also tracks entries in use by background processes. During the latency period, no new users are permitted access to a title flagged for de-allocation. After the addition or deletion of new SPN groups, existing content is redistributed, or “re-striped” to make resource utilization as uniform as possible during the re-striping process. The VFS 209 does re-striping automatically whenever it is necessary. To keep things simple, the new and old entries do not have any overlap; there are no storage blocks common to both new and old (see below). Once the new re-striped copy is complete (completion time is unpredictable because the rate of progress is limited by available bandwidth), new users can begin accessing it and the old copy can simply be de-allocated using standard procedures. During the re-striping process, most subchunks are copied from their original SPN to a different SPN, while a small percentage is copied to a different location within the same SPN. (The percentage of subchunks remaining on the same SPN is m/(m*n), where “m” is the previous number of SPNs and “n” is the new number of SPNs. For a site upgrading from 100 to 110 SPNs, 100 out of every 11,000 subchunks are copied within the same SPN. Real-time operations include instances where the content is purely transitory, and instances where it is being saved. If there is ever a need for a transitory real-time buffer, in one embodiment, the ICE 100 uses a single 30-minute directory entry as a circular buffer, and when no longer needed, the entry is de-allocated using standard procedures as for any other title. When the real-time content is being saved, additional 30-minute entries are requested as needed, with the VFS 209 de-allocating LRU titles as necessary. As with any other title, raw content is immediately available for playback up to the point indicated by the LVC pointer, and the LVC pointer is periodically updated while storage continues to take place. In some cases “raw content” may be divided into specific title(s) prior to being made available to subscribers who wish to request it subsequent to its initial airing time. When ready, the edited content is added to the VFS 209 like any other title and the raw content could be deleted. It may occasionally be desired to take an operational SPN 103 or disk drive off-line for whatever purpose. To accomplish this with no adverse impact, the ICE 100 is configured to copy, or more precisely, “clone” the device using one of the hot spares as the content recipient. When the copying process is complete (again, since it is limited by available bandwidth the time is unpredictable), the clone then assumes the identity of the former device and operations continue smoothly with the VFSIM 302 and the SPNs 103 receiving notification. Unless the device is physically disconnected and reconnected to the ICE 100 (i.e., unless it is unplugged and moved), no participation is required of the VFM 301 since the cloning process and the identity swap are invisible to the VFM 301 (SPNs are logical entities to the VFM 301, not physical ones, because the internet protocol (IP) address is used instead of the MAC ID). When a disk or SPN is connected to the ICE 100, it automatically goes through a validation/repair process (described below) to guarantee data integrity. From the perspective of any given content stream, the loss of a storage device or the loss of an entire SPN looks the same. In particular, there is one subchunk missing out of every nth chunk (where n is determined by the number of SPNs 103 in the system). The ICE 100 is designed to compensate for this type of loss by parity reconstruction, allowing ample time for hardware replacement. Repair, validation, and cloning are disk-specific processes. To repair, validate, or clone an SPN it is simply a matter of initiating a process for each disk within the SPN. When a UP sends requests for subchunks of a chunk and any one subchunk is not returned within a predetermined period of time, the UP reconstructs the missing subchunk using the retrieved subchunks. In one embodiment, the reconstructed subchunk is sent to the user SPN from which that subchunk should have been sourced regardless of the reason for the failure (i.e., due to failure of the SPN or drive on the SPN or simply due to delay through the network). If the user SPN that should have sourced the missing subchunk is not available to receive the reconstructed subchunk, then it is simply lost during transmission. If the SPN is available to receive the reconstructed subchunk (e.g., the SPN is back online or the failure was limited to a disk drive of that SPN), then it caches the subchunk in memory as though it were read from its local disk drive. Hot-swapping and parity reconstruction require that each SPN 103 have awareness of whether or not each block on each device is valid. Initially, when an SPN comes on-line it has no valid blocks. When the SPN receives and stores a subchunk (or validates what is already there) it marks that block as valid. When an SPN receives a request for a subchunk stored in a block marked as invalid, the SPN replies with a request to receive that subchunk. If the missing subchunk has been recreated elsewhere in the ICE 100 through parity reconstruction, it is sent back to the SPN (using available bandwidth) for storage and the block is marked as valid. The lack of a request for that subchunk indicates that the SPN is still non-functional and no reconstructed subchunk need be sent. Using this protocol, a replacement device is repopulated with minimal additional overhead. Meanwhile, to catch those chunks not already taken care of because of their high demand, a simple background validation/repair process does the beginning-to-end reconstruction, skipping over blocks already marked valid. Under certain circumstances, as when the VFSIM 302 recognizes reconnection of a disk formerly known to have valid content, the SPN 193 is directed to override its prohibition against sending subchunks marked as invalid. If the probationary subchunk passes its checksum test, the subchunk can be used (and the source SPN can mark it as valid), thereby avoiding the unnecessary overhead of parity reconstruction. The failure of an SPN to supply a requested subchunk coupled with the failure to request said subchunk indicates SPN failure. By monitoring such failures, the ICE 100 automatically notifies the system operators and initiate recovery procedures during lights-out operations. The VFSIM 302 automatically initiates and manages disk validation/repair when a different physical disk replaces an existing one containing content. For disk validation/repair, the VFM 301 prepares a Disk Repair Entry (DRE) similar to the directory entries already in use, but with a few small differences. The 450 subchunks are all from the bad drive, and chunks are included from more than one title. The checksum for every subchunk (including the missing one) is also included. The DRE is populated starting with the most recently used title, followed by the next recently used title, and so on. It does not matter if the title does not completely fit because the next DRE picks up where the last one left off. Since the total number of DREs is not known in advance, the DRE simply has a flag telling if it is the last one. This procedure allows the repair to be done in an orderly, prioritized fashion with the greatest possible data integrity. Repair is desired whenever there has been data loss, such as when a fresh disk replaces a malfunctioning one. When the malfunctioning disk is not available somewhere on the ICE 100, recovery takes place entirely on the SPN 103 hosting the new disk. Using one DRE at a time, the host SPN requests the group-mates of a missing subchunk and uses them for parity reconstruction. The reconstructed subchunk is saved and the block is marked as valid. If, on the other hand, the malfunctioning disk is connected to a spare SPN, the VFSIM 302 recognizes it and attempts to recover any available subchunks in an effort to reduce the amount of parity reconstruction required. The VFSIM 302 sends the DRE first to the spare SPN, where it uses the checksum and locator to test candidate subchunks for validity. When one passes, the spare SPN marks the subchunk as valid and sends it to the SPN needing it, where it is stored as valid. When the spare SPN has recovered and sent all the subchunks it possibly can, it notifies the VFSIM 302 that it has finished with the DRE. If not all subchunks are recovered at this point, the VFSIM 302 sends the DRE to the SPN hosting the new disk, and parity reconstruction is undertaken as necessary. Content validation is desired whenever a disk or SPN is connected to the system, as when a reconstructed disk is moved from one SPN to another. The validation process is essentially the same as the repair process, only faster. The same DRE is employed with each candidate subchunk being inspected one at a time. A checksum is calculated for the subchunk existing on the disk. If the calculated checksum matches the checksum in the DRE, the subchunk is considered valid. If the checksums do not match, the other four subchunks corresponding to that subchunk are requested from the other SPNs in the RAID group and the missing subchunk is reconstructed and stored. The validation process is faster than the rebuild process simply because most if not all subchunks pass the initial checksum test. Having the validation process be the same as the rebuild process gives the operators the flexibility to move a drive to its correct slot even if the rebuild process is only partially complete. When the operator unplugs a partially rebuilt disk, that rebuild process is aborted, and when the disk is plugged into its new slot, a new validation/rebuild process is initiated. Cloning is easier than the rebuild/validation process due to the advantage of being able to simply copy data from the host device. The clone host pushes stored content to the recipient, and in addition, the clone host pushes along changes as they occur. This means that after the entire body of content has been transferred to the recipient, the cloning process is allowed to idle along indefinitely, keeping the two devices totally synchronized. When the cloning is complete, the clone device assumes the logical identity of the host device and no further validation is required (unless the device is moved). Aside from the potential role in validation, the VFS 209 is not involved in cloning. Because the host is responsible for pushing and synchronization, there is no need to create (then destroy) duplicate data structures in the VFS 209 for the recipient. Upon request from the SM 303, the VFS 209 is capable of reporting information useful for management of the ICE 100, including a Most Recently Used (MRU) titles list (not shown) and a device utilization report (not shown) including statistics. The MRU list contains one record for each title currently stored, along with specific information for that title, such as the date it was last requested, the total number of times it has been requested, its total size, and whether of not it can be deleted. The device utilization report contains one record for each SPN, giving its IP address, its group affiliation, and an array having information for each storage device, such as the device's ID, its total number of blocks, and the number of blocks currently allocated. The VFS 209 also participates in system logging, adding an entry for each notable event. It is now appreciated that a virtual file system according to the present invention provides an organized distribution of title data which maximizes speed of access as well as efficient storage of each title. Each title is subdivided into multiple subchunks which are distributed among the disk drives of a disk drive array coupled to multiple storage processor nodes including a management node. A virtual file manager executing on the management node manages storage and access of each subchunk of each title stored in the array. The virtual file manager maintains a directory entry for each title, where each directory entry is a list of subchunk location entries for the title. Each subchunk location entry includes a storage processor node identifier, a disk drive identifier, and a logical address for locating and accessing each subchunk of each title stored on the disk drive array. The centralization of file management provides many benefits and advantages over disk and storage systems of prior art. Files or “titles” may be of any size up to full storage capacity of all drives combined and are not limited to a single drive or redundant storage group. The full capacity of each drive is available for storing content as directory information is centrally stored. Each request for a title is not limited to one disk drive or a few disk drives but the load is spread among many up to all of the disk drives in the array. The synchronous switch manager maximizes efficiency by ensuring that each node receives one subchunk of data at a time in sequential transmit periods. The centralized file manager allows realization of full platter to output bandwidth of each disk drive rather than requiring any sort of local directory on any disk drive. In one embodiment, factory configured logical to physical remapping on each disk drive is employed, allowing information to be recovered from each drive with a single seek operation. As appreciated by those skilled in the art, the standard directory seek penalty is extreme, and can reduce drive bandwidth to far less than half of its specification. Instead, each subchunk location entry is sufficient to locate and access a corresponding subchunk for a title thereby minimizing overhead on each storage processor node for retrieving and forwarding subchunks of data. There is no need to interface a complicated operating system or perform an intermediate directory seek or the like. The transfer process of the identified processor node accesses the subchunk by providing the logical address (e.g., logical block address) to the identified disk drive, which immediately returns the subchunk stored at that logical address. The virtual file system further employs data and/or process redundancy protect against loss of data and enables uninterrupted service during reconstruction. Redundant storage groups span individual storage processor nodes, allowing for the failure of any drive, any drive of each redundant disk group (e.g., RAID array), or any single node removing all of its drives. Each drive is uniquely identified, allowing automatic system configuration on startup and much quicker recovery from partial failure or anticipated failure of a disk. When a drive error occurs, parity reconstruction is performed and reconstructed data is sent to the node where the data should have originated so that it can be cached there. Such structure and process avoids redundant reconstruction of popular titles until the drive and/or node is replaced, which provides a major time saving for the user processes distributed among the nodes. Furthermore, a redundant management node executing a redundant virtual file manager enables uninterrupted operation in the event of any single point of failure in the overall system. Many other advantages and benefits are achieved. The Interactive Content Engine 100 is not overloaded by hundreds of simultaneous requests for storage allocation. It allows hundreds of thousands of video streams to be recorded and played back simultaneously without overloading the system with directory transactions (<1% of bandwidth for 100,000 streams). It allows management functions, such as preallocating storage, restriping content, deleting titles, and cloning drives and SPNs to occur in the background without interfering with isochronous content playback and ingestion. Although the present invention has been described in considerable detail with reference to certain preferred versions thereof, other versions and variations are possible and contemplated. Those skilled in the art should appreciate that they can readily use the disclosed conception and specific embodiments as a basis for designing or modifying other structures for providing out the same purposes of the present invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to interactive broadband server systems, and more particularly, to virtual file system that manages and maintains information of data distributed across an array of storage devices. 2. Description of the Related Art It is desired to provide a solution for the storage and delivery of streaming media content. An initial goal for scalability is from 100 to 1,000,000 simultaneous individual isochronous content streams at 4 megabits per second (Mbps) per stream, although different data rates are contemplated. The total bandwidth available is limited by the largest available backplane switch. The largest switches at the present time are in the terabit per second range, or about 200,000 simultaneous output streams. The number of output streams is generally inversely proportional to the bit rate per stream. The simplest model of content storage is a single disk drive connected to a single processor which has a single network connector. Data is read from the disk, placed in memory, and distributed in packets, via a network, to each user. Traditional data, such as Web pages or the like, can be delivered asynchronously. In other words, there are random amounts of data with random time delays. Low volume, low resolution video can be delivered from a Web server. Real time media content, such as video and audio, require isochronous transmission, or transmission with guaranteed delivery times. In this scenario, a bandwidth constraint exists at the disk drive. The disk has arm motion and rotational latency to contend with. If the system can only sustain 6 simultaneous streams of continuous content from the drive to the processor at any given time, then the 7th user's request must wait for one of the prior 6 users to give up a content stream. The upside of this design is simplicity. The downside is the disk, which, as the sole mechanical device in the design, can only access and transfer data so fast. An improvement can be made by adding another drive, or drives, and interleaving the drive accesses. Also, duplicate content can be stored on each drive to gain redundancy and performance. This is better, but there are still several problems. Only so much content can be placed on the local drive or drives. The disk drives, CPU, and memory are each single points of failure that could be catastrophic. This system can only be scaled to the number of drives the disk controller can handle. Even with many units, there is a problem with the distribution of titles. In the real world, everyone wants to see the latest movies. As a rule of thumb 80% of content requests are for just 20% of the titles. All of a machine's bandwidth cannot be consumed by one title, as it would block access to less popular titles stored only on that machine. As a result, the “high demand” titles would have to be loaded on most or all of the machines. In short, if a user wanted to see an old movie, that user might be out of luck—even though it is loaded in the system. With a large library, the ratio may be much greater than the 80/20 rule used in this example. If the system were based on the standard Local Area Network (LAN) used in data processing, there would be other inefficiencies. Modern Ethernet-based TCP/IP systems are a marvel of guaranteed delivery, but include a time price caused by packet collisions and re-transmits of partially lost packets and the management needed to make it all work. There is no guarantee that a timely set of content streams will be available. Also, each user consumes a switch port and each content server consumes a switch port. Thus, the switch port count has to be twice the server count, limiting the total online bandwidth. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The benefits, features, and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with regard to the following description, and accompanying drawings where: FIG. 1 is a simplified block diagram of a portion of an Interactive Content Engine (ICE) implemented according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a logical block diagram of a portion of the ICE of FIG. 1 illustrating a synchronized data transfer system; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a portion of the ICE of FIG. 1 illustrating further details of the VFS of FIG. 2 and supporting functionality according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 shows a Table 1 illustrating an exemplary configuration of the ICE of FIG. 1 consisting of only three disk array groups; FIG. 5 shows a Table 2 illustrating how four titles are stored using the configuration of Table 1 ; FIG. 6 shows a Table 3 illustrating the contents of the first 12 locators for the 4 titles depicted in Table 2 ; and FIG. 7 shows a Table 4 illustrating further details of how subchunks are stored on different groups, SPNs, and disk drives for the ICE of FIG. 1 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20041130 | 20100105 | 20050526 | 95350.0 | 1 | PHILLIPS, HASSAN A | VIRTUAL FILE SYSTEM | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,004 |
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